Unit II Curves & Surfaces [08 Hrs]

Curves: Methods of defining Point, Line and Circle, Curve representation - Cartesian and Parametric
space, Analytical and Synthetic curves, Parametric equation of line, circle, ellipse, Continuity (C0, C1 &
C2), Synthetic Curves - Hermit Cubic Spline, Bezier, B-Spline Curve, Non-Uniform Rational B-Spline
curves (NURBS) Surfaces: Surface representation, Types of Surfaces, Bezier, B-Spline, NURBS
Surface, Coons patch surface, Surface Modeling.
Reverse Engineering: Introduction, Point Cloud Data (PCD), PCD file formats, Quality issues in PCD,
Requirements for conversion of surface models into solid models, Applications of PCD.
Wireframe Modeling:
 A wire-frame model is a visual representation of a three-dimensional (3D) physical object used
in 3D computer graphics. It is created by specifying each edge of the physical object where two
mathematically continuous smooth surfaces
meet, or by connecting an object's
constituent vertices using
(straight) lines or curves.
 In simple words it is a model created by
joining finite set of points, forming pairs
(linear or curvature) of these points for
visualization and analysis.
 The object is projected into screen
space and rendered by drawing lines at the
location of each edge.
 A wire-frame model allows for the
visualization of the underlying design
structure of a 3D model compared to
Traditional two-dimensional views and drawings/renderings which can be created by the
appropriate rotation of the object, and the selection of hidden line removal via cutting planes.
 Since wire-frame renderings are relatively simple and fast to calculate, they are often used in
cases where a relatively high screen frame rate is needed (for instance, when working with a
particularly complex 3D model, or in real-time systems that model exterior phenomena).
 When greater graphical detail is desired, surface textures can be added automatically after the
completion of the initial rendering of the wire frame. This allows a designer to quickly review
 solids, or rotates objects to different views without the long delays associated with more
realistic rendering, or even the processing of faces and simple flat shading.
 To define a wire frame model, certain rules and constraints are form to minimize the possibility
of any errors in object presentation. The four major rules or constraints, which must be satisfied
for any wire frame model, are:
a) Each point must be well defined in three dimensional spaces.
b) Each edge must be associated with just two endpoints.
c) The edges must form a closed loop.
d) No faces should be self-intersecting.
 It is observed that in spite of the above constraints being fulfilled, three dimensional wire frames
still fail in two major areas: lack of validity and ambiguity. The object fulfills all the above
mentioned requirements. However despite this, it faced the problem of lack of validity.
 Wire frame models may also generate ambiguous objects. It is possible to create a wire frame
which can be interpreted to represent more than one real object.
Geometrical Curves:
All existing CAD/CAM systems provide users with curve entities, which can be divided into analytic
and synthetic entities. Analytic entities are points, lines, arcs and circles, fillets and chambers, and
conics (ellipses, parabolas and hyperbolas). Synthetic entities include various types of spline (cubic
spline and B-spline) and Bezier curves.
Methods of defining points
Methods of defining lines:
Defining points Horizontal (Parallel to X or Y Axis)

Parallel or perpendicular to existing line Tangent to existing entities

Methods of defining Circles:

Radius or Diameter and center. Defining three points
Center and point on the circle Tangent to a line, pass through a given point and
with a radius

Methods of defining ellipse

Center and Axis length Four points Two conjugate diameters

Methods of defining Parabola

Vertex and focus Three points

Methods of defining synthetic curves

A cubic spline with given set of data points Bezier curve with given set of data points

B spline curve with given set of data points with B spline curve with given set of data points with
curve interpolation curve extrapolation
Curve Representation
Continuity (C0, C1 & C2)
Introduction to Surfaces:
Shape design and the representation of complex objects such as car, ship, and airplane bodies as well as
castings cannot be achieved utilizing the curves covered in earlier. In such cases, surfaces must be
utilized to describe objects precisely and accurately. We create surfaces, and then we use them to cut
and trim solid features and primitives to obtain the models of the complex objects. Surface creation
usually begins with data points or curves. Surface creation on CAD/CAM systems usually requires
curves as a start. A surface might require two boundary curves, as in the case of a ruled surface that we
cover in this chapter. All curves covered in Chapter 6 can be used to generate surfaces. In order to
visualize surfaces on computer screen, a mesh, say in n in size, is usually displayed. The mesh size is
controllable by the user. It shows their underlying theory and how to use them in geometric modeling.
Surface Entities
During surface creation on a CAD/CAM system, you should follow the modeling guidelines and
strategies. Moreover, you should be careful when selecting curves to create surfaces. Selecting the
mismatching ends of curves results in twisted surfaces. The figure shows how the wrong ruled surface is
created if its defining curves are selected near the wrong ends. The +‘s in the figure indicate the
selection locations. In such a case, the user deletes the surface and re-creates it by selecting the matching
ends. As a general rule, a CAD system uses the midpoint of a curve to interpret the user’s click on a
curve. If the click is on the right half of the curve, its right end point is selected, and vice versa.
Visualization of a surface is aided by the addition of artificial fairing lines (called mesh), which
crisscross the surface and so break it up into a network of interconnected patches. The default setting of
a CAD system does not display a surface mesh the surface is displayed with its four boundary curves
only. In such a case, the mesh size is 2 x 2. (All surfaces that we create define rectangular patches.) We
can change the default mesh size. CAD systems provide users with a menu that allows them to specify
the mesh size. Figure, shows surfaces of revolutions with mesh sizes of 4 x 4 and 20 x 20. It should be
mentioned that a finer mesh size for a surface does not improve its mathematical representation; it only
improves its visualization. Finally, some CAD/CAM systems do not permit their users to delete curves
used to create surfaces unless the latter are deleted first.
As with curves, CAD/CAM systems provide designers with both analytic and synthetic surface entities.
Analytic entities include plane surface, ruled surface, and surface of revolution and tabulated cylinder.
Synthetic entities include bicubic Hermite spline surface, B-spline surface, rectangular and triangular
Bezier patches, rectangular and triangular Coons patches, and NURBS (nonuniform B-splines).
The mathematical properties of some of these entities are covered in this chapter. Following are
descriptions of major surfaces:
1. Plane surface: It is the simplest surface. It requires three non-coincident points to define an infinite
plane. The plane surface can be used to generate cross sections by intersecting a solid with it.
2. Ruled (lofted) surface: It is a linear surface. It interpolates linearly between two boundary curves that
define the surface (rails). Rails can be any curves, this surface is ideal for representing surfaces that
do not have any twists or kinks.

3. Surface of revolution: It is an axisymmetric surface that can model axisymmetric objects. It is

generated by rotating a planar curve in space about the axis of symmetry a certain angle as
shown in Figure.
4. Tabulated cylinder: It is a surface generated by translating a planar curve a certain distance along
a specified direction (axis of the cylinder or directrix) as shown in figure. The plane of the curve
is perpendicular to the directrix. This surface is not literally a cylinder. It is used to generate
extruded surfaces that have identical cross sections.
5. Bezier surface: it is a surface that approximates or interpolates given input data. It is different
from the previous surfaces in that it is a synthetic surface. It extends the Bezier curve to surfaces.
It is a general surface that permits twists, and kinks. Bezier surface allows only global control of
the surface.
6. B-spline surface: It is a surface that can approximate or interpolate given input data. Figure
shows an interpolating example. It is a synthetic surface. It is a general surface like a Bezier
surface hut with the advantage of permitting local control of the surface.
7. Coon’s surface: The previously described surfaces are used with either open boundaries or given
data points. A Coons patch is used to create a surface using curves that form closed boundaries
as shown in Figure.

8. Fillet surface: It is a B-spline surface that blends two surfaces together as shown in Figure.
The two original surfaces may or may not be trimmed.
9. Offset surface: Existing surfaces can be offset to create new ones identical in shape hut with
different dimensions. It is a useful surface to use to speed up surface creation. For example, to
create a hollow cylinder, the outer or inner cylinder can he created using a cylinder command
and the other one can he created by an offset command. The offset surface command becomes
very efficient to use if the original surface is a composite one. Figure, shows an offset surface.
A plane surface defined by three points A plane surface define by point and two directions
Hermite Bicubic Surface
The parametric bicubic surface patch connects four corner data points and utilizes bicubic equation.
Therefore, sixteen vector conditions (or 48 scalar conditions) are required to find the coefficients of the
equation. When these coefficients are the four corner data points, the eight tangent vectors at the corner
points (two at each point in the u and v directions), and the four twist vectors at the corner points, a
Hermite bicubic surface patch results. The bicubic equation can be written as:
NURBS:
Reverse Engineering:
• Reverse engineering, also called back engineering, is the process by which a man-made object is
deconstructed to reveal its designs, architecture, code or to extract knowledge from the object;
similar to scientific research, the only difference being that scientific research is about a natural
phenomenon.
• Reverse engineering is applicable in the fields of computer engineering, mechanical engineering,
electronic engineering, software engineering, chemical engineering, and systems biology.
• We cannot start from the very beginning to develop a new product every time. We need to
optimize the resources available in our hands and reduce the production time keeping in view the
 customers’ requirements. For such cases, RE is an efficient approach to significantly reduce the
product development cycle. For example: Impeller Pump Design.
• Advantages:
1. Cost saving for developing new products.
2. Lesser maintenance cost.
3. Quality improvement.
 RE Process:
1) Digitization of the object/ Data Capturing (using CMM, scanners etc.)
2) Processing of measured data.
3) Creation of CAD model
4) Prototype

 Applications:
1) Manufacturing Engineering
a) To create 3D virtual model of an existing physical part for use in 3D CAD, CAM,
CAE or other software.
b) To make a digital 3D record of own products
c) To assess competitors products
d) To analyze the working of a product
e) To identify potential patent infringement etc.
2) Software Engineering
a) To extract design & implementation information
 b) To detect and neutralize viruses and malware Chemical Engineering
c) To determine chemical composition
d) To substitute or improve recipes to stimulate or improve the products performance.
3) Film-Entertainment Industry
a) Animated objects are imparted motion using the reverse engineered human skeletons.
4) Medical Field
a) Applications in orthopedic, dental & reconstructive surgery
b) Imaging, modeling and replication (as a physical model) of a patients bone structure
c) Models can be viewed & physically handled before surgery, benefiting in evaluation
of the procedure & implant fit in difficult cases
d) Less risk to the patient and reduced cost through saving in theatre time.
e) Medical Field Applications like Hip Replacement.
 Disadvantages:
a) The large amount of surface data generated from the fast 3D digitizers is not easily
modeled by current CAD/CAM systems. Inadequate data reduction methods are not
only time consuming, but lose surface characteristic points.
b) Consequently, the reconstructed surfaces could lose their true shape in the design
cycle. The time required for reprocessing in this case would be unacceptable to the
manufacturing industry and thereby be unusable for further steps.
Reverse engineering in CAD
Reverse engineering typically involves any number of these steps:
a) Point cloud manipulation (filtering, smoothing, decimation, etc.)
b) Mesh generation and optimization
c) Mesh healing and repair
d) Generation of parametric model from mesh
Point cloud data:
A point cloud is a set of data points in space. Point clouds are generally produced by 3D scanners, which
measure many points on the external surfaces of objects around them. As the output of 3D scanning
processes, point clouds are used for many purposes, including to create 3D CAD models for
manufactured parts, for metrology and quality inspection, and for a multitude of visualization,
animation, rendering and mass customization applications. Point clouds are often aligned with 3D
models or with other point clouds, a process known as point set registration. For industrial metrology or
inspection using industrial computed tomography, the point cloud of a manufactured part can be aligned
to an existing model and compared to check for differences. Geometric dimensions and tolerances can
also be extracted directly from the point cloud. While point clouds can be directly rendered and
inspected, point clouds are often converted to polygon mesh or triangle mesh models, NURBS surface
models, or CAD models through a process commonly referred to as surface reconstruction. There are
many techniques for converting a point cloud to a 3D surface. Some approaches, like Delaunay
triangulation, alpha shapes, and ball pivoting, build a network of triangles over the existing vertices of
the point cloud, while other approaches convert the point cloud into a volumetric distance field and
reconstruct the implicit surface so defined through a marching cubes algorithm. In geographic
information systems, point clouds are one of the sources used to make digital elevation model of the
terrain. They are also used to generate 3D models of urban environments. Drones are often used to
collect a series of RGB images which can be later processed on a Computer Vision Algorithm platform
such as on AgiSoft Photoscan or Pix4D or DroneDeploy to create RGB point clouds from where
distances and volumetric estimations can be made. Point clouds can also be used to represent volumetric
data, as is sometimes done in medical imaging. Using point clouds, multi-sampling and data
compression can be achieved.

Common point cloud file formats in detail

1) OBJ: first developed by Wave front technologies, the format has been adopted by a wide range
of 3D graphics applications. These include Bentley Systems, Reality Capture and Trimble. It is a
simple data format that only represents 3D geometry, normals, color and texture. It is commonly
ASCII, however there are some proprietary binary versions of OBJ.
2) PLY: known as the polygon file format or Stanford triangle format, PLY was inspired by OBJ
and purpose-built to store 3D data. PLY uses lists of nominally flat polygons to represent
 objects. The goal was to add extensibility capabilities and the ability to store a greater number of
physical elements. The result is a file format capable of representing color, transparency, surface
normals, texture, coordinates and data confidence values. There are two versions of this file, one
in ASCII and the other binary.
3) XYZ: is a non-standardized set of files based on Cartesian coordinates (‘x’ ‘y’ and ‘z’). XYZ is
an archetypal ASCII file type, conveying data in lines of text. There are no unit standardizations
for XYZ files. Although there is wide compatibility across programs for this type of file, the lack
of standardization surrounding units and specifications makes it a fundamentally faulty method
of data transfer unless additional information is supplied.
4) PCG, RCS, RCP: are all file formats developed by Autodesk to specifically meet the demands
of their software suite. RCS and RCP are newer. Autodesk products, however, are often able to
convert some open formats, such as PTS into PCG files.
5) E57: is a vendor-neutral file format for point cloud storage. It can also be used to store images
and metadata produced by laser scanners and other 3D imaging systems. It is compact and
widely used. It also utilizes binary code in tandem with ASCII, providing much of the
accessibility of ASCII and the speed of binary. E57 can represent normals, colors and scalar field
intensity.
In addition to the listed file types, most of these systems are also capable of exporting common raster
files such as JPEG or GeoTIFF. By using additional software or making edits within advanced settings,
most are further capable of an even greater diversity of exports and import capabilities. This list should
not be looked at as a complete catalogue of the capabilities of this software. It is an account of the file
formats that they are easily capable of using or delivering.
Key characteristics of file formats that are evaluated for optimal suitability include:
1) Compactness of stored data
2) Accessibility of the data by third-party developers
3) Length of record for each point, line, or face that is being stored
4) Speed of loading the point clouds into memory
5) Ability to load only a known cloud subsection into memory
6) Storing point values specifically, or the possibility to simplify the data to lines and planes
7) The ability to store large floating-point values with high precision, without using 64-bit or 128-
bit storage for each bit of data associated with each point, line, or plane
8) Other possible characteristics
Quality issues in Point cloud data
1) Data loss: When you move data within the cloud, or between the cloud and on-premise
infrastructure (if you choose to do that), you run the risk of formatting problems, data loss,
inaccurate timestamps and other issues that undercut data quality. For example, if you move
block data from a virtual server disk into a cloud-based file-storage service, formatting
differences could cause data quality problems. Or data could be damaged while being transferred
over the network.
2) Data Size: Cloud data can become very big, fast. The fact that the cloud is so scalable makes it
easy to store huge volumes of information in the cloud. The more data you have, the harder it can
be to maintain data quality.
3) Changes in cloud tools: Cloud services are always changing and being updated – and unlike
software that you set up and manage yourself on-premise, cloud-based tools may not always
notify you when they are modified. Changes to your cloud-based tools can cause data quality
issues if, for example, a tool modifies the way it structures data and your other tools are not
configured to handle the new format.
4) Data Formats: Every new device on the market can present data in a new form. When you are
registering and processing new scans into a dataset, you now need to bring together data in
different formats from different devices. This is not always an easy task.
5) Massive data: Point clouds can now scan huge assets more cheaply. New devices also offer
broader coverage from a single scan. This creates tens of thousands of data points. These are
cumbersome to handle and harmonies across your entire enterprise. It can also be difficult to
share massive data between project partners.
6) Interoperability: You invest considerable amounts of time and money in selecting the right
engineering software and training your team to use it. So, your new technology needs to fit with
your existing software set so that makes it easier for your teams to work together. In practice,
this kind of integration is not always easy.
7) Accessibility: Everybody involved in the lifecycle of an asset can benefit from access to point
cloud data. But fragmented datasets in different formats can make this difficult, as I have
explained above.
8) Ownership: Who owns point cloud data? In the past, EPCs and the contractors who capture the
data become custodians of the information. But asset operators can use point cloud data
 throughout the asset lifecycle: for safety, training, asset visualization and even for Brownfield
projects with new contractors.
Construction of solid models in RE:
The main aim of construction of models appears to be visualization. Reverse engineering of solid
models from physical prototypes is also useful in updating the part model with modifications made in
the prototyping/manufacture stages. Solid model constructed from measured data can also be used in
model-based vision and automatic inspection (for comparing the manufactured part with the original
solid model). Also, starting from the physical object is the only option available in the design of
prosthetic implants. There are two options possible in measuring points on the part. These could be
generated by a touch probe mounted on a robot/CMM or the data could be generated by means of an
optical scanner or digitizer. The former method results in sparse data while the data obtained by
scanning or digitizing is referred to as dense data.
Requirements for conversion of surface models into solid models
1) 3D model reconstruction: It refers to the process of reconstructing a 3D model of an object based
on point cloud data.
a) Reconstruction of geometry model.
It contains the geometric information. Therefore, the reconstruction process is mainly to
process the original sensing data (e.g., laser scans, images, videos, etc.) to obtain a
complete point cloud.
b) Reconstruction of semantic model.
It not only contains geometric information, but also contains object-based semantic
information. Hence, the reconstruction process also involves the recognition of objects
from point cloud data and the enrichment of semantic information.
2) Geometry quality inspection:
a) dimensional quality inspection
b) surface quality inspection
c) Displacement inspection.
3) Point cloud data acquisition and processing:
a) Determination of required data quality
b) Determination of data acquisition parameters
c) Extraction and utilization of semantic information
d) Platforms for data visualization and processing
Applications of Point Cloud Data:
1) Construction industry for two major applications including 3D model reconstruction and
geometry quality inspection.
2) Construction progress tracking: Steel structural components, earthwork, concrete structural
components, fake structures simulating columns, concrete construction secondary and temporary
objects.
3) Building performance analysis: Mechanical analysis of bridge structure, morphologic analysis,
stress estimation, building accessibility diagnosis, energy performance modeling, and structural
analysis of bridges such as finite element modeling.
4) Construction safety management: Active safety management, safety hazards identification,
identification of blind spots of construction equipment, safety hazard simulation, and safety
assistance for mobile crane lifting operations.
5) Building renovation: Re-design and renovation of the façades, interior design, energy
performance retrofit, refurbishment.
6) Construction automation: Digital reproduction, automated earthwork excavation.
7) Heritage applications: Surveying, repair and maintenance, stability analysis, heritage site
preservation, documentation.
8) Robot navigation: Navigation in indoor and outdoor environments, navigation in indoor
environment.
9) Creating or updating geographical maps with height information of large areas scanned from
airplanes or satellites.
10) Providing a reference to create CAD models from real-world objects.
11) Automatic quality inspection by comparing a computer model with the reality:
a) Follow the different steps during production.
b) Inspect a finished product for errors.
c) Check deformations or other wear over time.
12) Simulation: Point-clouds can be used to represent solid objects in a Finite Element Analysis
context -- boiling down mathematically complex CAD surfaces into a relatively finite number of
points. This allows engineers and scientists to simulate objects under stress, simulate
deformation, etc.
Numerical:
1. A line is represented as the end points P1(1,1) and P2(6,2). If the value of parameter u at P1 and P2 is 0
and 1 respectively, determine the coordinates of a point represented by, u= 0, u = 0.5, u = -0.5, u = 1,
u=1.5.
Solution:
P1 = [1 1] and P2 = [6 2]
The parametric equation of line, P = P1 + u(P2 – P1) = [1+5u 1+u]
We get different points at u =0, 0.5, -0.5, 1 and 1.5 by putting these values in above equation.
• Pu(0) = [1 1]
• Pu(0.5) = [3.5 1.5]
• Pu(-0.5) = [-1.5 0.5]
• Pu(1) = [6 2]
• Pu(1.5) = [8.5 2.5].
2. A line is represented as the end points P1(2,4,6) and P2(-3,6,9). If the value of parameter u at P1 and P2 is
0 and 1 respectively, determine the coordinates of a point represented by, u= 0, u = 0.25, u = -0.25, u =
1, u=1.5.
Solution:
P1 = [2 4 6] and P2 = [-3 6 9]
The parametric equation of line, P = P1 + u(P2 – P1)
= [2-5u 4+2u 6+3u]
We get different points at u =0, 0.25, -0.25, 1 and 1.5 by putting these values in above equation.
• Pu(0) = [2 4 6]
• Pu(0.5) = [0.75 4.5 6.75]
• Pu(-0.5) = [3.25 3.5 5.25]
• Pu(1) = [-3 6 9]
• Pu(1.5) = [-5.5 7 10.5].
Calculate points on Hermite cubic spline curve at value of u = 0, 0.2, 0.4, 0.6 and 0.8 having endpoints P0 [4, 4]
and P1 [8, 5], the tangent vector for end are P0 [5, 6] and P1 [10, 7].
Ans: From given data,
P0 = [4 4], P1 = [8 5], P0’ = [5 6], P1’ = [10 7]
The equation for Hermite curve is,
P(u) = (2u3 – 3u2 +1) P0 + (- 2u3 + 3u2)P1 + (u3 – 2u2 + u) P0’ + (u3 – u2) P1’…………………………………..(1
mark)
The values for ‘x’ and ‘y’ coordinates can be determined as under,
P(u)x = (2u3 – 3u2 +1) 4 + (- 2u3 + 3u2) 8 + (u3 – 2u2 + u) 5 + (u3 – u2) 10
= 7u3 – 8u2 + 5u + 4 ……………………………..(1)
P(u)y = (2u3 – 3u2 +1) 4 + (- 2u3 + 3u2) 5 + (u3 – 2u2 + u) 6 + (u3 – u2) 7
= 11u3 – 16u2 + 6u + 4 …………………………..(2)……………………………………………………….(3
marks)
Using above equation tabulate the values of parametric equation of given points as,
u 0 0.2 0.4 0.6 0.8 1.0
P(u)x 4 4.736 5.168 5.632 6.464 8.0
P(u)y 4 4.468 6.464 4.216 4.19 5.0

List of Possible Questions:

1) What do you understand by the term “Modeling”? Explain its significance in CAD with various
types?
2) Distinguish between the following,
a) Analytical and synthetic curves.
b) B spline and Bezier curves.
c) Geometry and topology.
3) What is parametric representation of the curve? State its advantages. Write the parametric equation
of line, circle, ellipse, parabola, and hyperbola.
4) What is surface modeling? Explain with different types. Also state its advantages and limitations.
5) What are the different types of synthetic curves used in CAD CAM systems? Explain with
equations?
6) Explain Wireframe modeling describing its advantages and limitations.
9) Find the unit tangent vector in the direction of the line parallel to an existing line.
10) A line L1 is drawn between two points P1 (3,5,9)and P2(6,7,3) and L2 is drawn between P3(6,5,3)
and P4(3,8,9). Find the parametric equation and tangent vector of the line. Also determine are the
two lines intersecting each other If yes find the point of intersection.
11) The end points for a line L1 are P1 (-2, 3, 5) and P2 (4, 6,-2). The end points for a line are P3 (-5, 8,
9) and P4 (1, 11, 2) then find the parametric equation of the lines. Find out whether two lines parallel
or perpendicular. Find the coordinates of point of intersection.
12) Determine the mathematical expression to measure the angle between two selected lines in a CAD
CAM system. Using the results so obtained, determine,
a) The angle between the lines L1 & L2 having endpoints P1 (2, 2), P2 (8, 7) and P3 (5, 1), P4 (10,
3) respectively.
b) The point P3 and the line L, if line L having endpoints as P1 (8, 2), P2 (18, 12) and point L
having the coordinates P3 (12, 13).
13) Find the radius and the center of a circle whose diameter is given by two points.
14) Write the parametric equation of a circle having center at (3, 3, 0) and a radius of 3 units. Calculate
the coordinates of points on a circle if it is divided in eight parts.
15) An ellipse is defined by the center point (8, 12) and has a major radius of 10 and minor radius of 4.
Determine the various points of the ellipse in the first quadrant, if the increment between each point
is 300. Assume that the ellipse is oriented such that the major axis and minor axis are parallel to X
and Y axes respectively.
16) Plot the Bezier curve having endpoints A (1, 3) and D (7, 2). The other control points are B (5, 6)
and C (6, 0). Plot for values u = 0, 0.1, 0.2…1, if the characteristics polygon is drawn in the
sequence A-B-C-D.
17) Plot the hermite cubic curve having end points A (1, 3) and B (7, 2). The tangent vector for end A is
defined by a line joining A and another point C (10, 8), whereas the tangent vector for end B is
defined by a line joining B and another point D (6, 0). Also plot the curve, if the point D is changed
to (9, 6), with the other things remains same.
18) What do you understand by Mass Property Calculations? Explain with neat sketch the ray casting
method for determining mass property calculations. Calculate mass, area and volume of rectangular
steel plate having dimensions 100mm 75mm 25mm having density 7860kg/m3. Verify the results
with CAD software tool.