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Classification and Application of Plain Carbon Steels

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DOI: 10.1016/B978-0-12-803581-8.10268-1

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 Classification and Application of Plain Carbon Steels
Tariq Islam and Hossain MMA Rashed, Bangladesh University of Engineering and Technology, Dhaka, Bangladesh
r 2019 Elsevier Inc. All rights reserved.

1 Introduction 1
2 Steel and Plain Carbon Steel 1
3 History 2
4 Classification, Designation, Composition, and Variants of Plain Carbon Steel 3
4.1 Classification 3
4.2 Designation 4
4.3 Composition 4
4.4 Short Descriptions of Plain Carbon Steel With Mechanical Properties 4
4.4.1 Low carbon steels 4
4.4.2 Medium carbon steels 5
4.4.3 High carbon steels 6
4.4.4 Ultra-high carbon steels 6
5 Phase Diagram of Plain Carbon Steel, and Microstructure 6
6 Application in Different Sectors 10
6.1 Low Carbon Steel 10
6.2 Medium Carbon Steels 12
6.3 High Carbon Steels 13
6.4 Ultra High Carbon Steels 13
7 Summary 14
References 14

1 Introduction

Steel is the most widely accepted versatile complex metallic material derived from ores that are rich in iron. Endless varieties of
microstructures for allotropy, availability, abundance, properties via solid-state transformation and easy processing techniques
have given steel dominance over other materials. Easily found iron ores in earth’s crust, they are easily reduced by hot carbon to
obtain iron which has a melting point around 15431C. The most iron used today in the industrialized world are plain carbon steels
and accounts for 80% of all metallic materials. [1] Industries (i.e., building, construction etc), modern structures, architectures and
designs, and manufacturing plants are almost dependent on plain carbon steel-based products. As an engineering material, it is the
most important one because no other engineering materials provide such a desirable combination of properties needed for the
particular application. Being a least expensive metal, it is strong, tough and ductile. They can be manufactured relatively inex-
pensively in large scale and can be formed into desired shapes by plastic deformation through mechanical processes (i.e., rolling,
forging etc.) maintaining very precise specifications. Apart from being machinable and workable, they can also be cast and heat
treated in order to provide a wide range of mechanical properties, ranging from moderate yield strength levels (200–300 MPa, or
30–40 ksi) with excellent ductility to yield strengths exceeding 1400 MPa (200 ksi) with fracture toughness levels as high as 110
MPa (100 ksi) [2], enabling them to be used for numerous applications. Being a ubiquitous material, steel directly affects our daily
lives. The growth and prosperity of industrialized countries are dependent on this material. As a result, about 90% of the structural
materials are made of steels.

2 Steel and Plain Carbon Steel

The term ‘Steel’ is not an easy thing to define because of a large variety of materials, alloys resemble it by name. These alloys vary in
many ways like in production routes, compositions, and alloying elements. So we can begin by describing steel as an alloy which
contains iron as the major component. It’s basically an alloy of iron and carbon where some other elements may be present as
impurities or alloying elements (i.e., Phosphorous, Sulphur, Manganese etc.). In other words, steel is a crystalline alloy of iron,
carbon and several other elements. But it should be kept in mind that materials, where Iron is the main constituent are not steel
(for example cast iron and some superalloys). Steel can only be defined by how much percentages of carbon can be dissolved into
it in the solid stage. According to the iron-carbon phase diagram [3], steels are defined as binary Fe–C alloys containing less than
about 2.11 wt% carbon (in FCC iron at 11461C). Many steels contain specified minimum amounts of carbon. This does not mean
that all steels must contain substantial quantities of carbon; in some steels, the carbon content is deliberately small. Also, alloy

Reference Module in Materials Science and Materials Engineering doi:10.1016/B978-0-12-803581-8.10268-1 1

2 Classification and Application of Plain Carbon Steels

addition reduces the amount of carbon in solution which has a strong tendency to combine with the carbon to form carbides. Steel
is processed and comes in a wide variety of sizes and shapes. Shapes include rods, pipes, railroad rails, tees, channels, and I-beams.
They are produced by various forming operations (i.e., rolling, forging, heat treatments etc.) from ingots. Working of steel increases
the properties of the steel, making it tougher by refining crystalline structure.
Plain carbon steel, on the other hand, can be defined as an alloyed version of iron and carbon containing manganese and some
residual elements. Basically, they are carbon steels. The residual elements can come from the raw materials during the production
process (e.g., iron ore and additions of scrap steel). They may be added for a specific purpose during the production process (e.g.,
deoxidization by means of silicon or aluminum) and distinguishable from alloying elements which are deliberately added
according to specified minimum amounts. The American Iron and Steel Institute (AISI) has defined plain carbon steels to be an
alloy of iron and carbon which contains specified amounts of Mn below a maximum amount of 1.65 wt%, less than 0.6 wt% Si,
less than 0.6 wt% Cu. It is usual for maximum amounts (e.g., 0.05 wt%) of S and P to be specified [3,4].

3 History

The development of steel started about 4000 years ago, tracing back to the beginning of the Iron Age, sometimes after 2000 BCE in
the south-east or south-central Asia, may be in the Caucasus region. As a potential material, iron gained a better position as it is
harder and stronger than bronze (most used metal at that time) and used for tools, implements, machinery, and weapons. For over
three thousand years further, until replaced by steel after CE(Common Era) 1870, iron formed the main material basis of human
civilization in Europe, Asia, and Africa. Iron was extracted through smelting process where it was heated with charcoal fire to
release oxygen. Later, the bloom of iron was formed by the blacksmiths. Furthermore, by the various process of development,
wrought iron was the final product containing generally 0.02%–0.08% of carbon, making it tough and malleable. It was the most
commonly produced metal through most of the Iron Age. For the few thousand years, the quality of the iron produced mostly
became dependent on the production methods. The Cast iron was invented when being treated at higher temperatures (rare except
in a blast furnace). By the late Middle Ages, European iron makers had developed the blast furnace and pig iron was the result. Iron
makers also learned how to transform cast pig iron into the more useful wrought iron by oxidizing excess carbon out of the pig
iron by finery and later by puddling furnace (developed by the Englishman Henry Cort).While blast furnaces produced cast iron
with great efficiency, the process of refining cast iron into wrought iron remained comparatively inefficient till the mid-1800s.
Moreover, by the 17th century, iron’s properties were well understood, but increasing urbanization pushed Europe to find a more
versatile structural metal that could replace cast iron.
Thus steel was invented which has carbon content ranging from 0.2% to 1.5%, enough carbon to make it harder than the
wrought iron, but not so much as to make it as brittle as cast iron. It’s hardness combined with more flexibility and tensile strength
makes steel far more useful than either type of iron. Its durability with sharp edge nature is better than the softer wrought iron and
its resistance to shock and tension is better than the more brittle cast iron. However, manufacturing of steel was difficult and
expensive until the mid-1800s. Cementation process was applied to produce steel prior to the invention of Bessemer converter. It
gave us blister steel. Later crucible steel was invented by melting the blister steel. Nevertheless, due to the cost of production, both
blister and cast steel were only ever used in specialty applications. As a result, cast iron made in puddling furnaces remained the
primary structural metal in industrializing Britain during most of the 19th century.
The growth of railroad in the 1800s (during the nineteenth century) created a great market for railroads as well as a great
pressure on the iron industry of Europe and America. However, both of the regions were struggling with the inefficient production
process. At present, steel is the advanced form of iron compared to wrought and cast iron because it has a carbon content between
0.2% to 1.5%, making it harder than wrought iron, yet malleable and flexible, unlike cast iron. For this reason, it became a very
important structural and engineering material. On the contrary, it’s production was slow and costly. To counteract this problem, in
1856, Henry Bessemer invented an effective way, called Bessemer process that could process steel in a cheaper way. In this process,
a pear-shaped converter was used and pure iron with less inclusion can be produced from it.
In 1860, the open-hearth process was developed, pioneered by German engineer Karl Wilhelm Siemens. The process enhanced
the production of steel from pig iron in large shallow furnaces using higher temperatures. This method allows for a large amount
of production along with periodic testing of molten steel. The process championed the efficiency of scrap raw material usability
and specification monitoring. The process was slower but by 1900, it largely replaced Bessemer process. The cost efficiencies of
oxygen steelmaking made open-hearth factories obsolete and, following the advent of oxygen steelmaking in the 1960s, open-
hearth operations began closing.
In 1900, steel production was revolutionized providing cheaper, higher quality steel. Capitalists invested in the steel sector at
that time as it got some potentiality. After the turn of the century, modernization touched steel production process, and Paul
Heroult’s electric arc furnace (EAF) was used for modern steel making. It created a great influence in the steel making sector
creating different variants of steel according to needs. At first, the process was only used for special steels and later by world war
two, it grew in use. Low investment cost associated with finer, better and longer steel products, 100% using efficiency of scrap
materials, easy operation and cheaper production cost made the EAF steel production a prime one whose use increased in over
50 years. According to Fig. 1 it accounted for 33% of global steel production.
A major portion of global steel production (66%) is now produced in basic oxygen facilities. In 1960, basic oxygen furnaces
went through a development process where oxygen in air was separated from nitrogen on an industrial scale. Basic oxygen furnaces
 Classification and Application of Plain Carbon Steels 3

Fig. 1 Evolution of steel by process from 1955 to 1996. Adapted from Freuhan, J., 1998. The Making, Shaping and Treating of Steel 11th Edition –
Steelmaking and Refining Volume. Pittsburgh, PA: The AISE Steel Foundation) (Original source: International Iron and Steel Institute). Spoerl, J.S.,
2013. A brief history of iron and steel production. Z. Available from: http://www.anselm.edu/homepage/dbanach/h-carnegie-steel.htm.

blow oxygen into large quantities of molten iron and scrap steel. This method is much more efficient than open-hearth process in
terms of time and product [5]. For the advancement of modern steelmaking processes, we obtain different derivatives of steel
(plain carbon, alloy steels etc.) which allowed those to be used for different applicable purposes in many sectors. And with the
modernization of the process, different steels according to the advanced needs are being invented nowadays.
Examples of Damascus and Japanese sword showed that there were examples of using carbon steel having compositions more
than the eutectoid level in the past eras. Ancient weapons also showed proof of UHCS(Ultra-High Carbon Steel) composition and
laminated structures. Manufacturing and processing of these steels became popular amongst researchers and they tried to
understand the role of high carbon content in developing modern steels. The modem study of ultrahigh carbon steels (UHCS)
began in the mid-1970s and continues to the present time. The initial work was carried out at Stanford University and, since the
late 1980s, also at the Lawrence Livermore National Laboratory. Before that, scientific studies were done since 1975 on the UHCS
composition range. In 1979, Sherby and Wordsworth found similar carbon content both in Damascus steel and UHCS. Since then,
various experiments and researches are being done in developing this type of steel till present days [6].
Today, 90% refined metal is iron and total world production in 2017 was 1689 million tonnes. Steel is still the cheapest metal
($0.5 per kilogram) available compared to other material because of abundance production. Also, per person use of iron is 2200
kg which jumps to 7000–14,000 kg of iron per capita in the developed world. China still remains largest producer of steel (831.7
million tonnes), almost half of the steel production in world. United Kingdom, place of Industrial Revolution and starting site of
mass iron production, produced only 7.5 million tonnes. Despite of global recession during 2008–09 and output fell in steel
industries throughout the world, global output started to rise in 2010 and the trend is still continuing. Though China is the leader
in producing steel to date but emergent countries like India, Russia, and United States are continuously becoming dominant in this
sector and likely to increase their production in near future [1,7,8].

4 Classification, Designation, Composition, and Variants of Plain Carbon Steel

4.1 Classification
Steels are classified by a variety of different systems depending on the following parameters [2]:

• The composition, such as carbon, low alloy, or stainless steel

• The manufacturing methods, such as open hearth, basic oxygen process, or electric furnace methods
• The finishing method, such as hot rolling or cold rolling
• The product form, such as bar plate, sheet, strip, tubing, or structural shape
• The deoxidation practice, such as killed, semi-killed, capped, or rimmed steel
• The microstructure, such as ferritic, pearlite, or martensitic
• The required strength level, for example, as specified in various industry standards such as the American Pipeline Institute (API)
or American Society for Testing Materials (ASTM)/American Society of Mechanical Engineers (ASME)
• The heat treatment, such as annealing, quenching and tempering, and thermomechanical processing
• Quality descriptors, such as forging quality and commercial quality
• The Unified Numbering System (UNS)

Amongst these mentioned classification systems, the chemical composition system is most widely basis for designation and
classification. Also, it is the easiest one (AISI- American Iron and Steel Institute, SAE- Society of Automotive Engineers). For
4 Classification and Application of Plain Carbon Steels

Table 1 Carbon percentages in plain carbon steel

Subclass Carbon

Compositional percentage, % C Weight percentages, % W

Low carbon steel o0.30% Under 0.2

Medium carbon steel 0.30% to 0.60% 0.2–0.5
High carbon steel 40.6%–1.00% Above 0.5
Ultra-high carbon steel 1.0%–2.1%

Note: Singh, R., 2015. Applied Welding Engineering: Processes, Codes, and Standards. Butterworth-Heinemann. Bramfitt, B.L., Benscoter, A.O., 2001. Metallographer's Guide:
Practice and Procedures for Irons and Steels. ASM International.

attaining certain specific properties and characteristics, numerous alloying elements are added to iron. These elements include, but
are not limited to, carbon, manganese, silicon, nickel, chromium, molybdenum, vanadium, columbium (niobium), copper,
aluminum, titanium, tungsten, and cobalt. According to composition system, Steel is classified into two major groups. They are

• Plain Carbon Steel

• Alloy Steel
Alloy Steel classification is vast and depends on the alloying elements and other things (i.e., condition). On the other hand,
plain carbon steels are classified into four major classes. They are shown in Table 1
A more distinctive classification system of steel (both plain, alloy steel) can be easily understood by looking at Fig. 2.

4.2 Designation
SAE (Society of Automotive Engineers) and eventually AISI (The American Iron and Steel Institute) designate steel where 4–5 numeric
characters with additional alpha characters are added to denote special characteristics of that particular class of steel. The numbers
mainly stand for the chemical composition of alloy steels and carbon steels. It is often quoted that AISI grades are same as SAE grades
and the identification number is pretty similar to same steel identification number present in AISI/SAE standards. The alloying element
in the AISI specification is indicated by the first two digits and the amount of carbon is indicated by the last two digits [11,12]. The
chemical composition of alloy steels and carbon steels is further explained in Table 2 through a schematic representation of the AISI/SAE
steel designation system.

4.3 Composition
A wide range of composition of plain carbon steel can be obtained from handbooks. These large varieties are made possible
through various production routes, deoxidation practice, and advancement of steelmaking processes. For various compositional
changes, it will impart some characteristics and properties in the steel. Mechanical properties including hardness, strength etc. can
be modified by the carbon content in the steel as more carbon addition leads to increased hardness and strength. For the other
elements, that are already present in the steel also gives steel its distinct characteristics and properties. Table 3 depicts the range of
compositions for plain carbon steel with the designation.

4.4 Short Descriptions of Plain Carbon Steel With Mechanical Properties

4.4.1 Low carbon steels
This class of steels has carbon percentage up to 0.25%–0.30%. Compared to the other class of steel, low carbon steel constitutes a
major portion of the steel used today. They are not responsive to heat treatment so no martensite formation. Microstructures
consist of ferrite and pearlite constituents. As a result, they are relatively soft and weak but possess outstanding ductility and
toughness. Also, they are machinable, weldable, and cheap compared to other steels. The major products of this class are flat-rolled
products usually in sheet or strip form which is subjected to various conditions and processes (cold rolled, subcritical annealed
and tempered-rolled condition). Carbon contents are pretty much low, usually less than 0.10% C, with up to 0.4% Mn. They also
have high formability and drawability features for such composition. In rolled steel structural plates and sections, carbon per-
centage is high (i.e., approximately 0.30%) and the manganese content is increased to 1.5% [3,9,13].
Increased strength, greater hardness, and reduced formability can be imparted in these plain carbon steels as they have carbon
content (0.1%0–0.25% C) compared to the lowest carbon group. They are also known as carburizing or casehardening steels by
designation. Nature of the part and properties dictate the selection of these grades for carburizing applications and processing
practices. Greater core hardness with a given quench can be found with the increment of carbon content in the base metal. However,
higher Mn content increases the hardenability of both the core and the case. They typically have a yield strength of 275 MPa (40,000
psi), tensile strengths between 415 and 550 MPa (60,000 and 80,000 psi), and a ductility of 25%EL [3,13].
 Classification and Application of Plain Carbon Steels 5

Fig. 2 Classification of steels. Courtesy of D.M. Stefanescu, University of Alabama, Tuscaloosa, AL. Slightly modified by the cited authors in the
citation. Reproduced from Totten, G.E., 2006. Steel Heat Treatment: Metallurgy and Technologies. CRC Press.

4.4.2 Medium carbon steels

Medium-carbon steels are needed most when the structure or products require higher mechanical properties. Here, the range of
carbon and manganese are respectively 0.30%–0.55% C and 0.60%–1.65%. They are often compared with low carbon steels. The
increment in mechanical properties, section thickness, or depth of hardening normally require higher carbon, higher manganese,
or both. Fabrication include hardening, strengthening through heat treatment and cold working. Annealing, normalizing, or
quenching and tempering treatment can be done in cold formed parts of these steels based products prior to using and they are
used for wide range of applications. They are mostly used in tempered condition and have a tempered microstructure. It has low
hardenability and heat treatment is only applicable in thin sections with very rapid quenching rates. Heat treated products are
better than low carbon steels but have low ductility and toughness. Also, these class of steels have carbon (up to 0.5%) and
manganese. The higher carbon grades are often cold drawn. It gives specific mechanical properties and they can be used without
heat treatment for some applications [3,9]. However, they have limitations compared to alloy steels [3,13].
6 Classification and Application of Plain Carbon Steels

Table 2 AISI/SAE system for plain carbon steel designation

AISI/SAE No. For Carbon Steel: 1XXX

• The first digit indicates that this is plain carbon steel.
• The second digit indicates there are alloying elements based on the number.
• The last two digits indicates that the steel contains approximately xx/100 percent carbon

Classifications Specifications Nominal alloy content % Examples

Plain carbon steels 10XX Mn 1.00% max 1005, 1010, 1016, 1030 etc.
Resulfurized free machining 11XX 1110, 1117, 1137 etc.
Resulfurized and rephosphorized free machining 12XX 1211, 1212, 1213, 1215, 12L14 etc.
Plain carbon steel 15XX Mn 1.00%–1.65% 1512, 1522, 1526, 1548, 1561 etc.

Note: Singh, R., 2015. Applied Welding Engineering: Processes, Codes, and Standards. Butterworth-Heinemann; Bramfitt, B.L., Benscoter, A.O., 2001. Metallographer's Guide:
Practice and Procedures for Irons and Steels. ASM International.

4.4.3 High carbon steels

They are the hardest, strongest, and yet least ductile of the carbon steels. They are especially wear resistant and has sharp cutting
edge upon fabrication. Also, they are used in the hardened and tempered condition. It is noteworthy that high-carbon steels
containing 0.55%–1.00% C and 0.30%–0.90% Mn have more restricted applications than the medium-carbon steels due to higher
production cost, poor formability (or ductility) and weldability [3].

4.4.4 Ultra-high carbon steels

UHC steels are experimental plain carbon steels and also important for technological materials for future purposes. They have a
composition of 1.0%–2.1% C (15–32 vol% cementite). They are thermomechanically produced to obtain consistent ultrafine
microstructures having equiaxed grains of spherical, discontinuous proeutectoid carbide particles. At 1.6% carbon content, an optimum
superplastic elongation has been found. These are of interest both in terms of formability (i.e., superplasticity) at high temperature and
also strength and ductility at room temperature. The steels have similar compositions to ancient Damascus steels [14].
They exhibit superplasticity due to the structure consisting of the uniform distribution of very fine, spherical, discontinuous
particles (0.1–1.5 mm diameter) in a very fine-grained ferrite matrix (0.5–2.0 mm diameter). This structure can be readily achieved
by any of the four thermomechanical treatment routes described in the references [3,15]. Heat-treated UHCS (Ultra High Carbon
Steel) can offer very unusual properties depending on the heat treating process. The processed UHCS are well suited for structural
applications and they possess a combination of properties, not common in other materials. Specifically, UHCS can have high
ambient temperature strength, hardness, ductility, and excellent high-temperature formability via superplasticity [6]. From one
heat treatment procedure, it can exhibit higher toughness resulting in a fine martensitic condition along with a hardness value of
Rc ¼ 66, showing 10% compression ductility and a very high fracture strength of 4500 MPa. Furthermore, another heat treatment
with the same carbon content results in a coarse martensite and a coarse cementite particle size. The resulting material has a similar
hardness, Rc ¼ 67 which we obtained in the previous heat treatment procedure, but it gives a low compression fracture strength
(3000 MPa) and low ductility (1%) [14]. Different mechanical properties of plain carbon steels depending on the carbon content
and condition can be observed from Fig. 3, Fig. 4 and Table 4.

5 Phase Diagram of Plain Carbon Steel, and Microstructure

In studying steels, it is useful to consider the behavior of pure iron first, then the iron-carbon alloys, and finally the many complexities
that arise when further solutes are added. Iron –Iron-carbon diagrams provides the best medium to understand this aspect. The
diagram provides the foundation knowledge on both plain carbon and alloy steels in a great variety. It must be noted that the normal
equilibrium diagram actually is a metastable equilibrium diagram between iron and iron carbide (cementite). Cementite is a
metastable phase, and there exists a true equilibrium between iron and graphite. In cast irons (2–4 wt% C) graphite occurs extensively.
Equilibrium phase in steel (0.03–1.5 wt% C) is much more difficult to obtain. Therefore, consideration should be emphasized
between iron and iron carbide as it can predict the behavior of steel more correctly. The performance of steel depends on the properties
associated with their microstructures. It means the arrangements, volume fractions, sizes, and morphologies of the various phases
constituting a macroscopic section of steel with a given composition in a given processed condition. Apart from that, many basic
 Classification and Application of Plain Carbon Steels 7

Table 3 Standard carbon steel compositions with SAE-AISI and corresponding UNS designations

Plain Carbon Steel (Nonresulfurized, 1.0% Mn Max)a

UNS Number SAE/AISI Number Cast or Heat Chemical Ranges and Limits (%)a

C Mn P max S max

G10060 1006 0.08 max 0.45 max 0.040 0.050

G10080 1008 0.10 max 0.50 max 0.040 0.050
G10090 1009 0.15 max 0.60 max 0.040 0.050
G10100 1010 0.08–0.13 0.30–0.60 0.040 0.050
G10120 1012 0.10–0.15 0.30–0.60 0.040 0.050
G10150 1015 0.12–0.18 0.30–0.60 0.040 0.050
G10160 1016 0.12–0.18 0.60–0.90 0.040 0.050
G10170 1017 0.14–0.20 0.30–0.60 0.040 0.050
G10180 1018 0.14–0.20 0.60–0.90 0.040 0.050
G10190 1019 0.14–0.20 0.70–1.00 0.040 0.050
G10200 1020 0.17–0.23 0.30–0.60 0.040 0.050
G10210 1021 0.17–0.23 0.60–0.90 0.040 0.050
G10220 1022 0.17–0.23 0.70–1.00 0.040 0.050
G10230 1023 0.19–0.25 0.30–0.60 0.040 0.050
G10250 1025 0.22–0.28 0.30–0.60 0.040 0.050
G10260 1026 0.22–0.28 0.60–0.90 0.040 0.050
G10300 1030 0.27–0.34 0.60–0.90 0.040 0.050
G10330 1033 0.29–0.36 0.70–1.00 0.040 0.050
G10350 1035 0.31–0.38 0.60–0.90 0.040 0.050
G10370 1037 0.31–0.38 0.70–1.00 0.040 0.050
G10380 1038 0.34–0.42 0.60–0.90 0.040 0.050
G10390 1039 0.36–0.44 0.70–1.00 0.040 0.050
G10400 1040 0.36–0.44 0.60–0.90 0.040 0.050
G10420 1042 0.39–0.47 0.60–0.90 0.040 0.050
G10430 1043 0.39–0.47 0.70–1.00 0.040 0.050
G10450 1045 0.42–0.50 0.60–0.90 0.040 0.050
G10490 1049 0.45–0.53 0.60–0.90 0.040 0.050
G10500 1050 0.47–0.55 0.60–0.90 0.040 0.050
G10550 1055 0.52–0.60 0.60–0.90 0.040 0.050
G10600 1060 0.55–0.66 0.60–0.90 0.040 0.050
G10640 1064 0.59–0.70 0.50–0.80 0.040 0.050
G10650 1065 0.59–0.70 0.60–0.90 0.040 0.050
G10700 1070 0.65–0.76 0.60–0.90 0.040 0.050
G10740 1074 0.69–0.80 0.50–0.80 0.040 0.050
G10750 1075 0.69–0.80 0.40–0.70 0.040 0.050
G10780 1078 0.72–0.86 0.30–0.60 0.040 0.050
G10800 1080 0.74–0.88 0.60–0.90 0.040 0.050
G10840 1084 0.80–0.94 0.60–0.90 0.040 0.050
G10850 1085 0.80–0.94 0.70–1.00 0.040 0.050
G10860 1086 0.80–0.94 0.30–0.50 0.040 0.050
G10900 1090 0.84–0.98 0.60–0.90 0.040 0.050
G10950 1095 0.90–1.04 0.30–0.50 0.040 0.050

Free-Cutting (Resulfurized) Carbon Steel Compositionsa

UNS Number SAE/AISI Number Cast or Heat Chemical Ranges and Limits (%)

C Mn P max S

G11080 1108 0.08–0.13 0.50–0.80 0.040 0.08–0.13

G11100 1110 0.08–0.13 0.30–0.60 0.040 0.08–0.13
G11170 1117 0.14–0.20 1.00–1.30 0.040 0.08–0.13
G11180 1118 0.14–0.20 1.30–1.60 0.040 0.08–0.13
G11370 1137 0.32–0.39 1.35–1.65 0.040 0.08–0.13
G11390 1139 0.35–0.43 1.35–1.65 0.040 0.13–0.20
G11400 1140 0.37–0.44 0.70–1.00 0.040 0.08–0.13
G11410 1141 0.37–0.45 1.35–1.65 0.040 0.08–0.13
G11440 1144 0.40–0.48 1.35–1.65 0.040 0.24–0.33
G11460 1146 0.42–0.49 0.70–1.00 0.040 0.08–0.13
G11S10 1151 0.48–0.55 0.70–1.00 0.040 0.08–0.13
(Continued )
8 Classification and Application of Plain Carbon Steels

Table 3 Continued

Standard Resulfurized and Rephosphorized Carbon Steelsa

UNS Number SAE/AISI Number Cast or Heat Chemical Ranges and Limits, %(a)

C max Mn P S Pb

Gl2110 1211 0.13 0.60–0.90 0.07–0.12 0.10–0.15 —

G12120 1212 0.13 0.70–1.00 0.07–0.12 0.16–0.23 —
G12130 1213 0.13 0.70–1.00 0.07–0.12 0.24–0.33 —
G12150 1215 0.09 0.75–1.05 0.04–0.09 0.26–0.35 —
G12144 12L14b 0.15 0.85–1.15 0.04–0.09 0.26–0.35 0.15–0.35
Standard Nonresulfurized Carbon Steels (Over 1.0% Manganese)

UNS Number SAE/AISI Number Cast or Heat Chemical Ranges and Limits, %

C Mn P max S max

G15130 1513 0.10–0.16 1.10–1.40 0.040 0.050

G15220 1522 0.18–0.24 1.10–1.40 0.040 0.050
G15240 1524 0.19–0.25 1.35–1.65 0.040 0.050
G15260 1526 0.22–0.29 1.10–1.40 0.040 0.050
G15270 1527 0.22–0.29 1.20–1.50 0.040 0.050
G15360 1536 0.30–0.37 1.20–1.50 0.040 0.050
G15410 1541 0.36–0.44 1.35–1.65 0.040 0.050
G15480 1548 0.44–0.52 1.10–1.40 0.040 0.050
G15510 1551 0.45–0.56 0.85–1.15 0.040 0.050
G15520 1552 0.47–0.55 1.20–1.50 0.040 0.050
G15610 1561 0.55–0.65 0.75–1.05 0.040 0.050
G15660 1566 0.60–0.71 0.85–1.15 0.040 0.050
a
It is not common practice to produce the 12xx series of steels to specified limits for silicon because of its adverse effect on machinability.
b
Contains 0.15%–0.35% lead; other steels listed here can be produced with similar amounts of lead.
Source: Numbering System, Chemical Composition, 1993 SAE Handbook, vol. 1, Materials Society of Automotive Engineers, Warrendale, PA, pp. 1.01–1.189.
Note: Totten, G.E., 2006. Steel Heat Treatment: Metallurgy and Technologies. CRC Press.
Applicable to semifinished products for forging, hot-rolled and cold-finished bars, wire rods, and seamless tubing.

features of iron-iron carbide system (Fig. 5) influence the microstructure, morphology, phases and constituents which in turn control
the behavior of the plain carbon steel.
The three phases ferrite, cementite, and pearlite are the main principal constituents of the microstructure of plain carbon steels.
But it should be kept in mind that they should be cooled slowly (equilibrium cooling) so that other metastable phases (i.e.,
cementite, Fe3C) does not form.
From Iron-Carbon phase diagram in Fig. 5, we see that depending on the compositional range, steel is divided into two groups.
One group is named hypoeutectoid steel (carbon content less than 0.8%) and the other is hypereutectoid steel (carbon content
more than 0.8%). In hypoeutectoid steel, the equilibrium microstructure at room temperature consists of ferrite and pearlite; this
ferrite is called proeutectoid ferrite (Fig. 6(b)). Cooling from austenite, g region (8751C) to 7751C, we get a and g. Further cooling
to room temperature gives microstructure consisting of proeutectoid ferrite and pearlite (Isothermal transformation occurs at
7271C when austenite attains eutectoid composition). When the temperature is below the eutectoid line (7271C), all g transforms
to pearlite and virtually no changes occur in the proeutectoid ferrite structure obtained during cooling at g þ a region. The
proeutectoid ferrite is present as a continuous matrix phase surrounding the isolated pearlite colonies. Ferrite is also present in
pearlite and it is known as eutectoid ferrite which appears white. Dark appearance of pearlite happens due to the narrowness of the
microconstituents. Steel containing 0.8% C is known as eutectoid steel. The equilibrium microstructure of eutectoid steel obtained
at room temperature is pearlite (Fig. 6(c)) which is a mixture of two microconstituents named ferrite (a) and cementite (Fe3C);
ferrite is very soft while cementite is a very hard constituent of steel. This microstructure can be obtained by equilibrium cooling
from 8001C (austenite, g region) and has a lamellar structure which includes alternating layers of a and Fe3C. Pearlite exists as
grains commonly known as colonies. Each colony is oriented in the same direction. Thick layers in pearlite grain are the ferrite
phase and the cementite phase appears as thin dark lamellae. For pearlite, the spacing between a and Fe3C varies, from grain to
grain. Pearlite has properties between the soft ductile ferrite and hard brittle cementite. In hypereutectoid steel, the equilibrium
microstructure at room temperature contains proeutectoid cementite and pearlite (Fig. 6(d)). The main difference here with
hypoeutectoid steel structure is that we obtain a continuous network of cementite, which separates each pearlite colony. As carbon
content increases, the thickness of the cementite network increases. Proeutectoid cementite appears as white [13].
 Classification and Application of Plain Carbon Steels 9

Fig. 3 Properties of cold rolled plain carbon steel. Reproduced from Campbell, F.C., 2008. Elements of Metallurgy and Engineering Alloys. ASM
International.

Fig. 4 Hardness and ductility as a function of carbon content. Reproduced from Campbell, F.C., 2008. Elements of Metallurgy and Engineering
Alloys. ASM International.

The type of microstructure in plain carbon steel depends on the carbon content. The microstructures of typical low-carbon,
medium-carbon, eutectoid and high-carbon steels along with other phases are shown in Fig. 6. The low-carbon steel (below 0.8%
C) in the Fig. 6(a) contains ferrite and pearlite. With increasing the carbon content the amount of pearlite phase (the dark etching
constituent) increases as shown in a medium carbon steel structure in Fig. 6(b); the constituents are proeutectoid ferrite and
pearlite. With 0.8% carbon content (eutectoid steel), we get all pearlite (Fig. 6(c)), dark appeared constituent, and the amount of it
in microstructure is 100%. Above 0.8% C, the other constituent is proeutectoid cementite (white appearance), as seen in Fig. 6(d),
10 Classification and Application of Plain Carbon Steels

Table 4 Typical mechanical properties of plain carbon steels

Steel Condition Ultimate tensile strength Yield strength Elongation in 2 in., % Reduction in area, % Hardness, HB

MPa ksi MPa ksi

1010 Hot rolled 325 47 180 26 28 50 95

Cold drawn 365 53 305 44 20 40 105
1020 Hot rolled 380 55 205 30 25 50 111
Cold drawn 420 61 350 51 15 40 121
1025 Hot rolled 400 58 220 32 25 50 116
Cold drawn 440 64 370 54 15 40 126
1030 Hot rolled 470 68 260 37.5 20 42 137
Cold drawn 525 76 440 64 12 35 149
1035 Hot rolled 495 72 270 39.5 18 40 143
Cold drawn 550 80 460 67 12 35 163
1040 Hot rolled 525 76 290 42 18 40 149
Cold drawn 585 85 490 71 12 35 170
1050 Hot rolled 620 90 340 49.5 15 35 179
Cold drawn 690 100 580 84 10 30 197
Annealed, cold drawn 655 95 550 80 10 40 189
1060 Hot rolled 675 98 370 54 12 30 201
Spheroidized annealed, cold drawn 620 90 485 70 10 45 183
1070 Hot rolled 705 102 385 56 12 30 212
Spheroidized annealed, cold drawn 640 93 495 72 10 45 192
1080 Hot rolled 770 112 425 61.5 10 25 229
Spheroidized annealed, cold drawn 675 98 515 75 10 40 192
1090 Hot rolled 840 122 460 67 10 25 248
Spheroidized annealed, cold drawn 695 101 540 78 10 40 197
1095 Hot rolled 825 120 455 66 10 25 248
Spheroidized annealed, cold drawn 680 99 525 76 10 40 197

Source: Campbell, F.C., 2008. Elements of Metallurgy and Engineering Alloys. ASM International.

and it is found in equilibrium microstructure of high carbon steels [10,13]. This proeutectoid cementite forms a continuous
network around pearlite grain boundary, especially with higher carbon content as shown in Fig. 6(e).

6 Application in Different Sectors

As the most recycled and widely used material on earth, steel has applications in almost all sectors of our daily life. They offer
different compatible properties available in no other metallic alloy. Moreover, carbon steel has an advantage over non-ferrous
alloys generally in terms of processing cost. Properties can be generated by addition of carbon and by selecting a heat-treatment
operation based on carbon content. These reasons coupled with the material’s combination of high strength and a relatively low
production cost have made it usable in preparing countless products. Steel applications can be divided into five sectors [17]:

(1) Construction
(2) Transport
(3) Energy
(4) Packaging
(5) Appliances and Industry

Plain carbon steel is the most important material relating to this steel class and they have numerous applications in those five
mentioned sectors. Generally, the low and medium-carbon steels are used for structural and constructional work, whilst the
high-carbon steels are used for the manufacturing of tools and other components where hardness and wear-resistance are required.
A broad description of these plain carbon steel derivatives is given below.

6.1 Low Carbon Steel

Low carbon steels have numerous applications. For wear resistance products with low or inferior mechanical properties; this type
of steel can be used upon carburizing (e.g., small shafts, plunges, or highly loaded gearing). Improved toughness can be obtained
in rolled structural steel (e.g., plates and sections) containing B0.25% C, with up to 1.5% Mn and Al; although Al addition is
forbidden for making stampings, forgings, seamless tubes, and boilerplate.
 Classification and Application of Plain Carbon Steels 11

Fig. 5 The Iron-Carbon phase diagram (A1: The upper limit of the ferrite/cementite phase field (horizontal line going through the eutectoid point),
A2: The temperature where iron loses its magnetism (so-called Curie temperature). Note that for pure iron this is still in the a-phase, A3: The
boundary between the g austenite and the austenite/ferrite field, A4: The point in this case where a change to δ at high temperature, ACM: The
boundary between the g austenite and the austenite/cementite field. Reproduced from Callister, W.D., Rethwisch, D.G., 2011. Materials Science and
Engineering. seventh ed. NY: John Wiley & Sons. Anon. The Iron Carbon Phase Diagram. [cited 2017 30 December]; Available from: https://www.
tf.uni-kiel.de/matwis/amat/iss/kap_6/illustr/s6_1_2.html.

They have also usability as strip steels and structural steels. Strip steels are used in body shell of a car, frame of a steel-framed
building etc. In automotive industries, car body, structural and repair parts are made from strip steels as they have good formability,
high modulus of elasticity and ease of welding associated with low cost. They constitute 50%–60% weight of the vehicles. Moreover,
they have been greatly used in weight reduction and lessened the fuel consumption in automotive industries over years maintaining
the structural performance and safety issues. The construction and building sector itself is also a major consumer of strip steels as the
growth of this sector is greatly dependent on it. Applications include steel frame housing, cladding and steel lintels etc. Steel frame
housing has minimized labor cost as well as construction time. It is also weatherproof, easily usable, free from shrinkage or warping,
load bearing, and fire resistant. Steel claddings are also used in the construction of industrialized buildings. Also, lightweight steel
lintels have replaced reinforced concrete lintels in domestic housing. Other applications for strip steels include domestic appliances,
steel drums, sound deadened steel and vitreous enameled products etc [16,18].
Low carbon structural steels are usually C-Mn steels with ferrite-pearlite microstructure. They are severely used in chemical and
civil engineering fields. These steels are produced in plates and sections, sometimes up to several inches thick. Also, their yield
strength can go up to about 500 N/mm2. However, there are other applications, including buildings, bridges, pressure vessels, ships
and off-highway vehicles. Structural steels are also used extensively in demanding applications like offshore oil plants, gas platforms
and in pipelines which can operate in extremely cold and chemically aggressive environments. These low carbon structural steels are
being used to make the hull of a ship for achieving a high level of toughness, higher strength, reduced construction cost with higher
operating efficiency. On the other hand, different offshore structures have been constructed with these types of steel in order to have a
good foundation, long-term settlement and tilting against natural forces and detrimental environments. Thus, those structures
became symbols of achievement in terms of design, materials, and construction. Now, going with the trend to use high strength
materials with greater fabrication characteristic, reinforcing bars are used in buildings, bridges and marine structures [18].
Other typical applications include wire products, structural shapes (I-beams, channel and angle iron), and sheets used in
pipelines, buildings, and tin cans. An important type of this category is the Low-carbon free-cutting steels. These are quite special as
12 Classification and Application of Plain Carbon Steels

Fig. 6 Microstructures of plain carbon steels with corresponding phases at room temperature. (a) Low carbon steel micrograph of low-carbon
AISI/SAE 1010 steel showing a matrix of ferrite grains (white etching constituent) and pearlite (dark etching constituent). Etched in Marshall’s
reagent followed by 2% nital. 200  ). (b) Medium carbon steel micrograph of medium-carbon AISI/SAE 1040 steel showing ferrite grains (white
etching constituent) and pearlite (dark etching constituent). Etched in 4% picral followed by 2% nital. 300  ). (c) Pearlite in eutectoid steel figure
shows pearlite microstructure consisting of alternating layers of ferrite (the light phase) and Cementite, Fe3C (thin layers most of which appear
dark). 500  . (d) High carbon steel micrograph of high-carbon AISI/SAE 1095 steel showing a matrix of pearlite and some grain boundary
cementite. Etched in 4% picral. 500  . (e) High carbon steel with cementite network microstructure consisting of proeutectoid cementite network
surrounding the pearlite colonies in 1.4 wt% C steel. 1000  . Reproduced from: Bramfitt, B.L., Benscoter, A.O., 2001. Metallographer's Guide:
Practice and Procedures for Irons and Steels. ASM International. Callister Jr., W.D., Rethwisch, D.G., 2012. Fundamentals of Materials Science and
Engineering: An Integrated Approach. John Wiley & Sons.

they contain up to 0.15% C and up to 1.2% Mn, a minimum of Si and up to 0.35% S with or without 0.30% Pb. These steels are
suited for use in automotive mass production manufacturing methods (e.g., body panels) [3,13].

6.2 Medium Carbon Steels

All of these steels can be used for machine parts and high-strength structural components where the combination of high strength,
wear resistance, and toughness are prime concerns. Other applications include forgings but they are selected based on section size
and mechanical properties. Properties are enhanced in them after heat treatment. Killed Steels (a type of steel with homogeneous
structure, composition and properties where there is no evolution of gas during solidification of the ingot after pouring) are the
products made by this class of steels which have a wider range of applications that include automobile parts for the body, engines,
 Classification and Application of Plain Carbon Steels 13

Table 5 Application of different plain carbon steel according to composition

Types of steel Percentage of Uses

carbon, %

Low carbon Dead mild 0.05–0.15 Chain, stampings, rivets, wire, nails, seam-welded pipes, mattresses, hot- and cold-rolled strip for
many purposes
Mild 0.10–0.20 Structural steels, RSJ( rolled steel joist), screws, machine parts, tin-plate, case-hardening, drop-
forgings, stampings
0.20–0.30 Machine and structural work, gears, free-cutting steels, shafting, levers, forgings
Medium carbon 0.30–0.40 Connecting-rods, shafting, wire, axles, fish-plates, crane hooks, high-tensile tubes, forgings
0.40–0.50 Crankshafts, axles, gears, shafts, die-blocks, rotors, tires, heat-treated machine parts
0.50–0.60 Loco tires, rails, laminated springs, wire ropes
High carbon 0.60–0.70 Drop-hammer dies, set-screws, screw-drivers, saws, mandrels, caulking tools, hollow drills
0.70–0.80 Band saws, anvil faces, hammers, wrenches, laminated springs, car bumpers, small forgings, cable
wire, dies, large dies for cold presses
0.80–0.90 Cold chisels, shear blades, cold setts, punches, rock drills, some hand tools

suspensions, steering, engine torque converter, shafts, gears, crankshafts, couplings, and transmission. Medium carbon steels
provide ductility with proper tensile strength so that stock material can be formed into thin shafts or toothed plates without losing
any of its tensile strength, boilerplates and other tanks with pressurized contents also. Additions like Pb or S turn medium carbon
steel into free-cutting grades. Al addition here within produces grain refinement and improved toughness. In general, steels
containing 0.40%–0.60% C are used as rails, railway wheels, tires, and axles [3,13]. Rail steels contain fully pearlitic micro-
structures which are characterized by high resistance to wear and plastic flow, which is good for overall rail performance. The high
tensile strength is needed in order to sustain the different forces being employed on the rail cars in rail. Rotors for turbines and
generators, casings, bolts, and blades are also made from this class. Buildings and structures (i.e., bridges etc.) are being subjected
to torque, different pressures and forces from nature. Medium carbon steel provide adequate higher tensile strength to resist those.

6.3 High Carbon Steels

High-carbon steels are used in those applications where wear characteristics and higher strengths are needed and it can be
attainable than lower carbon grades. There are lots of application of those steels in the spring industry (as light and thicker plat
springs, laminated springs, and heavier coiled springs), farm implement industry (as plow beams, plowshares, scraper blades,
discs, mowers, knives, and harrow teeth), and high-strength wires. Cutting tools, hand tools dies, knives, razors, hacksaw blades
etc. are the other products of this class [3,13]. High-carbon wire rod with tensile strengths 42000 N/mm2 are normally associated
with lightly tempered martensites, or with maraging grades. Strength can be modified through cold drawing operation with a fine
pearlitic structure. Some of the more important applications of high carbon wires are listed below [18]:

• Wire ropes
• Prestressed concrete wire
• Tire cord reinforcement
• Bridge suspension cables
• High-pressure hose reinforcement
• Helical springs (bedding and seating)
• Core wire for electrical conductor cables
• Piano strings

6.4 Ultra High Carbon Steels

The current applications that use high carbon steels (0.5%–1.0% C) are almost perfect candidates for substitution with UHCS
(Ultra High Carbon steel). For example, eutectoid composition steels (0.8% C) are typically used for wires for tire reinforcement,
cutting tools, and railroad rails. UHCS will exhibit higher strengths under comparable microstructural conditions, i.e., in either
spheroidized, pearlitic, bainitic, or tempered martensitic form in these applications. The reason behind it's main applicability is
that with higher carbon content, the overall microstructural state of UHCS (Ultra High Carbon Steel) can be refined. Because of
having very unusual properties at two heat treatment procedures with same carbon content stated earlier, ultra-fine-martensitic
UHCS would be exceptionally suitable in wear resistant applications such as drill bits, industrial knives, and hand tools. In
addition to monolithic products, UHCS (Ultra High Carbon steel) are also used in laminated composites. Modern laminated
composites containing UHCS exhibit excellent impact toughness and good room temperature strength [14].
Commercial plain carbon steels may be classified into five groups and their compositions along with specific applications are
indicated in Table 5 in a nutshell [19].
 14 Classification and Application of Plain Carbon Steels

7 Summary

Plain carbon steel is the most important group of engineering alloys and a large portion of the steel produced today is plain carbon
steel. They account for the vast majority of steel applications depending on the processes and needs. Civilization and modern
urbanization are greatly dependent on steel without a doubt. A wide range of application as well as its abundance in nature has
given it a dominance over other materials. Today it is used in every sector of our lives and been subjected to constant modification
for able to be used in advanced applications in near future.

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