CHAPTER -11

RADIATION AND MATTER

DUAL NATURE OF

Introduction:
be
like interference, diffraction and polarization can
The phenomenon of light nature of light is strongly
basis of wave nature of light. This wave
explained on the
of Electromagnetism and Hertz experiments
on

supported by the Maxwell's equations

the generation and detection of electromagnetic
waves.

At the end of 19th century, experiments on electricity (Electric

conduction of
mm of Hg) in a discharge tube
discharge) through gases at low pressure (about 0.001
cathode rays
leads to many historic discoveries [the discovery of X- rays by Roentgen,
by William Crookes, electron by J.J Thomson, proton (nucleus)
by Rutherford,
milestones to
neutrons by Chadwick, ....]. These experiments are important
understand the structure of atoms.

Cathode rays: Cathode rays are stream of fast moving negatively charged particles
(electrons)
The cathode rays are discovered by William Crookes in 1870 and this hypothesis
was experimentally confirmed by J.J Thomson.

The speed and specific charge of electrons (cathode rays] was first determined by
JJ Thomson by applying mutually perpendicular electric and magnetic fields
across discharge tube.

Specific Charge of a Particle: The ratio of charge to mass of a particle is called its
specific charge.
i) The specific charge of cathode rays ( electrons) is,

Specific charge of electron= charge ofelectron

mass of electron m 6x10-"
9.1x103 1.76 x 10"ckg

charge of proton16x10
11) Specific charge of proton= =9.58 x 1o'C/kg
mass of proton 1.67x107
.In oil-drop experiment, Millikan found that electric
charge is quantized
(i.e q=ne, where n=1,2,3... .).
In oil-drop experiment, Millikan measures the accurate value of charge of
electron (e=-1.602 x 10 C).
Define electron volt (ev):
leV is the energy gained by an electron when it accelerated
is
difference of one volt. It is given by 1eV = 1.6 x 10" J through a potential

-67-
 from the metal surface by supplying
Electron emission: The emission of electrons
sufficient external energy is called electron emission.
surface. These are
Explanation: Metals have large number of free electrons on its
they
but not free to escape out
free to move on the surface in a constant potential
are

tries to come out of the metal, at

of the metal surface. This is because, if the electron
electron is pulled
moment, metal surface acquires a positive charge and hence
that the metal by attractive forces of
back to the metal. Thus free electrons are held inside
sufficient energy to the
positive ions. But electron emission is possible by supplying
electrons by the extermal sources.
VThe minimum energy required for an electron to just escape from the metal
surface is called workfunction of the metal".
required for an
Define Work function of metals (¢o): "Thesminimum energy
called work function of the
electron to just escape from the metal surface is
metal".

Work function is Highest for platinum (¢o

=
5.65 eV) and is lowest for cesium
(do 2.14 e
Work function depends on properties of metal and nature of its surface.

Q1.
Ans
Why metals are preferred for electron emission?
Metals have large number of free electrons on its surface and least value of
work function.

Types of electron emission:

1) Thermionic emission
2) Field (or cold cathode) emission
/3) Photo electric emission

Thermionic Emission:
Emission of electron from a metal surface when it is heated suitably.

Field Emission (cold cathode emission):

Emission of electron from the metal surface by applying
a very strong electric field

M0* Vm') to the metal is called field emission.

Photoelectric Emission:
when a light of suitable frequency
Emission of electrons from the metal surface
and the emitted electrons are called
falls on it is called photoelectric emission (effect)
photoelectrons.
from the metal surface by fast
Note: Secondary emission: Emission of electrons
moving electrons.

-68
 Photoelectric effect
When light of suitable frequeney falls on a metal surface, electrons are emitted
Irom the metal surface. This phenomenon is called photoelectric effect.

The electrons emitted from a metal

Photon, E =hy
surface when a light of suitable frequency
Electron
falls on it are called photoelectrons. The
current results due to flow of
photoelectrons is called photoclectric
current.

The metal which emits photoclectrons is called photosensitive metal/photo

emitter
The phenomenon of photoclectric emission was discovered by Hertz in 1887.
Ex: 1) Alkali metals (lithium, sodium, potassium, caesium and Rubidium) are
photosensitive with visible light.

2) Metals like zinc, cadmium, magnesium are not sensitive with visible light
but they are sensitive with UV Rays

3) Lead sulphide sensitive with IR radiation.

Hertz Observations on Photoelectric Effect:
In 1887, Henrich Hertz discovered photoclectric effect at the time of production of
clectromagnetic waves. Herz found that if ultraviolet light (from an are lamp) falls on
emitter plate, high voltage sparks across detector loop (air gap) were enhanced. Hertz
concludes that "When ultraviolet light falls on metal surface, some electrons near
the surface absorb required energy from incident radiation to overcome the
attraction of the ilons on the metal surface". After giving sufficient
positive energy
electron come out from the metal surface.
Lenard's and Hallwach's Observations on Photoelectric Efect:
Halwach's and Lenard made a detailed study of photoelectric effect during 1886
to902.
1 ) Lenard Observatios:
When ultraviolet radiation falls on the emitter plate in an evacuated glass tube
enclosing two electrodes (metal plates), current flows in the circuit. As soon as the
ultraviolet radiation is stopped, the current flow also stops. These observations
indicate that "when ultraviolet radiations fall on the emitter plate, electrons are
emitted from it and are attracted by collector plate". These electrons in motion results
an electric current. Thus, light falling on the suface of the emitter causes current in
the extermal circuit.

-69
/ 2 ) Hallwachs Observations:

charged zinc plate is

i)A negatively

(
Hallwachs
connected to electroscope, ravs
observed that zinc plate lost its charge Zinc
it. plate
when ultraviolet rays fall
on
God
becomes leafelectroscope
neutral zinc plate
iü) Also, ultraviolet
when
positively charged
radiation falls on it.
is further improved when
the intensity of
The magnitude positive charge
of
Hallwachs concluded that
ultraviolet light is increased. From the above observations
of
(electrons) under the action
"zinc plate emits negatively charged particles
ultraviolet light".
metal (emitter ), there is certain
"

Hallwachs and Lenard also found that for a given

minimum frequency of incident light below which
electrons are not emitted". This

frequency is called threshold frequency. Threshold frequency depends

on
minimum
nature of material of emitter plate.
Experimental study of photoelectric effect:
Quartzwindo y evacuated glays tube

Photoemiter
. A

Commutator

The experimental arrangement used for the study of photoelectric effect is as

/shown in fig

Construction: It consists of two electrodes A and C inan evacuated

tube. Electrode C is a photosensitive plate (called
glass/quartz
emitter) and A is a metal plate
(called collector plate). A transparent quartz window (W) is sealed on a glass tube.
The plates A and C are connected to the battery through commutator, voltmeter
(V)
and microammeter (LA). A commutator is used to reverse the polarities of C and A.
Battery is used to maintain the potential difference between the plates A ard C. An
-70-
 A and C.
between
difference
circuit.
measure
the potential current in the
is used to the photoelectnic
voltmeter (V) used to
measure

Migfoammeter
(uA) is
through
rays
passed
(UV and
Working radiation of suitable
frequency
photoelectrons
are
emitted

monochromatic

'C', the with respect

When a
photosensitive plate potential
falls on a
A is at positive by using
quartz window) 'A' (plate recorded
collector plate and is
accelerated
towards
current in the circuit
are photoelectric
This results
toplate C). current
with
microammeter (uA).
the dependency
of photoclectric
can be used to study radiation.
This experiment incident C.
Frequency of A and
radiation. ii) between the plates
of incident difference mctals are
i) Intensity 'C" iv)
Potential
it and
Most of
of metal of plate through
11) Nature ultraviolet
radiation to pass
allows
quartz
Note;
with UV rays. Laws:
spnsitive Results o r
Photoclectric

Observations or
factors or
Experimental
is an
"instantancous procca
Photoelectric emission incident
1) minimurn cut of frequcncy of
there is a ccrtan
This frequency
2) For a given metal, emisson does sot take place.
radiation below
which photoclectrnc
on the nature of metal
It depcnds
is called threshold frequency. photoelectric
current (or
threshold frequcncy.
metal and above the proportional to the
3) For a given is drectly
emitted per second)
number of photoelectrons of incident light.
but it does not depends on frrquency
intensityof incident light
of incident light
i.c photocurrent a intensity
maumum kinctic encrgy (or the
metal and above threshold frequency,
4) For given
a
the frequency
emitted photoelectrons increases linearly with
stopping potential) of
does not depend on intensity of incident light.
of incident light but it
of light.
i.e maximum kinetic energy a frequency

Intensity oflight Freauency of incident lien

5) For a given metal and above threshold frequency, saturation current is
proportional to the intensity of incident light wheeas stcping potcntial is
independent of its intensity.
 is because.
Note: Photoelectric emission is an "instantaneous process". This
radiation falls on the metal plate. i.e
photoelectric current flows in a circuit as soon as
no time gap between incidence of photon
and emission of electron [if any
there is
of 10s or less].
tipé delay,itisinthe order
Photoelectric Current:
Explain the Effect of Intensity of Light on
with respect to the plate 'C'.
i) The collector plate 'A' is kept at positive potential
of fixed frequency (above threshold frequency) falls on Plate C,
i) When light 'A'
electrons are emitted. These electrons are accelerated towards collector plate
and results a photocurrent.
111) Intensity of light increases in equal steps and notes down the resulting
photocurrent using gnicroammeter in each time.

iv) The nature of graph drawn between Photocurrent

and intensity of incident light is as shown.
Y constant It is found that, "photocurrent (or number of
photoclectrons emitter per second) is directly
proportional to intensity of incident light".

Intensity oflight

Explain the effect of potential on photoclectric current:

The collector plate A" is kept at
positive potential with respect to the plate
C'. Illuminate the plate 'C' with light of
fixed frequency (above threshold
frequency) and fixed intensity (,).
-I
Now, vary the collector plate
potential and measure the resulting
photocurent in each time. It is found that
photocurrent is increased with increase Retarding potential Collector plate potentla

in collector plate potential and

becomes maximum/constant for a particular positive potential. If the potential of A
is further increased, the photocurrent does not change. This maximum value of current
is called saturated curTent.
When the potential of plate 'A' is made negative with respect to to emitter plate C,
some photoelectrons are repelled and only highly energetic electrons reach the
collector plate A. On making plate A more negative with respect to C, photoelectric
current decreases and becomes zero for a particular minimum negative potential of
collector plate A. This minimum potential is called cut-off potential or retarding
potential or stopping potential. At stopping potential (Yo. most energetic elecrons
stop to reach the plate A. Thus stopping potential is measure of maximum
a
just
kinetic energy (Kna of photoelectrons.
-72-
 i.e.Kmax e Vo or
m eV
The experiment is repeated for different intensities Iz and I3. The graph shows the
variation of photo current with collector plate potential for difBerent intensity of
incident radiation.

Conclusions:
1) All the photoelectrons are not having samc kinetic encergy.
2) Stopping potential or maximum kinctic energy does not depend on intensity of
incident light.
Explain the effect of frequency of incident light on stopping potential of
photoelectrons:
The study of variation
of photoelectric current
with collector
Y,Y Y
plate
potential for different freq
uencies of incident
radiation is as shown in
Saturationurrent
graph. From the graph:
i) The stopping potential is -Vas Va V
different for different Colector plate potential
frequency of incident Retarding potential
radiation.
ii) The value of stopping potential is more negative for higher frequencies of incident
radiation.
ii) Saturation current is independent of frequency of incident radiation.
The study of variation of stopping
potential (V,)
with frequency (v) of incident radiation for different
photosensitive matenials is as shown in graph. From
Metal A metal B the graph:
Yo Yoc 1) Stopping potential (maximum kinetic energy)
increases linearly with increase in frequency of
Yo Ya incident radiation for a given metal but it
Frequeny of inddent
aght () independent of intensity of light.
1) For a given metal there is a ininimum frequency of incident light below which
photoclectric emission does not take place. This frequency is called threshold
frequency. Threshold freguency is difar n t for i
 Stopping Potential or Retarding Potential or Cut-off Potential V):
It is the minimum negative potential of the anode plate for which photocurent just
becomes zero. The stopping potential is a measure of maximum Kinetic energy (Kmax)
of photo electrons.

1.e. Kmax mV=e Vo

Threshold frequency (v): It is the minimum cut - off frequency of incident

radiation below which photoelectric emission does not take place.

Threshold wavelength (0) I t is the maximum wavelength of incident radiation

above which photoelectric emission does not take place.

Photoelectric Work function (W]: The minimugienergy required for the electron to
just escape from the metal surface is called work function of a metal.

It is given by W= h to
hC

where yo-> threshold frequency of a metal, h> Planck's constant

Work function depend on:
a) Nature of metal
b) Nature of impurities on the metal surface
c)Temperature of metal
Work function does not depend on
a) frequency or wavelength of incident light
b) energy of incident light

Q1. Mention the factors on waich stopping potential or maximum kinetic energy
depends:
Ans: a) The frequency of incident light b) Nature of emitter material

Q 2 . Mention the factors on which photoelectric current depends:

Ans: a) Intensity of incident light

b) Potential difference applied between two electrodes

c) Nature of photo emitter
tu Photoelectric Laws:
Failures of Wave Theory explain
Wave theory of radiation
fails to explain the phenomenon of photoelectric effect.
theory are:
Some failures of wave
electrons on the metalsurface absorb the enerey
According to wave theory, Iree
increases, electrons gain enough
antinuously. Therefore, as intensity oï radiafion
 kinetic energy to overcome the metal surtace. It is against to the experimental facts
that kinetic energy is independent of intensity of radiation.
2) According to wave theory of radiation, the energy of radiation spreads
continuously over entire wave front. Hence large number of electrons absorb
energy. As a result, large time is needed to absorb enough kinetic energy per
electron to overcome the metal surface. This is against to photoelectic etfect
which is instantaneous process.
3) According to wave theory of radiations, enough intensity of light is needed to
overcome the metal surface. i.e. electron emission takes
place for all possible
frequencies. This is against to the existence of threshold frequency.
Quantum Theory of Radiation: Quantum theory of radiation was proposed by Max
Plank in 1901 to explain distribution of energy in the black
body spectrum.
According to this thcory, absorption or emission of light (radiant) energy is no' a
continuous process but it occurs in the form of discrete packets of energy called
quanta. Each quantum of light energy is callcd photon.

-
The energy of each photon is given by E hy or E-e

where y> frequency of radiation, > wavelength of radiation, h Plank's

constant (h= 6.625 x 10"Js ), c- speed of light in vacuum (3 x10° ms").
o2. What is quanta? What is photon?
Radiation energy is made up of diserecte unit of energy called quanta.
Each
quantum of light energy is called photon.
Photon picture of electromagnetic radiation OR Properties of Photon
1) In interaction of radiation with matter, Radiation behaves as if it is made up of
particles called photon.
hc
2) Each photon has an Energy E = hv and momentum P D h
C
c is speed of light in vacuum.
3) The rest mass of photon is zero or photon ex1sts only in motion with a mass
hv

4) Each photon travels with a speed of light (c=3x 10° ms") in vacuum.
5) Photon energy is independent of intensity of light.
6) Photon energy depends on frequency of radiation or of radiation i.e.
All with same
wavelength
=
photons frequency have same energy (E by).

-75
 both electric and
Photons are electrically neutrai. They are not deflected by
)
magnetic fields.
its
different media. But
3) Velocity and wavelength of photon is different in
frequency is same in all media.
momentum are conservea.
9) In a
photon-particle collision, total energy and
The be
(' photon may
However, number of photons may not be conserved
absorbed or a new photon may be created)
10)Photons have dual nature : particle nature and wave nature.
Derive Einstein photoelectric equation:
the basis of
Einstein explains the phenomenon of photoclectric effect on
Quantum theory of radiation
Elastic collision between photon and clectron

Law of conservation of energy.

According to Einstein,
Each Quantum of light
i) Light consists of discrete packets of cnergy called quanta.
energy is called photon.
occurs due to absorption of a photon by
ii) Photoelectric emission from metal surface
an electron.
iii)When a photon of suitable frequency is incident on a Photon
metal surface, electron absorbs energy of photon
Electron
free
completely. The part of this energy is used to just
the electron from metal surface and is called work
function of metal (W). The rest of energy appears as
maximum kinetic energy (K of photoelectrons.

By the law of conservation of energy

energy of work function maximum kinetic
incident photon of a metal of photoelectrons
hv=hyo

hy- hyo
This is the Einstein photoelectric equation.
wuhth phuuemnen ghi hew
hansuusr

Lati satia16
S. Acric

h electric and Give Einstein's explanation of photoelectric effect:

Einstein explained the phenomenon of photoelectric effect on the basis of
media. But its Quantum theory of radiation. According to Einstein, one electron is emitted if one
photon of suitable frequency (v) falls on metal surface.
are conserved. The Einstein photoelectric equation is given by
photon may be
Kmaxhy - W = -

or hy hyo -()
mV
where Kmax maximum kinctic energy of photoelectrons
is of W work function of photo metal
=
E hy- Energy of incident photon
Yo threshold frequency
Y frequency of incident light
Einstein explains the experimental observations on photoclectric effect as follows:
1) For y< Yo, Krmas is negative. It is not true.
antum of light Hence photoclectric emission not takes place below threshold frequency.
2) For y> Yo, Kmax is positive.
of a photon by Hence photoclectric emission takes place above threshold frequency. This
the existence of threshold frequency.
3) For y>Yo and for a given metal W= constant from eqn (1) => Knax aY
Electron i.e, maximum kinetic energy of photoelectrons depend linearly on frequency of
incident radiation and does not depend on intensity of radiation.
4) For y>Yo As the number of photons increases, number of photoclectrons emitted
also increases. Hence photocurrent (number of photoelectrons emitted per second)
is directly proportional to intensity of incident radiation.
5) In Einstein pictu photoelectric emission is due to elastic collision between
photon and electron.Hence photoclectric emission is an instantaneous process.
Note
1) Different forms of Einstein's photoelectric
equation
a) Kmas hy- W
b)mV =hy-yo Metal A metal B
Yos Yaa

haw hi Yo1 Yea

d)e Vo hy - W or VY Frequency od incdent igdt ()

-77-
 and
2) The graph drawn between maximum kinetic energy of photoelectrons
=
constant "h'.
frequency of incident light is straight line with slope Planck's
Kmax hy - W

mX * c
y

3) The graph of stopping potential (Vo) versus

frequency ( ) is a straight line with slope = hle

eVo =hy-W or V e Vo frequency

y mx +c

slope=is constant and it is independent of naure of metal.

4) If frequency of light is equal to threshold frequency of metal, then stopping

potential is zero i.e. if v = vo then Vo 0.

5) Einstein's photoelectric equation was cxperimentally verificd by Millikan.

6) In 1921, Einstein was awarded the Nobel Prize in Physics for his contribution in
theoretical physics and the photoclectric cffect.
7) In 1923, Millikan was awardecd the Nobel Prizc in Physics for his work on the
elementary charge of electricity and on the photoclectric effect.

PHOTOCELL (Electric eye)

It is a
device used to covert light energy into electrical
energy. It works on the
principle of photoelectric emission and its electrical properties are aflected by light.
It consists of evacuated glass or quartz bulb
having photosensitive metal plate C
(emitter) and a collector plate (A). A and C are connected to
micro ammeter as shown in fig. When a light of suitable
high tension battery and
frequency falls on the emitter
plate C' photoelectrons are emitted. These electrons are attracted the
by plate 'A'. As
a result, photocurrent flows in the circuit and it
is
measured using micro ammeter.
ndent Hght
Uses of photocells:
. Used in Burglar alarms and Fire alarms.
2. Used in opening and closing of doors Collector
F
automatically. Photocel

3. Used to OFF and ON the street lamps

automatically.
4. Used in the reproduction of sound in motion
pictures.
5 Used in television camera for Scanning and telecasting scenes.

6.Used in the counting devices.

-78
 flows or holes in metal sheets.
7. Used in industries for detecting minor
sulphide sensitive to infrared radiation is used in electronic
8. A photocell of lead
ignition circuit.
9. Used to study the intensity of light (called light meters).
10.Used to measure the temperature of stars, used to determine the value of Plank's

constant.

Dual nature of matter

The phenomenon like interference, diffraction and polarization are based on the
wave nature of light. Whereas the phenomenon like quantum theory of adiation,
photoelectric effect, Raman effect, Compton effect etc are based on the particle nature
of light. Hence Radiation exhibits both particle nature and wave nature. The particle
nature and wave nature of light is called dual nature of light. But light (or all
does not exhibit both particle nature and wave nature at
electromagmetic radiations)
the same time.
Light exhibits wave nature when it is propagatcd
Light exhibits particle nature when it interacts with matter (i.e at the time of
emission or absorption).
In 1924, De-Broglie proposed that any moving particle of matter also exhibits the
wave nature. This suggestion is based on the nature loves symmetry i.e if light
eyibitsdual nature, material particles also exhibit dual nature.

De-Broglie Waves or Matter Waves:

The waves associated with particles of matter in motion are called de-Broglie
waves_or matter waves. The wavelength of matter waves is called de-Broglie

wavelength.
erive an expression for De-Broglie wavelength of matter waves :
According to Planck's quantum theory, the energy of photon of frequency (v) is
=
given by E hv
=

According to Einstein mass energy relation E mc

mc* =hv where h> Planck's constant

cspeed oflight in vacuum

mc vfrequency of photon
a- OR = P m c - momentum of photon
This is the expression for de- Broglie wavelength of photoa.

-79
 ec kt1a

De- Broglie extends the above equation for any material particle. Ifthe particle
behaves as wave, then its wavelength is given by

mv

where m>mass ofa particle, v> velocity of a particle.

P= mv-> momentum of a particle.
Thik is the expression for de-Broglie waveiength of matter waves.
Derive an expression for de-Broglie wavelength of electron:
Consider an electron (mass m, charge 'e') accelerated through a potential
ifference of 'V volts. The work donc on the clectron by the clectric ficld e V
This work done is equal to Kinctic energy K )pf clectron i.e K -eV --(1)
If P = mv > momentum of clectron of mass m moving with a velocity v,

then its kinetic energy is

P
K P-2mKP- W2mk P 2meV
2m

The de-Broglic wavelength of cloctron ts à.

h 6.625 10* 1227

2me 29.1 1016x10 "V

Properties of Mater Waves:
1) De-Broglie wavelength does not depend on the charge and nature of a particle.
2) De-Broglie wavelength of a particle is inverscly proportional to its monentum

3) De-Broglie wavelength of a particle is inversely proportional to its mass. i.e.

heavier the particle, smaller the de-Broglie wavelength (m1, . ] and vice versa
4) De-Broglie wavelength of a particle is inversely proportional to its velocity

waves.
5) Matter waves are not electromagnetic