Unit-7-8-Cell Structure and Function (Chapter 4)

4.
1 Cellular Levels of Organization
Cell theory:
1. All organisms are composed of cells.

2. All cells come only from preexisting cells.
3. Cells are the smallest unit of organisms.
Prokaryotic and Eukaryotic Cells
Biologist recognize two very different kinds of cells:
1. Prokaryotic cells are structurally simple cells that lack a

nucleus and most other organelles (ex. bacteria)
2. Eukaryotic cell are much more structurally complex cells
that have a nucleus and many kinds of organelles. They are
also much larger than prokaryotic cells (ex. plants, animals,
fungi, protozoa, algae)
4.2 Prokaryotic Cells
The Structure of Prokaryotes
Extremely small.
Occur in three basic shapes:
1. Spherical-shaped bacterium is called coccus.

2. Rod-shaped bacteria is called bacillus.
3. Spiral-shaped bacteria: spirillum (if rigid) or
spirochete (if flexible).
The Structure of Prokaryotes
spirillum
spirochete bacillus
coccus
Cell Envelope
In bacteria, the cell envelope includes:
1. Cell wall.
2. Plasma membrane.
3. Glycocalyx.
1. Cell wall.
• Maintains the shape of the cell and is strengthened by
peptidoglycan.
2. Plasma membrane.
• Is a phospholipid bilayer with integral and peripheral proteins.
protein molecules
Phospholipid bilayer
• The plasma membrane has the important function of
regulating the entrance and exit of substances into and out of
the cytoplasm.
• The plasma membrane can form internal pouches called
mesosomes (most likely increase the internal surface area for
the attachment of enzymes that are carrying on metabolic
activities).
3. Glycocalyx.
• The glycocalyx is a layer of polysaccharides that lies outside
the cell wall in some bacteria. If the layer is organized and is
firmly attached to the cell wall, the glycocalyx is described as
capsule.
• If the layer is unorganized and only loosely attached to the cell
wall, the glycocalyx is described as a slime layer.
• The glycocalyx:
✓ Can protect bacteria from dehydration.
✓ Helps bacteria resist a host's immune system.
✓ It also helps bacteria attach to almost any surface.
Cytoplasm
The cytoplasm is a semifluid solution composed of water and
inorganic and organic molecules encased by a plasma
membrane.
The major structures in the cytoplasm of prokaryotes are:
• Nucleoid is a region that contains the single, circular DNA molecule.

• Plasmids are extrachromosomal pieces of circular DNA.
• Ribosomes are sites for protein synthesis.
Appendages
Flagella:
• Tail like structure that help bacteria to move from one
place to another.
• It consists of a filament, a hook, and a basal body.
• The basal body is a series of rings anchored in the cell
wall and membrane.
• Sometimes flagella occur only at the two ends of a cell,
and sometimes they are dispersed randomly over the
surface.
• The number and location of flagella can be used to help
distinguish different types of bacteria.
Fimbriae:
• Shorter and thinner than flagella.

• Used for attachment and not locomotion.
Conjugation pili:
• Rigid tubular structures used to pass DNA

from cell to cell.
Prokaryotic cell
4.3 Eukaryotic Cells
Eukaryotic cells, like prokaryotic cells have a plasma

membrane that separates the contents of the cell from the
environment and regulates the passage of molecules into and
out of the cytoplasm.
The plasma membrane is a phospholipid bilayer with
embedded proteins.
In addition to the plasma membrane, some eukaryotic cells
have a cell wall.
Eukaryotic cells are compartmentalized.
➢ They contain small structures called organelles.
• Perform specific functions.

• Isolates reactions from others.
➢ Two classes of organelles.

• Endomembrane system.
✓ Organelles that communicate with one another via small vesicles.
• Energy related organelles.

✓ Mitochondria and chloroplasts.
4.4 The Nucleus and Ribosomes
The Nucleus
It generally appears as an oval structure located near the center
of most cells.
Separated from cytoplasm by a double membrane known as
the nuclear envelope.
It is able to communicate with the cytoplasm through nuclear
pores.
• The nucleus contains:
✓ Chromatin (network of DNA strands and proteins).

✓ Nucleolus (a dark region of chromatin that produces
ribosomal subunits).
✓ Nucleoplasm (semifluid medium of the nucleus).
✓ Chromosomes (before cell divides chromatin condenses and
undergoes coiling into rodlike structures called chromosomes).
• Three types of RNA are produced in the nucleus:
1. Ribosomal RNA (rRNA): is produced in the nucleolus

where rRNA joins with proteins to form the subunits of
ribosomes.
2. Messenger RNA (mRNA): a mobile molecule, acts as an
intermediary for DNA which specifies the sequence of amino
acids in a protein.
3. Transfer RNA (tRNA): participates in the assembly of
amino acids into a polypeptide by recognizing both mRNA
and amino acids during protein synthesis.
Ribosomes
Are the site of protein synthesis in the cell.
Consists of a large subunit and a small subunit.
Subunits made in nucleolus.
Composed of proteins and rRNA.
May be located:
✓ On the endoplasmic reticulum (thereby making it “rough”), or
✓ Free in the cytoplasm, either singly or in groups, called

polyribosomes.
4.5 The Endomembrane System
Series of intracellular membranes that compartmentalize the cell.
Restrict enzymatic reactions to specific compartments within cell.
The endomembrane system consists of:
➢ Nuclear envelope.
➢ Endoplasmic reticulum.
➢ Golgi apparatus.
➢ Vesicles.
Endoplasmic Reticulum
Irregular network continuous with the outer membrane of the
nuclear envelope.
The ER consists of rough ER and smooth ER, which have
different structures and functions.
Endoplasmic Reticulum
Rough ER
• Is studded with ribosomes giving it the capacity to produce

proteins.
• Inside its lumen, the rough ER allows proteins to fold and take
on their final three-dimensional shape.
• The rough ER also contains enzymes that can add carbohydrate
(sugar) chains to proteins, forming glycoproteins, that are
important in many cell functions.
Smooth ER
• Does not have attached ribosomes.

• Synthesis of lipids.
• Regardless of functional differences, both rough and smooth ER
form vesicles that transport molecules to other parts of the cell,
notably the Golgi apparatus.
The Golgi Apparatus
Consists of a stack of
saccules whose appearance
can be compared to a stack
of pancakes.
One side of the stack (the cis or
inner face) is directed toward
the ER.
The other side of the stack (the
trans or outer face) is directed
toward the plasma membrane.
Vesicles can frequently be seen
at the edges of the saccules.
Protein-filled vesicles that bud
from the rough ER and lipid-
filled vesicles that bud from the
smooth ER are received by the
Golgi apparatus at its inner
face.
These substances are altered as
they move through the saccules.
The Golgi apparatus sorts the
modified molecules and
packages them into vesicles that
depart from the outer face.
These vesicles may be
transported to various locations
within the cell or might be
secreted externally.
Lysosomes
Membrane-bounded vesicles.
Produced by the Golgi apparatus.
They have a very low pH and store powerful digestive
enzymes.
Assist in digesting material taken into the cell.
Endomembrane System Summary
4.6 Vesicles and Vacuoles
Peroxisomes
Similar to lysosomes, are membrane-bounded vesicles that
enclose enzymes.
However, the enzymes in peroxisomes are synthesized by free
ribosomes in cytoplasm instead of ER.
Catalyze reactions that produce hydrogen peroxide (H2O2).
• Toxic.
• Broken down to water & O2 by catalase (peroxisomal enzyme).
Vacuoles
Like vesicles, vacuoles are membranous sacs.
But vacuoles are larger than vesicles.
Store materials that occur in excess.
Some are quite specialized:
✓ Contractile vacuoles for ridding the cell of excess water.

✓ Digestive vacuoles for breaking down nutrients.
4.7 The Energy-Related Organelles
Chloroplasts
Bounded by a double membrane, which includes an outer
membrane and an inner membrane.
The double membrane encloses the semifluid stroma, which
contains enzymes and thylakoids.
A stack of thylakoids is a granum.
Chlorophyll and the other pigments that capture solar energy
are located in the thylakoid membrane.
The enzymes that synthesize carbohydrates are located outside
the thylakoid in the fluid of the stroma.
During photosynthesis chloroplasts use solar energy to
synthesize carbohydrates, which serve as organic nutrient
molecules for plants and all living things on Earth.
Photosynthesis can be represented by this equation:
Mitochondria
Smaller than chloroplast.
Have two membranes, the outer membrane and the inner
membrane.
The inner membrane is folds to form cristae.
The inner membrane encloses a semifluid matrix, which
contains:
o Mixture of enzymes that break down carbohydrates and

other nutrient molecules.
Involved in cellular respiration.
In cellular respiration, mitochondria break down carbohydrate-
derived products to produce ATP.
Cellular respiration can be represented by this equation:
Produce most of ATP utilized

by the cell.
4.8 The Cytoskeleton
The cytoskeleton contains:
▪ Actin filaments.
▪ Intermediate filaments.
▪ Microtubules.
Maintain cell shape.

Allow the cells and its organelles to move.
Centrioles
Short, hollow cylinders.
Composed of 27 microtubules.
Microtubules arranged into 9 overlapping triplets.
This is called the 9 + 0 pattern of microtubules.
Located close to nuclear membrane
Play a part in cell division.
May give rise to basal bodies of cilia
and flagella.
Cilia and Flagella
Are hair-like projections.
Used for movement.
Are made up of microtubules.
Many and short are called cilia.
Few and long are celled Flagella.
In eukaryotic cells, cilia are much shorter than flagella, but
they have a similar construction.
Both are membrane-bounded

cylinders.
In the matrix are nine
microtubule doublets arranged
in a circle around two central
microtubules; this is called the
9 + 2 pattern of microtubules.
Animal Cell Anatomy
Nucleus
- Nuclear envelope
Cytoskeleton - Nucleolus
- Chromatin
- Microtubules
Rough ER
-Intermediate Ribosomes
filaments
-Actin filaments Smooth ER
Peroxisome
Mitochondrion
Centrioles
Polyribosome
Lysosome
Cytoplasm
Vesicle
Golgi apparatus
Plant Cell Anatomy
Central vacuole
Chloroplast

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4.

1 Cellular Levels of Organization

1. All organisms are composed of cells.

Biologist recognize two very different kinds of cells:

1. Prokaryotic cells are structurally simple cells that lack a

1. Spherical-shaped bacterium is called coccus.

• Nucleoid is a region that contains the single, circular DNA molecule.

• Shorter and thinner than flagella.

• Rigid tubular structures used to pass DNA

Eukaryotic cells, like prokaryotic cells have a plasma

➢ They contain small structures called organelles.

• Perform specific functions.

➢ Two classes of organelles.

• Energy related organelles.

✓ Chromatin (network of DNA strands and proteins).

1. Ribosomal RNA (rRNA): is produced in the nucleolus

✓ On the endoplasmic reticulum (thereby making it “rough”), or

✓ Free in the cytoplasm, either singly or in groups, called

Series of intracellular membranes that compartmentalize the cell.

Restrict enzymatic reactions to specific compartments within cell.

The endomembrane system consists of:

• Is studded with ribosomes giving it the capacity to produce

• Does not have attached ribosomes.

✓ Contractile vacuoles for ridding the cell of excess water.

o Mixture of enzymes that break down carbohydrates and

Produce most of ATP utilized

Maintain cell shape.

Both are membrane-bounded

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