HSB
HSB
Animal and plant cells have a nucleus, cytoplasm and an outer c ell membrane.
Animal cells also have cell wall, a large vacuole and many have chloroplasts.
Animal and plant cells contain ribosomes, mitochondria and endoplasmic reticulum in the
cytoplasm.
Microbes or microorganisms include bacteria, fungi and virus, many of which cause, disease in
humans.
Bacteria and fungi lack some features of animal and plant cells. Eg bacteria have no nucleus,
mitochondria, ribosomes or endoplasmic reticulum and fungi never have chloroplasts and often
have cells with many nuclei.
Each type of cell has features t hat allow it to perform different functions.
Movement of substances in and out of cells involves diffusion, osmosis or active transport.
Diffusion is the movement of ions and molecules in gases or liquids.
Diffusion always occurs from a higher to a lower concentration
Osmosis is a special type of diffusion and only involves water molecules.
Osmosis only occurs through a partially permeable membrane
The cell membrane of all cells is partially permeable
Active transport involves the movement of ions and molecules against the concentration
gradient.
Active transport involves the movement of ions and molecules against the concentrat ion
gradient.
Active transport needs a supply of energy
Diffusion and osmosis do not need a supply of energy to occur.
Active transport only occurs through a ce ll membrane.
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3. Photosynthesis and food chains
Recycling returns some materials to the environment so that they can be reused.
The carbon and nitrogen cycles recycle material between the environment and living organisms.
Carbon dioxide is used in photosynthesis to form sugars and many other compounds.
Carbon dioxide is released from these compounds by respiration, combustion and
decomposition.
Nitrogen is an essential element in all proteins.
Produces use nitrates to form proteins.
Decomposers return nitrates to the environment.
Bacteria and fungi are the main decomposers in the carbon and nitrogen cycles.
Humans need a supply of nutrients to provide the materials for growth and for energy
Carbohydrates, fats and proteins are needed in the diet.
Carbohydrates and fats are the main source or energy
Cells are made of cytoplasm which is prote in based.
Proteins are needed for growth and enzyme formation.
Vitamins are mineral salts are needed in small quantities for healthy development.
The absence of a vitamin or mineral salt leads to deficiency disease
A balanced diet contains all the main nutrients in the quantities needed by the body.
Malnutrition occurs if too much or too little of a nutrient is present in the diet.
Diseases of malnutrition include anorexia, bulimia, obesity, kwashiorkor and marasmus.
Dietary fibre is needed to ensure movement of food through he alimentary canal
Fibre is made of cellulose, found in plant material, and is indigestible
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Water is needed in the daily diet to replace water lost from t he body
Water is the main component of cytoplasm, solvent for all chemical reactions of the body ,the
basis of the body’s transport system, and is needed for excretion and for the control of body
temperature.
Teeth carry out the first stage of egestion and humans have two sets of te eth – milk and
permanent.
The types of teeth are incisors, canines, premolars and molars
A tooth is made of dentine covered by enamel, both made of hard calcium salts on a ske leton of
protein fibres.
Tooth decay, dental caries occurs when bacteria gain access to living cells in the tooth. When
bacteria respire using sugars, they form an acid that erodes enamel
Plaque is a mixture of saliva, food remain and bacter ia collects on teeth.
8. Enzymes
9. Digestion
Digestion is the process that converts food material into simple, soluble molecules.
The digestive system is composed of the alimentary canal and some other organs.
The alimentary canal is a long tube, with muscular walls, linking the mouth and the anus.
Digestion occurs in the mouth, stomach, duodenum and ileum
There are two types of digestion in humans – physical and chemical. Physical digestion involves
emulsification of fats by bile and the mechanical action of teeth and muscles of the alimentary
canal.
Chemical digestion involves the action of digestive enzymes.
Digestive enzymes are produced by parts o f the alimentary canal and by organs linked to it, such
as the salivary glands and the pancreas.
The liver produces bile, which is alkaline but no digestive enzymes.
Breathing is the physical pumping of air in and out of the lungs. It is a series of chemical
reactions in cells that releases energy.
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The breathing system in humans is contained within the head and the thorax.
Air travels between the throat and the lungs throught the trachea, bronchi and bronchioles.
Gaseous exchange is the movement of g ases between air in the alveoli ( fine branches of
bronchioles) inside the lungs.
Gaseous exchanges is the movement of gases between air in the alveoli and blood in the
capillaries.
Oxygen diffuses down a concentration gradient from alveolar air to the blood and Co2 diffuses
down a concertation gradient from blood to the alveolar air.
11. Breathing
Breathing depends on differences in air pressure between the atmosphere and air in the lugns.
Air pressure in the lungs can be altered to be lower than atmospheric pressure (breathing in)
and higher than atmospheric pressure ( breathing out).
Air pressure in the lugs is altered by increasing or decreasing the volume of t he lungs
Rib cage is moved by sets of inter costal muscles and the diaphragm is moved by other muscles.
The ribcage is moved upwards and outwards by one set o f intercostal muscles, increasing the
volume of the thorax.
The diaphragm is pulled flat by its own muscles, increasing the volume of the thorax.
These actions lower the air pressure in the lugs and air is forced by atmospheric pre ssure – this
is breathing in. The reverse actions occur causing a rise in pressure in the lungs and air is forced
out. – this is breathing out.
Vital capacity is the maximum volume of air that c an be breathed out after breathing in as fully
as possible.
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Blood is composed of a liquid with living cells and protein materials floating in it
Blood cells are formed in the bone mar row and lymph glands.
Red blood cells have no nucleus, are full of haemoglobin and they tr ansport oxygen as
oxyheamoglobin.
There are several types of white blood cells – phagocytes have a lobed nucleus and engulf
bacteria. Lymphocytes have a large nucleus and produce antibodies.
Platelets and blood protein fibrinogen are involved in blood clotting.
Tissue fluid is the liquid surrounding the living cells in tissues. Tissue fluid and plasma are in
contract through he walls of the c apillaries.
Lymph vessels have special nodes that produce the lymphocytes and help trap bacteria.
Special lymph vessels called lacteal are found in the inte stinal villi and absorb fatty acids,
glycerol and some vitamins.
Serum is blood without any blood cells, platelets and fibrinogen.
The skeleton is formed of bone and cartilage, both of which contain living cells.
Bone is made from protein fibres embedded in a mass of calcium phosphate and calcium
carbonate salts.
Cartilage is mainly made of protein and is flexible and rubbery w hile bone is very had and not
flexible.
The functions of the parts of the skeleton are support, protection, allowing movement and the
production of blood cells.
The axial skeleton is the skill and vertebral column
The appendicular skeleton is the limbs, their supporting girdles and rib cage.
Bones are joined to bones by tough, e lastic ligaments.
Muscles are joined to bones by tough, non-elastic t endons.
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16. Excretion
Excretion is the process of getting rid of metabolic waste. It also ge ts rid of products in excess of
the body’s needs.
The waste could be toxic if allowed to accumulate in the body.
The main excretory organs are the lungs, kidneys and skin
The lungs get rid of carbon dioxide and water, the products of cell respiration.
The skin gets rid of water and salts when sweat is released.
The kidneys remove urea from the blood and also excrete excess water and mineral salts.
The kidneys filter the blood plasma under pressure.
Substances in the kidney filtrate which are ne ed by the body are reabsorbed.
The remaining materials in the filtrate become the unite that flows to the bladder.
The composition of urine varies depending on the diet and activity.
17. Homeostasis
Homeostasis is the process that keeps internal body conditions within narrow limits.
Substances kept within these narrow limits include carbon dioxide, water, glucose and salts.
The concentration of carbon dioxide is controlled by hypothalamus.
The concentration of glucose in the blood is co ntrolled by the hormones insulin and glucagon.
These hormones are produced by the pancreas and are active in the liver and m uscles.
Homeostatic mechanisms are controlled by feedback mechanisms,
The process of osmoregulation controls the water c ontent of the blood.
Water content is controlled by ADH< a hormone produced by the pituitary gland.
ADH is secreted in varying amounts and controls water reabsorption by the kidney.
Body temperature must remain between narr ow limits and this is controlled by the
hypothalamus of the brain.
Body temperatures above 400C can cause enzyme damage and denaturing and below 340C can
result in hypothermia when enzyme activity slows and too little energy is released.
The outer layer of the skin is a barrier between the living cells and the environment.
The skin is covered by a layer o f dead cells and this prevents the e ntry of many microorganisms
and chemicals.
The skin is waterproof. Most body heat is lost to the environment through the skin. Body
temperature can be adjusted by hanging the flow of blood through the skin.
When body temperature rises above normal, heat is removed by the evaporation of sweat by
conduction, convection and radiation
Damage to large areas of the skin can lead to dehydration and death.
The nervous system is formed from the brain and spinal cord and peripheral nerves.
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The brain has regions such as the cer ebrum, cerebellum, medulla oblongata and the
hypothalamus that coordinate different functions.
The spinal cord links the brain and the peripheral nerves below the skull.
Peripheral nerves carry impulses into and from the brain and spinal cord.
Electrical nerve impulses travel along neurones and neurones are bound together in bundles –
these are called nerves.
Sensory neurones carry impulses to the Ce ntral Nervous System and motor neurones carry
impulses from the Central Nervous System.
Connector(relay) neurones exist with in the brain and spinal cord and link sensory and motor
neurones.
Nerve impulses pass between neurones at synapses by means of chemical tr ansmitters.
Impulses reaching an effector at the end of a motor neurones cause a response.
Some stimuli produce very rapid, automatic responses – reflex actions – that are involuntary.
Voluntary responses involve conscious decisions made in the brain
Sense organs contain receptors that detect external stimuli and produce nerve impulses.
These organs and their stimuli are the e ye- light, nose- smell, tongue – taste, ear- sound,
movement and gravity. Skin – touch and temperature change.
All receptions in the eye detect light and some detect color.
The retina contains these receptions rod and co ne cells.
The retina sends nerve impulses to the brain through the optic nerve.
The eye focuses light rays on the retina.
The eye changes the shape of t he lens to focus near and distant objects.
The eye changes the shape of t he iris and pupil to control the amount of light reaching the
retina.
The eye sometimes falls to focus light rays on the retina – this results in long and short sight.
The endocrine systems, like the nervous system helps to coordinate and control process in the
body.
This system consists of glands that produce hormones when they are stimulated.
These include the pituitary, thyroid and adrenal glands, the pancreas, ovaries and testes.
Hormones are chemical that are released directly into the blood.
Hormones rely on the circulatory system to re ach their target organs.
When hormones reach their target organ hey trigger it to respond.
Some hormones such as adrenalin and insult produce rapid but short lived effects.
Some hormones such as grown hormone, oestrogen and testosterone, produce slower but more
long-lived effects.
Nerve impulses travel very rapidly along neurones but hormones travel at the slower speed of
the movement of the blood.
A hormone may affect a number of tar get organs but nerve impulses are directed t o a particular
localized effector.
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22. Reproductive System
Ovulation, fertilization and implantation must happen before a fetus can develop into an
embryo.
An embryo is attached to the uterus lining by the placenta and umbilical cord.
The mother’s blood supply is separate from but very close to the fetal blood supply in the
placenta.
The maternal blood supply is rich in oxygen and nutrients that diffuse into the fetal blood
supply. Carbon dioxide and urea diffuse in the opposite direction.
The fetal blood flows to and from the placenta along the umbilical cord.
The placenta protects the embryo from mo st pathogens and toxic substances.
The amnion and amniotic fluid around the fetus act as a shock absorber.
The birth process involves waves of muscle contractions, widening of the cervix, release of
amniotic fluid, expulsion of the baby and then the placenta.
Both ante-natal and post –natal care of mother and baby are essential.
Family planning involves preventing live sperm and ova meeting within the reproductive system
and can involve natural or artificial methods.
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Nuclei produced by mitosis are identical to one another and to their parent cell nucleus. They
are clones.
Gametes have the haploid number of 23 single c hromosomes in each nucleus and they are
formed by meiosis.
In meiosis, homologous pairs of chromosomes split into chromatids and these separate to from
groups that become the chromosomes of four g ametes.
Meiosis is important because it allows new combinations of genes to be formed.
A disease is something that reduces the physical, mental or social well-being of a human.
Diseases may be caused by organisms or by harmful material entering the body/
Some diseases are caused by failure or degeneration of part of the body or by the lifestyle of a
human.
A disease is sometimes preceded by a period while it is developing in the body but when it
shows no effects.
Infections (communicable) diseases can be transferred directly between humans or can be
passed by an agent such as a vector , or by air, water or food.
The signs of a disease are visible effects detectable by another person such as a rash, vomiting,
or high temperature.
The symptoms of a disease are the effect that are only detectable by the patient such as pain,
nausea or numbness.
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Some diseases are incurable and will remain with patients for t he rest of their lives.
A diet that contains too much or too little of one of the main components may cause a disease.
Too much or too little food can lead to obesity or anorexia.
Too little of one component can lead to a deficiency disease such as kwashiorkor, rickets o r
scurvy.
Obesity can lead to cardiovascular disease, hypertension or lead to diabetes.
Lack of exercise can increase the risk of obesity.
Asthma restricts the entry of air into the lungs because the airways become constricted by a
muscular spasm.
Smoking and exposure to airborne particles and chemicals, c alled allergens increase the risk of
asthma.
Cardiovascular disease causes damage to the heart and blood vessels. It can increase the risk of
heart attacks and strokes.
Hypertension causes a rise in blood pressure, and may lead to strokes and brain damage.
A Vector is an organism that transmits a pathogen but is not affected by it. The pathogen must
be smaller than the vector.
Common vectors include mosquitoes, house flies, rats and snails.
A vector and the organisms that receives the pathogen are often mem bers of a food chain.
The pathogens transmitted by vectors may be very c omplex life cycles.
The spread of some diseases is often most easily controlled by elimination of the vector.
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The vector has a relationship with humans when transmitting pathogens that affect them.
Mosquitoes are vectors of the pathogens causing malaria, dengue and yellow fever.
Mosquitoes spend the first stages of their life cycle in water.
The house fly can be the vecto r of the pathogens causing typhoid, cholera and dysentery.
Rats and rat fleas are vectors of leptospirosis.
32. Sewage
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Sewage is a feeding and breeding m aterial for some disease vectors such as flies.
The treatment of sewage to make it harmless depends on the activity of both aerobic and
anaerobic bacteria.
Small scale sewage treatment is in pit latrines and septic tanks.
Large scale treatment is by screening, sedimentation, digestion of sludge and effluent treatment
in biological filters or activated sludge methods.
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