Electromagnetic - Disk - Brake R
Electromagnetic - Disk - Brake R
ON
ELECTROMAGNETIC DISK
BRAKE
INTRODUCTION
1
Electromagnetic brakes have been used as supplementary retardation
equipment in addition to the regular friction brakes on heavy vehicles.
We outline the general principles of regular brakes and several
alternative retardation techniques in this section. The working
principle and characteristics of electromagnetic brakes are then
highlighted.
The disc brake or disk brake is a device for slowing or stopping the
rotation of a wheel. A brake disc usually made of cast iron or ceramic
composites is connected to the wheel and the axle. To stop the wheel,
friction material in the form of brake pads is forced mechanically,
hydraulically, pneumatically or electromagnetically against both sides
of the disc. Friction causes the disc and attached wheel to slow or
stop. But in our project electromagnetic energy is used as the source
of power, due to high applied force and torque
REQUIREMENTS
2
1. Frame
2. Disk
3. Motor
4. Electromagnetic coil
5. Switch
WORKING
3
In this project we move the one disk from the motor. If we press the
button break is apply through electromagnetic coil. We use 2
electromagnetic coils. Iron frame is used. When we press the switch
firstly supply is applied on the electromagnetic coil and
simultaneously motor power is cut off. So that break applies by this
process.
BLOCK DIAGRAM
4
TRANSFORMER
RECTIFIER
CAPACITOR
MOTOR ELECTROMAGNETIC
DISK COIL
Creating an Electromagnet
Wrap magnet
wire around the
soft iron core
(bolt)
North
South
Attach wire
ends
to your
interface
-‘ve +‘v
5
eThings to remember about electromagnets:
• A soft iron core will make the magnet work better (a bolt).
6
7
Advantage of Electromagnetic Brakes (retarders) Installation
Location
Electromagnetic brakes work in a relatively cool condition and satisfy all the
energy requirements of braking at high speeds, completely without the use of
friction. Due to its specific installation location (transmission line of rigid
vehicles), electromagnetic brakes have better heat dissipation capability to
avoid problems that friction brakes face as we mentioned before. Typically,
electromagnetic brakes have been mounted in the transmission line of vehicles,
as shown in figure 2.2. The propeller shaft is divided and fitted with a sliding
universal joint and is connected to the coupling flange on the brake.
The brake is fitted into the chassis of the vehicle by means of anti-vibration
mounting.
The practical location of the retarder within the vehicle prevents the direct
impingement of air on the retarder caused by the motion of the vehicle. Any air
flow movement within the chassis of the vehicle is found to have a relatively
insignificant effect on the air flow around tire areas and hence on the
temperature of both front and rear discs. So the application of the retarder does
not affect the temperature of the regular brakes. In that way, the retarders help
to extend the life span of the regular brakes and keep the regular brakes cool for
emergency situation.
MAGNET
Iron filings that have oriented in the magnetic field produced by a bar
magnet
8
Magnetic field lines of a solenoid which are similar to a bar magnet
as illustrated above with the iron filings
Magnetic field
The magnetic field (usually denoted B) is called a field (physics)
because it has a value at every point in space. The magnetic field (at a
given point) is specified by two properties: (1) its direction, which is
along the orientation of a compass needle; and (2) its magnitude (also
called strength), which is proportional to how strongly the compass
needle orients along that direction. Direction and magnitude makes B
a vector, so B is a vector field. (B can also depend on time.) In SI
units the strength of the magnetic field is given in teslas.
Magnetic moment
Magnetization
11
Magnetic pole model: Although for many purposes it is convenient
to think of a magnet as having distinct north and south magnetic
poles, the concept of poles should not be taken literally: it is merely a
way of referring to the two different ends of a magnet. The magnet
does not have distinct "north" or "south" particles on opposing sides.
(No magnetic monopole has yet been observed.) If a bar magnet is
broken in half, in an attempt to separate the north and south poles, the
result will be two bar magnets, each of which has both a north and
south pole.
The magnetic pole approach is used by professional magneticians to
design permanent magnets. In this approach, the pole surfaces of a
permanent magnet are imagined to be covered with 'magnetic charge',
little 'North pole' particles on the North pole and 'South poles' on the
south pole, that are the source of the magnetic field lines. If the
magnetic pole distribution is known, then outside the magnet the pole
model gives the magnetic field exactly. By simply supplementing the
pole model field with a term proportional to the magnetization (see
Units and Calculations, below) the magnetic field within the magnet
is given exactly. This pole model is also called the "Gilbert model" of
a magnetic dipole.[1] Griffiths suggests (p. 258): "My advice is to use
the Gilbert model, if you like, to get an intuitive "feel" for a problem,
but never rely on it for quantitative results."
Ampère model: Another model is the "Ampère model", where all
magnetization is due to the effect of microscopic, or atomic, circular
"bound currents", also called "Ampèrian currents" throughout the
material. For a uniformly magnetized bar magnet in the shape of a
cylinder, the net effect of the microscopic bound currents is to make
the magnet behave as if there is a macroscopic sheet of electric
current flowing around the surface of the cylinder, with local flow
direction normal to the cylinder axis. (Since scraping off the outer
layer of a magnet will not destroy its magnetic field, it can be seen
that this is just a model, and the tiny currents are actually distributed
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throughout the material). The right-hand rule due to Ampère tells
which direction the current flows. The Ampere model gives the exact
magnetic field both inside and outside the magnet. It is usually
difficult to calculate the Amperian currents on the surface of a
magnet, whereas it is often easier to find the effective poles for the
same magnet.
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Ferromagnetic and ferrimagnetic materials are the ones
normally thought of as 'magnetic'; they are attracted to a magnet
strongly enough that the attraction can be felt. These materials
are the only ones that can retain magnetization and become
magnets; a common example is a traditional refrigerator
magnet. Ferrimagnetic materials, which include ferrites and the
oldest magnetic materials magnetite and lodestone, are similar
to but weaker than ferromagnetics. The difference between
ferro- and ferrimagnetic materials is related to their microscopic
structure, as explained below.
Paramagnetic substances such as platinum, aluminum, and
oxygen are weakly attracted to a magnet. This effect is hundreds
of thousands of times weaker than ferromagnetic materials
attraction, so it can only be detected by using sensitive
instruments, or using extremely strong magnets. Magnetic
ferrofluids, although they are made of tiny ferromagnetic
particles suspended in liquid, are sometimes considered
paramagnetic since they can't be magnetized.
Diamagnetic substances such as carbon, copper, water, and
plastic are even more weakly repelled by a magnet. All
substances not possessing one of the other types of magnetism
are diamagnetic; this includes most substances. Although force
on a diamagnetic object from an ordinary magnet is far too
weak to be felt, using extremely strong superconducting
magnets diamagnetic objects such as pieces of lead and even
frogs can be levitated so they float in midair. Superconductors
repel magnetic fields from their interior and are strongly
diamagnetic.
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Physics of magnetic behaviors
Overview
Magnetism, at its root, arises from two sources:
Electric currents, or more generally moving electric charges,
create magnetic fields (see Maxwell's Equations).
Many particles have nonzero "intrinsic" (or "spin") magnetic
moments. (Just as each particle, by its nature, has a certain mass
and charge, each has a certain magnetic moment, possibly zero.)
In magnetic materials, the most important sources of magnetization
are, more specifically, the electrons' orbital angular motion around the
nucleus, and the electrons' intrinsic magnetic moment (see Electron
magnetic dipole moment). The other potential sources of magnetism
are much less important: For example, the nuclear magnetic moments
of the nuclei in the material are typically thousands of times smaller
than the electrons' magnetic moments, so they are negligible in the
context of the magnetization of materials. (Nuclear magnetic
moments are important in other contexts, particularly in Nuclear
Magnetic Resonance (NMR) and Magnetic Resonance Imaging
(MRI).)
Ordinarily, the countless electrons in a material are arranged such that
their magnetic moments (both orbital and intrinsic) cancel out. This is
due, to some extent, to electrons combining into pairs with opposite
intrinsic magnetic moments (as a result of the Pauli exclusion
principle; see Electron configuration), or combining into "filled
subshells" with zero net orbital motion; in both cases, the electron
arrangement is so as to exactly cancel the magnetic moments from
each electron. Moreover, even when the electron configuration is such
that there are unpaired electrons and/or non-filled subshells, it is often
the case that the various electrons in the solid will contribute
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magnetic moments that point in different, random directions, so that
the material will not be magnetic.
However, sometimes (either spontaneously, or due to an applied
external magnetic field) each of the electron magnetic moments will
be, on average, lined up. Then the material can produce a net total
magnetic field, which can potentially be quite strong.
The magnetic behavior of a material depends on its structure
(particularly its electron configuration, for the reasons mentioned
above), and also on the temperature (at high temperatures, random
thermal motion makes it more difficult for the electrons to maintain
alignment).
Physics of paramagnetism
Physics of diamagnetism
In a diamagnetic material, there are no unpaired electrons, so the
intrinsic electron magnetic moments cannot produce any bulk effect.
In these cases, the magnetization arises from the electrons' orbital
motions, which can be understood classically as follows:
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When a material is put in a magnetic field, the electrons circling the
nucleus will experience, in addition to their Coulomb attraction to the
nucleus, a Lorentz force from the magnetic field. Depending on
which direction the electron is orbiting, this force may increase the
centripetal force on the electrons, pulling them in towards the
nucleus, or it may decrease the force, pulling them away from the
nucleus. This effect systematically increases the orbital magnetic
moments that were aligned opposite the field, and decreases the ones
aligned parallel to the field (in accordance with Lenz's law). This
results in a small bulk magnetic moment, with an opposite direction
to the applied field.
Note that this description is meant only as an heuristic; a proper
understanding requires a quantum-mechanical description.
Note that all materials undergo this orbital response. However, in
paramagnetic and ferromagnetic substances, the diamagnetic effect is
overwhelmed by the much stronger effects caused by the unpaired
electrons.
Physics of ferromagnetism
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Ferromag_Matl_Sketch.JPG
Magnetic domains in ferromagnetic material.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Ferromag_Matl_Magnetized.JPG
Effect of a magnet on the domains.When a domain contains too many
molecules, it becomes unstable and divides into two domains aligned
18
in opposite directions so that they stick together more stably as shown
at the right.
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A-3 Electromagentic brake
Main article: Friction-plate electromagnetic couplings
Power off brakes stop or hold a load when electrical power is either
accidentally lost or intentionally disconnected. In the past, some
companies have referred to these as "fail safe" brakes. These brakes
are typically used on or near an electric motor. Typical applications
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include robotics, holding brakes for Z axis ball screws and servo
motor brakes. Brakes are available in multiple voltages and can have
either standard backlash or zero backlash hubs. Multiple disks can
also be used to increase brake torque, without increasing brake
diameter. There are 2 main types of holding brakes. The first is spring
applied brakes. The second is permanent magnet brakes.
Spring type - When no electricity is applied to the brake, a spring
pushes against a pressure plate, squeezing the friction disk between
the inner pressure plate and the outer cover plate. This frictional
clamping force is transferred to the hub, which is mounted to a shaft.
Permanent magnet type – A permanent magnet holding brake looks
very similar to a standard power applied electromagnetic brake.
Instead of squeezing a friction disk, via springs, it uses permanent
magnets to attract a single face armature. When the brake is engaged,
the permanent magnets create magnetic lines of flux, which can turn
attract the armature to the brake housing. To disengage the brake,
power is applied to the coil which sets up an alternate magnetic field
that cancels out the magnetic flux of the permanent magnets.
Both powers off brakes are considered to be engaged when no power
is applied to them. They are typically required to hold or to stop alone
in the event of a loss of power or when power is not available in a
machine circuit. Permanent magnet brakes have a very high torque
for their size, but also require a constant current control to offset the
permanent magnetic field. Spring applied brakes do not require a
constant current control, they can use a simple rectifier, but are larger
in diameter or would need stacked friction disks to increase the
torque.
Particle brake
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Magnetic Particle Brake
Magnetic particle brakes are unique in their design from other electro-
mechanical brakes because of the wide operating torque range
available. Like an electro-mechanical brake, torque to voltage is
almost linear; however, in a magnetic particle brake, torque can be
controlled very accurately (within the operating RPM range of the
unit). This makes these units ideally suited for tension control
applications, such as wire winding, foil, film, and tape tension
control. Because of their fast response, they can also be used in high
cycle applications, such as magnetic card readers, sorting machines
and labeling equipment.
Magnetic particles (very similar to iron filings) are located in the
powder cavity. When electricity is applied to the coil, the resulting
magnetic flux tries to bind the particles together, almost like a
magnetic particle slush. As the electric current is increased, the
binding of the particles becomes stronger. The brake rotor passes
through these bound particles. The output of the housing is rigidly
attached to some portion of the machine. As the particles start to bind
together, a resistant force is created on the rotor, slowing, and
eventually stopping the output shaft.
When electricity is removed from the brake, the input is free to turn
with the shaft. Since magnetic particle powder is in the cavity, all
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magnetic particle units have some type of minimum drag associated
with them.
Hysteresis power brake
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Electromagnetic Multiple Disk Brake
Multiple disk brakes are used to deliver extremely high torque within
a small space. These brakes can be used either wet or dry, which
makes them ideal to run in multi-speed gear box applications,
machine tool applications, or in off road equipment.
Electro-mechanical disk brakes operate via electrical actuation, but
transmit torque mechanically. When electricity is applied to the coil
of an electromagnet, the magnetic flux attracts the armature to the
face of the brake. As it does so, it squeezes the inner and outer friction
disks together. The hub is normally mounted on the shaft that is
rotating. The brake housing is mounted solidly to the machine frame.
As the disks are squeezed, torque is transmitted from the hub into the
machine frame, stopping and holding the shaft.
When electricity is removed from the brake, the armature is free to
turn with the shaft. Springs keep the friction disk and armature away
from each other. There is no contact between braking surfaces and
minimal drag.
MOTOR
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A motor is an electric motor driven by an alternating current.
There are two main types of AC motors, depending on the type of rotor used.
The first type is the induction motor, which runs slightly slower than the supply
frequency. The magnetic field on the rotor of this motor is created by an
induced current. The second type is the synchronous motor, which does not rely
on induction and as a result, can rotate exactly at the supply frequency or a sub-
multiple of the supply frequency. The magnetic field on the rotor is either
generated by current delivered through slip rings or by a permanent magnet.
Other types of motors include eddy current motors, and also AC/DC
mechanically commutated machines in which speed is dependent on voltage
and winding connection.
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Brushed DC electric motor, an internally commutated electric
motor designed to be run from a direct current power source
Brushless DC motor, a synchronous electric motor which is
powered by direct current electricity and has an electronically
controlled commutation system, instead of a mechanical
commutation system based on brushes
o Electrostatic motor, a type of electric motor based on the
attraction and repulsion of electric charge
o Servo motor, an electric motor that operates a servo,
commonly used in robotics
o Internal fan-cooled electric motor, an electric motor that is
self-cooled by a fan, typically used for motors with a high energy
density
Other uses:
Actuator, a mechanical device for moving or controlling a
mechanism or system
Hydraulic motor, a machine that converts the energy of
pressurized liquid flow into mechanical motion
Rocket motor, usually refers to solid rocket engines
Molecular motor, the agents of movement in living organisms
o Synthetic molecular motor, molecular machines capable of
rotation under energy input
Motor language, extinct since the 1840s, a Uralic language that
was spoken in the northern region of the Sayan Mountains in
Siberia
Motor system, the physiological system that is responsible for
physical movement
o Motor neuron, neurons that originate in the spinal cord and
synapse with muscle fibers
o Motor skill, the ability of an organism to use the motor
system effectively
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Nanomotor, a molecular device capable of converting energy
into movement
Pneumatic motor, a machine that converts the energy of
compressed air into mechanical motion
The Motors, a British pub rock/punk band, formed in 1977 by
Nick Garvey, Andy McMaster, Ricky Slaughter and Rob
Hendry, who was replaced by Bram Tchaikovsky the same year
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An electric motor uses electrical energy to produce mechanical
energy, very typically through the interaction of magnetic fields and
current-carrying conductors. The reverse process, producing electrical
energy from mechanical energy, is accomplished by a generator or
dynamo. Many types of electric motors can be run as generators, and
vice versa. For example a starter/generator for a gas turbine or
Traction motors used on vehicles often perform both tasks.
Electric motors are found in applications as diverse as industrial fans,
blowers and pumps, machine tools, household appliances, power
tools, and disk drives. They may be powered by direct current (for
example a battery powered portable device or motor vehicle), or by
alternating current from a central electrical distribution grid. The
smallest motors may be found in electric wristwatches. Medium-size
motors of highly standardized dimensions and characteristics provide
convenient mechanical power for industrial uses. The very largest
electric motors are used for propulsion of large ships, and for such
compressors, with ratings in the millions of watts. Electric motors
may be classified by the source of electric power, by their internal
construction, by their application, or by the type of motion they give.
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The physical principle of production of mechanical force by the
interactions of an electric current and a magnetic field was known as
early as 1821. Electric motors of increasing efficiency were
constructed throughout the 19th century, but commercial exploitation
of electric motors on a large scale required efficient electrical
generators and electrical distribution networks.
Some devices, such as magnetic solenoids and loudspeakers, although
they generate some mechanical power, are not generally referred to as
electric motors, and are usually termed actuators and transducers,
respectively.
The principle
The conversion of electrical energy into mechanical energy by
electromagnetic means was demonstrated by the British scientist
Michael Faraday in 1821. A free-hanging wire was dipped into a pool
of mercury, on which a permanent magnet was placed. When a
current was passed through the wire, the wire rotated around the
magnet, showing that the current gave rise to a circular magnetic field
around the wire. This motor is often demonstrated in school physics
classes, but brine (salt water) is sometimes used in place of the toxic
mercury. This is the simplest form of a class of devices called
homopolar motors. A later refinement is the Barlow's Wheel. These
were demonstration devices only, unsuited to practical applications
due to their primitive construction.
29
Jedlik's "lightning-magnetic self-rotor", 1827. (Museum of Applied
Arts, Budapest.)
30
scientific world at that time, or that it influenced the development of
electric motors in the following decades.
The modern DC motor was invented by accident in 1873, when
Zénobe Gramme connected the dynamo he had invented to a second
similar unit, driving it as a motor. The Gramme machine was the first
electric motor that was successful in the industry. In 1886 Frank
Julian Sprague invented the first practical DC motor, a non-sparking
motor capable of constant speed under variable loads. Other Sprague
electric inventions about this time greatly improved grid electric
distribution [prior work done while employed by Edison], allowed
power from electric motors to be returned to the electric grid,
provided for electric distribution to trolleys via overhead wires and
the trolley pole, and provided controls systems for electric operations.
This allowed Sprague to use electric motors to invent the first electric
trolley system in 1887-88 in Richmond VA, the electric elevator and
control system in 1892, and the electric subway with independently
powered centrally controlled cars, which was first installed in 1892 in
Chicago by the South Side Elevated Railway where it became
popularly known as the "L". Sprague's motor and related inventions
led to an explosion of interest and use in electric motors for industry,
while almost simultaneously another great inventor was developing
its primary competitor, which would become much more widespread.
In 1888 Nikola Tesla invented the first practicable AC motor and with
it the polyphase power transmission system. Tesla continued his work
on the AC motor in the years to follow at the Westinghouse company.
[citation needed]
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High holding
floppy drives
torque
Long
Hard drives
lifespan
High initial cost CD/DVD
low
Brushless DC maintenance Requires a players DC
controller electric
High
vehicles
efficiency
Low initial High Treadmill
cost maintenance exercisers Direct DC
Brushed DC Simple speed (brushes) automotive or PWM
control Low lifespan starters
Compact
Medium cost
design Office Equip Direct DC
Pancake DC Simple speed Medium Fans/Pumps or PWM
lifespan
control
Servo motor
Main article: Servo motor
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Synchronous electric motor
Main article: Synchronous motor
Induction motor
Main article: Induction motor
DC Motors
A DC motor is designed to run on DC electric power. Two examples
of pure DC designs are Michael Faraday's homopolar motor (which is
uncommon), and the ball bearing motor, which is (so far) a novelty.
By far the most common DC motor types are the brushed and
brushless types, which use internal and external commutation
respectively to create an oscillating AC current from the DC source—
so they are not purely DC machines in a strict sense.
Brushed DC motors
Main article: Brushed DC electric motor
A:shunt
B:series
C:compound
f = field coil
Brushless DC motors
Main article: Brushless DC electric motor
Universal motors
A series-wound motor is referred to as a universal motor when it has
been designed to operate on either AC or DC power. The ability to
operate on AC is because the current in both the field and the
armature (and hence the resultant magnetic fields) will alternate
(reverse polarity) in synchronism, and hence the resulting mechanical
force will occur in a constant direction.
Operating at normal power line frequencies, universal motors are very
rarely larger than one kilowatt (about 1.3 horsepower). Universal
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motors also form the basis of the traditional railway traction motor in
electric railways. In this application, to keep their electrical efficiency
high, they were operated from very low frequency AC supplies, with
25 and 16.7 hertz (Hz) operation being common. Because they are
universal motors, locomotives using this design were also commonly
capable of operating from a third rail powered by DC.
An advantage of the universal motor is that AC supplies may be used
on motors which have some characteristics more common in DC
motors, specifically high starting torque and very compact design if
high running speeds are used. The negative aspect is the maintenance
and short life problems caused by the commutator. As a result, such
motors are usually used in AC devices such as food mixers and power
tools which are used only intermittently, and often have high starting-
torque demands. Continuous speed control of a universal motor
running on AC is easily obtained by use of a thyristor circuit, while
(imprecise) stepped speed control can be accomplished using multiple
taps on the field coil. Household blenders that advertise many speeds
frequently combine a field coil with several taps and a diode that can
be inserted in series with the motor (causing the motor to run on half-
wave rectified AC).
Universal motors generally run at high speeds, making them useful
for appliances such as blenders, vacuum cleaners, and hair dryers
where high RPM operation is desirable. They are also commonly used
in portable power tools, such as drills, circular and jig saws, where
the motor's characteristics work well. Many vacuum cleaner and weed
trimmer motors exceed 10,000 RPM, while Dremel and other similar
miniature grinders will often exceed 30,000 RPM.
Motor damage may occur due to overspeeding (running at an RPM in
excess of design limits) if the unit is operated with no significant
load. On larger motors, sudden loss of load is to be avoided, and the
possibility of such an occurrence is incorporated into the motor's
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protection and control schemes. In some smaller applications, a fan
blade attached to the shaft often acts as an artificial load to limit the
motor speed to a safe value, as well as a means to circulate cooling
airflow over the armature and field windings.
AC motors
Components
A typical AC motor consists of two parts:
An outside stationary stator having coils supplied with AC
current to produce a rotating magnetic field, and;
An inside rotor attached to the output shaft that is given a torque
by the rotating field.
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Torque motors
A torque motor (also known as a limited torque motor) is a
specialized form of induction motor which is capable of operating
indefinitely while stalled, that is, with the rotor blocked from turning,
without incurring damage. In this mode of operation, the motor will
apply a steady torque to the load (hence the name).
A common application of a torque motor would be the supply- and
take-up reel motors in a tape drive. In this application, driven from a
low voltage, the characteristics of these motors allow a relatively-
constant light tension to be applied to the tape whether or not the
capstan is feeding tape past the tape heads. Driven from a higher
voltage, (and so delivering a higher torque), the torque motors can
also achieve fast-forward and rewind operation without requiring any
additional mechanics such as gears or clutches. In the computer
gaming world, torque motors are used in force feedback steering
wheels.
Another common application is the control of the throttle of an
internal combustion engine in conjunction with an electronic
governor. In this usage, the motor works against a return spring to
move the throttle in accordance with the output of the governor. The
latter monitors engine speed by counting electrical pulses from the
ignition system or from a magnetic pickup [18] and, depending on the
speed, makes small adjustments to the amount of current applied to
the motor. If the engine starts to slow down relative to the desired
speed, the current will be increased, the motor will develop more
torque, pulling against the return spring and opening the throttle.
Should the engine run too fast, the governor will reduce the current
being applied to the motor, causing the return spring to pull back and
close the throttle.
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Slip ring
The slip ring is a component of the wound rotor motor as an induction
machine (best evidenced by the construction of the common
automotive alternator), where the rotor comprises a set of coils that
are electrically terminated in slip rings. These are metal rings rigidly
mounted on the rotor, and combined with brushes (as used with
commutators), provide continuous unswitched connection to the rotor
windings.
In the case of the wound-rotor induction motor, external impedances
can be connected to the brushes. The stator is excited similarly to the
standard squirrel cage motor. By changing the impedance connected
to the rotor circuit, the speed/current and speed/torque curves can be
altered.
(Slip rings are most-commonly used in automotive alternators as well
as in synchro angular data-transmission devices, among other
applications.)
The slip ring motor is used primarily to start a high inertia load or a
load that requires a very high starting torque across the full speed
range. By correctly selecting the resistors used in the secondary
resistance or slip ring starter, the motor is able to produce maximum
torque at a relatively low supply current from zero speed to full
speed. This type of motor also offers controllable speed.
Motor speed can be changed because the torque curve of the motor is
effectively modified by the amount of resistance connected to the
rotor circuit. Increasing the value of resistance will move the speed of
maximum torque down. If the resistance connected to the rotor is
increased beyond the point where the maximum torque occurs at zero
speed, the torque will be further reduced.
When used with a load that has a torque curve that increases with
speed, the motor will operate at the speed where the torque developed
47
by the motor is equal to the load torque. Reducing the load will cause
the motor to speed up, and increasing the load will cause the motor to
slow down until the load and motor torque are equal. Operated in this
manner, the slip losses are dissipated in the secondary resistors and
can be very significant. The speed regulation and net efficiency is also
very poor.
Stepper motors
Closely related in design to three-phase AC synchronous motors are
stepper motors, where an internal rotor containing permanent magnets
or a magnetically-soft rotor with salient poles is controlled by a set of
external magnets that are switched electronically. A stepper motor
may also be thought of as a cross between a DC electric motor and a
rotary solenoid. As each coil is energized in turn, the rotor aligns
itself with the magnetic field produced by the energized field
winding. Unlike a synchronous motor, in its application, the stepper
motor may not rotate continuously; instead, it "steps" — starts and
then quickly stops again — from one position to the next as field
windings are energized and de-energized in sequence. Depending on
the sequence, the rotor may turn forwards or backwards, and it may
change direction, stop, speed up or slow down arbitrarily at any time.
Simple stepper motor drivers entirely energize or entirely de-energize
the field windings, leading the rotor to "cog" to a limited number of
positions; more sophisticated drivers can proportionally control the
power to the field windings, allowing the rotors to position between
the cog points and thereby rotate extremely smoothly. This mode of
operation is often called microstepping. Computer controlled stepper
motors are one of the most versatile forms of positioning systems,
particularly when part of a digital servo-controlled system.
Stepper motors can be rotated to a specific angle in discrete steps with
ease, and hence stepper motors are used for read/write head
positioning in computer floppy diskette drives. They were used for
48
the same purpose in pre-gigabyte era computer disk drives, where the
precision and speed they offered was adequate for the correct
positioning of the read/write head of a hard disk drive. As drive
density increased, the precision and speed limitations of stepper
motors made them obsolete for hard drives—the precision limitation
made them unusable, and the speed limitation made them
uncompetitive—thus newer hard disk drives use voice coil-based
head actuator systems. (The term "voice coil" in this connection is
historic; it refers to the structure in a typical (cone type) loudspeaker.
This structure was used for a while to position the heads. Modern
drives have a pivoted coil mount; the coil swings back and forth,
something like a blade of a rotating fan. Nevertheless, like a voice
coil, modern actuator coil conductors (the magnet wire) move
perpendicular to the magnetic lines of force.)
Stepper motors were and still are often used in computer printers,
optical scanners, and digital photocopiers to move the optical
scanning element, the print head carriage (of dot matrix and inkjet
printers), and the platen. Likewise, many computer plotters (which
since the early 1990s have been replaced with large-format inkjet and
laser printers) used rotary stepper motors for pen and platen
movement; the typical alternatives here were either linear stepper
motors or servomotors with complex closed-loop control systems.
So-called quartz analog wristwatches contain the smallest
commonplace stepping motors; they have one coil, draw very little
power, and have a permanent-magnet rotor. The same kind of motor
drives battery-powered quartz clocks. Some of these watches, such as
chronographs, contain more than one stepping motor.
Stepper motors were upscaled to be used in electric vehicles under the
term SRM (Switched Reluctance Motor).
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Linear motor
A linear motor is essentially an electric motor that has been "unrolled"
so that, instead of producing a torque (rotation), it produces a straight-
line force along its length by setting up a traveling electromagnetic
field.
Linear motors are most commonly induction motors or stepper
motors. You can find a linear motor in a maglev (Transrapid) train,
where the train "flies" over the ground, and in many roller-coasters
where the rapid motion of the motorless railcar is controlled by the
rail. On a smaller scale, at least one letter-size (8.5" x 11") computer
graphics X-Y pen plotter made by Hewlett-Packard (in the late 1970s
to mid 1980's) used two linear stepper motors to move the pen along
the two orthogonal axes.
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power electronics components. Difficulties with controlling speed
near synchronous speed limit applications.
Nanotube nanomotor
Researchers at University of California, Berkeley, recently developed
rotational bearings based upon multiwall carbon nanotubes. By
attaching a gold plate (with dimensions of the order of 100 nm) to the
outer shell of a suspended multiwall carbon nanotube (like nested
carbon cylinders), they are able to electrostatically rotate the outer
shell relative to the inner core. These bearings are very robust;
devices have been oscillated thousands of times with no indication of
wear. These nanoelectromechanical systems (NEMS) are the next step
in miniaturization and may find their way into commercial
applications in the future.
See also:
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Molecular motors
Electrostatic motor
[edit] Efficiency
To calculate a motor's efficiency, the mechanical output power is
divided by the electrical input power:
,
where η is energy conversion efficiency, Pe is electrical input power,
and Pm is mechanical output power.
In simplest case Pe = VI, and Pm = Tω, where V is input voltage, I is
input current, T is output torque, and ω is output angular velocity. It is
possible to derive analytically the point of maximum efficiency. It is
typically at less than 1/2 the stall torque. Implications
Because a DC motor operates most efficiently at less than 1/2 its stall
torque, an "oversized" motor runs with the highest efficiency. IE:
using a bigger motor than is necessary enables the motor to operate
closest to no load, or peak operating conditions.
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the maximum operating torque differs significantly between
categories of electric motors or generators.
Note: Capacity for bursts of torque should not be confused with Field
Weakening capability inherent in fully electromagnetic electric
machines (Permanent Magnet (PM) electric machine are excluded).
Field Weakening, which is not readily available with PM electric
machines, allows an electric machine to operate beyond the designed
frequency of excitation without electrical damage.
Electric machines without a transformer circuit topology, such as
Field-Wound (i.e., electromagnet) or Permanent Magnet (PM)
Synchronous electric machines cannot realize bursts of torque higher
than the maximum designed torque without saturating the magnetic
core and rendering any increase in current as useless. Furthermore,
the permanent magnet assembly of PM synchronous electric
machines can be irreparably damaged, if bursts of torque exceeding
the maximum operating torque rating are attempted.
Electric machines with a transformer circuit topology, such as
Induction (i.e., asynchronous) electric machines, Induction Doubly-
Fed electric machines, and Induction or Synchronous Wound-Rotor
Doubly-Fed (WRDF) electric machines, exhibit very high bursts of
torque because the active current (i.e., Magneto-Motive-Force or the
product of current and winding-turns) induced on either side of the
transformer oppose each other and as a result, the active current
contributes nothing to the transformer coupled magnetic core flux
density, which would otherwise lead to core saturation.
Electric machines that rely on Induction or Asynchronous principles
short-circuit one port of the transformer circuit and as a result, the
reactive impedance of the transformer circuit becomes dominant as
slip increases, which limits the magnitude of active (i.e., real) current.
Still, bursts of torque that are two to three times higher than the
maximum design torque are realizable.
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The Synchronous WRDF electric machine is the only electric
machine with a truly dual ported transformer circuit topology (i.e.,
both ports independently excited with no short-circuited port). The
dual ported transformer circuit topology is known to be unstable and
requires a multiphase slip-ring-brush assembly to propagate limited
power to the rotor winding set. If a precision means were available to
instantaneously control torque angle and slip for synchronous
operation during motoring or generating while simultaneously
providing brushless power to the rotor winding set (see Brushless
wound-rotor doubly-fed electric machine), the active current of the
Synchronous WRDF electric machine would be independent of the
reactive impedance of the transformer circuit and bursts of torque
significantly higher than the maximum operating torque and far
beyond the practical capability of any other type of electric machine
would be realizable. Torque bursts greater than eight times operating
torque have been calculated.
Materials
There is an impending shortage of many rare raw materials used in
the manufacture of hybrid and electric cars (Nishiyama 2007) (Cox
2008). For example, the rare earth element dysprosium is required to
fabricate many of the advanced electric motors used in hybrid cars
(Cox 2008). However, over 95% of the world's rare earth elements are
mined in China (Haxel et al. 2005), and domestic Chinese
consumption is expected to consume China's entire supply by 2012
(Cox 2008).[citation needed]
While permanent magnet motors, favored in hybrids such as those
made by Toyota, often use rare earth materials in their magnets, AC
traction motors used in production electric vehicles such as the GM
EV1, Toyota RAV4 EV and Tesla Roadster do not use permanent
magnets or the associated rare earth materials. AC motors typically
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use conventional copper wire for their stator coils and copper or
aluminum rods or bars for their rotor. AC motors do not significantly
use rare earth materials.
Motor standards
The following are major design and manufacturing standards
covering electric motors:
International Electrotechnical Commission: IEC 60034 Rotating
Electrical Machines
National Electrical Manufacturers Association (USA): NEMA
MG 1 Motors and Generators
Underwriters Laboratories (USA): UL 1004 - Standard for
Electric Motors
Uses
Electric motors are used in many, if not most, modern machines.
Obvious uses would be in rotating machines such as fans, turbines,
drills, the wheels on electric cars, locomotives and conveyor belts.
Also, in many vibrating or oscillating machines, an electric motor
spins an irregular figure with more area on one side of the axle than
the other, causing it to appear to be moving up and down.
Electric motors are also popular in robotics. They are used to turn the
wheels of vehicular robots, and servo motors are used to turn arms
and legs in humanoid robots. In flying robots, along with helicopters,
a motor causes a propeller or wide, flat blades to spin and create lift
force, allowing vertical motion.
Electric motors are replacing hydraulic cylinders in airplanes and
military equipment.
In industrial and manufacturing businesses, electric motors are used
to turn saws and blades in cutting and slicing processes, and to spin
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gears and mixers (the latter very common in food manufacturing).
Linear motors are often used to push products into containers
horizontally.
Many kitchen appliances also use electric motors to accomplish
various jobs. Food processors and grinders spin blades to chop and
break up foods. Blenders use electric motors to mix liquids, and
microwave ovens use motors to turn the tray food sits on. Toaster
ovens also use electric motors to turn a conveyor to move food over
heating elements.
Applications
In locomotives, a mechanical linkage transmits torque to an
electromagnetic braking component.
Trams and trains use electromagnetic track brakes where the braking
element is pressed by magnetic force to the rail. They are
distinguished from mechanical track brakes, where the braking
element is mechanically pressed on the rail.
Electric motors in industrial and robotic applications also employ
electromagnetic brakes.
Recent design innovations have led to the application of
electromagnetic brakes to aircraft applications.[1] In this application, a
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combination motor/generator is used first as a motor to spin the tires
up to speed prior to touchdown, thus reducing wear on the tires, and
then as a generator to provide regenerative braking.
Transformers
57
2.8.1 Basic principle
58
Equation 7: EMF induced in primary and secondary windings
where:
and are the induced EMFs across primary and secondary
windings,
and are the time derivatives of the flux linking the primary and
secondary windings.
In the ideal transformer, all flux produced by the primary winding
also links the secondary, and so , from which the well-
known transformer equation follows:
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Rectifier
A bridge rectifier is an arrangement of four diodes connected in a
bridge circuit as shown below, that provides the same polarity of
output voltage for any polarity of the input voltage. When used in its
most common application, for conversion of alternating current (AC)
input into direct current (DC) output, it is known as a bridge rectifier.
The bridge rectifier provides full wave rectification from a two wire
AC input (saving the cost of a center tapped transformer) but has two
diode drops rather than one reducing efficiency over a center tap
based design for the same output voltage.
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When the right hand corner is positive relative to the left hand corner,
current flows along the upper colored path and returns to the supply
via the lower colored path.
In each case, the upper right output remains positive with respect to
the lower right one. Since this is true whether the input is AC or DC,
this circuit not only produces DC power when supplied with AC
power: it also can provide what is sometimes called "reverse polarity
protection". That is, it permits normal functioning when batteries are
installed backwards or DC input-power supply wiring "has its wires
crossed" (and protects the circuitry it powers against damage that
might occur without this circuit in place).
Prior to availability of integrated electronics, such a bridge rectifier
was always constructed from discrete components. Since about 1950,
a single four-terminal component containing the four diodes
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connected in the bridge configuration became a standard commercial
component and is now available with various voltage and current
ratings.
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for sub-supplies to critical high-gain circuits that tend to be sensitive
to supply voltage noise.
CAPACITOR
Theory of operation
Main article: Capacitance
63
Charge separation in a parallel-plate capacitor causes an internal electric field.
A dielectric (orange) reduces the field and increases the capacitance.
Sometimes charge buildup affects the mechanics of the capacitor, causing the
capacitance to vary. In this case, capacitance is defined in terms of incremental
changes:
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In SI units, a capacitance of one farad means that one coulomb of charge on
each conductor causes a voltage of one volt across the device.
Energy storage
Work must be done by an external influence to move charge between the
conductors in a capacitor. When the external influence is removed, the charge
separation persists and energy is stored in the electric field. If charge is later
allowed to return to its equilibrium position, the energy is released. The work
done in establishing the electric field, and hence the amount of energy stored, is
given by:
DIODE
ACTIVE COMPONENT-
SEMICONDUCTOR DIODE-
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A PN junctions is known as a semiconductor or crystal diode.A
crystal diode has two terminal when it is connected in a circuit one
thing is decide is weather a diode is forward or reversed biased. There
is a easy rule to ascertain it. If the external CKT is trying to push the
conventional current in the direction of error, the diode is forward
biased. One the other hand if the conventional current is trying is
trying to flow opposite the error head, the diode is reversed biased
putting in simple words.
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2. Sometimes red and blue marks are on the body of the crystal
diode. Red mark do not arrow where’s blue mark indicates
bar e .g oa80 crystal diode.
ZENER DIODE-
Conclusions
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The partial success of the experiments requires a separate work of
validation of finite element results. A complete instrumentation is
required to:
- measure the precise magnitude and orientation of each magnet’s
magnetization
- measure the temperature of the disc
- measure the flux density in the airgap
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REFERENCES
[1] R. Limpert, Brake Design and Safety. Warrendale, PA: Society of Automotive
Engineers, 1999.
[2] Robert Bosch GmbH, Bosch Automotive Handbook. Warrendale, PA: Society of
Automotive Engineers, 2004.
[3] Telma. (2004, December). Nos Produits. [Online]. Available: www.telma.com.
[4] H. Sakamoto, “Design of permanent magnet type compact ECB retarder,” Society
of Automotive Engineers #973228, pp. 19-25, 1997.
[5] H.P.R. Frederikse, “Properties of magnetic materials,” in CRC Handbook of
Physics and Chemistry. New York: CRC Press, 1996.
[6] Knorr-Bremse AG. (2005, March). Braking systems. [Online]. Available:
http://www.knorr-bremse.com/.
[7] Alstom Transport. (2005, March). Passenger trains. [Online], Available:
http://www.transport.alstom.com/.
[8] Komatsu Ltd. (2005, March). Construction and mining equipment. [Online].
Available: http://www.komatsu.com/.
[9] Kawasaki Motor Co. (2005, March). Motorcycles. [Online]. Available:
http://www.kawasaki.com.
[10] American Suzuki Motor Co. (2005, March). Motorcycles. [Online]. Available:
http://www.suzukicycles.com/.
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