A PROJECT REPORT

ON

ELECTROMAGNETIC DISK
BRAKE

INTRODUCTION
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Electromagnetic brakes have been used as supplementary retardation
equipment in addition to the regular friction brakes on heavy vehicles.
We outline the general principles of regular brakes and several
alternative retardation techniques in this section. The working
principle and characteristics of electromagnetic brakes are then
highlighted.
The disc brake or disk brake is a device for slowing or stopping the
rotation of a wheel. A brake disc usually made of cast iron or ceramic
composites is connected to the wheel and the axle. To stop the wheel,
friction material in the form of brake pads is forced mechanically,
hydraulically, pneumatically or electromagnetically against both sides
of the disc. Friction causes the disc and attached wheel to slow or
stop. But in our project electromagnetic energy is used as the source
of power, due to high applied force and torque

REQUIREMENTS
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 1. Frame
2. Disk
3. Motor
4. Electromagnetic coil
5. Switch

WORKING
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In this project we move the one disk from the motor. If we press the
button break is apply through electromagnetic coil. We use 2
electromagnetic coils. Iron frame is used. When we press the switch
firstly supply is applied on the electromagnetic coil and
simultaneously motor power is cut off. So that break applies by this
process.

BLOCK DIAGRAM

4
 TRANSFORMER

RECTIFIER

CAPACITOR

MOTOR ELECTROMAGNETIC
DISK COIL

Creating an Electromagnet

Wrap magnet
wire around the
soft iron core
(bolt)
North
South

Attach wire
ends
to your
interface

-‘ve +‘v

5
eThings to remember about electromagnets:

• The more coils you make, the stronger the magnet.

• Magnet wire works better, because it is thinner and more coils

you can get.

• A soft iron core will make the magnet work better (a bolt).

General Principle of Brake System

The principle of braking in road vehicles involves the conversion of kinetic
energy into thermal energy (heat). When stepping on the brakes, the driver
commands a stopping force several times as powerful as the force that puts the
car in motion and dissipates the associated kinetic energy as heat. Brakes must
be able to arrest the speed of a vehicle in short periods of time regardless how
fast the speed is. As a result, the brakes are required to have the ability to
generating high torque and absorbing energy at extremely high rates for short
periods of time. Brakes may be applied for a prolonged periods of time in some
applications such as a heavy vehicle descending a long gradient at high speed.
Brakes have to have the mechanism to keep the heat absorption capability for
prolonged periods of time.

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7
Advantage of Electromagnetic Brakes (retarders) Installation
Location

Electromagnetic brakes work in a relatively cool condition and satisfy all the
energy requirements of braking at high speeds, completely without the use of
friction. Due to its specific installation location (transmission line of rigid
vehicles), electromagnetic brakes have better heat dissipation capability to
avoid problems that friction brakes face as we mentioned before. Typically,
electromagnetic brakes have been mounted in the transmission line of vehicles,
as shown in figure 2.2. The propeller shaft is divided and fitted with a sliding
universal joint and is connected to the coupling flange on the brake.
The brake is fitted into the chassis of the vehicle by means of anti-vibration
mounting.
The practical location of the retarder within the vehicle prevents the direct
impingement of air on the retarder caused by the motion of the vehicle. Any air
flow movement within the chassis of the vehicle is found to have a relatively
insignificant effect on the air flow around tire areas and hence on the
temperature of both front and rear discs. So the application of the retarder does
not affect the temperature of the regular brakes. In that way, the retarders help
to extend the life span of the regular brakes and keep the regular brakes cool for
emergency situation.

MAGNET
Iron filings that have oriented in the magnetic field produced by a bar
magnet

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Magnetic field lines of a solenoid which are similar to a bar magnet
as illustrated above with the iron filings

A magnet (from Greek μαγνήτης λίθος, "Magnesian stone") is a

material or object that produces a magnetic field. This magnetic field
is invisible but is responsible for the most notable property of a
magnet: a force that pulls on other magnetic materials and attracts or
repels other magnets. A permanent magnet is one that stays
magnetized, such as a magnet used to hold notes on a refrigerator
door. Materials which can be magnetized, which are also the ones that
are strongly attracted to a magnet, are called ferromagnetic. These
include iron, nickel, cobalt, some rare earth metals and some of their
alloys, and some naturally occurring minerals such as lodestone. The
other type of magnet is an electromagnet, a coil of wire which acts as
a magnet when an electric current passes through it, but stops being a
magnet when the current stops. Often an electromagnet is wrapped
around a core of ferromagnetic material like steel, which enhances the
magnetic field produced by the coil. Permanent magnets are made
from "hard" ferromagnetic materials which are designed to stay
magnetized, while "soft" ferromagnetic materials like soft iron are
attracted to a magnet but don't tend to stay magnetized.
Although ferromagnetic materials are the only ones strongly enough
attracted to a magnet to be commonly considered "magnetic", all
other substances respond weakly to a magnetic field, by one of
several other types of magnetism. Paramagnetic materials, such as
aluminum and oxygen are weakly attracted to a magnet. Diamagnetic
materials, such as carbon and water, which include all substances not
having another type of magnetism, are weakly repelled by a magnet.
The overall strength of a magnet is measured by its magnetic
moment, while the local strength of the magnetism in a material is
measured by its magnetization.
Background on the physics of magnetism and magnets
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http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:The_Effects_of_Magnetism.JPG
The effects of magnetism.

Magnetic field
The magnetic field (usually denoted B) is called a field (physics)
because it has a value at every point in space. The magnetic field (at a
given point) is specified by two properties: (1) its direction, which is
along the orientation of a compass needle; and (2) its magnitude (also
called strength), which is proportional to how strongly the compass
needle orients along that direction. Direction and magnitude makes B
a vector, so B is a vector field. (B can also depend on time.) In SI
units the strength of the magnetic field is given in teslas.

Magnetic moment

A magnet's magnetic moment (also called magnetic dipole

moment, and usually denoted μ) is a vector that characterizes the
magnet's overall magnetic properties. For a bar magnet, the direction
of the magnetic moment points from the magnet's north pole to its
south pole, and the magnitude relates to how strong and how far apart
these poles are. In SI units the magnetic moment is specified in terms
of A·m².
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A magnet both produces its own magnetic field and it responds to
magnetic fields. The strength of the magnetic field it produces is at
any given point proportional to the magnitude of its magnetic
moment. In addition, when the magnet is put into an "external"
magnetic field produced by a different source, it is subject to a torque
tending to orient the magnetic moment parallel to the field. The
amount of this torque is proportional both to the magnetic moment
and the "external" field. A magnet may also be subject to a force
driving it in one direction or another, according to the positions and
orientations of the magnet and source. If the field is uniform in space
the magnet is subject to no net force, although it is subject to a torque.
A wire in the shape of a circle with area A and carrying current I is a
magnet, with a magnetic moment of magnitude equal to IA.

Magnetization

The magnetization of an object is the local value of its magnetic

moment per unit volume, usually denoted M, with units A/m. It is a
vector field, rather than just a vector (like the magnetic moment),
because the different sections of a bar magnet generally are
magnetized with different directions and strengths (for example, due
to domains, see below). A good bar magnet may have a magnetic
moment of magnitude 0.1 A·m² and a volume of 1 cm³, or 0.000001
m³, and therefore an average magnetization magnitude is 100,000
A/m. Iron can have a magnetization of around a million A/m. Such a
large value explains why magnets are so effective at producing
magnetic fields.

Two models for magnets: magnetic poles and atomic currents

See also: Magnetic moment#Examples of magnetic moments

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Magnetic pole model: Although for many purposes it is convenient
to think of a magnet as having distinct north and south magnetic
poles, the concept of poles should not be taken literally: it is merely a
way of referring to the two different ends of a magnet. The magnet
does not have distinct "north" or "south" particles on opposing sides.
(No magnetic monopole has yet been observed.) If a bar magnet is
broken in half, in an attempt to separate the north and south poles, the
result will be two bar magnets, each of which has both a north and
south pole.
The magnetic pole approach is used by professional magneticians to
design permanent magnets. In this approach, the pole surfaces of a
permanent magnet are imagined to be covered with 'magnetic charge',
little 'North pole' particles on the North pole and 'South poles' on the
south pole, that are the source of the magnetic field lines. If the
magnetic pole distribution is known, then outside the magnet the pole
model gives the magnetic field exactly. By simply supplementing the
pole model field with a term proportional to the magnetization (see
Units and Calculations, below) the magnetic field within the magnet
is given exactly. This pole model is also called the "Gilbert model" of
a magnetic dipole.[1] Griffiths suggests (p. 258): "My advice is to use
the Gilbert model, if you like, to get an intuitive "feel" for a problem,
but never rely on it for quantitative results."
Ampère model: Another model is the "Ampère model", where all
magnetization is due to the effect of microscopic, or atomic, circular
"bound currents", also called "Ampèrian currents" throughout the
material. For a uniformly magnetized bar magnet in the shape of a
cylinder, the net effect of the microscopic bound currents is to make
the magnet behave as if there is a macroscopic sheet of electric
current flowing around the surface of the cylinder, with local flow
direction normal to the cylinder axis. (Since scraping off the outer
layer of a magnet will not destroy its magnetic field, it can be seen
that this is just a model, and the tiny currents are actually distributed
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throughout the material). The right-hand rule due to Ampère tells
which direction the current flows. The Ampere model gives the exact
magnetic field both inside and outside the magnet. It is usually
difficult to calculate the Amperian currents on the surface of a
magnet, whereas it is often easier to find the effective poles for the
same magnet.

Pole naming conventions

The north pole of the magnet is the pole which, when the magnet is
freely suspended, points towards the Earth's magnetic north pole in
northern Canada. Since opposite poles (north and south) attract
whereas like poles (north and north, or south and south) repel, the
Earth's present geographic north is thus actually its magnetic south.
Confounding the situation further, the Earth's magnetic field has
reversed itself many times in the distant past.
In order to avoid this confusion, the terms positive and negative poles
are sometimes used instead of north and south, respectively.
As a practical matter, in order to tell which pole of a magnet is north
and which is south, it is not necessary to use the earth's magnetic field
at all. For example, one calibration method would be to compare it to
an electromagnet, whose poles can be identified via the right-hand
rule.

Descriptions of magnetic behaviors

There are several types of magnetism, and all materials exhibit at
least one of them. This section describes, qualitatively, the primary
types of magnetic behavior that materials can show. The physics
underlying each of these behaviors is described in the next section
below, and can also be found in more detail in their respective
articles.

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 Ferromagnetic and ferrimagnetic materials are the ones
normally thought of as 'magnetic'; they are attracted to a magnet
strongly enough that the attraction can be felt. These materials
are the only ones that can retain magnetization and become
magnets; a common example is a traditional refrigerator
magnet. Ferrimagnetic materials, which include ferrites and the
oldest magnetic materials magnetite and lodestone, are similar
to but weaker than ferromagnetics. The difference between
ferro- and ferrimagnetic materials is related to their microscopic
structure, as explained below.
 Paramagnetic substances such as platinum, aluminum, and
oxygen are weakly attracted to a magnet. This effect is hundreds
of thousands of times weaker than ferromagnetic materials
attraction, so it can only be detected by using sensitive
instruments, or using extremely strong magnets. Magnetic
ferrofluids, although they are made of tiny ferromagnetic
particles suspended in liquid, are sometimes considered
paramagnetic since they can't be magnetized.
 Diamagnetic substances such as carbon, copper, water, and
plastic are even more weakly repelled by a magnet. All
substances not possessing one of the other types of magnetism
are diamagnetic; this includes most substances. Although force
on a diamagnetic object from an ordinary magnet is far too
weak to be felt, using extremely strong superconducting
magnets diamagnetic objects such as pieces of lead and even
frogs can be levitated so they float in midair. Superconductors
repel magnetic fields from their interior and are strongly
diamagnetic.

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Physics of magnetic behaviors

Overview
Magnetism, at its root, arises from two sources:
 Electric currents, or more generally moving electric charges,
create magnetic fields (see Maxwell's Equations).
 Many particles have nonzero "intrinsic" (or "spin") magnetic
moments. (Just as each particle, by its nature, has a certain mass
and charge, each has a certain magnetic moment, possibly zero.)
In magnetic materials, the most important sources of magnetization
are, more specifically, the electrons' orbital angular motion around the
nucleus, and the electrons' intrinsic magnetic moment (see Electron
magnetic dipole moment). The other potential sources of magnetism
are much less important: For example, the nuclear magnetic moments
of the nuclei in the material are typically thousands of times smaller
than the electrons' magnetic moments, so they are negligible in the
context of the magnetization of materials. (Nuclear magnetic
moments are important in other contexts, particularly in Nuclear
Magnetic Resonance (NMR) and Magnetic Resonance Imaging
(MRI).)
Ordinarily, the countless electrons in a material are arranged such that
their magnetic moments (both orbital and intrinsic) cancel out. This is
due, to some extent, to electrons combining into pairs with opposite
intrinsic magnetic moments (as a result of the Pauli exclusion
principle; see Electron configuration), or combining into "filled
subshells" with zero net orbital motion; in both cases, the electron
arrangement is so as to exactly cancel the magnetic moments from
each electron. Moreover, even when the electron configuration is such
that there are unpaired electrons and/or non-filled subshells, it is often
the case that the various electrons in the solid will contribute

15
magnetic moments that point in different, random directions, so that
the material will not be magnetic.
However, sometimes (either spontaneously, or due to an applied
external magnetic field) each of the electron magnetic moments will
be, on average, lined up. Then the material can produce a net total
magnetic field, which can potentially be quite strong.
The magnetic behavior of a material depends on its structure
(particularly its electron configuration, for the reasons mentioned
above), and also on the temperature (at high temperatures, random
thermal motion makes it more difficult for the electrons to maintain
alignment).

Physics of paramagnetism

In a paramagnetic material there are unpaired electrons, i.e. atomic or

molecular orbitals with exactly one electron in them. While paired
electrons are required by the Pauli exclusion principle to have their
intrinsic ('spin') magnetic moments pointing in opposite directions,
causing their magnetic fields to cancel out, an unpaired electron is
free to align its magnetic moment in any direction. When an external
magnetic field is applied, these magnetic moments will tend to align
themselves in the same direction as the applied field, thus reinforcing
it.

Physics of diamagnetism
In a diamagnetic material, there are no unpaired electrons, so the
intrinsic electron magnetic moments cannot produce any bulk effect.
In these cases, the magnetization arises from the electrons' orbital
motions, which can be understood classically as follows:
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When a material is put in a magnetic field, the electrons circling the
nucleus will experience, in addition to their Coulomb attraction to the
nucleus, a Lorentz force from the magnetic field. Depending on
which direction the electron is orbiting, this force may increase the
centripetal force on the electrons, pulling them in towards the
nucleus, or it may decrease the force, pulling them away from the
nucleus. This effect systematically increases the orbital magnetic
moments that were aligned opposite the field, and decreases the ones
aligned parallel to the field (in accordance with Lenz's law). This
results in a small bulk magnetic moment, with an opposite direction
to the applied field.
Note that this description is meant only as an heuristic; a proper
understanding requires a quantum-mechanical description.
Note that all materials undergo this orbital response. However, in
paramagnetic and ferromagnetic substances, the diamagnetic effect is
overwhelmed by the much stronger effects caused by the unpaired
electrons.

Physics of ferromagnetism

A ferromagnet, like a paramagnetic substance, has unpaired electrons.

However, in addition to the electrons' intrinsic magnetic moments
wanting to be parallel to an applied field, there is also in these
materials a tendency for these magnetic moments to want to be
parallel to each other. Thus, even when the applied field is removed,
the electrons in the material can keep each other continually pointed
in the same direction.
Every ferromagnetic substance has its own individual temperature,
called the Curie temperature, or Curie point, above which it loses its
ferromagnetic properties. This is because the thermal tendency to
disorder overwhelms the energy-lowering due to ferromagnetic order.
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Magnetic Domains

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Ferromag_Matl_Sketch.JPG
Magnetic domains in ferromagnetic material.

The magnetic moment of atoms in a ferromagnetic material cause

them to behave something like tiny permanent magnets. They stick
together and align themselves into small regions of more or less
uniform alignment called magnetic domains or Weiss domains.
Magnetic domains can be observed with a magnetic force microscope
to reveal magnetic domain boundaries that resemble white lines in the
sketch.There are many scientific experiments that can physically
show magnetic fields.

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Ferromag_Matl_Magnetized.JPG
Effect of a magnet on the domains.When a domain contains too many
molecules, it becomes unstable and divides into two domains aligned

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in opposite directions so that they stick together more stably as shown
at the right.

When exposed to a magnetic field, the domain boundaries move so

that the domains aligned with the magnetic field grow and dominate
the structure as shown at the left. When the magnetizing field is
removed, the domains may not return to a unmagnetized state. This
results in the ferromagnetic material being magnetized, forming a
permanent magnet.
When magnetized strongly enough that the prevailing domain
overruns all others to result in only one single domain, the material is
magnetically saturated. When a magnetized ferromagnetic material is
heated to the Curie point temperature, the molecules are agitated to
the point that the magnetic domains lose the organization and the
magnetic properties they cause cease. When the material is cooled,
this domain alignment structure spontaneously returns, in a manner
roughly analogous to how a liquid can freeze into a crystalline solid.
Electromagnetic brakes (also called electro-mechanical brakes or
EM brakes) slow or stop motion using electromagnetic force to
apply mechanical resistance (friction). The original name was
"electro-mechanical brakes" but over the years the name changed to
"electromagnetic brakes", referring to their actuation method. Since
becoming popular in the mid-20th century especially in trains and
trolleys, the variety of applications and brake designs has increased
dramatically, but the basic operation remains the same.
Both electromagnetic brakes and eddy current brakes use
electromagnetic force but electromagnetic brakes ultimately depend
on friction and eddy current brakes use magnetic force directly.
Types
Single face brake

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A-3 Electromagentic brake
Main article: Friction-plate electromagnetic couplings

A friction-plate brake uses a single plate friction surface to engage the

input and output members of the clutch. Single face electromagnetic
brakes make up approximately 80% of all of the power applied brake
applications.
Power off brake

Electormagnetic Power Off Brake Spring Set

Power off brakes stop or hold a load when electrical power is either
accidentally lost or intentionally disconnected. In the past, some
companies have referred to these as "fail safe" brakes. These brakes
are typically used on or near an electric motor. Typical applications

20
include robotics, holding brakes for Z axis ball screws and servo
motor brakes. Brakes are available in multiple voltages and can have
either standard backlash or zero backlash hubs. Multiple disks can
also be used to increase brake torque, without increasing brake
diameter. There are 2 main types of holding brakes. The first is spring
applied brakes. The second is permanent magnet brakes.
Spring type - When no electricity is applied to the brake, a spring
pushes against a pressure plate, squeezing the friction disk between
the inner pressure plate and the outer cover plate. This frictional
clamping force is transferred to the hub, which is mounted to a shaft.
Permanent magnet type – A permanent magnet holding brake looks
very similar to a standard power applied electromagnetic brake.
Instead of squeezing a friction disk, via springs, it uses permanent
magnets to attract a single face armature. When the brake is engaged,
the permanent magnets create magnetic lines of flux, which can turn
attract the armature to the brake housing. To disengage the brake,
power is applied to the coil which sets up an alternate magnetic field
that cancels out the magnetic flux of the permanent magnets.
Both powers off brakes are considered to be engaged when no power
is applied to them. They are typically required to hold or to stop alone
in the event of a loss of power or when power is not available in a
machine circuit. Permanent magnet brakes have a very high torque
for their size, but also require a constant current control to offset the
permanent magnetic field. Spring applied brakes do not require a
constant current control, they can use a simple rectifier, but are larger
in diameter or would need stacked friction disks to increase the
torque.
Particle brake

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Magnetic Particle Brake

Magnetic particle brakes are unique in their design from other electro-
mechanical brakes because of the wide operating torque range
available. Like an electro-mechanical brake, torque to voltage is
almost linear; however, in a magnetic particle brake, torque can be
controlled very accurately (within the operating RPM range of the
unit). This makes these units ideally suited for tension control
applications, such as wire winding, foil, film, and tape tension
control. Because of their fast response, they can also be used in high
cycle applications, such as magnetic card readers, sorting machines
and labeling equipment.
Magnetic particles (very similar to iron filings) are located in the
powder cavity. When electricity is applied to the coil, the resulting
magnetic flux tries to bind the particles together, almost like a
magnetic particle slush. As the electric current is increased, the
binding of the particles becomes stronger. The brake rotor passes
through these bound particles. The output of the housing is rigidly
attached to some portion of the machine. As the particles start to bind
together, a resistant force is created on the rotor, slowing, and
eventually stopping the output shaft.
When electricity is removed from the brake, the input is free to turn
with the shaft. Since magnetic particle powder is in the cavity, all

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magnetic particle units have some type of minimum drag associated
with them.
Hysteresis power brake

Electomagnetic Hysteresis Power Brake

Electrical hysteresis units have an extremely wide torque range. Since

these units can be controlled remotely, they are ideal for test stand
applications where varying torque is required. Since drag torque is
minimal, these units offer the widest available torque range of any of
the hysteresis products. Most applications involving powered
hysteresis units are in test stand requirements.
When electricity is applied to the field, it creates an internal magnetic
flux. That flux is then transferred into a hysteresis disk passing
through the field. The hysteresis disk is attached to the brake shaft. A
magnetic drag on the hysteresis disk allows for a constant drag, or
eventual stoppage of the output shaft.
When electricity is removed from the brake, the hysteresis disk is free
to turn, and no relative force is transmitted between either member.
Therefore, the only torque seen between the input and the output is
bearing drag.
Multiple disk brake

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Electromagnetic Multiple Disk Brake

Multiple disk brakes are used to deliver extremely high torque within
a small space. These brakes can be used either wet or dry, which
makes them ideal to run in multi-speed gear box applications,
machine tool applications, or in off road equipment.
Electro-mechanical disk brakes operate via electrical actuation, but
transmit torque mechanically. When electricity is applied to the coil
of an electromagnet, the magnetic flux attracts the armature to the
face of the brake. As it does so, it squeezes the inner and outer friction
disks together. The hub is normally mounted on the shaft that is
rotating. The brake housing is mounted solidly to the machine frame.
As the disks are squeezed, torque is transmitted from the hub into the
machine frame, stopping and holding the shaft.
When electricity is removed from the brake, the armature is free to
turn with the shaft. Springs keep the friction disk and armature away
from each other. There is no contact between braking surfaces and
minimal drag.

MOTOR
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A motor is an electric motor driven by an alternating current.

It commonly consists of two basic parts, an outside stationary stator having

coils supplied with alternating current to produce a rotating magnetic field, and
an inside rotor attached to the output shaft that is given a torque by the rotating
field.

There are two main types of AC motors, depending on the type of rotor used.
The first type is the induction motor, which runs slightly slower than the supply
frequency. The magnetic field on the rotor of this motor is created by an
induced current. The second type is the synchronous motor, which does not rely
on induction and as a result, can rotate exactly at the supply frequency or a sub-
multiple of the supply frequency. The magnetic field on the rotor is either
generated by current delivered through slip rings or by a permanent magnet.
Other types of motors include eddy current motors, and also AC/DC
mechanically commutated machines in which speed is dependent on voltage
and winding connection.

Motor is a device that creates motion, not an engine; it usually refers

to either an electrical motor or an internal combustion engine. It may
also refer to:
 Electric motor, a machine that converts electricity into a
mechanical motion
o AC motor, an electric motor that is driven by alternating current
 Synchronous motor, an alternating current motor distinguished
by a rotor spinning with coils passing magnets at the same rate as
the alternating current and resulting magnetic field which drives it
 Induction motor, also called a squirrel-cage motor, a type of
asynchronous alternating current motor where power is supplied
to the rotating device by means of electromagnetic induction
o DC motor, an electric motor that runs on direct current
electricity

25
  Brushed DC electric motor, an internally commutated electric
motor designed to be run from a direct current power source
 Brushless DC motor, a synchronous electric motor which is
powered by direct current electricity and has an electronically
controlled commutation system, instead of a mechanical
commutation system based on brushes
o Electrostatic motor, a type of electric motor based on the
attraction and repulsion of electric charge
o Servo motor, an electric motor that operates a servo,
commonly used in robotics
o Internal fan-cooled electric motor, an electric motor that is
self-cooled by a fan, typically used for motors with a high energy
density
Other uses:
 Actuator, a mechanical device for moving or controlling a
mechanism or system
 Hydraulic motor, a machine that converts the energy of
pressurized liquid flow into mechanical motion
 Rocket motor, usually refers to solid rocket engines
 Molecular motor, the agents of movement in living organisms
o Synthetic molecular motor, molecular machines capable of
rotation under energy input
 Motor language, extinct since the 1840s, a Uralic language that
was spoken in the northern region of the Sayan Mountains in
Siberia
 Motor system, the physiological system that is responsible for
physical movement
o Motor neuron, neurons that originate in the spinal cord and
synapse with muscle fibers
o Motor skill, the ability of an organism to use the motor
system effectively

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 Nanomotor, a molecular device capable of converting energy
into movement
 Pneumatic motor, a machine that converts the energy of
compressed air into mechanical motion
 The Motors, a British pub rock/punk band, formed in 1977 by
Nick Garvey, Andy McMaster, Ricky Slaughter and Rob
Hendry, who was replaced by Bram Tchaikovsky the same year

27
An electric motor uses electrical energy to produce mechanical
energy, very typically through the interaction of magnetic fields and
current-carrying conductors. The reverse process, producing electrical
energy from mechanical energy, is accomplished by a generator or
dynamo. Many types of electric motors can be run as generators, and
vice versa. For example a starter/generator for a gas turbine or
Traction motors used on vehicles often perform both tasks.
Electric motors are found in applications as diverse as industrial fans,
blowers and pumps, machine tools, household appliances, power
tools, and disk drives. They may be powered by direct current (for
example a battery powered portable device or motor vehicle), or by
alternating current from a central electrical distribution grid. The
smallest motors may be found in electric wristwatches. Medium-size
motors of highly standardized dimensions and characteristics provide
convenient mechanical power for industrial uses. The very largest
electric motors are used for propulsion of large ships, and for such
compressors, with ratings in the millions of watts. Electric motors
may be classified by the source of electric power, by their internal
construction, by their application, or by the type of motion they give.

28
The physical principle of production of mechanical force by the
interactions of an electric current and a magnetic field was known as
early as 1821. Electric motors of increasing efficiency were
constructed throughout the 19th century, but commercial exploitation
of electric motors on a large scale required efficient electrical
generators and electrical distribution networks.
Some devices, such as magnetic solenoids and loudspeakers, although
they generate some mechanical power, are not generally referred to as
electric motors, and are usually termed actuators and transducers,
respectively.

The principle
The conversion of electrical energy into mechanical energy by
electromagnetic means was demonstrated by the British scientist
Michael Faraday in 1821. A free-hanging wire was dipped into a pool
of mercury, on which a permanent magnet was placed. When a
current was passed through the wire, the wire rotated around the
magnet, showing that the current gave rise to a circular magnetic field
around the wire. This motor is often demonstrated in school physics
classes, but brine (salt water) is sometimes used in place of the toxic
mercury. This is the simplest form of a class of devices called
homopolar motors. A later refinement is the Barlow's Wheel. These
were demonstration devices only, unsuited to practical applications
due to their primitive construction.

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Jedlik's "lightning-magnetic self-rotor", 1827. (Museum of Applied
Arts, Budapest.)

In 1827, Hungarian Ányos Jedlik started experimenting with

electromagnetic rotating devices he called "lightning-magnetic self-
rotors". He used them for instructive purposes in universities, and in
1828 demonstrated the first device which contained the three main
components of practical direct current motors: the stator, rotor and
commutator. Both the stationary and the revolving parts were
electromagnetic, employing no permanent magnets.Again, the
devices had no practical application.

The first electric motors

The first commutator-type direct current electric motor capable of
turning machinery was invented by the British scientist William
Sturgeon in 1832.Following Sturgeon's work, a commutator-type
direct-current electric motor made with the intention of commercial
use was built by Americans Emily and Thomas Davenport and
patented in 1837. Their motors ran at up to 600 revolutions per
minute, and powered machine tools and a printing press. Due to the
high cost of the zinc electrodes required by primary battery power,
the motors were commercially unsuccessful and the Davenports went
bankrupt. Several inventors followed Sturgeon in the development of
DC motors but all encountered the same cost issues with primary
battery power. No electricity distribution had been developed at the
time. Like Sturgeon's motor, there was no practical commercial
market for these motors.
In 1855 Jedlik built a device using similar principles to those used in
his electromagnetic self-rotors that was capable of useful work. He
built a model electric motor-propelled vehicle that same year. There is
no evidence that this experimentation was communicated to the wider

30
scientific world at that time, or that it influenced the development of
electric motors in the following decades.
The modern DC motor was invented by accident in 1873, when
Zénobe Gramme connected the dynamo he had invented to a second
similar unit, driving it as a motor. The Gramme machine was the first
electric motor that was successful in the industry. In 1886 Frank
Julian Sprague invented the first practical DC motor, a non-sparking
motor capable of constant speed under variable loads. Other Sprague
electric inventions about this time greatly improved grid electric
distribution [prior work done while employed by Edison], allowed
power from electric motors to be returned to the electric grid,
provided for electric distribution to trolleys via overhead wires and
the trolley pole, and provided controls systems for electric operations.
This allowed Sprague to use electric motors to invent the first electric
trolley system in 1887-88 in Richmond VA, the electric elevator and
control system in 1892, and the electric subway with independently
powered centrally controlled cars, which was first installed in 1892 in
Chicago by the South Side Elevated Railway where it became
popularly known as the "L". Sprague's motor and related inventions
led to an explosion of interest and use in electric motors for industry,
while almost simultaneously another great inventor was developing
its primary competitor, which would become much more widespread.
In 1888 Nikola Tesla invented the first practicable AC motor and with
it the polyphase power transmission system. Tesla continued his work
on the AC motor in the years to follow at the Westinghouse company.
[citation needed]

The development of electric motors of acceptable efficiency was

delayed for several decades by failure to recognize the extreme
importance of a relatively-small air gap between rotor and stator.
Early motors, for some rotor positions, had comparatively huge air
gaps which constituted a very high reluctance magnetic circuit. They
31
produced far-lower torque than an equivalent amount of power would
produce with efficient designs. The cause of the lack of understanding
seems to be that early designs were based on familiarity of distant
attraction between a magnet and a piece of ferromagnetic material, or
between two electromagnets. Efficient designs, as this article
describes, are based on a rotor with a comparatively small air gap,
and flux patterns that create torque.
Note that the armature bars are at some distance (unknown) from the
field pole pieces when power is fed to one of the field magnets; the
air gap is likely to be considerable. The text tells of the inefficiency of
the design. (Electricity was created, as a practical matter, by
consuming zinc in wet primary cells!)
In his workshops Froment had an electromotive engine of one-horse
power. But, though an interesting application of the transformation of
energy, these machines will never be practically applied on the large
scale in manufactures, for the expense of the acids and the zinc which
they use very far exceeds that of the coal in steam-engines of the
same force. [...] motors worked by electricity, independently of any
question as to the cost of construction, or of the cost of the acids, are
at least sixty times as dear to work as steam-engines.
Although Gramme's design was comparatively much more efficient,
apparently the Froment motor was still considered illustrative, years
later. It is of some interest that the St. Louis motor, long used in
classrooms to illustrate motor principles, is extremely inefficient for
the same reason, as well as appearing nothing like a modern motor.
Photo of a traditional form of the motor: [3] Note the prominent bar
magnets, and the huge air gap at the ends opposite the rotor. Even
modern versions still have big air gaps if the rotor poles are not
aligned.
Application of electric motors revolutionized industry. Industrial
processes were no longer limited by power transmission using shaft,
32
belts, compressed air or hydraulic pressure. Instead every machine
could be equipped with its own electric motor, providing easy control
at the point of use, and improving power transmission efficiency.
Electric motors applied in agriculture eliminated human and animal
muscle power from such tasks as handling grain or pumping water.
Household uses of electric motors reduced heavy labor in the home
and made higher standards of convenience, comfort and safety
possible. Today, electric motors consume more than half of all electric
energy produced.

Categorization of electric motors

The classic division of electric motors has been that of Alternating
Current (AC) types vs Direct Current (DC) types. This is more a de
facto convention, rather than a rigid distinction. For example, many
classic DC motors run on AC power, these motors being referred to as
universal motors.
Rated output power is also used to categorise motors, those of less
than 746 Watts, for example, are often referred to as fractional
horsepower motors (FHP) in reference to the old imperial
measurement.
The ongoing trend toward electronic control further muddles the
distinction, as modern drivers have moved the commutator out of the
motor shell. For this new breed of motor, driver circuits are relied
upon to generate sinusoidal AC drive currents, or some approximation
thereof. The two best examples are: the brushless DC motor and the
stepping motor, both being poly-phase AC motors requiring external
electronic control, although historically, stepping motors (such as for
maritime and naval gyrocompass repeaters) were driven from DC
switched by contacts.
Considering all rotating (or linear) electric motors require
synchronism between a moving magnetic field and a moving current
33
sheet for average torque production, there is a clearer distinction
between an asynchronous motor and synchronous types. An
asynchronous motor requires slip between the moving magnetic field
and a winding set to induce current in the winding set by mutual
inductance; the most ubiquitous example being the common AC
induction motor which must slip to generate torque. In the
synchronous types, induction (or slip) is not a requisite for magnetic
field or current production (e.g. permanent magnet motors,
synchronous brush-less wound-rotor doubly-fed electric machine).

Comparison of motor types

Comparison of motor types[15]
Typical Typical
Type Advantages Disadvantages
Application Drive
Least Rotation slips
AC Induction expensive from frequency Uni/Poly-
(Shaded Fans
Long life Low starting phase AC
Pole) high power torque

AC Induction High power Rotation slips Uni/Poly-

(split-phase high starting from frequency Appliances phase AC
capacitor) torque
Industrial
Rotation in-
motors
sync with
AC Clocks Uni/Poly-
freq More expensive
Synchronous long-life Audio phase AC
turntables
(alternator)
tape drives
Stepper DC Precision Requires a Positioning in DC
positioning controller printers and

34
 High holding
floppy drives
torque
Long
Hard drives
lifespan
High initial cost CD/DVD
low
Brushless DC maintenance Requires a players DC
controller electric
High
vehicles
efficiency
Low initial High Treadmill
cost maintenance exercisers Direct DC
Brushed DC Simple speed (brushes) automotive or PWM
control Low lifespan starters
Compact
Medium cost
design Office Equip Direct DC
Pancake DC Simple speed Medium Fans/Pumps or PWM
lifespan
control

Servo motor
Main article: Servo motor

A servomechanism,or servo is an automatic device that uses error-

sensing feedback to correct the performance of a mechanism. The
term correctly applies only to systems where the feedback or error-
correction signals help control mechanical position or other
parameters. For example, an automotive power window control is not
a servomechanism, as there is no automatic feedback which controls
position—the operator does this by observation. By contrast the car's
cruise control uses closed loop feedback, which classifies it as a
servomechanism.

35
Synchronous electric motor
Main article: Synchronous motor

A synchronous electric motor is an AC motor distinguished by a rotor

spinning with coils passing magnets at the same rate as the alternating
current and resulting magnetic field which drives it. Another way of
saying this is that it has zero slip under usual operating conditions.
Contrast this with an induction motor, which must slip to produce
torque. A synchronous motor is like an induction motor except the
rotor is excited by a DC field. Slip rings and brushes are used to
conduct current to rotor. The rotor poles connect to each other and
move at the same speed hence the name synchronous motor.

Induction motor
Main article: Induction motor

An induction motor (IM) is a type of asynchronous AC motor where

power is supplied to the rotating device by means of electromagnetic
induction. Another commonly used name is squirrel cage motor
because the rotor bars with short circuit rings resemble a squirrel cage
(hamster wheel). An electric motor converts electrical power to
mechanical power in its rotor (rotating part). There are several ways
to supply power to the rotor. In a DC motor this power is supplied to
the armature directly from a DC source, while in an induction motor
this power is induced in the rotating device. An induction motor is
sometimes called a rotating transformer because the stator (stationary
part) is essentially the primary side of the transformer and the rotor
(rotating part) is the secondary side. Induction motors are widely
used, especially polyphase induction motors, which are frequently
used in industrial drives.

Electrostatic motor (capacitor motor)

Main article: Electrostatic motor
36
An electrostatic motor or capacitor motor is a type of electric motor
based on the attraction and repulsion of electric charge. Usually,
electrostatic motors are the dual of conventional coil-based motors.
They typically require a high voltage power supply, although very
small motors employ lower voltages. Conventional electric motors
instead employ magnetic attraction and repulsion, and require high
current at low voltages. In the 1750s, the first electrostatic motors
were developed by Benjamin Franklin and Andrew Gordon. Today
the electrostatic motor finds frequent use in micro-mechanical
(MEMS) systems where their drive voltages are below 100 volts, and
where moving, charged plates are far easier to fabricate than coils and
iron cores. Also, the molecular machinery which runs living cells is
often based on linear and rotary electrostatic motors.

DC Motors
A DC motor is designed to run on DC electric power. Two examples
of pure DC designs are Michael Faraday's homopolar motor (which is
uncommon), and the ball bearing motor, which is (so far) a novelty.
By far the most common DC motor types are the brushed and
brushless types, which use internal and external commutation
respectively to create an oscillating AC current from the DC source—
so they are not purely DC machines in a strict sense.

Brushed DC motors
Main article: Brushed DC electric motor

The classic DC motor design generates an oscillating current in a

wound rotor, or armature, with a split ring commutator, and either a
wound or permanent magnet stator. A rotor consists of one or more
coils of wire wound around a core on a shaft; an electrical power
source is connected to the rotor coil through the commutator and its
brushes, causing current to flow in it, producing electromagnetism.
The commutator causes the current in the coils to be switched as the
37
rotor turns, keeping the magnetic poles of the rotor from ever fully
aligning with the magnetic poles of the stator field, so that the rotor
never stops (like a compass needle does) but rather keeps rotating
indefinitely (as long as power is applied and is sufficient for the
motor to overcome the shaft torque load and internal losses due to
friction, etc.)
Many of the limitations of the classic commutator DC motor are due
to the need for brushes to press against the commutator. This creates
friction. At higher speeds, brushes have increasing difficulty in
maintaining contact. Brushes may bounce off the irre crossing the
gaps. Furthermore, the inductance of the rotor coils causes the voltage
across each to rise when its circuit is opened, increasing the sparking
of the brushes.) This sparking limits the maximum speed of the
machine, as too-rapid sparking will overheat, erode, or even melt the
commutator. The current density per unit area of the brushes, in
combination with their resistivity, limits the output of the motor. The
making and breaking of electric contact also causes electrical noise,
and the sparks additionally cause RFI. Brushes eventually wear out
and require replacement, and the commutator itself is subject to wear
and maintenance (on larger motors) or replacement (on small motors).
The commutator assembly on a large machine is a costly element,
requiring precision assembly of many parts. On small motors, the
commutator is usually permanently integrated into the rotor, so
replacing it usually requires replacing the whole rotor.
Large brushes are desired for a larger brush contact area to maximize
motor output, but small brushes are desired for low mass to maximize
the speed at which the motor can run without the brushes excessively
bouncing and sparking (comparable to the problem of "valve float" in
internal combustion engines). (Small brushes are also desirable for
lower cost.) Stiffer brush springs can also be used to make brushes of
a given mass work at a higher speed, but at the cost of greater friction
losses (lower efficiency) and accelerated brush and commutator wear.
38
Therefore, DC motor brush design entails a trade-off between output
power, speed, and efficiency/wear.

A:shunt
B:series
C:compound
f = field coil

There are five types of brushed DC motor:

A. DC shunt wound motor
B. DC series wound motor
C. DC compound motor (two configurations):
 Cumulative compound
 Differentially compounded
D. Permanent Magnet DC Motor (not shown)
E. Separately-excited (sepex) (not shown).

Brushless DC motors
Main article: Brushless DC electric motor

Some of the problems of the brushed DC motor are eliminated in the

brushless design. In this motor, the mechanical "rotating switch" or
commutator/brushgear assembly is replaced by an external electronic
switch synchronised to the rotor's position. Brushless motors are
typically 85-90% efficient or more (higher efficiency for a brushless
electric motor of up to 96.5% were reported by researchers at the
39
Tokai University in Japan in 2009),[16] whereas DC motors with
brushgear are typically 75-80% efficient.
Midway between ordinary DC motors and stepper motors lies the
realm of the brushless DC motor. Built in a fashion very similar to
stepper motors, these often use a permanent magnet external rotor,
three phases of driving coils, one or more Hall effect sensors to sense
the position of the rotor, and the associated drive electronics. The
coils are activated, one phase after the other, by the drive electronics
as cued by the signals from either Hall effect sensors or from the back
EMF (electromotive force) of the undriven coils. In effect, they act as
three-phase synchronous motors containing their own variable-
frequency drive electronics. A specialized class of brushless DC
motor controllers utilize EMF feedback through the main phase
connections instead of Hall effect sensors to determine position and
velocity. These motors are used extensively in electric radio-
controlled vehicles. When configured with the magnets on the
outside, these are referred to by modellers as outrunner motors.
Brushless DC motors are commonly used where precise speed control
is necessary, as in computer disk drives or in video cassette recorders,
the spindles within CD, CD-ROM (etc.) drives, and mechanisms
within office products such as fans, laser printers and photocopiers.
They have several advantages over conventional motors:
 Compared to AC fans using shaded-pole motors, they are very
efficient, running much cooler than the equivalent AC motors.
This cool operation leads to much-improved life of the fan's
bearings.
 Without a commutator to wear out, the life of a DC brushless
motor can be significantly longer compared to a DC motor
using brushes and a commutator. Commutation also tends to
cause a great deal of electrical and RF noise; without a
commutator or brushes, a brushless motor may be used in
40
 electrically sensitive devices like audio equipment or
computers.
 The same Hall effect sensors that provide the commutation can
also provide a convenient tachometer signal for closed-loop
control (servo-controlled) applications. In fans, the tachometer
signal can be used to derive a "fan OK" signal.
 The motor can be easily synchronized to an internal or external
clock, leading to precise speed control.
 Brushless motors have no chance of sparking, unlike brushed
motors, making them better suited to environments with volatile
chemicals and fuels. Also, sparking generates ozone which can
accumulate in poorly ventilated buildings risking harm to
occupants' health.
 Brushless motors are usually used in small equipment such as
computers and are generally used to get rid of unwanted heat.
 They are also very quiet motors which is an advantage if being
used in equipment that is affected by vibrations.
Modern DC brushless motors range in power from a fraction of a watt
to many kilowatts. Larger brushless motors up to about 100 kW rating
are used in electric vehicles. They also find significant use in high-
performance electric model aircraft.

Coreless or ironless DC motors

Nothing in the design of any of the motors described above requires
that the iron (steel) portions of the rotor actually rotate; torque is
exerted only on the windings of the electromagnets. Taking advantage
of this fact is the coreless or ironless DC motor, a specialized form
of a brush or brushless DC motor. Optimized for rapid acceleration,
these motors have a rotor that is constructed without any iron core.
The rotor can take the form of a winding-filled cylinder, or a self-
supporting structure comprising only the magnet wire and the
bonding material. The rotor can fit inside the stator magnets; a
41
magnetically-soft stationary cylinder inside the rotor provides a return
path for the stator magnetic flux. A second arrangement has the rotor
winding basket surrounding the stator magnets. In that design, the
rotor fits inside a magnetically-soft cylinder that can serve as the
housing for the motor, and likewise provides a return path for the
flux.
Because the rotor is much lighter in weight (mass) than a
conventional rotor formed from copper windings on steel laminations,
the rotor can accelerate much more rapidly, often achieving a
mechanical time constant under 1 ms. This is especially true if the
windings use aluminum rather than the heavier copper. But because
there is no metal mass in the rotor to act as a heat sink, even small
coreless motors must often be cooled by forced air.
Related limited-travel actuators have no core and a bonded coil
placed between the poles of high-flux thin permanent magnets. These
are the fast head positioners for rigid-disk ("hard disk") drives.

Printed Armature or Pancake DC Motors

A rather unique motor design the pancake/printed armature motor has
the windings shaped as a disc running between arrays of high-flux
magnets, arranged in a circle, facing the rotor and forming an axial air
gap. This design is commonly known the pancake motor because of
its extremely flat profile, although the technology has had many
brand names since it's inception, such as ServoDisc.
The printed armature (originally formed on a printed circuit board) in
a printed armature motor is made from punched copper sheets that are
laminated together using advanced composites to form a thin rigid
disc. The printed armature has a unique construction, in the brushed
motor world, in that is does not have a separate ring commutator. The
brushes run directly on the armature surface making the whole design
very compact.
42
An alternative manufacturing method is to use wound copper wire
laid flat with a central conventional commutator, in a flower and petal
shape. The windings are typically stabilized by being impregnated
with electrical epoxy potting systems. These are filled epoxies that
have moderate mixed viscosity and a long gel time. They are
highlighted by low shrinkage and low exotherm, and are typically UL
1446 recognized as a potting compound for use up to 180°C (Class H)
(UL File No. E 210549).
The unique advantage of ironless DC motors is that there is no
cogging (vibration caused by attraction between the iron and the
magnets) and parasitic eddy currents cannot form in the rotor as it is
totally ironless. This can greatly improve efficiency, but variable-
speed controllers must use a higher switching rate (>40 kHz) or direct
current because of the decreased electromagnetic induction.
These motors were originally invented to drive the capstan(s) of
magnetic tape drives, in the burgeoning computer industry. Pancake
motors are still widely used in high-performance servo-controlled
systems, humanoid robotic systems, industrial automation and
medical devices. Due to the variety of constructions now available the
technology is used in applications from high temperature military to
low cost pump and basic servo applications.

Universal motors
A series-wound motor is referred to as a universal motor when it has
been designed to operate on either AC or DC power. The ability to
operate on AC is because the current in both the field and the
armature (and hence the resultant magnetic fields) will alternate
(reverse polarity) in synchronism, and hence the resulting mechanical
force will occur in a constant direction.
Operating at normal power line frequencies, universal motors are very
rarely larger than one kilowatt (about 1.3 horsepower). Universal
43
motors also form the basis of the traditional railway traction motor in
electric railways. In this application, to keep their electrical efficiency
high, they were operated from very low frequency AC supplies, with
25 and 16.7 hertz (Hz) operation being common. Because they are
universal motors, locomotives using this design were also commonly
capable of operating from a third rail powered by DC.
An advantage of the universal motor is that AC supplies may be used
on motors which have some characteristics more common in DC
motors, specifically high starting torque and very compact design if
high running speeds are used. The negative aspect is the maintenance
and short life problems caused by the commutator. As a result, such
motors are usually used in AC devices such as food mixers and power
tools which are used only intermittently, and often have high starting-
torque demands. Continuous speed control of a universal motor
running on AC is easily obtained by use of a thyristor circuit, while
(imprecise) stepped speed control can be accomplished using multiple
taps on the field coil. Household blenders that advertise many speeds
frequently combine a field coil with several taps and a diode that can
be inserted in series with the motor (causing the motor to run on half-
wave rectified AC).
Universal motors generally run at high speeds, making them useful
for appliances such as blenders, vacuum cleaners, and hair dryers
where high RPM operation is desirable. They are also commonly used
in portable power tools, such as drills, circular and jig saws, where
the motor's characteristics work well. Many vacuum cleaner and weed
trimmer motors exceed 10,000 RPM, while Dremel and other similar
miniature grinders will often exceed 30,000 RPM.
Motor damage may occur due to overspeeding (running at an RPM in
excess of design limits) if the unit is operated with no significant
load. On larger motors, sudden loss of load is to be avoided, and the
possibility of such an occurrence is incorporated into the motor's
44
protection and control schemes. In some smaller applications, a fan
blade attached to the shaft often acts as an artificial load to limit the
motor speed to a safe value, as well as a means to circulate cooling
airflow over the armature and field windings.

AC motors

In 1882, Nikola Tesla discovered the rotating magnetic field, and

pioneered the use of a rotary field of force to operate machines. He
exploited the principle to design a unique two-phase induction motor
in 1883. In 1885, Galileo Ferraris independently researched the
concept. In 1888, Ferraris published his research in a paper to the
Royal Academy of Sciences in Turin.
Tesla had suggested that the commutators from a machine could be
removed and the device could operate on a rotary field of force.
Professor Poeschel, his teacher, stated that would be akin to building
a perpetual motion machine.[17] Tesla would later attain U.S. Patent
0,416,194, Electric Motor (December 1889), which resembles the
motor seen in many of Tesla's photos. This classic alternating current
electro-magnetic motor was an induction motor.
Michail Osipovich Dolivo-Dobrovolsky later invented a three-phase
"cage-rotor" in 1890. This type of motor is now used for the vast
majority of commercial applications.

Components
A typical AC motor consists of two parts:
 An outside stationary stator having coils supplied with AC
current to produce a rotating magnetic field, and;
 An inside rotor attached to the output shaft that is given a torque
by the rotating field.

45
Torque motors
A torque motor (also known as a limited torque motor) is a
specialized form of induction motor which is capable of operating
indefinitely while stalled, that is, with the rotor blocked from turning,
without incurring damage. In this mode of operation, the motor will
apply a steady torque to the load (hence the name).
A common application of a torque motor would be the supply- and
take-up reel motors in a tape drive. In this application, driven from a
low voltage, the characteristics of these motors allow a relatively-
constant light tension to be applied to the tape whether or not the
capstan is feeding tape past the tape heads. Driven from a higher
voltage, (and so delivering a higher torque), the torque motors can
also achieve fast-forward and rewind operation without requiring any
additional mechanics such as gears or clutches. In the computer
gaming world, torque motors are used in force feedback steering
wheels.
Another common application is the control of the throttle of an
internal combustion engine in conjunction with an electronic
governor. In this usage, the motor works against a return spring to
move the throttle in accordance with the output of the governor. The
latter monitors engine speed by counting electrical pulses from the
ignition system or from a magnetic pickup [18] and, depending on the
speed, makes small adjustments to the amount of current applied to
the motor. If the engine starts to slow down relative to the desired
speed, the current will be increased, the motor will develop more
torque, pulling against the return spring and opening the throttle.
Should the engine run too fast, the governor will reduce the current
being applied to the motor, causing the return spring to pull back and
close the throttle.

46
Slip ring
The slip ring is a component of the wound rotor motor as an induction
machine (best evidenced by the construction of the common
automotive alternator), where the rotor comprises a set of coils that
are electrically terminated in slip rings. These are metal rings rigidly
mounted on the rotor, and combined with brushes (as used with
commutators), provide continuous unswitched connection to the rotor
windings.
In the case of the wound-rotor induction motor, external impedances
can be connected to the brushes. The stator is excited similarly to the
standard squirrel cage motor. By changing the impedance connected
to the rotor circuit, the speed/current and speed/torque curves can be
altered.
(Slip rings are most-commonly used in automotive alternators as well
as in synchro angular data-transmission devices, among other
applications.)
The slip ring motor is used primarily to start a high inertia load or a
load that requires a very high starting torque across the full speed
range. By correctly selecting the resistors used in the secondary
resistance or slip ring starter, the motor is able to produce maximum
torque at a relatively low supply current from zero speed to full
speed. This type of motor also offers controllable speed.
Motor speed can be changed because the torque curve of the motor is
effectively modified by the amount of resistance connected to the
rotor circuit. Increasing the value of resistance will move the speed of
maximum torque down. If the resistance connected to the rotor is
increased beyond the point where the maximum torque occurs at zero
speed, the torque will be further reduced.
When used with a load that has a torque curve that increases with
speed, the motor will operate at the speed where the torque developed
47
by the motor is equal to the load torque. Reducing the load will cause
the motor to speed up, and increasing the load will cause the motor to
slow down until the load and motor torque are equal. Operated in this
manner, the slip losses are dissipated in the secondary resistors and
can be very significant. The speed regulation and net efficiency is also
very poor.

Stepper motors
Closely related in design to three-phase AC synchronous motors are
stepper motors, where an internal rotor containing permanent magnets
or a magnetically-soft rotor with salient poles is controlled by a set of
external magnets that are switched electronically. A stepper motor
may also be thought of as a cross between a DC electric motor and a
rotary solenoid. As each coil is energized in turn, the rotor aligns
itself with the magnetic field produced by the energized field
winding. Unlike a synchronous motor, in its application, the stepper
motor may not rotate continuously; instead, it "steps" — starts and
then quickly stops again — from one position to the next as field
windings are energized and de-energized in sequence. Depending on
the sequence, the rotor may turn forwards or backwards, and it may
change direction, stop, speed up or slow down arbitrarily at any time.
Simple stepper motor drivers entirely energize or entirely de-energize
the field windings, leading the rotor to "cog" to a limited number of
positions; more sophisticated drivers can proportionally control the
power to the field windings, allowing the rotors to position between
the cog points and thereby rotate extremely smoothly. This mode of
operation is often called microstepping. Computer controlled stepper
motors are one of the most versatile forms of positioning systems,
particularly when part of a digital servo-controlled system.
Stepper motors can be rotated to a specific angle in discrete steps with
ease, and hence stepper motors are used for read/write head
positioning in computer floppy diskette drives. They were used for
48
the same purpose in pre-gigabyte era computer disk drives, where the
precision and speed they offered was adequate for the correct
positioning of the read/write head of a hard disk drive. As drive
density increased, the precision and speed limitations of stepper
motors made them obsolete for hard drives—the precision limitation
made them unusable, and the speed limitation made them
uncompetitive—thus newer hard disk drives use voice coil-based
head actuator systems. (The term "voice coil" in this connection is
historic; it refers to the structure in a typical (cone type) loudspeaker.
This structure was used for a while to position the heads. Modern
drives have a pivoted coil mount; the coil swings back and forth,
something like a blade of a rotating fan. Nevertheless, like a voice
coil, modern actuator coil conductors (the magnet wire) move
perpendicular to the magnetic lines of force.)
Stepper motors were and still are often used in computer printers,
optical scanners, and digital photocopiers to move the optical
scanning element, the print head carriage (of dot matrix and inkjet
printers), and the platen. Likewise, many computer plotters (which
since the early 1990s have been replaced with large-format inkjet and
laser printers) used rotary stepper motors for pen and platen
movement; the typical alternatives here were either linear stepper
motors or servomotors with complex closed-loop control systems.
So-called quartz analog wristwatches contain the smallest
commonplace stepping motors; they have one coil, draw very little
power, and have a permanent-magnet rotor. The same kind of motor
drives battery-powered quartz clocks. Some of these watches, such as
chronographs, contain more than one stepping motor.
Stepper motors were upscaled to be used in electric vehicles under the
term SRM (Switched Reluctance Motor).

49
Linear motor
A linear motor is essentially an electric motor that has been "unrolled"
so that, instead of producing a torque (rotation), it produces a straight-
line force along its length by setting up a traveling electromagnetic
field.
Linear motors are most commonly induction motors or stepper
motors. You can find a linear motor in a maglev (Transrapid) train,
where the train "flies" over the ground, and in many roller-coasters
where the rapid motion of the motorless railcar is controlled by the
rail. On a smaller scale, at least one letter-size (8.5" x 11") computer
graphics X-Y pen plotter made by Hewlett-Packard (in the late 1970s
to mid 1980's) used two linear stepper motors to move the pen along
the two orthogonal axes.

Feeding and windings

Doubly-fed electric motor

Doubly-fed electric motors have two independent multiphase

windings that actively participate in the energy conversion process
with at least one of the winding sets electronically controlled for
variable speed operation. Two is the most active multiphase winding
sets possible without duplicating singly-fed or doubly-fed categories
in the same package. As a result, doubly-fed electric motors are
machines with an effective constant torque speed range that is twice
synchronous speed for a given frequency of excitation. This is twice
the constant torque speed range as singly-fed electric machines,
which have only one active winding set.
A doubly-fed motor allows for a smaller electronic converter but the
cost of the rotor winding and slip rings may offset the saving in the

50
power electronics components. Difficulties with controlling speed
near synchronous speed limit applications.

Singly-fed electric motor

Singly-fed electric motors incorporate a single multiphase winding set
that is connected to a power supply. Singly-fed electric machines may
be either induction or synchronous. The active winding set can be
electronically controlled. Induction machines develop starting torque
at zero speed and can operate as standalone machines. Synchronous
machines must have auxiliary means for startup, such as a starting
induction squirrel-cage winding or an electronic controller. Singly-fed
electric machines have an effective constant torque speed range up to
synchronous speed for a given excitation frequency.
The induction (asynchronous) motors (i.e., squirrel cage rotor or
wound rotor), synchronous motors (i.e., field-excited, permanent
magnet or brushless DC motors, reluctance motors, etc.), which are
discussed on this page, are examples of singly-fed motors. By far,
singly-fed motors are the predominantly installed type of motors.

Nanotube nanomotor
Researchers at University of California, Berkeley, recently developed
rotational bearings based upon multiwall carbon nanotubes. By
attaching a gold plate (with dimensions of the order of 100 nm) to the
outer shell of a suspended multiwall carbon nanotube (like nested
carbon cylinders), they are able to electrostatically rotate the outer
shell relative to the inner core. These bearings are very robust;
devices have been oscillated thousands of times with no indication of
wear. These nanoelectromechanical systems (NEMS) are the next step
in miniaturization and may find their way into commercial
applications in the future.
See also:
51
  Molecular motors
 Electrostatic motor

[edit] Efficiency
To calculate a motor's efficiency, the mechanical output power is
divided by the electrical input power:

,
where η is energy conversion efficiency, Pe is electrical input power,
and Pm is mechanical output power.
In simplest case Pe = VI, and Pm = Tω, where V is input voltage, I is
input current, T is output torque, and ω is output angular velocity. It is
possible to derive analytically the point of maximum efficiency. It is
typically at less than 1/2 the stall torque. Implications
Because a DC motor operates most efficiently at less than 1/2 its stall
torque, an "oversized" motor runs with the highest efficiency. IE:
using a bigger motor than is necessary enables the motor to operate
closest to no load, or peak operating conditions.

Torque capability of motor types

When optimally designed for a given active current (i.e., torque
current), voltage, pole-pair number, excitation frequency (i.e.,
synchronous speed), and core flux density, all categories of electric
motors or generators will exhibit virtually the same maximum
continuous shaft torque (i.e., operating torque) within a given
physical size of electromagnetic core. Some applications require
bursts of torque beyond the maximum operating torque, such as short
bursts of torque to accelerate an electric vehicle from standstill.
Always limited by magnetic core saturation or safe operating
temperature rise and voltage, the capacity for torque bursts beyond

52
the maximum operating torque differs significantly between
categories of electric motors or generators.
Note: Capacity for bursts of torque should not be confused with Field
Weakening capability inherent in fully electromagnetic electric
machines (Permanent Magnet (PM) electric machine are excluded).
Field Weakening, which is not readily available with PM electric
machines, allows an electric machine to operate beyond the designed
frequency of excitation without electrical damage.
Electric machines without a transformer circuit topology, such as
Field-Wound (i.e., electromagnet) or Permanent Magnet (PM)
Synchronous electric machines cannot realize bursts of torque higher
than the maximum designed torque without saturating the magnetic
core and rendering any increase in current as useless. Furthermore,
the permanent magnet assembly of PM synchronous electric
machines can be irreparably damaged, if bursts of torque exceeding
the maximum operating torque rating are attempted.
Electric machines with a transformer circuit topology, such as
Induction (i.e., asynchronous) electric machines, Induction Doubly-
Fed electric machines, and Induction or Synchronous Wound-Rotor
Doubly-Fed (WRDF) electric machines, exhibit very high bursts of
torque because the active current (i.e., Magneto-Motive-Force or the
product of current and winding-turns) induced on either side of the
transformer oppose each other and as a result, the active current
contributes nothing to the transformer coupled magnetic core flux
density, which would otherwise lead to core saturation.
Electric machines that rely on Induction or Asynchronous principles
short-circuit one port of the transformer circuit and as a result, the
reactive impedance of the transformer circuit becomes dominant as
slip increases, which limits the magnitude of active (i.e., real) current.
Still, bursts of torque that are two to three times higher than the
maximum design torque are realizable.
53
The Synchronous WRDF electric machine is the only electric
machine with a truly dual ported transformer circuit topology (i.e.,
both ports independently excited with no short-circuited port). The
dual ported transformer circuit topology is known to be unstable and
requires a multiphase slip-ring-brush assembly to propagate limited
power to the rotor winding set. If a precision means were available to
instantaneously control torque angle and slip for synchronous
operation during motoring or generating while simultaneously
providing brushless power to the rotor winding set (see Brushless
wound-rotor doubly-fed electric machine), the active current of the
Synchronous WRDF electric machine would be independent of the
reactive impedance of the transformer circuit and bursts of torque
significantly higher than the maximum operating torque and far
beyond the practical capability of any other type of electric machine
would be realizable. Torque bursts greater than eight times operating
torque have been calculated.

Materials
There is an impending shortage of many rare raw materials used in
the manufacture of hybrid and electric cars (Nishiyama 2007) (Cox
2008). For example, the rare earth element dysprosium is required to
fabricate many of the advanced electric motors used in hybrid cars
(Cox 2008). However, over 95% of the world's rare earth elements are
mined in China (Haxel et al. 2005), and domestic Chinese
consumption is expected to consume China's entire supply by 2012
(Cox 2008).[citation needed]
While permanent magnet motors, favored in hybrids such as those
made by Toyota, often use rare earth materials in their magnets, AC
traction motors used in production electric vehicles such as the GM
EV1, Toyota RAV4 EV and Tesla Roadster do not use permanent
magnets or the associated rare earth materials. AC motors typically
54
use conventional copper wire for their stator coils and copper or
aluminum rods or bars for their rotor. AC motors do not significantly
use rare earth materials.

Motor standards
The following are major design and manufacturing standards
covering electric motors:
 International Electrotechnical Commission: IEC 60034 Rotating
Electrical Machines
 National Electrical Manufacturers Association (USA): NEMA
MG 1 Motors and Generators
 Underwriters Laboratories (USA): UL 1004 - Standard for
Electric Motors

Uses
Electric motors are used in many, if not most, modern machines.
Obvious uses would be in rotating machines such as fans, turbines,
drills, the wheels on electric cars, locomotives and conveyor belts.
Also, in many vibrating or oscillating machines, an electric motor
spins an irregular figure with more area on one side of the axle than
the other, causing it to appear to be moving up and down.
Electric motors are also popular in robotics. They are used to turn the
wheels of vehicular robots, and servo motors are used to turn arms
and legs in humanoid robots. In flying robots, along with helicopters,
a motor causes a propeller or wide, flat blades to spin and create lift
force, allowing vertical motion.
Electric motors are replacing hydraulic cylinders in airplanes and
military equipment.
In industrial and manufacturing businesses, electric motors are used
to turn saws and blades in cutting and slicing processes, and to spin

55
 gears and mixers (the latter very common in food manufacturing).
Linear motors are often used to push products into containers
horizontally.
Many kitchen appliances also use electric motors to accomplish
various jobs. Food processors and grinders spin blades to chop and
break up foods. Blenders use electric motors to mix liquids, and
microwave ovens use motors to turn the tray food sits on. Toaster
ovens also use electric motors to turn a conveyor to move food over
heating elements.


Applications
In locomotives, a mechanical linkage transmits torque to an
electromagnetic braking component.
Trams and trains use electromagnetic track brakes where the braking
element is pressed by magnetic force to the rail. They are
distinguished from mechanical track brakes, where the braking
element is mechanically pressed on the rail.
Electric motors in industrial and robotic applications also employ
electromagnetic brakes.
Recent design innovations have led to the application of
electromagnetic brakes to aircraft applications.[1] In this application, a
56
combination motor/generator is used first as a motor to spin the tires
up to speed prior to touchdown, thus reducing wear on the tires, and
then as a generator to provide regenerative braking.

Transformers

A transformer is a device that transfers electrical energy from one

circuit to another by magnetic coupling without requiring relative
motion between its parts. It usually comprises two or more coupled
windings, and, in most cases, a core to concentrate magnetic flux. A
transformer operates from the application of an alternating voltage to
one winding, which creates a time-varying magnetic flux in the core.
This varying flux induces a voltage in the other windings. Varying the
relative number of turns between primary and secondary windings
determines the ratio of the input and output voltages, thus
transforming the voltage by stepping it up or down between circuits.

57
2.8.1 Basic principle

The principles of the transformer are illustrated by consideration of a

hypothetical ideal transformer consisting of two windings of zero
resistance around a core of negligible reluctance. A voltage applied to
the primary winding causes a current, which develops a
magnetomotive force (MMF) in the core. The current required to
create the MMF is termed the magnetising current; in the ideal
transformer it is considered to be negligible. The MMF drives flux
around the magnetic circuit of the core.

Figure 26: The ideal transformer as a circuit element

An electromotive force (EMF) is induced across each winding, an
effect known as mutual inductance. The windings in the ideal
transformer have no resistance and so the EMFs are equal in
magnitude to the measured terminal voltages. In accordance with
Faraday's law of induction, they are proportional to the rate of change
of flux:

     and     

58
Equation 7: EMF induced in primary and secondary windings
where:
and are the induced EMFs across primary and secondary
windings,

and are the numbers of turns in the primary and secondary

windings,

and are the time derivatives of the flux linking the primary and
secondary windings.
In the ideal transformer, all flux produced by the primary winding
also links the secondary, and so , from which the well-
known transformer equation follows:

Equation 8: Transformer Equation

The ratio of primary to secondary voltage is therefore the same as the

ratio of the number of turns; alternatively, that the volts-per-turn is the
same in both windings. The conditions that determine Transformer
working in STEP UP or STEP DOWN mode are:
Ns > Np
Equation 9: Conditon for STEP UP
Ns < Np
Equation 10: Conditon for STEP DOWN

59
Rectifier
A bridge rectifier is an arrangement of four diodes connected in a
bridge circuit as shown below, that provides the same polarity of
output voltage for any polarity of the input voltage. When used in its
most common application, for conversion of alternating current (AC)
input into direct current (DC) output, it is known as a bridge rectifier.
The bridge rectifier provides full wave rectification from a two wire
AC input (saving the cost of a center tapped transformer) but has two
diode drops rather than one reducing efficiency over a center tap
based design for the same output voltage.

Figure 9: Schematic of a bridge rectifier

The essential feature of this arrangement is that for both polarities of

the voltage at the bridge input, the polarity of the output is constant.

2.2.1 Basic Operation

When the input connected at the left corner of the diamond is positive
with respect to the one connected at the right hand corner, current
flows to the right along the upper colored path to the output, and
returns to the input supply via the lower one.

60
When the right hand corner is positive relative to the left hand corner,
current flows along the upper colored path and returns to the supply
via the lower colored path.

Figure 10: AC, half-wave and full wave rectified signals

In each case, the upper right output remains positive with respect to
the lower right one. Since this is true whether the input is AC or DC,
this circuit not only produces DC power when supplied with AC
power: it also can provide what is sometimes called "reverse polarity
protection". That is, it permits normal functioning when batteries are
installed backwards or DC input-power supply wiring "has its wires
crossed" (and protects the circuitry it powers against damage that
might occur without this circuit in place).
Prior to availability of integrated electronics, such a bridge rectifier
was always constructed from discrete components. Since about 1950,
a single four-terminal component containing the four diodes
61
connected in the bridge configuration became a standard commercial
component and is now available with various voltage and current
ratings.

2.2.2 Output Smoothing

For many applications, especially with single phase AC where the
full-wave bridge serves to convert an AC input into a DC output, the
addition of a capacitor may be important because the bridge alone
supplies an output voltage of fixed polarity but pulsating magnitude.
The function of this capacitor, known as a 'smoothing capacitor' (see
also filter capacitor) is to lessen the variation in (or 'smooth') the raw
output voltage waveform from the bridge. One explanation of
'smoothing' is that the capacitor provides a low impedance path to the
AC component of the output, reducing the AC voltage across, and AC
current through, the resistive load. In less technical terms, any drop in
the output voltage and current of the bridge tends to be cancelled by
loss of charge in the capacitor. This charge flows out as additional
current through the load. Thus the change of load current and voltage
is reduced relative to what would occur without the capacitor.
Increases of voltage correspondingly store excess charge in the
capacitor, thus moderating the change in output voltage / current.
The capacitor and the load resistance have a typical time constant τ =
RC where C and R are the capacitance and load resistance
respectively. As long as the load resistor is large enough so that this
time constant is much longer than the time of one ripple cycle, the
above configuration will produce a well smoothed DC voltage across
the load resistance. In some designs, a series resistor at the load side
of the capacitor is added. The smoothing can then be improved by
adding additional stages of capacitor–resistor pairs, often done only

62
for sub-supplies to critical high-gain circuits that tend to be sensitive
to supply voltage noise.

CAPACITOR

A capacitor or condenser is a passive electronic component consisting of a

pair of conductors separated by a dielectric (insulator). When a potential
difference (voltage) exists across the conductors, an electric field is present in
the dielectric. This field stores energy and produces a mechanical force between
the conductors. The effect is greatest when there is a narrow separation between
large areas of conductor, hence capacitor conductors are often called plates.
An ideal capacitor is characterized by a single constant value, capacitance,
which is measured in farads. This is the ratio of the electric charge on each
conductor to the potential difference between them. In practice, the dielectric
between the plates passes a small amount of leakage current. The conductors
and leads introduce an equivalent series resistance and the dielectric has an
electric field strength limit resulting in a breakdown voltage.
Capacitors are widely used in electronic circuits to block the flow of direct
current while allowing alternating current to pass, to filter out interference, to
smooth the output of power supplies, and for many other purposes. They are
used in resonant circuits in radio frequency equipment to select particular
frequencies from a signal with many frequencies.

Theory of operation
Main article: Capacitance
63
Charge separation in a parallel-plate capacitor causes an internal electric field.
A dielectric (orange) reduces the field and increases the capacitance.

A simple demonstration of a parallel-plate capacitor

A capacitor consists of two conductors separated by a non-conductive
region.The non-conductive substance is called the dielectric medium, although
this may also mean a vacuum or a semiconductor depletion region chemically
identical to the conductors. A capacitor is assumed to be self-contained and
isolated, with no net electric charge and no influence from an external electric
field. The conductors thus contain equal and opposite charges on their facing
surfaces, and the dielectric contains an electric field. The capacitor is a
reasonably general model for electric fields within electric circuits.
An ideal capacitor is wholly characterized by a constant capacitance C, defined
as the ratio of charge ±Q on each conductor to the voltage V between them

Sometimes charge buildup affects the mechanics of the capacitor, causing the
capacitance to vary. In this case, capacitance is defined in terms of incremental
changes:

64
In SI units, a capacitance of one farad means that one coulomb of charge on
each conductor causes a voltage of one volt across the device.
Energy storage
Work must be done by an external influence to move charge between the
conductors in a capacitor. When the external influence is removed, the charge
separation persists and energy is stored in the electric field. If charge is later
allowed to return to its equilibrium position, the energy is released. The work
done in establishing the electric field, and hence the amount of energy stored, is
given by:

DIODE

ACTIVE COMPONENT-

Active component are those component for not any other

component are used its operation. I used in this project only function
diode, these component description are described as bellow.

SEMICONDUCTOR DIODE-

65
 A PN junctions is known as a semiconductor or crystal diode.A
crystal diode has two terminal when it is connected in a circuit one
thing is decide is weather a diode is forward or reversed biased. There
is a easy rule to ascertain it. If the external CKT is trying to push the
conventional current in the direction of error, the diode is forward
biased. One the other hand if the conventional current is trying is
trying to flow opposite the error head, the diode is reversed biased
putting in simple words.

1. If arrowhead of diode symbol is positive W.R.T Bar of the

symbol, the diode is forward biased.
2.The arrowhead of diode symbol is negative W.R.T bar , the
diode is the reverse bias.
When we used crystal diode it is often necessary to know that
which end is arrowhead and which end is bar. So following method
are available.
1.Some manufactures actually point the symbol on the body of the
diode e. g By127 by 11 4 crystal diode manufacture by b e b.

66
 2. Sometimes red and blue marks are on the body of the crystal
diode. Red mark do not arrow where’s blue mark indicates
bar e .g oa80 crystal diode.

ZENER DIODE-

It has been already discussed that when the reverse bias on

a crystal diode is increased a critical voltage, called break down
voltage. The break down or zener voltage depends upon the amount
of doping. If the diode is heavily doped depletion layer will be thin
and consequently the break down of he junction will occur at a lower
reverse voltage. On the other hand, a lightly doped diode has a higher
break down voltage, it is called zener diode

A properly doped crystal diode, which has a sharped break down

voltage, is known as a zenor diode.

In this project I used semiconducter diode for bridge rectifies, two-

crystal diode.

Conclusions
67
The partial success of the experiments requires a separate work of
validation of finite element results. A complete instrumentation is
required to:
- measure the precise magnitude and orientation of each magnet’s
magnetization
- measure the temperature of the disc
- measure the flux density in the airgap

Access to these measurements will allow troubleshooting the

experiment more easily for discrepancies with the finite element
simulations. A broad variety of rotors should be tested, including
nonmagnetic rotors (copper, aluminum) and ferromagnetic rotors of
various thicknesses. These would allow pointing at the parameter(s)
causing the discrepancies.
The test bed should be reworked to reduce the friction torques to
negligible values. Thrust bearings and custom designed washers
should be used to maintain the airgap without recourse to a sheet of
Teflon. Eliminating the Teflon will allow cooling the surface of the
disc. Better cooling should be provided on the surface of the disc.
Rather than letting the disc bathe in water, this later should be
circulated by a pump from a large tank (plenum). Letting the brake in
air will reduce the fluid friction and eliminate the associated
uncertainty.
An accurate thermal model is required that would model the
conductive, convective, and radiant heat transfer in the brake. The
modeling of the gradients inside the brake may also be necessary for
accurate performance prediction, especially in heavy duty
applications where the brake heats up significantly and fast response
is required. The results of this analysis should tell how important
these gradients are and whether they should be taken into account in
integration analyses.
Finally, the analysis of the application of the integrated brake in
automobiles and other vehicles should be pushed furthermore by
68
using complete dynamic models of the vehicles and actual driving
situations. This will give a precise understanding of the
dynamic operation of the integrated brake in anti-lock, traction, and
dynamic stability control applications and allow for a complete
design of the integrated brake controller.
Means of estimating the braking force generated by each component
of the brake need to be investigated as this information is crucial to
designing a controller that actuates the brake to take full advantage of
its abilities. Accurate knowledge or estimation of the state of the
brake is important for steady state operation (at the time scale of the
deceleration), but is vital for dynamic operation (anti-lock, traction,
and dynamic stability control).

69
 REFERENCES

[1] R. Limpert, Brake Design and Safety. Warrendale, PA: Society of Automotive
Engineers, 1999.
[2] Robert Bosch GmbH, Bosch Automotive Handbook. Warrendale, PA: Society of
Automotive Engineers, 2004.
[3] Telma. (2004, December). Nos Produits. [Online]. Available: www.telma.com.
[4] H. Sakamoto, “Design of permanent magnet type compact ECB retarder,” Society
of Automotive Engineers #973228, pp. 19-25, 1997.
[5] H.P.R. Frederikse, “Properties of magnetic materials,” in CRC Handbook of
Physics and Chemistry. New York: CRC Press, 1996.
[6] Knorr-Bremse AG. (2005, March). Braking systems. [Online]. Available:
http://www.knorr-bremse.com/.
[7] Alstom Transport. (2005, March). Passenger trains. [Online], Available:
http://www.transport.alstom.com/.
[8] Komatsu Ltd. (2005, March). Construction and mining equipment. [Online].
Available: http://www.komatsu.com/.
[9] Kawasaki Motor Co. (2005, March). Motorcycles. [Online]. Available:
http://www.kawasaki.com.
[10] American Suzuki Motor Co. (2005, March). Motorcycles. [Online]. Available:
http://www.suzukicycles.com/.

70