Representations of Power

System Components

EEE 4103: Power System Analysis

Fall 2015-16

Course Instructor: M. Abu Abdullah, PhD

Assistant Professor, Dept. of EEE
American International University-Bangladesh (AIUB)
 Introduction to Power Systems
oBasic Structure of Electric Power System
 Equivalent Circuit Model of Synchronous
Generator and Motor

Synchronous Generator Synchronous Motor

EG: Generated emf at no load due to the field excitation
XAR: Reactance due to the armature reaction known as fictitious
reactance.
XL: Reactance due to the leakage flux known as leakage reactance.
RA: Resistance due to armature winding known as armature
resistance.
VP: Terminal voltage of generator (1-phase)
VS: Supply voltage to motor
EM: Back emf and IA: Armature Current
 Equivalent Circuit Model of Synchronous
Generator and Motor
o Synchronous Reactance, XS = XAR + XL
o Synchronous Impedance, ZS = RA + jXS

Synchronous Generator Synchronous Motor

Impedance Diagram Reactance Diagram

 Transformer
oDefinition: The transformer is a static device which
transfers electrical energy from one circuit to another
circuit without changing of frequency.

oFeatures of a Transformer
• Transfer electrical energy (AC only) from one circuit to another
circuit by changing voltage and current
• Frequency cannot be changed
• Energy transformation is accomplished by electromagnetic
induction
• Electrical circuits are magnetically coupled no direct electric
connection
• Efficiency is high and maintanance is simpler since there has no
rotating parts
 Transformer
o Main Components of a Transformer
• The magnetic core
• Primary and secondary windings
• Insulation of windings
• Lead and tapping for coils with their
supports, terminals and terminal insulator
• Tank, oil, cooling arrangement etc.

o Applications of Transformer
• Stepping-up of voltage
• Stepping-down of voltage
• Electrical Isolation
• Impedance matching
• Link between AC and DC systems
• Instrument extension
 Classification of Transformer
o Transformer can be classified according to the following ways:
• Based on Number of Phases
• Single-phase transformer
• Three phase transformer
• Based on Relative Position (Construction) of Winding and Core
• Core type transformer
• Shell type transformer
• Based on Number of Winding Per Phase
• One winding per phase
• Two winding per phase
• Three winding per phase
• Based on Volt-Ampere and Voltage Ratings
• Low voltage transformer [VHV < 1.1 kV]
• Medium voltage transformer [1.1 kV ≤VHV < 11 kV]
• High voltage transformer [VHV ≥ 11 kV]
 Classification of Transformer
• Based on Service Conditions
• Power transformer
• Distribution transformer
• Instrument Transformer
• Current transformer
• Potential transformer
• Based on Method of Cooling
• Air Natural
• Air Blast
• Oil Natural
• Oil Blast
• Forced Oil Cooling
• Oil and Water Cooled
• Forced Oil and Water Cooled
 Current Transformers (CTs)
o Used to measure current in ac circuit where high-current flows with low-
range ammeters
o Step up the voltage
o Step down the current
o Has a primary coil with one or more turns of thick wire connected in
series with the line whose current is to be measured
o Has a secondary coil with a large number of turns of fine wire and
connected across the ammeter terminals.
o If the current transformer has primary to secondary current ratio (I1/I2) of
100:5, then it steps up the voltage 20 times whereas it steps down the
current to (1/20)th of its actual value.
o The secondary of a current transformer should never be left open
under any circumstances. If this not done, then due to the absence of
counter amp-turns of the secondary, the unopposed primary mmf
will set up an abnormally high flux in the core which will produce
excessive core loss with subsequent heating and a high voltage across
the secondary terminals.
 Potential Transformers (PTs)

oUsed to measure high voltage

in high-voltage ac circuit with
low-range voltmeter
oStep down the voltage
oStep up the current
oFor safety, the secondary
should be completely insulated
from the high-voltage primary
and should be, in addition,
grounded for affording
protection to the operator.
CT & PT Connection
 Equivalent Circuit Model of Transformer
o R1, Xl1, I1, V1, E1: primary side resistance, leakage reactance, current,
voltage, and counter (or self induced) emf, respectively. R2, Xl2, I2,
V2, E2: secondary side resistance, leakage reactance, current,
voltage, and counter (or self induced) emf, respectively. RC (or R0 or
Rm), Xm (or X0): core loss resistance, mutual inductance, respectively.
I0, Iµ (or IC) Iw: no-load current, magnetizing current, and working or
core loss current, respectively.
 Equivalent Circuit Model of Transformer
o Turns Ratio, a = N2/N1 = E2/E1 = V2/V1 = I1/I2
o Secondary quantities referred to primary:
V2′= V2/a; Xl2′=Xl2/a2; R2′=R2/a2

E2= a E1

Impedance Diagram of a Transformer

 Equivalent Circuit Model of Transformer
o High-voltage (HV) or high tension (HT) side impedance
referred to low-voltage (LV) or low-tension (LT) side

2 2
 VLV   N LV 
Z LV  Z HV    Z HV  
 VHV   N HV 

o Low-voltage (LV) or low tension (LT) side impedance referred

to high-voltage (HV) or high-tension (HT) side

2 2
 VHV  N 
Z HV  Z LV    Z LV  HV 
 VLV   N LV 
 Equivalent Circuit Model of Transformer
o It is a common practice that:
• Core loss is neglected (i.e. RC ≈ ∞)
• Magnetization loss is also neglected (i.e. Xm ≈ ∞)

Excluding parallel branch

Equivalent Reactance Diagram

Simplified Impedance Diagram
 Transformer Ratings
o Calculation of Three Phase Rating of a Transformer from the
Given Single Phase Rating
o In a power system, the Y-connection of a three-phase
transformer always considered as high voltage side.
o The given voltage rating of a three-phase transformer is always
line voltage rating.
o If the single phase ratings are: 11 kV/6.6 kV, 100 MVA, The
rating for three-phase transformer are:
• For Y-Y connected transformer are:
(√3×11)kV/(√3×6.6)kV or 19.053kV/11.432kV and 3×100
MVA
• For Y-Δ or Δ -Y connected transformer are:
(√3×11)kV/6.6kV or 19.053kV/6.6kV and 3×100 MVA
• For Δ -Δ or Δ -Y connected transformer are:
11kV/6.6kV and 3×100 MVA
 Components of Power System

Step-Up Transmission Step-Down

Generator Load
Transformer Line Transformer
 Transmission Line Parameters
oThe basic transmission-line parameters are:
1. Series resistance
2. Series inductance (or inductive reactance)
3. Shunt capacitance (or capacitive reactance)
4. Shunt conductance (or admittance)
oSeries Resistance (R)
• Series resistance accounts for copper (or ohmic or I2R)
losses.
• The resistance of a conductor at a specified temperature
is : Rdc = ρl/A
• Resistance of a conductor depends of the following
factors:
Spiraling – Temperature - Frequency - Current magnitude
 Transmission Line Parameters
oSeries inductance (L)
o Conductors carrying alternating current produces magnetic
field and flux around it.
o The produced magnetic flux cuts itself and surrounding
conductors and emf is produced and results voltage drop in the
line.
o The effect is presented using series inductive reactance which
gives rise to series voltage drops along the line.
o The inductance of a magnetic circuit that has a constant
permeability µ
o can be obtained by determining the following:
• Magnetic field intensity H from Ampere’s Law
• Magnetic flux density B (B=µH)
• Flux linkage λ
• Inductance from flux linkage per ampere (L=λ/I)
 Transmission Line Parameters
oShunt capacitance (C)
oThere exist potential differences between transmission
line and ground, and between transmission lines.
oHence a capacitance developed between transmission
lines and ground.
oShunt capacitive reactance gives rise to line-charging
current.
oThe capacitance between conductors in a medium with
constant permittivity ε can be obtained by determining
the following:
• Electric field strength E, from Gauss’s Law
• Voltage between conductors
• Capacitance from charge per unit volt (C=q/V)
 Transmission Line Parameters
oShunt conductance (G)
o Shunt conductance accounts for real power (V2G) line losses due to leakage
currents between conductors or between conductors and ground.
o Shunt conductance of overhead line is usually neglected since this loss is
very small compared to copper loss.
o This power loss is due to leakage currents at insulators and to corona.
o Corona occurs when a high value of electric field strength at a conductor
surface causes the air to become electrically ionized and to conduct.
o The real power loss due to corona, called corona loss, depends on
meteorological conditions, particularly rain, and on conductor surface
irregularities.
 Equivalent Circuit Model of Transmission
Lines
oTransmission-line are three types:
• Short-Transmission Line (less than 80 km)
• Medium Transmission Line (from 80 to 250 km)
• Long Transmission Line (more than 250 km)
oShort-Transmission Line
• Shunt capacitance and admittance is small and not
considered.
• Only series components are considered.
 Equivalent Circuit Model of Transmission
Lines
oMedium-Transmission Line
• Medium-length line is usually represented by series resistance,
series inductance and lumped shunt capacitance and admittance in
the equivalent circuit model.
• There are two conventional circuit model for medium transmission
line.
• Nominal π model
• Nominal T model
Equivalent Circuit Model of Transmission
Lines
Nominal π model Nominal T model
 Equivalent Circuit Model of Transmission
Lines
oLong Transmission Line
• The exact solution of any transmission line and the one
required for a high degree of accuracy more than
approximately 150 mile long must consider the fact that the
parameters are not lumped but are distributed uniformly
throughout the length of the line.
Equivalent π Model of Long Transmission
Lines
 Single Line Diagram
oA one-line or single-line diagram is a simplified notation
for representing a three-phase power system. It is a
simplified diagram of a three phase electrical system.
oIt indicates by a single line and standard symbols how the
transmission lines and associated apparatus of an electric
system are connected together.
oThe purpose of the one-line diagram is to supply in
concise form the significant information about the system.
The importance of different features of a system varies
with the problem under consideration, and the amount of
information included on the diagram depends on the
purpose for which the diagram is intended.
Apparatus Symbols Used in Single Line
Diagram
Apparatus Symbols Used in Single Line
Diagram
Single Line Diagram
 Impedance Diagram
o In order to calculate the performance of a system under load conditions
or upon the occurrence of a fault, the one-line diagram is used to draw
the single-phase or per-phase equivalent circuit of the system.
o The per-phase equivalent circuit consists of impedances and voltage
sources.
o This per-phase equivalent circuit diagram is known as Impedance
Diagram.
o If a load study is to be made, the lagging loads are represented by
resistance and inductive reactance in series.
o The impedance diagram does not include the current limiting
impedances shown in the one-line diagram between the neutrals of the
generators and ground because no current flows in the ground under
balanced conditions and the neutrals of the generators a re at the
potential of the neutral of the system.
o Since the shunt current of a transformer is usually insignificant
compared with the full-load current , the shunt admittance is usually
omitted in the equivalent circuit of the transformer.
Impedance Diagram
 Reactance Diagram
o Resistance and inductive reactance do not add directly, and impedance
is not far different from the inductive reactance if the resistance is
small.
o Loads which do not involve rotating machinery have little effect on the
total line current during a fault and are usually omitted.
o Resistance is often omitted when making fault calculations, even in
computer programs.
o If we decide to simplify our calculation of fault current by omitting all
static loads, all resistances, the shunt admittance of each transformer,
and the capacitance of the transmission lin e, the impedance diagram
reduces to the per-phase reactance diagram
o Synchronous motor loads are always included in making fault
calculations since their generated emfs contribute to the short-circuit
current.
o The reactance diagram includes induction motors into account by a
generated emf in series with an inductive reactance if the diagram is to
be used to determine the current immediately after the occurrence of a
fault .
 Reactance Diagram
oExample:
Draw the impedance and reactance diagram of the
following two bus system networks
 Per Unit System
oQuantities (e.g. voltage, current and powers) in power
system are usually in the range of kilo and mega.
oIt is often difficult to handle such large quantities during
computation process and this large quantities doesn’t
make sense.
oHence, power system quantities (e.g. voltage, current
and powers) are often expressed in per unit values.
oPer-unit quantity is the ratio of actual quantity and base
value of quantity.
oIt is represented by pu.
 Per Unit System
SA IA VA ZA
S P.U .  , I P.U .  , VP.U .  and Z P.U . 
SB IB VB ZB
o Base Values: Base values are reference quantity to estimate
the per unit value of that quantity.
o To represent a power system 4 quantities are usually used.
o Hence, base value of 4 quantities is required to present a
power system in per unit.
o In practice 2 (two) base values are selected arbitrarily and rest
of the 2 base values are computed using the selected base
values.
o It is a common practice to select the base MVA (apparent
power) rating and base kV voltage level.
o Hence the base current and base impedance are computed.
 Per Unit System: 1ϕ

Selected: SB (in kVA1ϕ) and VB (in kVLN)

IB = SB (in kVA1ϕ) ÷ VB (in kVLN) in A
ZB = VB (in kVLN) ÷ IB (in A) in Ω
ZB = (VB (in kVLN))2 × 1000 ÷ SB (in kVA1ϕ) in Ω
ZB = (VB (in kVLN))2 ÷ SB (in MVA1ϕ) in Ω
PB (in kW1ϕ) = SB (in kVA1ϕ)
QB (in kVAR1ϕ)= SB (in kVA1ϕ)
Proof Required
 Per Unit System: 3ϕ

Selected: SB (in kVA3ϕ) and VB (in kVLL)

IB = SB (in kVA3ϕ) ÷ [√3×VB (in kVLL)] in A

ZB = (VB (in kVLL))2 × 1000 ÷ SB (in kVA3ϕ) in Ω

ZB = (VB (in kVLL))2 ÷ SB (in MVA3ϕ) in Ω

PB (in kW3ϕ) = SB (in kVA3ϕ)

QB (in kVAR3ϕ)= SB (in kVA3ϕ)

Proof Required
 Per Unit Calculations
SPU = VPU × I*PU = PPU +jQPU
VPU = ZPU × IPU
ZPU = |VPU|2 ÷ SPU Proof Required

Example: A single phase generator rated 1000 VA and

200 V has internal impedance 10+j20 Ω. Considering
the ratings of the generator are base values, calculate the
base current, base impedance and per-unit of impedance
of generator.
 Per Unit Calculations
o Change of Base Value:
o Sometimes the per-u nit impedance of a component of a
system is expressed on a base other than the one selected as
base for the part of the system in which the component is
located.
o Since all impedances in any one part of a system must be
expressed on the same impedance base when making
computations, it is necessary to have a means of converting
per-unit impedances from one base to another.

Z PU ,new  Z PU ,old 
S B , new (in MVA)

V 2
(in kV )
B ,old 
S B ,old (in MVA) V 2

B , new (in kV )

Proof Required
Exercise on Per Unit Calculation

Ref.: Electric Power Systems by D. Das

PU Representation of Transformer

Z 1 ( PU )  Z P ( PU )  Z S ( PU )  Z ( PU )
Z 2 ( PU )  Z S ( PU )  Z P ( PU )  Z ( PU )
V S , Base  a  V P , Base
1
I S , Base   I P , Base
a
I P , PU  I S , PU Since the magnetization branch is neglected

Home Work: All the examples from D. Das

PU Representation of Transformer

Ref.: Electric Power Systems by D. Das

 Load Calculation in PU
o Load can be modeled either series or parallel.
o To Model Load as Series:
ZPU = V2PU÷SPU×(cosƟ + jsinƟ)
o To Model Load as Parallel:
RPU = V2PU÷SPU÷cosƟ and
XPU = V2PU÷SPU÷sinƟ

Load Modeled as Parallel

Load Modeled as Series
Load Calculation in PU

Ref.: Electric Power Systems by D. Das