Czajkowski AML Music PHD 2018

Mindfulness for musicians: The effects of teaching 8-week
mindfulness courses to student musicians in higher

education
Anne-Marie Louise Czajkowski
Submitted in accordance with the requirements for the degree of Doctor of
Philosophy
The University of Leeds
School of Music
October, 2018
ii
I confirm that the work submitted is my own and that appropriate credit has
been given where reference has been made to the work of others.
This copy has been supplied on the understanding that it is copyright material
and that no quotation from the thesis may be published without proper
acknowledgement.
The right of Anne-Marie Louise Czajkowski to be identified as author of this
work has been asserted by her in accordance with the Copyright, Designs and
Patents Act 1988.
© 2018 The University of Leeds and Anne-Marie Louise Czajkowski

iii
Acknowledgements
There are several people who have made this work a possibility. First
and foremost has been my husband, Adrian, who has supported me from the
very start, provided many hours of childcare, and been a steadfast and sure
ear in good times and bad. Particular note must also go to my wonderful
mother, Jo Catling, who read through drafts and is always the rock on which I
rely.
A great many thanks go to my supervisors, Dr Alinka Greasley and
Professor Michael Allis, who I have termed my “PhD Mum and Dad”! They
have been a constant support and had so many good ideas that have gone
into making this thesis. I could not have completed this without them.
A lot of thanks also go to the staff and student participants at the
Guildhall School of Music and Drama (particularly Eliza McCarthy), Leeds
College of Music (particularly Professor Andy West), and everyone at the
University of Leeds. I would also like to give special thanks to Sally Rose of
the University of Leeds Staff Counselling Department for being my mentor
during the mindfulness teaching process.
Further thanks go to the Music Psychology department students and
staff who have supported me and heard me present on this topic for nearly 5
years, to Neil Semer, who originally introduced me to the concept of present
moment awareness, and to Mark Hawkins who introduced me to the term
“mindfulness”.
Many thanks go to “Team Annie” who have been invaluable support:
Verena Börsch, Sam Casey, Sarah Clark, Cathy Furness, Kim Urbauer,
Christine from school, Josh Whaley and Karen at yoga, and my meditation
group. I couldn’t have coped without you!
A final thank you goes to my golden boy, Alex, who has put up with me
saying “I’m sorry, I just need to…” more times than I can count and has
stoically put up with all the demands on his life so I could get this work
completed. Oh, and thank you, God, it is complete!
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Abstract
Students are arriving in higher education more stressed and anxious
than previously, so there is a clear benefit for institutions to provide evidence-
based health and well-being interventions. Mindfulness is a widely available
popular intervention, and its efficacy has been demonstrated in the clinical
field and increasingly in the educational field. However, the potential benefits
of teaching mindfulness to music students have not yet been explored
sufficiently.
This thesis reports the effects of teaching targeted 8-week mindfulness
courses to singers and instrumentalists in two studies run over two years at
two conservatoires and a university. Both studies used a predominantly
qualitative mixed methods approach. Levels of mindfulness were measured
using the Five Facet Mindfulness Questionnaire (FFMQ: Baer, Smith,
Hopkins, Krietemeyer, & Toney, 2006), and a specially designed Mindfulness
for Musicians questionnaire. The instrumentalists’ quantitative study was
quasi-experimental; the singers’ study utilised controls and randomised
controls. Qualitative methods comprised of semi-structured interviews for both
studies, and the singers’ study included longitudinal interviews, an anonymous
diary, and a teachers’ blind study.
Quantitative results showed increased levels of mindfulness among
vocal and instrumentalist participants over the interventions. Participants
reported a greater ability to learn instrumental technique, improved
teacher/pupil relationships, more efficient and effective music practice, and
enhanced communication skills in rehearsal and ensembles. Mindfulness-
naïve vocal teachers who taught 136 students across two institutions identified
v
nineteen of the 31 experimental participants in the blind study. Results
demonstrated predicted positive impacts on performance anxiety, but a key
finding was that mindfulness was also beneficial in enhancing aspects of
participants’ performances, improving their experience and increasing
performance enjoyment. The evidence presented in this thesis demonstrates
the clear benefit of targeted mindfulness interventions in the field of higher
music education. Mindfulness training enhances the whole musician both in
student learning and as a preparation for professional life.

vi
Table of Contents
Acknowledgements ...................................................................................... iii

Abstract .......................................................................................................... iv
List of Tables ............................................................................................... xiii
List of Figures ............................................................................................ xvii
Introduction .................................................................................................... 1
Chapter One - Literature review .................................................................... 4
1.1 General mindfulness studies ............................................................................. 4
1.1.1 Definition of mindfulness and mindfulness courses ................................................ 4
1.1.2 Cognitive and neural mechanisms of mindfulness .................................................. 9
1.1.3 Clinical studies in mindfulness .............................................................................. 16
1.1.4 Mindfulness in sport .............................................................................................. 17
1.1.5 Mindfulness in education....................................................................................... 20
1.1.6 Mindfulness and the performing arts ..................................................................... 25
1.2 Mindfulness for musicians ............................................................................... 28
1.2.1 Mindfulness in performance .................................................................................. 28
1.2.2 Music education .................................................................................................... 41
Music practice .......................................................................................................... 42
Music skills ............................................................................................................... 48
Creativity .................................................................................................................. 49
Music lessons .......................................................................................................... 54
Mindfulness for singers ............................................................................................ 56
1.3 Summary ......................................................................................................... 59
Chapter Two - Methodology ........................................................................ 61

2.1 Research aims ................................................................................................. 61
2.2 Theoretical approach ....................................................................................... 61
2.2.1 Positivism .............................................................................................................. 63
2.2.2 Constructivism/interpretivism ................................................................................ 65
2.2.3 Pragmatism ........................................................................................................... 66
2.3 Specific methods ............................................................................................. 70
2.3.1 Sampling ............................................................................................................... 70
Self-report ................................................................................................................ 71
2.3.2 Questionnaires ...................................................................................................... 72
Five Facet Mindfulness Questionnaire .................................................................... 73
Mindfulness for Musicians questionnaire ................................................................. 76
2.3.3 Interviews .............................................................................................................. 79
2.3.4 Diary method ......................................................................................................... 81
vii
2.3.5 Replication .............................................................................................................82

2.4 Analysis ............................................................................................................ 83
2.4.1 Quantitative ............................................................................................................83
2.4.2 Qualitative ..............................................................................................................84
2.4.3 Reflexivity ..............................................................................................................85
2.4.4 Ethics .....................................................................................................................86
2.5 Summary .......................................................................................................... 88
STUDY ONE: MINDFULNESS FOR INSTRUMENTALISTS ........................ 89

Chapter Three – Mindfulness for musicians: The effects of mindfulness
training on students at the Guildhall School of Music and Drama ......... 89
3.1 Introduction ...................................................................................................... 89
3.2 Method ............................................................................................................. 90
3.2.1 Ethical approval .....................................................................................................90
3.2.2 Participants ............................................................................................................90
3.2.3 Materials ................................................................................................................92
3.2.4 Design ....................................................................................................................93
3.2.5 Procedure ..............................................................................................................93
3.3 Analysis ............................................................................................................ 95
3.4 Quantitative results .......................................................................................... 95
3.5 Qualitative results............................................................................................. 98
3.5.1 Mindfulness and general effects ..........................................................................102
3.5.1.1 Student life................................................................................................. 102
3.5.2 Effects of mindfulness on instrumental learning ..................................................113
3.5.2.1 Instrumental lessons.................................................................................. 113
3.5.2.2 The teacher ............................................................................................... 115
3.5.2.3 Body awareness and instrumental technique ............................................ 120
3.5.2.4 Instrumental practice ................................................................................. 127
3.5.2.5 Group practice in ensembles and rehearsals ............................................ 136
3.5.3 Effects of mindfulness in performance .................................................................139
3.5.3.1 Music performance anxiety........................................................................ 139
3.5.3.2 Effects of mindfulness on performing ........................................................ 144
3.5.3.3 Post-performance effects .......................................................................... 149
3.6 Summary ........................................................................................................ 151
viii
STUDY TWO: MINDFULNESS FOR SINGERS:......................................... 152

A REPLICATION STUDY ............................................................................ 152
Chapter Four – Mindfulness for Singers:................................................. 152
Introduction, method and analysis ........................................................... 152
4.1 Introduction .................................................................................................... 152
4.1.1 Reflexivity statement, pedagogic underpinnings and development of the
Mindfulness for Singers course. ................................................................................... 154
4.2 Method ........................................................................................................... 157
4.2.1 Ethical approval................................................................................................... 157
4.2.2 Participants ......................................................................................................... 157
4.2.3 Materials.............................................................................................................. 162
4.2.4 Design ................................................................................................................. 163
4.2.5 Procedure............................................................................................................ 167
4.2.5.1 Preparation and pre-MfS data gathering ................................................... 167
4.2.5.2 The Mindfulness for Singers course .......................................................... 170
4.2.5.3 Post-intervention data gathering procedure. .............................................. 178
4.2.5.4 Challenges ................................................................................................. 179
4.3 Analysis ......................................................................................................... 181
Chapter Five – Mindfulness for Singers: Quantitative results ............... 185

5.1 University questionnaire study ....................................................................... 187
5.2 Conservatoire questionnaire study ................................................................ 192
5.2.1 Baseline tests for the FFMQ and MfM for conservatoire participants. ................ 193
5.2.2 Five Facet Mindfulness Questionnaire results for conservatoire participants. .... 196
5.2.3 Mindfulness for Musicians results for conservatoire participants. ....................... 201
5.3 Comparisons .................................................................................................. 205
Chapter Six – Mindfulness for Singers qualitative results: General

overview ...................................................................................................... 209
6.1 Introduction .................................................................................................... 209
6.2 The Mindfulness for Singers course experience............................................ 210
6.2.1 Deciding to do a mindfulness course .................................................................. 211
6.2.2 Reflections on the MfS course ............................................................................ 212
6.2.3 Mindfulness practice ........................................................................................... 215
6.2.4 Mindfulness practice problems............................................................................ 217
6.2.5 Continuing the Mindfulness practice ................................................................... 220
6.3 Mindfulness, student life and general well-being. .......................................... 223
6.3.1 Lifestyle development, and reported effects on sleep ......................................... 223
6.3.2 Academic life ....................................................................................................... 225
6.3.3 Stress and anxiety............................................................................................... 226
ix
6.3.4 Developing awareness ........................................................................................229

6.3.5 Friends and family ...............................................................................................230
6.3.6 The non-singing musician. ...................................................................................231
6.4 Chapter summary........................................................................................... 233
Chapter Seven – Mindfulness for Singers qualitative results: Singing

lessons ....................................................................................................... 235
7.1 Introduction .................................................................................................... 235
7.2 The teacher blind study .................................................................................. 239
7.3 Mindfulness effects on mental mindsets in singing lessons ........................... 244
7.3.1 Introduction. .........................................................................................................244
7.3.2 In the “present moment” in lessons .....................................................................245
7.3.3 Focus and attention .............................................................................................246
7.3.4 Feeling calmer in lessons ....................................................................................248
7.3.5 Taking criticism ....................................................................................................249
7.3.6 Self-criticism.........................................................................................................252
7.3.7 Productive and efficient lessons ..........................................................................254
7.4 Mindfulness effects on physical awareness and learning singing technique . 255
7.4.1 Introduction ..........................................................................................................255
7.4.2 Improved awareness of physical sensations and learning singing technique. ....256
7.4.3 Mindful awareness of specific parts of the voice .................................................259
7.4.4 Posture and vocal breathing support ...................................................................260
7.4.5 Vocal tension .......................................................................................................262
7.4.6 Sound and tone ...................................................................................................263
7.5 Teacher validation .......................................................................................... 264
7.6 Chapter summary........................................................................................... 266
Chapter Eight – Mindfulness for Singers qualitative results: Private, and

group instrumental practice. .................................................................... 268
8.1 The effects of mindfulness on private singing practice .................................. 268
8.1.1 Introduction ..........................................................................................................268
8.1.2 General mindset improvement .............................................................................272
8.1.3 Focused, attentive, and aware. ............................................................................275
8.1.4 Changes in practice structure ..............................................................................277
8.1.5 Body awareness and technique ...........................................................................281
8.1.6 Sound ..................................................................................................................284
8.1.7 Exploration in singing practice .............................................................................285
8.1.8 Section summary .................................................................................................286
8.2 The effects of mindfulness on group rehearsals and ensembles practice. .... 287
8.2.1 Introduction ..........................................................................................................287
8.2.2 Focus, calmness, and present moment awareness. ...........................................292
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8.2.3 Improved musicianship skills............................................................................... 292

8.2.4 Improved personal and interpersonal skills. ........................................................ 295
8.2.5 Section summary ................................................................................................ 298
Chapter Nine – Mindfulness for Singers qualitative results: Performance

..................................................................................................................... 300
9.1 Introduction .................................................................................................... 300
9.1.1 Mindfulness practice, performance opportunities, and music styles of the MfS
participants ................................................................................................................... 304
9.2 Mindfulness and music performance anxiety ................................................. 308
9.2.1 Introduction ......................................................................................................... 308
9.2.2 Mindfulness and the physical symptoms of MPA ................................................ 309
9.2.3 Mindfulness, MPA, and vocal technique in performance .................................... 311
9.2.4 Mindfulness and mental anxiety .......................................................................... 313
9.2.5 Mindfulness and audience perception................................................................. 317
9.2.6 Physical and mental effects of mindfulness on those with lower levels of MPA . 319
9.2.7 Section summary ................................................................................................ 320
9.3 Mindfulness effects on aspects of music performance. ................................. 321
9.3.1 Performing experience before mindfulness......................................................... 321
9.3.2 Performing in the present moment ...................................................................... 322
9.3.3 Time perception and memory retention .............................................................. 324
9.3.4 Communication ................................................................................................... 326
9.3.5 Creativity and expressivity .................................................................................. 328
9.3.6 Dealing with the unexpected on stage ................................................................ 330
9.3.7 Feedback and enjoyment .................................................................................... 331
9.4 Chapter summary .......................................................................................... 333
Chapter Ten – Mindfulness for Singers qualitative results ................... 336

10.1 Longitudinal interview reports ...................................................................... 336
10.2 Overall summary of the study ...................................................................... 340
Chapter 11: General discussion ............................................................... 341

11.1 Summary of the key findings .................................................................... 341
11.2 Key findings ............................................................................................. 342
11.2.1 The effects of learning mindfulness on musicians ............................................ 342
Mindfulness effects on solo practice mental states ............................................... 342
Mindfulness effects in rehearsals and ensembles ................................................. 344
Mindfulness, performance, and time perception .................................................... 345
Replication ............................................................................................................. 347
11.2.2 Mechanisms of mindfulness for musicians........................................................ 348
Attention regulation ................................................................................................ 349
xi
Body awareness .................................................................................................... 350

Emotion regulation................................................................................................. 351
Self-perception ...................................................................................................... 351
Integrated mechanisms ......................................................................................... 352
11.3 Evaluation of the methods and approaches used in this thesis, and future
recommendations................................................................................................. 353
11.3.1 Study design ......................................................................................................353
11.3.2 Sampling ............................................................................................................362
11.3.3 Reflexivity and bias ............................................................................................366
11.4 Implications .............................................................................................. 369
11.5 Concluding remarks ................................................................................. 372
References ................................................................................................. 374

List of Abbreviations ................................................................................. 424
Appendix..................................................................................................... 426
Appendix A - Five Facet Mindfulness Questionnaire (FFMQ) ......................................426
Appendix B - Mindfulness for Musicians Questionnaire (MfM) .....................................428
Appendix C - Scoring the FFMQ and the MfM Questionnaires ....................................429
Appendix D - MfS Study: Student Participant Interview Questions ..............................430
Appendix E – GSMD Study: Participant Interview Questions .......................................431
Appendix F - MfS Study: Teacher Participant Interview Questions ..............................433
Appendix G - MfS Study: MfS Blank Journal ................................................................434
Appendix H - GSMD Study: Ethics Approval Letter (UoL) ............................................435
Appendix I - MfS Study: Ethics Approval Letter (UoL) ..................................................437
Appendix J - GSMD Study: Ethics Approval Letter (GSMD) ........................................440
Appendix K - MfS Study: Ethics Approval Letter (LCOM) .............................................442
Appendix L – GSMD Study: Participant Information Form ...........................................443
Appendix M - MfS Study: Participant Information Form (Experimental) .......................445
Appendix N - MfS Study: Teacher Information Sheet ...................................................447
Appendix O - MfS Study: Information Sheet and Consent Form (Control) ...................449
Appendix P – GSMD Study: Consent form ...................................................................451
Appendix Q - MfS Study: Consent Form (Experimental) ..............................................452
Appendix R - MfS Study: Teacher Consent Form ........................................................453
Appendix S – GSMD Study: Participant Personal Details ............................................454
Appendix T – GSMD Study: Participant Questionnaire Data ........................................455
Appendix U - GSMD Study: Ethics Amendment Approval (UoL) ..................................456
Appendix V - GSMD Study: Ethics Amendment Approval (GSMD) ..............................458
Appendix W - Mindfulness exercises explained ...........................................................459
Appendix X - MfS Study: Ethics Amendment Approval (UoL) ......................................464
Appendix Y - MfS Study: Information Poster ................................................................466
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Appendix Z - MfS Study: Invitation Poster ................................................................... 467

Appendix AA - MfS Study: Invitation Email (Experimental) .......................................... 468
Appendix AB - MfS Study: Invitation Email (Control) ................................................... 469
Appendix AC - MfS Study: Yoga Consent Form .......................................................... 470
Appendix AD - MfS Study: Registration Form .............................................................. 471
Appendix AE - MfS Study: Teacher Recruitment Letter ............................................... 472
Appendix AF - MfS Study: Teacher Reminder Email ................................................... 473
Appendix AG - MfS Study: Teacher Registration Form ............................................... 474
Appendix AH - MfS Study: Further information on topics covered in the MfS Course . 475
Appendix AI - MfS Study: Week 1 Visual Timetable .................................................... 480
Appendix AJ - MfS Study: MfS Course and Practice Overview ................................... 481
Appendix AK - MfS Study: 3-Minute Breathing Space Hand-out ................................. 484
Appendix AL - MfS Study: Mindful Movement Hand-out .............................................. 485
Appendix AM - MfS Study: Week 2 Visual Timetable .................................................. 486
Appendix AN - MfS Study: Body Scan Hand-out ......................................................... 487
Appendix AO - MfS Study: Week 3 Visual Timetable .................................................. 488
Appendix AP - MfS Study: Mindful Breathing Hand-out ............................................... 489
Appendix AQ - MfS Study: Week 4 Visual Timetable .................................................. 491
Appendix AR - MfS Study: Sounds and Thoughts/Mindful Listening Hand-out ........... 492
Appendix AS - MfS Study: Week 5 Visual Timetable ................................................... 493
Appendix AT - MfS Study: Mindful Walking Hand-out.................................................. 494
Appendix AU - MfS Study: Week 6 Visual Timetable................................................... 495
Appendix AV - MfS Study: Exploring Difficulties and Performance Preparation .......... 496
Appendix AW - MfS Study: Week 7 Visual Timetable .................................................. 497
Appendix AX - MfS Study: Final Hand-out ................................................................... 498
Appendix AY - MfS Study: Week 8 Visual Timetable ................................................... 499
Appendix AZ – MfS Study – Changes between Conservatoire participants’ pre- and
post-scores for the FFMQ and MfM using facet graphic plots. .................................... 500
Appendix BA - Glossary of Singing Terms ................................................................... 506
Appendix BB - Higher Education Module Sample for the Mindfulness for Singers Course.
..................................................................................................................................... 507
Appendix BC - Photo Album ........................................................................................ 510
xiii
List of Tables
Table 2.1 Countries within which the FFMQ has been translated, tested and
verified with different populations ............................................................ 75
Table 2.2 MfM measure design and item allocation ....................................... 79
Table 3.1 GSMD interview participants’ details .............................................. 91
Table 3.2 Paired t-test pre- and post-intervention results for the Five Facet
Mindfulness Questionnaire ...................................................................... 97
Table 3.3 Pre- and post-intervention results for the Mindfulness for Musicians
Questionnaire using paired t-tests and Wilcoxon tests ............................ 97
Table 3.4 Reliability analysis on the GSMD pre- and post-intervention scores.
Cronbach alpha results. ........................................................................... 97
Table 3.5 MfPAS participants who did mindfulness practice before
instrumental practice ............................................................................. 128
Table 4.1 Student participants who enrolled for the MfS Intervention from
2015-2017 ............................................................................................. 159
Table 4.2 Vocal styles studied by the MfS participants 2015-2017 .............. 160
Table 4.3 Dropouts from the MfS Intervention 2015-2017 ............................ 161
Table 5.1 Reliability analyses results for the FFMQ and MfM both pre- and
post-intervention for experimental and control participants at both
institutions. ............................................................................................. 186
Table 5.2 University FFMQ and MfM independent t-tests for experimental and
control participants at baseline. ............................................................. 188
Table 5.3 University FFMQ pre- and post-intervention results for experimental
(EP) and control groups (C) using paired t-tests and Wilcoxon test. ..... 190
xiv
Table 5.4 University MfM pre- and post-intervention results for experimental
(EP) and control (C) groups utilising paired t-tests. .............................. 191
Table 5.5 Conservatoire FFMQ independent t-tests for experimental and
control participants at baseline. ............................................................ 194
Table 5.6 Conservatoire MfM independent t-tests for experimental and control
participants at baseline. ........................................................................ 195
Table 5.7 Conservatoire FFMQ pre- and post-intervention results for
experimental (EP) and experimental and wait-list experimental (EP+WLE)
and wait-list control (WLC) groups using paired t-tests. ....................... 197
Table 5.8 FFMQ post-intervention change score one-way ANOVA and
Kruskal-Wallis test results for the Conservatoire participants ............... 199
Table 5.9 Conservatoire MfM pre- and post-intervention results for
experimental (EP) and experimental and wait-list experimental (EP+WLE)
and wait-list control (WLC) groups using paired t-tests and Wilcoxon
tests. ..................................................................................................... 202
Table 5.10 MfM post-intervention change score one-way ANOVA and Kruskal-
Wallis test results for the Conservatoire participants. ........................... 204
Table 5.11 Baseline measure comparison between the FFMQ pre-intervention
condition of the university experimental participants (UEP), and the
conservatoire experimental (CEP) and wait-list experimental participants
(WLE) using independent t-tests and Mann-Whitney tests. .................. 207
Table 5.12 Baseline measure comparison between the MfM pre-intervention
(WLE) using independent t-tests and Mann-Whitney tests. .................. 208

xv
Table 6.1 Reasons participants gave for taking the MfS course .................. 212
Table 6.2 MfS student participant attendance record ................................... 215
Table 6.3 Types of mindfulness exercises specified by MfS participants for
daily stress and anxiety ......................................................................... 229
Table 7.1 Mindfulness participants who did mindfulness exercises directly
before singing lessons ........................................................................... 238
Table 7.2 Mindfulness practices that participants specified using prior to
singing lessons ...................................................................................... 238
Table 7.3 Teachers’ identification of students as MfS participants ............... 243
Table 7.4 Overview of teacher participant details and student identification 243
Table 7.5 Vocal principles mentioned by participants that were noticed more
after doing mindfulness exercises before singing lessons .................... 260
Table 8.1 Mindfulness exercises that the participants particularly used for
singing practice ...................................................................................... 270
Table 8.2 Participants who reported being more focused and aware ........... 277
Table 8.3 Actual and perceived practice time changes reported by mindful
singing participants ................................................................................ 279
Table 8.4 Participants’ reports of three major effects of mindfulness exercises
on physical awareness in singing practices ........................................... 284
Table 8.5 Rehearsal and ensemble experiences described by MfS participants
in interview ............................................................................................. 289
Table 9.1 Styles of music performed by MfS participants ............................. 306
Table 9.2 Mindfulness exercises used by participants prior to performance 307
Table 9.3 Music performance anxiety: Participant group assignment .......... 310
xvi
Table 11.1 Context and effects of learning mindfulness for singers as
mentioned in study recruitment materials ............................................. 360
Table 11.2 Context and effects of learning mindfulness on singers not
mentioned in recruitment materials ....................................................... 361

xvii
List of Figures
Figure 3.1 Thematic overview: Mindfulness and general student life. ............ 99
Figure 3.2 Thematic overview of the effects of mindfulness on instrumental
learning. ................................................................................................. 100
Figure 3.3 Thematic overview of the effects of mindfulness on performance.
............................................................................................................... 101
Figure 4.1 UoL controlled experimental design timeline. .............................. 166
Figure 4.2 LCOM randomised controlled experimental design timeline. ...... 167
Figure 4.3 Hierarchical representation example of finer coding in Excel. ..... 184
Figure 5.1 MfS experimental and Wait-list control participant analysis. ....... 193
Figure 6.1 Navigational overview of the MfS results chapters. ..................... 210
Figure 6.2 Thematic overview of the MfS course experience. ...................... 211
Figure 6.3 Thematic overview of the effects of mindfulness on student life and
well-being. ............................................................................................. 223
Figure 7.1 Thematic overview map of the effects of mindfulness in singing
lessons. ................................................................................................. 236
Figure 7.2 Total singing student population and MfS participants identified or
unidentified in the current study. ............................................................ 241
unidentified in Czajkowski (2013). ......................................................... 241
Figure 8.1 Thematic overview of the effects of mindfulness in singing private
practice. ................................................................................................. 271
Figure 8.2 Thematic overview of the effects of mindfulness in
ensembles/rehearsals group practice. ................................................... 291

xviii
Figure 9.1 Thematic overview of the effects of mindfulness on MPA. ......... 302
Figure 9.2 Thematic overview of the effects of mindfulness on performance
elements. .............................................................................................. 303

1
Introduction
Mindfulness, a term that was relatively unknown 10 years ago, is now
highly prevalent in modern society (Derbyshire, 2014). It has shown many
beneficial effects in a variety of areas of human experience, including the
clinical world (Gotink et al., 2015), and within key levels of the educational
domain such as schools (Felver, Hoyos, Tezanos, & Singh, 2015) and
universities (Galante et al., 2017). My experience of learning mindfulness
techniques in 2006 seemed to have clear benefits for my own vocal coaching
sessions and my singing in terms of learning singing technique and dealing
with music performance anxiety. I also found positive effects in my vocal
teaching practice and on my students. Given the lack of mindfulness training
available to me when I was a student, it was a natural step to enquire about
the effects of teaching mindfulness to current student singers engaged in
higher education. In order to investigate further, I ran a pilot study of a
targeted mindfulness course for university vocalists (Czajkowski, 2013), which
was subsequently published in the British Journal of Music Education
(Czajkowski & Greasley, 2015). I discovered that the Guildhall School of
Music and Drama were also running a targeted mindfulness course for all
instrumentalists, which led to my desire to evaluate the music-specific effects
of this course on a wider demographic. Would they report the same effects as
those found in the Mindfulness for Singers study? Would there be instrument-
specific differences? At the same time, I was curious to find out if it would be
possible to replicate the Mindfulness for Singers results under more stringent
conditions, utilising conservatoire vocalists as well as those studying at
university. In 2015 I was granted funding by the University of Leeds to

2
investigate these phenomena and this thesis reports the results.
Chapter 1 gives an overview of the mindfulness literature in which the
studies of this PhD are situated. As there is very little previous research
regarding mindfulness and musicians, the first section investigates the
broader mindfulness literature in order to theorise on the possible benefits of
mindfulness for musicians. The second part then explores the existing
contemplative and mindfulness literature with regards to music and musicians.
Chapter 2 states the research aims, and considers different theoretical and
philosophical approaches with reference to existing contemplative and
mindfulness research methodologies. It then explains the thinking behind the
current approach, materials, and method of analysis.
Chapter 3 details the first study undertaken at the Guildhall School of
Music and Drama in order to explore the effects of teaching a mindfulness
course to instrumentalists. It includes the specific methodological and
analytical approach used for this study, followed by the quantitative and
qualitative results.
Chapters 4 to 10 detail the second study. This was undertaken to
investigate the effects of teaching a Mindfulness to Singers (MfS) course to
student singers at both a university (University of Leeds), and a music
conservatoire (Leeds College of Music). In Chapter 4, the methodological and
analytical approach and details about the Mindfulness for Singers intervention
are provided, followed by a report of the quantitative results for both
institutions in Chapter 5. The following four chapters report the qualitative
results: an overview of the reports of general effects of the mindfulness
intervention on MfS participants; accounts from student and teacher

3
participants of the effects of mindfulness in singing lessons; accounts of the
effects of mindfulness experienced by student participants in solo, private
practice, and in group rehearsals and ensemble practices; detailed effects
reported by those with performance anxiety and general effects of mindfulness
found in performance. Chapter 10 then provides information about the student
evaluation of the course and an overall summary.
Finally, Chapter 11 discusses the findings from the two studies
together, providing an overview of key findings, an evaluation of the methods
used, discussion of the implications of the research, further recommendations,
and over-arching conclusions.

4
Chapter One - Literature review
1.1 General mindfulness studies
Although mindfulness research has grown exponentially since the
1980s (Black, 2014), there are relatively few studies on mindfulness for
musicians. As a result, this chapter is in two parts. In order to situate the study
of mindfulness, the first part commences by considering definitions and
mindfulness development followed by a discussion of the evidence for the
potential benefits for musicians from research in the clinical domain,
neuroscience, sport, education, and the performing arts. The second part
evaluates contemplative research (e.g. meditation, yoga, and mindfulness
research) involving music and musicians. As most of this research in relation
to musicians has focused on music performance anxiety (MPA), this body of
literature is addressed first and other areas are subsumed under the title
“music education”.
1.1.1 Definition of mindfulness and mindfulness courses
The term “mindfulness” is difficult to define despite being used since
the birth of Buddhism in 535BCE (Hall, 2005). Definitions are still under active
discussion within both modern Buddhism and western cognitive mindfulness
researchers (Hanley, Abell, Osborn, Roehrig, & Canto, 2016; Nilsson &
Kazemi, 2016). On-going philosophical discussions are the norm in religious
communities, but clear definitions are important in scientific research for
operationalization, intervention development, study, and comparison to gather
a full picture of the whole concept and produce findings (Miller & Thoresen,
2003). One reason for the problem is that mindfulness is a semantically

5
flexible term: a person can learn mindfulness, be mindful, practise mindfulness
or take part in a mindfulness intervention (Hanley et al., 2016). Nilsson and
Kazemi (2016) systematically reviewed 33 attempts to define what is
understood as mindfulness through a multidisciplinary and cross-cultural
search from 1993 to 2016 and discovered four major themes: awareness and
attention, present centredness, external events, and cultivation. In simple
terms, attention is the act of being receptive and focused and is needed for
awareness. Awareness is the maintaining of focus on mental thoughts,
emotions and bodily stimuli. Present-centredness is about being in the
moment: the experience of mindfulness. External events refer to those
aspects outside of our control, occurrences and objects in our surroundings,
as one needs to be mindful in relation to something. Cultivation is the
development of one’s self through mindfulness and often involves learning
loving kindness. To these they added a fifth theme that Buddhist scholars
have argued has been absent from Western secular mindfulness definitions
(Dorjee, 2010; Mikulas, 2011; Monteiro, Musten, & Compson, 2015; Purser,
2015), that of ethical mindedness. Ethical mindedness is an extension of
loving kindness to the world around that may, over time, change a person’s
thoughts and behaviours to their social and physical surroundings. However,
the definition provided by Nilsson and Kazemi as “a particular type of social
practice that leads the practitioner to an ethically minded awareness,
intentionally situated in the here and now” (2016, p. 190) has yet to become a
commonly used definition.
The most popular definition (Black, 2010; Gu, Strauss, Bond, &
Cavanagh, 2015; Shapiro, Carlson, Astin, & Freedman, 2006) coined by Jon
6
Kabat-Zinn is that mindfulness means “paying attention in a particular way: on
purpose, in the present moment, and non-judgmentally” (Kabat-Zinn, 1994,
p.4). In 1979, Kabat-Zinn devised the original Mindfulness Based Stress
Reduction course (MBSR) from Buddhist meditation practices as a modern
secular 8-week mindfulness course to help patients with chronic pain for which
traditional medication had ceased to be effective (Kabat-Zinn, 2011). It is the
basis upon which most secular Western mindfulness courses (including those
in this PhD) rest; therefore his seminal “operational definition” (Kabat-Zinn,
2011, p.291) will be used throughout this thesis.
Research utilising the MBSR or derivatives are not to be confused with
the mindfulness studies of Ellen Langer where one thinks about objects in a
novel way (Langer, 1989) although that element is a part of MBSR courses.
Her studies are from a Western cognitive viewpoint and involve no 8-week
courses or particular techniques or training. Langer describes mindfulness as
the opposite to mindlessness. Her definition is “a flexible state of mind in
which we are actively engaged in the present, noticing new things and
sensitive to context” (Langer, 2000, p.220) and her studies demonstrate the
positive effects of a simple change of perspective in education, business and
elderly care. Amongst the missing elements of Eastern-based mindfulness in
Langer’s studies are such concepts as self-compassion or developing
psychological resilience.
In 1995, Teasdale, Segal, and Williams devised a Cognitive Behaviour
Therapy (CBT) derivation of MBSR, later called Mindfulness Based Cognitive
Therapy (MBCT), to help prevent depressive relapse for patients with chronic
depression. The MBSR and MBCT are very similar in style and structure,
7
consisting of 8-week courses, delivered in a group format, led by a teacher,
with set home practice. They teach focused attention and open-monitoring
mindfulness practices, gentle yoga poses, and include elements of
psychoeducation. However, the MBCT incorporates some of the techniques
from CBT and encourages participants to address ruminative thoughts and
negative thinking earlier in the course (Segal, Williams & Teasdale, 2013).
Conventionally, CBT teaches patients a cognitive approach to mental
disorders in order to identify, verify, and apply techniques to negative mental
schemas: changing the way that you think will change the way that you act.
The main difference is that MBCT includes mind and body meditations that
help patients develop an on-going awareness, acceptance, and non-
judgmental approach to ruminative or problematic thoughts to reduce negative
emotional response (Manicavasgar, Parker, & Perich, 2011). In 2004, the
MBCT course became a National Institute for Clinical Excellence
recommended treatment for people living with depression who had
experienced three relapses (NICE, 2010), although scant countrywide
availability of the course has made it difficult for general practitioners to refer
their patients to it consistently (Mindfulness All-Party Parliamentary Group,
2015). This problem is currently being addressed by the UK Government,
which is trying to encourage more teacher training courses for MBSR and
MBCT (Mindfulness All-Party Parliamentary Group, 2015).
Other types of mindfulness-based therapies and courses have been
designed since the development of MBSR. Two popular examples are
Acceptance and Commitment Therapy (ACT) developed by Hayes in 1978
(Hayes, 2006) and Dialectic Behaviour Therapy (DBT) developed in the 1980s
8
(Linehan, 1993). ACT is based on modern behavioural psychology and has six
core processes which support each other equally to target psychological
flexibility: acceptance, cognitive defusion, being present, self as context,
values, and committed action. Courses are usually between 10-12 sessions of
an hour each and often individually targeted (Juncos & de Paiva e Pona,
2018). The philosophical underpinning is functional contextualism where
functions of behaviour are viewed within their context. ACT can teach
participants to become more accepting of their experiences to enable positive
behavioural outcomes in accordance with participants’ values (Hayes,
Pistorello, & Levin, 2012). DBT was initially developed in the 1980s by Martha
Linehan to treat Borderline Personality Disorder. Since then it has been
developed as a treatment for other kinds of mental health disorders (Linehan,
2015). This is a type of cognitive-behavioural psychotherapy (CBT) that has a
talking-based, practical, and problem-solving approach to change extreme
patterns of thinking or behaviour. Individual weekly sessions often come with
support available between sessions by phone and there are also longer group
classes facilitated by a therapist. DBT involves learning mindfulness,
interpersonal effectiveness, distress tolerance, and emotion regulation
(Linehan, 2015). Both DBT and ACT utilise mindfulness and acceptance but
they do this in different ways in the therapy room. In DBT, mindfulness and
acceptance are behavioural skills that are taught as part of the course, but in
ACT they are used to explore mental processors to deal with experiential
avoidance. Mindfulness seems to have caught the current western zeitgeist
because, since the development of MBSR in 1979, many mindfulness-based
interventions (MBI) have developed across the world, tailored to a wide range
9
of populations, such as in the clinical, business, justice, and educational
domains to name but a few. In these other domains, mindfulness research has
been growing exponentially (Black, 2014, Kabat-Zinn, 2017) and much of that
research can have a bearing on today’s developing and developed musicians
as students and professionals.
1.1.2 Cognitive and neural mechanisms of mindfulness
If mindfulness is to be investigated successfully, its clinical and
neurobiological mechanisms need to be examined (Ivanovski & Malhi, 2007).
This is, amongst other reasons, so that results of studies can be interpreted
more effectively and matching types of MBI to different populations can be
more appropriate (Kazdin, 2007). However, with mindfulness, as all meditation
practices, it is difficult to define whether aspects such as posture, breathing or
attention are mechanisms or effects (Taylor, 2001). Nevertheless, various
theoretical models have been proposed (Baer, 2003; Brown, Ryan, &
Creswell, 2007; Hölzel et al., 2011; Shapiro et al., 2006).
Baer (2003) suggested that certain mechanisms of mindfulness could
lead to reduction of symptoms and changes in behaviour for those with mental
health problems. For example, exposure (to negative sensations) could
reduce pain symptoms and associated psychological distress and acceptance
of a primary suffering could change orientation to pain and mental
symptomatology. Both of these had been observed in research utilising DBT
(Linehan, 1993). Cognitive change, she suggested, could impact on habitual
thought patterns and self-management might result in developing a range of
coping strategies. Although this was mainly speculation at the time, more
10
recent rigorous research with patients with depression utilising MBCT has
subsequently provided a solid empirical basis for these assumptions (Segal,
Williams & Teasdale, 2013). Relaxation could help manage chronic pain, Baer
suggested, but she noted that this was not the goal of mindfulness and that
other treatments can also do the same (Baer, 2003).
In their theory, Shapiro et al. (2006) suggested that there are three
axioms of mindfulness: intention, attention, and attitude. Woven together
these three are considered the “fundamental components…of mindfulness” (p.
377). Shapiro et al. drew these axioms from Kabat-Zinn’s popular definition of
mindfulness and proposed that four variables (self-regulation; cognitive,
behavioural, and emotional flexibility; values clarification; and exposure) led to
a shift in perspective which they called “reperceiving”, an over-arching meta-
mechanism, that led to beneficial outcomes. Carmody, Baer, Lykins and
Olendzki (2009) put this to the test with an empirical study involving clinical
and non-clinical adults enrolled on 17 MBSR classes who took a battery of
measures over an academic year where 309 participants provided data.
However, Carmody et al. (2009), felt that the responses in their study did not
support the meta-mechanism of reperceiving and there was little support for a
relationship between intention to practice and outcomes. To the positive, there
was some support for values clarification and increases in cognitive,
behavioural, and emotional flexibility. Brown et al. (2007) reviewed the two
studies above, amongst others, and postulated that the reason mindfulness
may be beneficial is due to the process of insight, exposure, non-attachment,
enhanced mind-body functioning (lower stress and higher vitality from learning
11
mindfulness could be associated with better health) and integrated
functioning.
Neuroscientific research has also investigated the mechanisms of
mindfulness. This type of research covers investigations into the structure or
function of the brain and its impact on cognition and behaviour. Mindfulness
can be both a trait (a personality characteristic that is stable and lasts over a
long time) or a state (a temporary state of being that is brief and often caused
by an external stimulus) and most mindfulness questionnaires measure levels
of trait mindfulness (Bergomi, Tschacher, & Kupper, 2013). Neuroscientific
studies use these tests, self-report measures, and neuroimaging techniques to
examine behaviour and cognition engendered by levels of state and trait
mindfulness. Neurological research using fMRI and EEG techniques plots
activity in the brain, and morphometry research investigates size, shape or
density changes (Bandettini, 2009). Mindfulness and brain imaging techniques
are developing side by side and there is a growing body of research building a
picture of the suspected neural mechanisms of mindfulness.
Hölzel et al. (2011) reviewed a large body of conceptual, psychological
and neural studies and proposed four main mechanisms of mindfulness:
attention regulation, body awareness, emotion regulation, and self-perception,
where attention regulation is considered to be the foundational groundwork for
other mechanisms of mindfulness, and integration between these
mechanisms was a key factor. It is to be expected that improved attention and
body awareness (including improved interoception, proprioception and
exteroception) suggested by the many studies reviewed by Hölzel et al.,
(2011) would be of great use to student musicians when learning new skills
12
and could help them reduce mind wandering in a relatively repetitive activity
such as weekly lessons and daily practice. Emotion regulation covers the
appearance and type of emotions that arise in response to stimuli, length of
their stay, and how they are expressed and experienced. It is thought that the
practice of present-moment awareness and non-judgmental thinking in
mindfulness training may have an effect on emotion regulation linked to
observable changes in the pre-frontal cortex and amygdala (Hölzel et al.,
2011). Improved emotion regulation may help in dealing with music
performance anxiety (MPA) and developing coping strategies in preparation
for a demanding professional life. Perception of the self is a mental construct
built up of our human experience. In studying mindfulness, the participant is
encouraged to view both gentle and overwhelming feelings and thoughts that
we consider as an intrinsic part of ourselves as simply mental events that
arise, fall, and change over time. The desired effect is a kind of dis-
identification and a release from mental distress. Hölzel et al. (2011) found
that the activity change in the brain that accompanies this change of
perspective has been investigated in a variety of self-report and neuroimaging
studies. It is possible that musicians who learn mindfulness as students could
develop a more objective self-awareness and resilience over time to help deal
with the stresses inherent in an increasingly critical and difficult lifestyle.
The findings from Hölzel et al. (2011) were backed up by reviews of
evidence from neuroimaging studies by Esch (2014) and Marchand (2014).
Esch (2014) reviewed a vast body of studies covering the neurobiology, the
biological principles, the neuroscience and scientific evidence, and the
neuromolecular aspects of meditation. He concluded that meditation

13
experiences can be observed at the functional and structural levels of the
brain, particularly in those parts associated with emotion, attention and
memory, sensory processing, interoception, stress regulation and personal
regulation. From a neurobiological viewpoint, it has been shown that levels of
hormones such as dopamine and melatonin rise, and cortisol and
norepinephrine levels are reduced during meditation. Marchand (2014)
completed a more formal review of 36 papers searching PubMed using the
word mindfulness associated with terms such as neuroimaging, fMRI, MRI,
mechanisms, neuroimaging, and meditation. The studies covered a variety of
demographics (clinical/non-clinical, meditators/novice meditators), and
different types and lengths of mindfulness training. He felt unable to give firm
conclusions but suggested that there is convincing evidence that brain
activation changes happen during meditation. In particular, there is strong
evidence that when engaging in mindfulness, the default mode network, the
insula, the hippocampus, and the amygdala are key components in use. From
a structural point of view, changes in the hippocampus also seem to be
implicated. Both of these reviews found that mindfulness training impacted on
attention, emotion regulation, automatic thoughts, and self-referential thinking,
and associated neural mechanism changes were seen to underlie these
effects.
In 2015, Gu et al. produced the first known systematic review and
meta-analysis of mindfulness meditation studies in an effort to provide
evidence to support the existing theoretical models (Baer, 2003; Brown et al.,
2007; Hölzel et al., 2011; Shapiro et al., 2006). They used a two-stage meta-
analytic structural equation model (TSSEM) in order to discover if potential

14
mechanisms mediated the effect of mindfulness-based interventions on
clinical population outcomes. They performed a search of published reports
matching the search terms of MBCT or MBSR with a variety of meditation
terms such as “mechanism” and “meditat*”. From 1547 articles, the final 169
studies were included for their adherence to the search protocol and their
methodological quality. There was particularly good evidence to suggest that
MBIs have a positive effect on cognitive and emotional reactivity but
insufficient evidence that self-compassion and psychological flexibility were
mechanisms. Despite there being scant evidence for some of the mechanisms
they identified, the overall results seemed to support the theoretical models
they were investigating.
The neuroscientific research is supported by subsequent systematic
reviews and meta-analyses studying the effects of meditation using
morphometry (Fox et al., 2014) and functional neuroimaging (Fox et al., 2016).
Fox et al. (2014) conducted a meta-analysis of 21 neuroimaging studies to
investigate if brain structure changes during meditation and, if so, by how
much, using an anatomical likelihood estimation neuroimaging meta-analysis
method. They searched MEDLINE, Google Scholar and PsycINFO and
included 21 studies in their review, which involved a variety of demographics
and lengths of mindfulness intervention. There was little evidence for a
causative effect of mindfulness on brain structure changes but there were
consistent differences noted between regular meditators and those new to
meditation. The likeliest brain structure changes induced by meditation
occurred in the prefrontal cortex, cingulate cortexes, the insula, somatomotor
cortices and the hippocampus, and the changes were comparable to ‘medium’
15
effects of other psychological interventions.
Fox et al. (2016) conducted a meta-analysis of 78 functional
neuroimaging investigations of mindfulness utilising positron emission
topography (PET) and fMRI studies of meditation gathered from MEDLINE,
Google Scholar and PsycINFO. They were researching the possibility that, if
there are psychological differences for the various meditation practices, they
should be observable via activation at the neurological level. They used a
method called activation likelihood estimation and identified four separate
patterns of activation and deactivation in the brain under four different
conditions of meditation. Three are taught in MBSR (focused attention, open
monitoring, loving kindness) and one is not (mantra). Brain regions associated
with cognitive control and self-reflection were found to activate in focused
attention meditations and deactivations were observed in areas associated
with mind wandering, memory, mental creations of the future, and conceptual
and semantic processing. For open monitoring, there was activation noted in
the areas associated with thought and action, and interoceptive processing,
and deactivation in an area associated with sensory filtering. Loving kindness
had the fewest studies, but activations were noted in areas associated with
somatosensory processing and a sense of body, and there were no significant
deactivations noted.
The field of neuroscience is still in its infancy so it is not until more
longitudinal studies are completed that brain related findings and associated
behaviour change can be conclusively attributed to mindfulness training
(Tang, Hölzel, & Posner, 2015) but these are starting to emerge (Valk et al.,
2017) and support the findings above.

16
1.1.3 Clinical studies in mindfulness
Most mindfulness research to date has occurred in the clinical domain,
which has influenced the development of mindfulness in other fields, such as
education. The wealth of research in this area means that it is now possible to
conduct a meta-analysis of meta-analyses utilising only robust randomised
controlled studies (RCT). Gotink et al. (2015) conducted a meta-analysis of 23
meta-analyses covering 115 RCTs, which involved a total of 8683 participants
with a variety of medical health conditions. They were also able to confine
their research to interventions using the MBSR (Kabat-Zinn, 1990) or the
MBCT course (Segal, Williams, & Teasdale, 2013). Gotink et al. (2015)
concluded that
The evidence supports the use of MBSR and MBCT to alleviate

symptoms, both mental and physical, in the adjunct treatment of
cancer, cardiovascular disease, chronic pain, depression, anxiety
disorders and in prevention in healthy adults and children. (p.2)
Any musician could be diagnosed with any of the above conditions but it is
particularly interesting that the list includes depression, anxiety and chronic
pain, problems which often go hand in hand with the stresses of the
professional music career demonstrated by research from around the world
(Kenny, Driscoll, & Ackermann, 2016; Sousa, Machado, Greten, & Coimbra,
2016; Vaag, Bjørngaard, & Bjerkeset, 2016). Mental and physical problems
are particularly prevalent in the current musical workforce (Ginsborg, Spahn, &
Williamon, 2012) and have been known about for some time (Fishbein,
Middlestadt, Ottati, Straus, & Ellis, 1988).

17
There has been a predominantly quantitative approach to the study of
mindfulness in the clinical domain which precludes discovery of how or why
mindfulness courses had positive effects or the acceptability of the course to
the participants. However, the knowledge that doing a mindfulness course has
significantly alleviated psychological and physiological symptoms for non-
musicians with similar mental and physiological problems could be of practical
use to musicians.
1.1.4 Mindfulness in sport
There are many parallels between sport and music as explored in detail
by Martin (2008). Both types of practitioners have to develop similar
psychological and behavioural skills to cope with learning and honing high-
level skills over a long period of time; both have to deal with the pressures of
competition and manage intense periods of performance. Röthlin, Horvath,
Birrer, and grosse Holtforth (2016), concluded that mindfulness can facilitate
performance for athletes in highly demanding situations, which could be useful
for musicians. Using an online survey, they found that higher trait mindfulness
had a relation with fewer performance worries, and a higher ability to deliver
performance in competitions, for 133 athletes who were specialists in 23
sports. However, this cross sectional, purely quantitative study only measured
trait mindfulness at one point in time. In future, a longitudinal study with some
case studies could investigate the phenomenon more thoroughly.
The Mindful Sport Performance Enhancement (MSPE), a 4-week
programme, was used with eleven archers and twenty-one golfers and
showed improvements in flow, mindfulness and facets of confidence
(Kaufman, Glass, & Arnkoff, 2009). The MSPE further reduced performance
18
anxiety and perfectionism in twenty-five long-distance runners, but not running
performance (De Petrillo, Kaufman, Glass, & Arnkoff, 2009) until a follow-up
study conducted a year later (Thompson, Kaufman, De Petrillo, Glass, &
Arnkoff, 2011). Although this combined one-year longitudinal study was only
based on a small, self-selected sample size of archers, golfers and runners,
researchers found there were significant increases both in acting with
awareness and decreases in rumination and task-related concerns. A 7-week
MBSR-based targeted course, the Mindful Performance Enhancement,
Awareness and Knowledge (mPEAK) was trialed in 2014 with seven members
of the US Olympic BMX cycling team (Haase et al., 2015). This study
employed seven cyclists and had no control or comparison group. Participants
took part in an fMRI scan before and after the mPEAK intervention whilst
taking part in anticipatory, breathing load and post-breathing load conditions
interoceptive tests. The fMRI results demonstrated increased insula and
anterior cingulate cortex activation during the interoceptive task, which
suggested increased interoceptive awareness and the ability to identify and
process associated emotions when both enduring and recovering from the
resistant inspiratory breathing load tasks. Recovering from an unexpected
occurrence on stage can be a difficult thing for musicians and this research
suggests that learning mindfulness could help in developing intra-performance
coping mechanisms.
The Mindfulness-Acceptance-Commitment (MAC) approach developed
by Gardner and Moore (2004) is a 7-week course and has demonstrated
positive results for a variety of athletes including field hockey and volleyball
players (Wolanin & Schwanhausser, 2010), a spring board diver

19
(Schwanhausser, 2009) and darts players (Zhang et al., 2016) but only limited
improvements for a variety of 19 college athletes (Hasker, 2010). Hasker
performed an intervention study where the MAC approach was quantatively
tested alongside the US Olympic Mental Training manual but there were no
significant differences between groups. The MAC group reported increased
mindfulness skills such as improvements in describing mindful experiences
and being less reactive and more responsive to stimuli. They also showed a
greater acceptance of experience and felt better able to work towards their
aims. However, there are no details as to the qualifications of the intervention
validity assessors. The MAC trainers were clinical students and were given a
brief training workshop before administering the interventions, but there are no
details as to their personal mindfulness experience and the study was limited
by only using a small sample. Gardner and Moore (2012) reviewed over a
decade of mindfulness interventions in sport and after considering the 10
existing empirical research studies, they felt mindfulness had demonstrated its
efficacy as an intervention to improve performance outcomes for athletes.
Connolly and Williamon (2004) suggested that “holistic body-mind
training...taken as self-evident by sports trainers” (p.222) could apply to
musicians. Mindfulness and sports enhancement researchers also see the
connection between music and sports performance research as evidenced in
Kaufman, Glass, and Pineau’s (2018) Mindful sport performance
enhancement: Mental training for athletes and coaches, which includes a
section on mindfulness and music, citing, amongst others, Czajkowski and
Greasley (2015). The experience of athletes and musicians, the demands,
preparation, performance, competition and physical aspects of their lives, can

20
be directly related to each other. Therefore, positive evidence from
mindfulness research in the sports field suggests that there should also be
benefits for musicians in the areas of performance, performance anxiety, and
developing focus and attention skills from learning mindfulness.
1.1.5 Mindfulness in education
Educators are particularly interested in two main benefits that training in
mindfulness can give to students: improved wellbeing and mental health, and
enhanced focus and attention skills leading to better academic performance.
Initially, disparate mindfulness practitioners introduced mindfulness and yoga
practices into their local schools (Garrison Institute Report, 2005) but, over
time, adherents have worked with academic researchers to develop
formalised programmes and resources to enable better practice and raise
awareness (Mindfulness All-Party Parliamentary Group, 2015). For example,
Burnett and Cullen, developers of The Mindfulness in Schools Programme (.b)
collaborated with academics from Oxford, Cambridge, Exeter and Oxford
Brookes universities in a non-randomised controlled study and found that,
after doing the .b course, 522 mindfully-trained adolescents (age 12-16) from
12 secondary schools reportedly had fewer depressive symptoms, lower
stress, and greater wellbeing (Kuyken et al., 2013). The .b course is 10-lesson
mindfulness course specifically designed for 11-18 year old students to be
provided in school settings (https://mindfulnessinschools.org/).
Meta-analyses and systematic reviews have been conducted on the
effects of mindfulness training in schools. Zenner, Herrnleben-Kurz and
Walach (2014) evaluated 24 studies covering a total of 1348 (age 5-18)

21
students where 19 studies included a controlled design. They noted that only
half the studies used a comparison condition, only a third randomly assigned
students to conditions, participant characteristics were often unavailable, and
no study used an objective data gather, such as achievement grades.
However, they concluded that mindfulness was probably mostly effective in
the cognitive domain, but also beneficial in psychological areas such as
stress, coping, and resilience. Felver, Hoyos, Tezanos, and Singh (2015)
completed a systematic review of mindfulness-based interventions in schools
and included 28 studies involving 3414 students (age range 5-18). The main
benefits reported were improvements in behaviour problems, anxiety,
depression, affective disturbances, executive functions and physiological
functions. A variety of prosocial psychosocial attributes were also found, such
as improved classroom engagement and behaviour, emotion regulation, social
skills, social-emotional competence, coping, positive affect, and optimism.
However, the researchers noted that there were limitations due to the
heterogeneity of studies included in the review, socio-economic reporting was
lacking, there was little replication, and no study had a strong active control.
Maynard, Solis, Miller, and Brendel (2017) completed another systematic
review of 61 studies up to May 2015 employing 6207 school age students and
found small significant increases in cognitive and socio-emotional outcomes,
and non-significant increases for academic outcomes. They noted limitations
in publication bias, that there could be experimenter expectancy effects due to
the fact that researchers ran the interventions, and there were no “blinded”
studies where participants would not know which treatment group they were in
to ensure results were not affected by the power of suggestion. Despite these
22
limitations, the results from these studies suggest that mindfulness may be
effective in a variety of areas such as increased focused engagement in the
regularity of weekly music tuition, and emotional coping skills to help music
students deal with performing issues.
Studies have investigated the effects of mindfulness on academic
grades. Bakosh, Snow, Tobias, Houlihan, and Barbosa-Leiker (2015)
discovered that, after the 8-week mindfulness course, the experimental group
(n=93) aged 8-9 years demonstrated significantly higher quarterly grades than
matched controls (n=98). As Bakosh et al. (2015) have noted, reading levels
at this age have been linked to academic achievement at age 18, this
suggests that learning mindfulness early could have benefits on future
educational academic outcomes. Bennett and Dorjee (2015) found that a GCE
‘A-level’ (Year 13) mindfulness group (n=11) who took part in an age-
appropriate targeted MBSR course scored, on average, almost one grade
higher than matched controls (n=13) at the 3-month follow-up. Despite the
lack of longitudinal data, these research findings could be of use to music
students who are also marked on their academic performance as part of a
university degree.
Cross-parliamentary groups in the UK are considering implementing
mindfulness in schools supported by public money based on research that
suggests that mindfulness is beneficial in education (Mindfulness All-Party
Parliamentary Group, 2015) and this political attention has not dimmed in the
intervening years. In October 2017, there was the first international gathering
of 40 politicians from 14 countries at the House of Commons, leading the
media to describe the UK as “way ahead of the curve” in mindful politics

23
(Booth, 2017). Due to the growing evidence of psychological and academic
benefits for students in education, it is now being recommended to include
mindfulness in teacher training programmes to prepare teachers for the need
to teach mindfulness in schools (Albrecht, 2018). As a result, mindfulness may
become more prevalent in UK schools in the near future and this could have
an impact on future musicians.
Mindfulness and meditation courses have been introduced into
university settings for a variety of educational and psychological purposes.
They have been seen to enhance knowledge retention and help improve
cognitive skills such as reaction times, attention, decrease mind wandering,
and enhance working memory and reading comprehension (Ching, Koo, Tsai,
& Chen, 2015; Helber, Zook, & Immergut, 2012; Ramsburg & Youmans,
2014). They have also helped to develop critique skills (Bush, 2011), listening
skills (Anderson, 2012), and to aid university adjustment (Lynch, Gander,
Kohls, Kudlielka, & Walach, 2011; Ramler, Tennison, Lynch, & Murphy, 2016).
There were no interviews or contextual open-ended written questions in
Anderson (2012) whose mindfulness intervention and research design relied
on Langer-based cognitive mindfulness but, despite this, his findings could be
of use to music students for whom deliberately focused and attentive listening
skills are fundamental.
University students requesting counselling has grown by 50% from
2010 to 2015 (Galante et al., 2017) and mental health is an increasing
concern in higher education (Ingram, Breen, & Rhijn, 2017). Evaluative
reviews of mindfulness on university mental health and wellbeing (Conley,
Durlak, & Dickson, 2013), and on student stress (Regehr, Glancy, & Pitts,
24
2013) found that CBT and mindfulness interventions, especially those given in
a class format and including supervised practice, were the most effective in
decreasing psychological and physiological symptoms of stress, anxiety and
depression in comparison to arts based therapies and psycho-educational
interventions. Probably the largest quantitative RCT study to date was run at
Cambridge University to discover the effects of a 7-week Mindfulness Skills for
Students course on psychological distress during examination sessions
compared with normal counselling and mental health treatments (Galante et
al., 2017). In comparison to controls who had access to normal mental health
services (n=307), an experimental group (n=309) took part in the mindfulness
intervention combined with access to treatment as usual. The experienced,
certified mindfulness teacher taught classes of 30 students for 75-90 minutes
and participants were asked to practise between eight and 25 minutes a day.
Two main questionnaires were administered: the Clinical Outcomes in Routine
Evaluation Outcome Measure (CORE-OM; referenced in Galante et al., 2017
as Connell, Barkham & Mellor-Clark, 2008) to test psychological distress, and
the Warwick-Edinburgh Mental Wellbeing Scale (referenced in Galante et al.,
2017 as Stewart-Brown & Janmohamed, 2008). They found that, despite only
59% attending at least half the sessions and a moderate loss to follow-up,
experimental participants had better well-being and enhanced resilience to the
build up of stress particularly during examination periods than controls.
However, it is unknown at present if these results would continue over a
longer period of time, so a future longitudinal study would be a useful addition.
In a qualitative study by Ingram, Breem and Rhijn (2017), 14 students within
an undergraduate class were taught mindfulness to enhance well-being. The

25
small sample of participants did not report mindfulness as universally useful
and they occasionally used it in conjunction with other self-care methods, but
most participants found it beneficial to their well-being.
The evidence suggests that mindfulness has helped general students
in higher education to develop resilience, mental well-being and coping skills,
and enhanced a variety of academically useful skills. It would be expected,
therefore, that music students might find similar benefits in their academic
studies but it is also possible that they might find particular benefit when faced
with the additional stressors of a student musician’s lifestyle (e.g.
competitions, auditions, and performances).
1.1.6 Mindfulness and the performing arts
Mindfulness is also being explored within the performing arts, such as
acting and dance. The University of Huddersfield’s ‘Centre for Psychophysical
Performance Research’ hosts researchers investigating contemplative
techniques for actors (Chamberlain, Middleton, & Pla, 2014). Pla discussed
what makes “presence on stage” (p.9) by investigating the connection
between contemplative practice and attentive behaviour. Middleton studied,
amongst other things, the Buddhist-inspired actor trainings of Nuñez,
Grotowsky, and Trungpa who teaches actors how to “redo existence in order
to learn to exist” (p.7), and Chamberlain has a number of practice-as-research
interests within modern theatre and Buddhism. They argue that contemplative
practice can improve observation of the body-mind in action, thus helping
actors improve their control and channeling skills (Middleton & Chamberlain,
2012). However, their approach is mainly through first-person methodologies,

26
which limits its applicability to other populations although, in principle, their
findings should also be relevant to musicians.
In America, Hague and Sandage (2016) explored the use of
Fitzmaurice Voicework (FV) and MBSR techniques on performance anxiety in
student actors. FV is a technique used to develop controlled breath support
and utilises Hatha Yoga poses to trigger a reflexive tremor for “destructuring”
processors prior to developing “restructuring”. Six experimental participant
students were taught FV with 3-5 minutes of mindfulness at the beginning of
each twice weekly session for two semesters, whereas six wait-list control
participants were offered three hours of meditative and yoga practice. Data
were gathered using physiological measures (heart-rate and respiration) and
questionnaires testing mindfulness and public speaking anxiety levels.
Physiological measures were taken at baseline and before three
performances, and questionnaires were completed pre- and post-
performances. Results for performance anxiety were inconclusive on all
accounts between groups, although the experimental group reported lower
perceived stress before the final performance and increased in mindfulness in
comparison to controls. These results are not surprising, however, as the
experimental teaching comprised little explicit mindfulness training and the FV
work included yoga targeted at improving vocal technique rather than yoga
specifically for stress reduction. The controls also had access to mindfulness
and yoga training, which may have confounded results. The breathing results
were also confounded by the discovery that most participants were mentally
preparing monologues during the breath tests prior to performing and so all
exhibited speech patterns of breathing. Heart-rate was high for all participants
27
but pre-performance arousal is to be expected and often beneficial. Further
research isolating confounding factors could demonstrate more of a difference
between groups in future.
Over two years, Moyle (2016) introduced mindfulness practices to
university dance students (year 1, n=108; year 2, n=82) to develop their
embodied practice and performance psychology skills. Participants
contributed a variety of qualitative self-assessment, journal, and interview
data, and completed questionnaires pre- and post-intervention. Non-significant
results from the mindfulness questionnaire could have been partly influenced
by low attendance rates possibly due to early morning mindfulness sessions.
However, as the comments from many students were positive, a targeted
questionnaire may have been more sensitive to dance and mindfulness-
related changes. As Moyle’s report contained no performance result outcomes
or objective observations related to the intervention, an appraisal of student
dancers with a blind assessment team in a future study might ascertain if
impartial observers could identify mindfulness-induced changes. This type of
research can have direct implications for contemplative performance studies
utilising musicians as there are many parallels, such as learning skills and
performance issues, for actors, dancers and musicians.

28
1.2 Mindfulness for musicians
1.2.1 Mindfulness in performance
The majority of contemplative research in music has addressed music
performance anxiety. Fishbein et al. in 1988 researched the prevalence of
musicians’ medical problems in a study involving 48 American orchestras and
discovered that after musculoskeletal problems, “stage fright” was reported
most often. A certain level of anxiety, which is dependent on each musician’s
nature and nurture, is considered beneficial to create an optimal performance
(Brodsky, 1996; Oliver, 1997; Papageorgi, Hallam, & Welch, 2007) but too
much can be disturbing and debilitating (Ginsborg et al., 2012). Music
performance anxiety (MPA), a term first coined by Salmon (1990), is highly
prevalent amongst all types of performing musicians (Kenny & Ackerman,
2009): in amateurs, music students and professional performers (Steptoe &
Fidler, 1987; Tamborrino, 2001), classical musicians such as Maria Callas and
Paderewski (Williamon 2004), and popular artists such as Barbara Streisand
and Carly Simon (Goren, 2014). MPA can even appear in music lessons,
practice sessions and rehearsals (Fogle, 1982) and has been shown to be
particularly prevalent in females (Çirakoğlu, 2013; Papageorgi et al., 2007)
Researchers have put forward a variety of theories on the causes of
MPA, and a comprehensive review of research on MPA including causes and
symptoms can be found in The Psychology of Music Performance Anxiety by
Kenny (2011). MPA is not separately diagnosable (Çirakoğlu, 2013) but lies
within the remit of Social Anxiety Disorder (SAD) (Goren, 2014). Treatment for
SAD (including MPA) is usually medicinal or therapeutical (Kenny &
Ackerman, 2009; Çirakoğlu, 2013). Many musicians use medication such as

29
“betablockers” (Fishbein et al., 1988; Oliver, 1997) but this type of treatment
can have side effects and only treats the symptoms, not the cause (Taylor,
2001). Combined cognitive and behavioural therapies (e.g. CBT) are currently
considered the best option to address causes of MPA due to their positive
research base (Ginsborg et al., 2012; Kenny, 2011; McGrath, 2012). However,
in an fMRI study by Goldin and Gross (2010), an MBSR course was seen to
have a beneficial effect on 14 SAD sufferers. Although this study only had a
small sample, if this type of intervention can help SAD sufferers, it is possible
that it could also help those experiencing MPA.
There are different types of contemplative practices that have been
employed in studies with MPA: yoga (e.g., Kripalu, Hatha Yoga), meditation
(e.g., Zen), and mindfulness (e.g., MBSR and MBCT) which combines secular
versions of Buddhist meditation practices and yoga: vipassana (insight
meditation), samatha (concentration meditation), gentle Hatha Yoga
exercises, and metta (loving-kindness) meditation.
Several studies have investigated or suggested that yoga could
positively affect physical and psychological problems encountered by
musicians. For example, a chapter devoted to yoga with reference to
meditation is found in Driskill’s (2012) literature study on MPA for singers. In
Driskill’s study, there are many positive yoga anecdotes from singers with
MPA, references to institutions adopting yoga, such as OperaWorks, and
quotes from notables such as opera singer Priti Gandhi and violinist Yehudi
Menuhin who felt it helped with body-mind awareness and reducing physical
tension. Driskill warned singers that there are many types of yoga available
and that singers should search out the style that suits them and their needs
30
best. It is preferable, she advised, to look for trained yoga teachers
sympathetic to or trained in voice.
There are a few intervention studies that have investigated the effect of
yoga on music instrumental students. Butzer, Ahmed and Khalsa (2015) gave
an overview of a project studying the effects of yoga and meditation on
psychological states in young adult musicians enrolled on prestigious summer
courses at the Tanglewood Music Centre in 2005, 2006 and 2007. Across the
3 years, 60 experimental participants took part in 8-week Kripalu yoga
interventions and were compared with 43 non-randomised controls. The
participants took a battery of pre- and post-intervention questionnaires that
covered mindfulness, MPA, confusion, and dispositional flow. However, there
was only one open question at the end that asked for comments on
experience of the programme so findings in this paper are based purely on the
limited quantitative measures. However, the results suggested decreases in
MPA and confusion, enhanced flow states, and improved mindful awareness
for the yoga participants. The individual studies are discussed in more detail in
Khalsa and Cope (2006), and Khalsa, Shorter, Cope, Wyshak, and Sklar
(2009), and each includes one paragraph at the end of the discussion
summarising the qualitative results. For example, participants felt that yoga
had improved stamina, concentration and music performance enjoyment but
that the meditation sessions were difficult (Khalsa & Cope, 2006). Yoga was
also reported to help with course fatigue and pre-performance anxiety, which
had lasted beyond the summer (Khalsa et al., 2009). A similar study was run
by Khalsa, et al. (2013) during the prestigious summer residential for
adolescent musicians at the Boston University Tanglewood Institute in 2007

31
and 2008. In this study, 84 participants took part in the 6-week Kripalu yoga
and meditation programmes and 51 controls were offered $25 vouchers for
their contribution. Participants completed pre- and post-intervention
questionnaires, which measured performance anxiety and performance-
related physiological responses. The participants, with an average age of 16,
had significant improvements in MPA compared to controls, although the
physiological results were inconsistent. Once again, there is only a short
paragraph detailing qualitative results from the one open ended question at
the end of the battery of questionnaires, but participants reported that yoga
helped them to deal with course stress and fatigue, build stamina, manage
performance anxiety, and improved self-confidence. An uncontrolled study by
Stern, Khalsa, and Hofmann (2012) investigated the effects of a Kripalu yoga
intervention with 24 university students (average age 21) who took part in one
of two yoga/meditation courses in the academic year of 2007. The course
involved 14 one-hour classes over 9 weeks at The Boston Conservatory. The
questionnaires were taken at pre-intervention, post-intervention and during the
7-14 month follow-up. They covered music performance anxiety, mood states
and psychological distress, and trait anxiety but not mindfulness. They did,
however, include a practice log and an open-ended comments section.
Results suggested large decreases in MPA and trait anxiety, which were
sustained at the follow-up. A paragraph covering the qualitative responses
was generally positive and noted that participants felt calmer with improved
breathing and focus. These yoga and MPA studies are interesting and
informative as far as uncontrolled questionnaires can measure, but they rarely
give the participants chance to explain in detail why or how the yoga
32
intervention has improved MPA. There are also no other performance or solo
practice related outcomes, which leaves the reader with more questions than
answers. It is important for these studies in future to give participants the
opportunity to freely explain the effects of yoga on them as musicians to gain
a fuller picture of the effects of the course and, if possible, the longitudinal
effects over time.
Steptoe and Fidler (1987) explored the prevalence of MPA and coping
strategies used by professional orchestra members, music students, and
amateurs with a questionnaire study. Those who had moderate MPA
demonstrated a realistic appraisal of performance and a high proportion of
those with moderate MPA used meditation. It would be interesting to know if
there was a correlation between meditation, realistic performance appraisal,
and moderate MPA but this was not explored in the study. Taylor (2001)
administered an MPA questionnaire to members of the National Association of
Singing Teachers (NATS). Unfortunately, only 31 singers responded from a
NATS membership of 5300 but a high percentage of those admitted to
symptoms of MPA. Eight participants reported that meditation was a very
effective strategy and one found it had eliminated MPA entirely. In 2009, Ryan
and Andrews questioned the members of seven semi-professional choirs
(n=201) about MPA. The majority had some experience of MPA, where solo
passages and the conductor were found to be a big influence on anxiety. In
this study, 22% used meditation as a coping strategy and 9% used yoga.
One of the most highly cited papers in this area is Chang, Midlarsky,
and Lin (2003), who enrolled university music students into an 8- week Zen
(Chan) meditation programme. The meditation group (n=9) showed less mind
33
wandering and anxiety at the immediate post-intervention performance than
the controls (n=10), as reported by self-report questionnaires, but the finding
was not statistically significant. In an open-ended questionnaire, however,
meditation participants were generally positive, but some felt more self-
conscious and aware of intrusive thoughts, and they felt that the techniques
would take time to grow. Lin, Chang, Zemon, and Midlarsky (2007), provided
further analysis of the data from Chang et al. (2003) detailing the findings from
two independent professional music jurors on the post-intervention meditation
and control group music performances. However, the assessment of music
performance only happened after the intervention and there was no pre-
intervention performance for comparison. Although the Zen
meditation intervention did not appear to significantly improve music
performance quality according to the quantitative measures, there was a
positive linear relationship between MPA and performance quality (which was
not as hypothesised). The qualitative reports show that some meditation
participants were more aware of their MPA symptoms but were able to accept
them and channel them into better quality performances, which may explain
this trend. In comparison, the control group demonstrated increases in MPA
with significant decreases in performance quality (which was as
hypothesised). This suggested that meditation could improve musical
performance through an awareness and acceptance of MPA symptoms.
Kenny (2011) does not recommend mindfulness for MPA but her
opinion relies on early clinically based reviews. She references reviews by
Bishop (2002), Krisanaprakornkit, Krisanaprakornkit, and Piyavhatkul (2007),
and Toneatto and Nguyen (2007). However, most of the studies included in
34
these reviews, she notes, are of low quality, which is always a problem in the
very earliest stages of testing a new intervention. If Kenny had been able to
see Gotink et al.’s more recent rigorous RCT meta-analytic review (2015)
where MBSR and MBCT courses have demonstrated significant
improvements for clinical anxiety sufferers, she may have considered a
alternative conclusion. Despite that, she is correct that the definitive definition
of mindfulness is still in discussion, and that research studies for MPA are few.
At the time, she was unable to find a single journal article of published
research using MBSR or MBCT as an intervention for MPA, only citing the
Zen meditation-based Chang et al. (2003) study, and associated further
research, Lin et al. (2007).
De Felice (2004) was the first to theorise on the positive benefits of
mindfulness on abnormal MPA. She had been inspired by early neuroscientific
research (Davidson et al., 2003) that had observed increases in the area of
the brain commonly associated with positive affect in 25 healthy participants
who had taken an 8-week mindfulness course in comparison to 16 wait-list
controls. Basing her argument on Barlow’s clinical neuroscientific studies in
emotion and anxiety (e.g. Barlow, 2000), she felt that mindfulness meditation
could reduce negative emotions and their associated unpleasant physical
reactions thus having a positive effect on abnormal MPA. She suggested that
as mindfulness meditation is easily learnt, this could be a useful addition to
strategies for musicians experiencing uncomfortable levels of MPA. She also
speculated that being conscious of each thought might engender fewer
automatic performances, that performers could be more original, be better
able to cope with any situation on stage and have more performance
35
enjoyment. Oyan (2006) further speculated that mindfulness meditation might
help musicians who suffer from performance anxiety whilst on stage. He felt
this would subsequently enhance creativity and freedom as he found that
most MPA researchers would agree that being in the moment is an important
aspect of performance success. However, these are only theoretical
assumptions based on personal experience and research in other domains at
the time.
Diaz (2018) explored the connection between the use of meditation
practices and MPA in college level students (n=255) using the Mindfulness
Attention Awareness Scale (MAAS; Brown & Ryan, 2003) to measure
mindfulness, the Performance Anxiety Index (PAI referenced in Diaz (2018);
Nagel, Himle, & Papsdorf, (1989)) to measure MPA levels, and the
Multidimensional Perfectionism Scale (MPS referenced in Diaz (2018); Hewitt
& Flett (1990)). Forty-eight percent had engaged in meditation practices, and
those who did regular practice on a weekly basis reported reduced MPA.
Those who were more innately perfectionist and had lower trait mindfulness
predicted higher levels of MPA. It is possible that, if participants knew they
were doing a research study investigating the effects of mindfulness on MPA,
they might have reported lower levels of MPA in the questionnaires to validate
their lifestyle choices. It is also difficult in this study to know what the
participants meant by the word mindfulness or meditation as there was no
qualitative element to this study. Diaz categorised different types of
meditation, (e.g. yoga, mindfulness, vipassana, loving kindness), but the
definition for each category is unclear. For example, mindfulness alone can be
described by people as a few minutes on a mindfulness mobile application or

36
a full 3-month silent retreat. Mindfulness includes yoga practices, yoga can
include meditation, meditation can include loving kindness practices and some
people even described soccer playing as being a meditational practice. It may
be possible to play football in a meditational manner but what is really meant
by this is not clear from Diaz’s quantitative report. It is clear, however, that
some sort of meditational approach did seem to have a positive effect on MPA
if done regularly.
Farnsworth-Grodd and Cameron (2013) and Clevenger (2015) both
investigated the connection between trait mindfulness and MPA with a
questionnaire study. Farnsworth-Grodd and Cameron asked 159 music
student participants to complete the Five Facet Mindfulness Questionnaire
(FFMQ; Baer, Smith, Hopkins, Krietemeyer, & Toney, 2006) and a battery of
anxiety and coping measures at the beginning of term, just before a
performance exam, and 48 hours after the performance. They found that
students with higher trait mindfulness coped better with pre-performance-
related thoughts and emotions and demonstrated lower MPA during
performances by focusing on positive aspects of performing, demonstrating
greater self-compassion and acceptance. Students who demonstrated higher
trait mindfulness also described themselves as more satisfied with their effort
and quality of performance, felt that they performed better in performances
than during solo practice, and were less likely to experience problems on
stage than participants with less trait mindfulness. However, due to the
quantitative research design, these problems were not detailed or any context
given. Clevenger (2015), using the Kenny Music Performance Anxiety
Inventory, the MAAS and some demographic questions, also investigated the
37
connection between trait mindfulness and MPA with 62 music students.
Clevenger’s results, however, showed that MPA and trait mindfulness had a
non-significant relationship. She also discovered that the relationship between
years of music experience and MPA were non-significant, and “length of time
with mindfulness” and MPA was also non-significant. The question that asked
for participants’ “length of time with mindfulness” was only addressed with one
survey question, “How long have you been engaging in mindfulness?”
(Clevenger, 2015). As the survey did not include any operationalization of
previous mindfulness training experience it is difficult to interpret the results.
Few people will admit to being naturally mindless and, in fact, nearly half
(n=30) of the respondents reported “using mindfulness” for over 12 months
but it is unknown whether this meant that they had completed a mindfulness
course over a year earlier or had always considered themselves mindful by
nature. One of the possible reasons for a difference in relational outcomes
between trait mindfulness and MPA in these studies may be due to the
measures used. Clevenger used the MAAS, which only measures awareness
and attention, whereas Farnsworth-Grodd and Cameron used the FFMQ,
which gives a far more detailed and in-depth analysis of the construct (see
Chapter 2, Section 2.3.2).
Both Hribar (2012) and Steyn, Steyn, Maree, and Panebianco-Warrens
(2016) studied the effect of a mindfulness intervention on music students’
psychological well-being and MPA. Hribar (2012) investigated two iterations of
the 8-week targeted MBSR course, Mindfulness for Musicians, at the Guildhall
School of Music and Drama using mixed methods. 25 participants took the
course, completed pre- and post-questionnaires (24f) and eight were

38
interviewed for 10-20 minutes each. The questionnaires covered wellbeing,
stress, depression, anxiety, and mindfulness. Results showed improvements
in wellbeing, positive emotion, life satisfaction, and trait mindfulness, and there
were decreases in stress and depression but no change for anxiety. The
qualitative reports demonstrated that all eight interview participants reported
beneficial effects on MPA: they reported enhanced focus skills, they accepted
their anxiety more, managed symptoms better, and two participants reported
increased performance enjoyment. However, there were no independent
evaluations of performance outcomes or references to effects on performance
quality. Interestingly, three participants also mentioned developing more
effective practice due to increased focus. However, due to the short length of
the interviews, this new finding was not investigated very thoroughly and it is
possible that longer, more open-ended interviews, or more participants could
have produced other music-specific findings. Steyn et al. (2016) combined a
sports mindfulness course (MAC) (see Section 1.1.4) with psychological skills
training (PST) intervention for musicians. She tested the intervention with a
number of questionnaires covering psychological well-being, psychological
skills, mindfulness, and MPA using university music students (n=21) in
comparison to non-randomised controls (n=15). The 7-week intervention
produced significantly positive results in the questionnaire results measuring
self-confidence, anxiety, concentration, relaxation, motivation, mind set, and
positive relations with others but the questionnaires were not administered
around performance opportunities and there were no follow-up data gathered
to investigate if improvements lasted over time. Nevertheless, the researchers
concluded that this approach had the potential to improve psychological well-
39
being for musicians.
Three studies have tested the effects of the mindfulness-based
Acceptance and Commitment Therapy (ACT) course (see Section 1.1.1)
modified for MPA. Juncos and Markman (2015) invited a violinist with MPA to
take part in the therapy and she completed a battery of tests six times from
before, during, and up to 1 month after the intervention. The tests measured
ACT processes using the Philadelphia Mindfulness Scale (PHLMS;
Cardaciotto, Herbert, Forman, Moitra, & Farrow, 2008), and MPA
psychological and symptom processes using the Kenny Music Performance
Anxiety Inventory (KMPAI; Kenny, 2009). Results showed significant
improvements in MPA symptoms and enhanced psychological coping and
control. An experienced performer and teacher of strings, who assessed the
violinist’s performance quality under blinded conditions, also felt that her
performance had improved significantly over the intervention and was now
freer and more expressive. The participant also provided a follow-up interview
and reported that she had used ACT techniques during performances. She
described being better able to deal with problems on stage, felt her recent
performances were the best she had played, and was subsequently happier to
do more performing.
This was a similar protocol to that used with a professional drummer
with MPA in Juncos’s earlier unpublished thesis although that study did not
include the blind assessor of pre- and post-intervention performances.
However, the drummer felt he accepted MPA more, demonstrated significant
improvements in self-compassion, managed to diffuse anxious thoughts, and
experienced lower distress (Juncos et al., 2014).

40
A further similar study (Juncos et al., 2017) invited seven advanced
choral college vocalists (6f) with MPA to take part in a 12-session ACT/MPA
intervention to improve mental flexibility for MPA. The participants completed
a similar set of questionnaires to the earlier studies, including one about
experiential shame, seven times over the study period: twice before treatment,
three times during, and twice afterwards at 1-month and 3-month intervals.
They also provided two follow up interviews (1 month and 3 months).
Participants recorded two video performances pre- and post-intervention and
three “blinded” independent musicians rated them. There were similar results
to the other studies in ability to accept MPA symptoms and improvement in
psychological flexibility but other results from this more rigorous study were
mixed. There were significant reductions of MPA examined by the KMPAI, and
significant improvements on two of the ACT processor questionnaires but no
significant improvements on the mindfulness questionnaire (PHLMS).
However, the interviews revealed increased confidence, reductions in
avoidant behaviours, and participants reported that they were happier to do
more performing. The blind assessors decided that there was an improvement
in average performance quality but there were strong discrepancies amongst
the raters. All these studies, however, have small samples, and no controls for
the self-report questionnaires. This underlines the importance of utilising as
many participants as possible and introducing controls even in fairly robust
mixed method studies when exploring the efficacy of any intervention, such as
that used in the singers’ study in the current thesis.
Mindfulness includes aspects of Hatha Yoga, meditation and
psychological skills training, all of which have demonstrated positive results for
41
those with high levels of MPA both anecdotally and through experimental
attention as can be seen by the literature discussed above. Therefore,
teaching a mindfulness course to musicians with MPA is likely to have a
positive effect on symptom reduction, emotion regulation, and performance
experience of MPA.
1.2.2 Music education
Mindfulness and music have been described by Lecuona and
Rodríguez- Carvajal (2014) as a “promising subject of an unmapped field”
(p.1) and they base this description on their systematic review of 27
theoretical and empirical papers. Their review covered the construct of
mindfulness applied in any way to the musical field, either as a stimulus (on
audiences), as a response (on musicians), and in music therapy. It included a
wide variety of sources, such as book sections, dissertations, and conference
proceedings papers but they found no papers exploring mindfulness in music
education. Mindfulness has been theorised as an underused tool for
deepening music understanding (Falter, 2016) who suggested a variety of
mindfulness type exercises to enhance teaching music to young children.
Furthermore, in a recent book chapter published in 2016 discussing the
current state of mindfulness in music, Patston reported that he could not find
any studies investigating the effects of applied mindfulness in music tuition.
This section, therefore, explores literature surrounding education specific
activities of music students, theorises how mindfulness could have an effect
on these activities, and explores the sparse theoretical and empirical research
performed in relation to contemplative interventions and music/musicians.

42
Music practice
Basing her arguments on philosophical thought and research in
neuroscience and psychology, Cornett-Murtada (2012) theorised that
introducing mindfulness training to student musicians could help them develop
good instrumental practice skills. Three music participants in Hribar’s (2012)
research into the effects of a mindfulness course on psychological wellbeing
and music performance mentioned that solo practice before performances
was more efficient due to mindfully improved mental focus. However, the
small sample size and limited 10-20 minute interviews did not give enough
time to investigate this finding more thoroughly, something which the current
thesis seeks to rectify. Although there is still a debate as to what makes good
practice (Patston, 2016), advice to improve instrumental practice has covered
enhancing concentration and motivation, goal setting, improving time
management, being creative, deeper listening, and increasing self-awareness
(Chaffin & Imreh, 2001; Connolly & Williamon, 2004; Hallam, 1997b; Lehmann
& Ericsson, 1997) many of which could be enhanced by mindfulness training.
Different levels of expertise require different types of attention for
effective learning and practice in sports and in music (Duke, Cash, & Allen,
2011). For example, beginners’ music practice is usually concentrated on
playing “correctly” (Hallam, 1997a, p.99) using more focused attention,
whereas expert musicians use a variety of meta-cognitive skills such as self-
awareness and concentration coupled with planning, monitoring and
evaluation (Hallam, 2001). As mindfulness teaches two types of attention -
focused attention and open monitoring, and the flexibility to choose and swap
between them - it should be of great use to any practising musician.

43
Chaffin and Lemieux suggested that it takes at least 10 years to become
a professional musician and those who practise for longer generally achieve
more expertise (Chaffin & Lemieux, 2004; Hallam et al., 2012). However, it is
not just a matter of practice hours but also the quality of practice that makes a
difference (Nielsen, 2001). A lack of effective practice strategies and hours of
ruminative, mindless practice do not beget an expert musician (Langer, 1998)
and research seems to suggest that good practice leads to good
performances where even small changes in quality could mean large
differences over time (Chaffin & Lemieux, 2004). Even in the early stages,
Kenny Werner, an award-winning jazz pianist and teacher of over 40 years
experience, suggested that it is possible to learn to play each note mindfully
and musically and this can lead to greater listening, mastery, freedom and
musicality (Werner & Alterio, 1996). It is therefore important for music
teachers to teach students how to practise consciously, reflectively, and
mindfully (Miklaszewski, 2004). For the advanced musician, preparing a new
piece is still a beginning even though they already start with a basic toolset of
instrumental and musical skills built up over time. They work on pieces
technically until they lead to automaticity and from technical proficiency to the
expressive (Nielsen, 1999, 2001). Of course, some skills inevitably become
automatic through practice, but this automaticity should start out intentionally
and thoughtfully (Chaffin & Imreh, 2001; Hallam, 1997b). Automaticity that is
built mindfully can provide a good foundation for subsequent creative
expression, suggesting that mindfulness training could help develop good
music practice skills resulting in better performance.
Steinfeld and Brewer (2015) considered re-conceptualising the act of

44
mindfulness practice as music practice and vice versa and suggested that the
mindfully trained act of bringing one’s attention back to the focus of attention is
essential for both practices. They theorised that it could help with practice
avoidance issues where mindfulness training encourages an accepting and
objective state of mind, which helps one to be aware of the unpleasant and
simply “be” with that situation non-judgmentally. It could also encourage more
“flow” states within practice (Diaz, 2013; Steinfeld & Brewer, 2015).
Mindfulness, however, is not to be confused with “flow” as outlined by
Csikszentmihalyi and Nakamura (2002). “Flow” requires clear goals and
immediate progress feedback and the knowledge that one is engaging in an
activity that gently stretches existing skills. “Flow” is often a serendipitous
experience whereas mindfulness is intentional. As a result, it may be possible
that being mindful can engender a state of “flow”. For example, in mixed-
methods qualitative dominant mindfulness research studying the effects on
student singers, Czajkowski and Greasley (2015) saw changes in participants’
practice behaviour. Some realised they had practised for longer because they
entered a type of creative “flow” but others practised for a shorter time due to
better time management and quality of practice. This study, which is
discussed in more detail later, only employed a small participant sample but
participants reported being more concentrated during practice sessions after a
few minutes pre-practice mindfulness, and were able to use mindfulness
within practice sessions when practice became difficult which helped them to
continue. As self-awareness, concentration, psychological flexibility and meta-
cognitive skills are enhanced by mindfulness, this could be one additional
route to developing these skills in student musicians to support them through

45
their whole musical life.
It is possible that music practice, being a concentrated activity, could
develop the same focus and attention skills as mindfulness practice. This
might suggest a confound in a study that explored the effects of mindfulness
on music practice. Serrano and Espírito-Santo (2017) suggested that music
practice could be considered similar to mindfulness training as both are
associated with focused attention and emotion regulation. As mindfulness has
been demonstrated to improve psychological flexibility, Serrano and Espírito-
Sante (2017) explored the possibility that music practice would also enhance
psychological flexibility. Their study compared 39 children with 28 mean
months of music instrumental training with ballet dancers (n=33) who had 46
mean months of training, and controls with no explicit ballet or music training
experience (n=41). All participants took the Child and Adolescent Mindfulness
Measure (CAMM) and the Avoidance and Fusion Questionnaire for Youth
(AFQ-Y), which assessed psychological flexibility. For a review of validity of
reliability of the CAMM test see Greco, Baer and Smith (2011) and for the
AFQ-Y, see Greco, Lambert and Baer (2008). This study only provided cross-
sectional data, there was no observational data from teachers on perceived
psychological flexibility, and there were gender imbalances in the participants.
However, the researchers unexpectedly found that the music participants
were as psychologically inflexible as the non-experienced controls, which
suggests that, although music practice might not improve mindful focus and
psychological flexibility per se, mindfulness training could improve these skills
to help with music practice.
Practical guides written by music pedagogues and researchers to

46
improve practice behaviours demonstrate many parallels with exercises learnt
in mindfulness training. Connolly and Williamon (2004) devised an intervention
called “Zoning in: Motivating the musical mind” for 58 students. Many of the
exercises will be familiar to mindfulness practitioners, such as concentration
and focused breathing exercises, a mindful breathing counting exercise and
the present moment technique (p.237). This training regime was seen to build
mental skills that helped develop the students’ “inner ear”. Werner and Alterio
(1996) gave step-by-step instructions to develop what they term “effortless
mastery” (p.99). For example, the first step, “Inner Space”, reads like the
mindful exercises of breathing and a type of “body scan”, and the second step,
“Staying in the Space”, is a non-judgmental and non-critical acceptance
exercise. Bruser (1997), in her book The art of practicing: A guide to making
music from the heart, presented a 10-step process. She recommended
several recognisably mindful exercises such as stretching (yoga), settling in
the environment (being present), body awareness (body scan) and a type of
mindful listening. Clark and Williamon (2011) evaluated a mental skills training
program for conservatoire musicians, which taught motivation and effective
practice skills, relaxation and arousal control strategies, and performance
preparation and enhancement training. Experimental participants (n=14) who
took the 9-week course were compared with controls (n=9) before and after
the intervention through a battery of questionnaires covering self-regulated
learning, perception of music skills, mental imagery, self-efficacy, and anxiety.
They also gave qualitative feedback during and following the intervention. For
the experimental participants, the results showed an improvement in practice
quantity and efficiency, an increase in self-awareness, self-efficacy and

47
confidence, a change in perception of music performance anxiety and a more
positive attitude to making music. There were no mentions, however, of any
effects of the course in daily life, in teacher/pupil relationships, or in
instrumental lessons. There was also no feedback from instrumental teachers
and the use of a subjective performance quality assessment was unsuccessful
due to low correlations between the evaluators. However, the course was well
received by the participants and the study operated a robust mixed methods
design. Nevertheless, one of the benefits of mindfulness over all of these
programmes is its prevalence, variety, and availability. Mindfulness courses
can be taken experientially in person around the world, in full 8-week group
courses, or more flexibly and privately online which might be more conducive
to musicians with busy lives.
It is possible that music practice might improve skills associated with
mindfulness, such as self-awareness and concentration, observed, for
example, by Hallam (2001) with expert musicians. If this is true, in a study
investigating the effects of mindfulness on music practice, it could cause a
problem when interpreting the results. In Serrano and Espírito-Santo (2017)
this problem was explored; however, the child music participants’
psychological flexibility after doing music practice was found to be no better
than the ballet dancing controls, suggesting that their music practice had not
improved psychological flexibility. Also, the reason that the expert musicians in
Hallam (2001) were expert may be because they had natural strengths in
focus and concentration, rather than they had specifically learnt these in the
course of doing music practice. It is clear that there are problems for many
students maintaining mindful skills in music practice because there are books
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(e.g. Bruser, 2011), and courses (Connolly and Williamon, 2004) developed to
address this. It is possible that focus and concentration skills taught within the
mindfulness course, which are similar to those taught in books and courses,
could also be beneficial for improving music practice.
Music skills
Listening is an important skill for students to learn in instrumental
lessons and apply in private practice (Miklaszewski, 2004) as being a better
listener can help you be a better musician (Bruser, 2011; Werner & Alterio,
1996). In an MBSR course, the mindful sounds exercise is an integral part of
the sitting meditation. It is usually a non-musical, aural awareness exercise
where one becomes aware of everyday sounds arising and fading in an
accepting, open-minded, and non-judgmental way. It is initially used as an
exercise to lead to focused awareness, and later as an introduction to
awareness of the arising and fading of thoughts and emotions (Santorelli,
Meleo-Meyer, Koerbel, & Kabat-Zinn, 2017). Some researchers, however,
have introduced music listening into mindfulness courses. Participants have
listened to music to enhance their mindfulness skills for improved
psychological outcomes: cancer (Lesiuk, 2015), anxiety (Tomaselli, 2014),
chronic illness (Nicol, 2010), in therapy (Fidelibus, 2004; Graham, 2010) and
depression (Eckhardt & Dinsmore, 2012). "Strong personal media" was used
for those with depression and pain (Hsieh, 2014), and “relaxing music” was
used in a mindfulness course for chronically stressed workers (Klatt,
Steinberg, & Duchemin, 2015). Music listening has also been used to enhance
mindfulness in non-clinical populations (Haynes, Irvine, & Bridges, 2013).
Conversely, as a music student, better awareness from learning mindfulness

49
should help one to listen better (Anderson, 2012; Connolly & Williamon, 2004;
Fidelibus, 2004). Diaz (2013) tested this theory with university music students
(n=132) who were assigned to four groups. Two groups (mindfulness with
aesthetic (n=34) or flow response (n=35)) were given a 15-minute mindfulness
breath and body meditation before listening to Puccini arias, and two control
groups (aesthetic (n=32) or flow (n=31)) listened to the Puccini without the
mindful induction. Participants used self-report questionnaires and also
indicated their responses through a Continuous Response Digital Interface. A
majority of participants in the mindfulness groups reportedly felt an increased
focused attention to the music and ten of them experienced a flow experience
for the entirety of the music testing period which represented “a highly unusual
finding in comparison to previous studies” (p.13). However, the music used as
a stimulus was highly arousing and there might not have been such a
response if the music had been of a different genre or style. Despite this,
though, training in mindfulness could help musicians to be better listeners for
a variety of positive musical outcomes (Anderson, 2012; Diaz, 2013) and it
could be used by music and instrumental teachers who need strategies to
enhance listening skills.
Creativity
Oyan (2006), based on his own experience, speculated that anxiety
during performance would stifle creativity and “learning how to be creative in
the moment of performance is as important ultimately as learning how to play
the instrument itself” (p.6). Anxiety can often accompany high levels of self-
criticism (Kenny, 2011) and, in a non-peer reviewed report discovered through
Internet searching of university websites, Edwards (2014) at Ohio Wesleyan

50
University found that four music education majors had significantly lower self-
critical awareness during improvisation after doing a 10-minute meditation
than doing improvisation alone. During a 5-week Elementary Music Methods
course, they learnt basic meditation and improvisation using soprano
recorders and practised four times each week either improvising alone for 10
minutes or for 10 minutes after doing 10 minutes’ meditation. They completed
pre- and post-questionnaires which tested for perceived mood, creative effort,
and self-critical awareness and the results demonstrated a small non-
significant improvement in creative effort and a significant improvement in
personal mood after improvisation for both conditions. Unfortunately, this
study had a tiny unspecified demographic, there are no details as to which
questionnaires were used, no control group, and no objective data on
performance outcomes which makes it difficult to fully evaluate this study.
Mindfulness training may help musicians to cope with symptoms of
MPA, high self-criticism and improve creativity in performance, but it may also
improve creativity independently of MPA. Aung (2013) discussed the
importance of being in the present moment in vocal performances for creative
possibilities, Davidson (2002) suggested that training conscious mechanisms
to stay on task in the moment would keep focus and spontaneity, and
Williamon (2004) proposed that successful performances are prompted by
conscious control over mind and body states. Cornett-Murtada (2012) noted
that, in the past, philosophers such as Descartes viewed the body and mind
as separate, but she suggested that this theory of them as separate entities is
now at an end. She theorised that training in mindfulness can nurture the
musician in a holistic way by improving the awareness of the “mind-body”

51
connection, present moment awareness, conscious control, focus, and
general wellbeing to produce creative optimal performance experiences.
Newton (2015) investigated the relationship between mindfulness and
creativity by teaching mindfulness to a small demographic of three
composer/performer participants. The mindfulness intervention described in
Newton’s article consisted of eight 40-minute sessions over a period of four
weeks, however, it was very different to the traditional MBSR course even
though it used mindfulness practices inspired by or recorded by Jon Kabat-
Zinn. Newton gathered results by employing a pre-intervention focus group
and individual unstructured interviews, and post-intervention unstructured one-
to-one interviews. The results suggested that mindfulness enhanced creativity
in two ways: participants were able to express music more clearly and easily
due to increased awareness and focus which also provided inspiration for
composition; and participants’ cultivation of a non-striving attitude promoted
emotion and negative thought regulation enabled them to be more intuitive
and open in their expression. However, there are several issues that must be
taken into consideration. The intervention, being different to a MBSR course,
needed some validation of its own in order to provide support for the
assumption that the intervention taught that which it claimed to teach.
Possibly, utilising one of the many mindfulness questionnaires could have
achieved this. Daily practice schedules, and the adherence to them, are
mentioned but not specified, and there are no details of the experience or
training of the mindfulness instructor. It is also not clear how long the
interviews were, where they took place, and what balances were in place to
reduce bias as two participants were the interviewer’s personal friends.

52
Lebuda, Zabelina, and Karwowski, (2016) explored the connection between
(non-musical) creativity and mindfulness using a more methodologically robust
technique reviewing 20 studies covering an almost 30-year period.
Statistically, creativity and mindfulness were weakly but significantly related.
They reported that open-monitoring mindful training seemed to have the
biggest effect and the findings suggested both a correlation and a causational
link between the two constructs.
In a music and cognitive mindfulness study, Langer, Russel, and
Eisenkraft (2009) researched the effects on creativity of a simple “focused
attention” type of mindfulness instruction to an orchestra in two studies.
Although Langer’s Western cognitive form of mindfulness is not to be
confused with that of broader mindfulness inspired by Eastern traditions, there
are elements of overlap, particularly with focused attention training. In the first
study, members of a university orchestra (n=60) were asked to play the Finale
from Brahms’ Symphony No.1 twice: the first control instruction asked them to
“think about the finest performance of this piece that you can remember, play
it that way” and then they were asked to perform it again with the experimental
instruction, “play this piece in the finest manner you can, offering subtle new
nuances to your performance” (p.128). A local community chorus (n=143)
listened to recordings of both performances and was asked to describe any
differences that they heard and rate their performance preference and
reasons in a questionnaire. Results suggested that musicians felt that they
had been able to follow the instructions and significantly preferred playing
under the mindfulness instruction. Listeners also significantly preferred the
mindful performance. It is possible that listeners may have preferred the

53
second performance because they had familiarity with the music. This
possible confounding effect on the results for the first study was noted by
Langer et al. (2009) and their article reports a second study to address this
possible limitation.
In the second study, a symphony orchestra (n=71) was asked to play
Rimsky-Korsakov’s “Polonaise” from Christmas Eve, and Herbert’s “March of
the Toys” from Babes in Toyland several times. The same control instruction
was given for two performances of the Polonaise and the first playing of the
March but for the second performance of the March, they were given the
experimental instruction. Members of another community choir (n=86) were
divided into two groups. Group 1 listened to the experimental instruction
performance of the March followed by the control instruction and Group 2
listened to the order reversed. All chorus and orchestra members filled out the
same questionnaires as the first study. These studies used recordings of the
orchestra playing, so it is impossible to know if findings would be transferrable
to live performance; the physical absence of the orchestra for the chorus or
the absence of an audience for the orchestra may have had an effect on
adherence to instructions or enjoyment. Also, people do have different musical
preferences and some participants’ responses may have been affected by
listening to a less favoured piece twice. However, there was a similar finding
in both studies for orchestra enjoyment where “playing mindfully improved the
performance more than practice alone did” (p.131). The second study’s
audience results supported the possibility that audiences prefer listening to
second performances, but it also showed that a mindfully performed piece is
preferred more often. It is also possible that orchestral players may not have
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all used the instruction to play with more “subtle new nuances” (p.128) in the
same way as each other. It might have been better if the instructions to the
orchestra were more clearly defined. This may have made it easier for readers
to understand exactly how the orchestra had performed differently and, if
possible, what changes the audience might have heard.
These studies may suggest that mindfulness has a positive impact on
musical creativity for performers, composers and listeners with and without
MPA through enhancing focused attention and psychological flexibility when
playing and listening on stage. Danny Penman (2015) has written a book on
mindfulness to enhance general creativity that might prove useful for the busy
musician.
Music lessons
Elliott (2010) provided personal evidence of the effects of mindfulness
on singers in education. She advocated that it could help with posture, breath
control and awareness, tension awareness, help retrain bad habits, develop
effortless vocal balance, and increase concentration, flexible focus and clarity
in performance. However, without a controlled study involving singers, such as
that used in this current thesis, it is difficult to know if these anecdotal findings
would transfer to singers in general. Similarly to Elliott (2010), Sandage (2011)
suggested the possible beneficial effects of mindfulness on singers based on
the observation that some music teachers have been using contemplative
practices in music lessons for some time. She theorised that mindfulness
would improve focused attention, emotion regulation and psychological
flexibility. She felt that improved focused attention would help with voice
training, and that enhanced focused attention, combined with improvements in

55
emotional regulation and psychological flexibility, could help with performance
anxiety and achieving a “flow” state in performance. However, she only
provided empirical evidence from sports performance research.
Shippee (2010) described using a variety of mindful techniques in
music lessons by blending music making with contemplative enquiry. This, he
explains, is because music students often lose sight of joyful and innocent
creativity during music making in their attempts to make the “right” sounds. He
recommended that, three times a day, students play one note for five minutes
using different approaches, such as dynamics and articulation, and listening in
the present moment to their own internal thoughts and emotions as well as
their musical production. Students are then advised to move onto 2 notes and
so on. He feels this approach may encourage creative learning of technique
leading to good music, which he describes as “personal expression and
communication made through the tools of technique” (p.80). Sarath (2010)
also described the contemplative practices he used to encourage his jazz
students into creativity and consciousness where “improvisation...might be
thought of as a kind of meditation in action” (Sarath, 2010, p.169).
In 2016, Patston reported the research on the use of mindfulness in the
teaching and learning of music as being nascent. He described the traditional
music pedagogic approach as working on a deficit-based model and felt that a
more mindful approach, such as the one he has developed called Music
Instruction Non-Deficit (MIND), could be an improvement. MIND combines
MAC and positive psychology with the core ideas of teaching music whilst
considering students’ strengths and mind set, and including mindfulness
elements such as openness, curiosity, and enjoyment. It is unfortunate that

56
Patston does not refer to Steyn’s Master’s thesis (2013) where the sports-
based MAC/PST approach with undergraduate music students was employed
to test its effects on psychological well-being and music performance anxiety.
This study could have been a useful addition to his argument. Patston
suggested how MIND can be applied to children, adolescent, and adult music
students to enable musicians to become emotive rather than emotional in
performance; however, he notes that there is currently no empirical research
to underpin his particular pedagogic approach.
Mindfulness for singers
In order to investigate the effects of mindfulness in music education,
Czajkowski (2013) developed a unique Mindfulness for Singers (MfS) course
based on the MBSR course and, using a mixed-methods pilot intervention
study, found beneficial effects on eight participants learning singing technique.
Results from the Five Facet Mindfulness Questionnaire (Baer et al., 2006)
taken pre- and post-intervention showed significant improvements in the
facets of Non-Judge and Non-React and small increases in the other three
mindfulness facets. The interviews suggested that the mindfulness course had
beneficial effects on learning singing technique where participants reported
improved aural and physical awareness, which helped them in learning new
technique, applying it, diagnosing extraneous tension, problem solving, and
transferring new knowledge from singing lessons into practice and
performance. They also reported increased awareness of vocal sound, tone
and text communication, which led to improved performance. In a rare
mindfulness blind study element, participants’ teachers were able to identify
six of the eight eligible participants from their combined student register
57
(n=32). Student participants reported improved teacher/pupil relationships and
concentration in lessons, which was also corroborated by their teachers in the
blind study interviews. Practice behaviours also changed, with some
participants reporting that mindfulness exercises before voice practice helped
them to be more creative and spontaneous which lengthened their practice
time. Others, however, shortened their practice as they said that being more
focused improved the effectiveness and quality of their work. Participants also
reported positive effects on performance anxiety, increased performance
creativity, improvements when taking criticism, and in daily life. However, it
was clear from comparing the questionnaire results with the qualitative
responses of the participants that the questionnaire had not identified many of
the subtleties discovered in the interviews. A more targeted measure may
possibly have revealed musician-related nuances of learning mindfulness that
were reported in interview. This study was not randomised and utilised no
controls, so it was difficult to gain a more rounded viewpoint of the reported
effects of the mindfulness intervention. As there was no longitudinal element,
the study was unable to inform readers as to the longevity of effects. However,
student singers reported positive benefits in both their music and general life
experiences, and the study was unique in its field. This study was
subsequently published in the British Journal of Music Education (Czajkowski
& Greasley, 2015).
Blyskal (2018) investigated the effects of teaching mindfulness on
learning singing technique and music performance anxiety by teaching 10
minutes of mindfulness within an hour’s voice lesson and assigning
mindfulness homework over eight weeks. Using inspiration from Czajkowski

58
and Greasley (2015) and exercises from the associated website
(www.mindfulnessforsingers.co.uk) for the intervention, she ran a case study
with three college student singers (two beginners and one vocal major). Her
research design used qualitative post-intervention interviews of unspecified
length, and she employed the FFMQ and the State-Trait Anxiety Inventory (as
referenced in Blyskal; Julian (2011)) pre- and post-intervention. The
participants’ reports mirrored those found in Czajkowski and Greasley (2015)
with increased focus in lessons, less distraction, and improved productivity.
Participants reported that their physical awareness improved, and later
questioning found vocal technique improvements in releasing physical
tension; improved focus when identifying new sensations; and better ability to
learn effective breath control. Participants also reported reductions in general
life stress and performance anxiety, and all participants’ results improved on
the STAI-Y measure. This study only utilised three participants, however, and
it is not known who taught the singing lessons and the level of their
mindfulness training experience, or the reflexivity of the independent graduate
interviewer. Using a separate interviewer meant that many areas of interest to
the researcher were not investigated and there was no qualitative or
quantitative independent verification of improvements from outside observers,
performance measures, or controlled trials. Despite this, all the participants
reported enjoying the experience and said they would continue doing
mindfulness for their musical endeavours.

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1.3 Summary
The evidence above has demonstrated that mindfulness has had a
consistently positive effect in the clinical domain over the last 30 years since
Jon Kabat-Zinn first devised the MBSR course in 1979. In particular, this has
been evidenced in clinical studies utilising patients with clinically diagnosed
depression and anxiety, both of which regularly affect musicians as students
in education and as professionals. Further research in the educational domain
has also shown positive effects of mindfulness training on students at
university, particularly in relation to stress and anxiety as well as academic
outcomes. Research in the sports performance domain, which has many of
the same stressors as the music world – such as developing complex physical
movement and high levels of demanding performance skills – has also noted
the benefits of teaching mindfulness to athletes.
The vast majority of contemplative research in the music domain has
been employed to address music performance anxiety. This research, coupled
with that from the clinical domain, suggests that teaching mindfulness to
musicians should have a positive effect on those with MPA. However, there is
almost no empirical research investigating the effects of mindfulness, or other
contemplative interventions, in other areas of a musician’s life, such as
practice, learning musicians’ skills, creativity, in the music studio or on other
aspects of performing. The Mindfulness for Singers pilot study suggested the
types of benefits that teaching mindfulness to musicians might engender, but
the study only employed a small handful of singers and left further questions.
Would the benefits experienced by university singers be similar to other
musicians, such as instrumentalists or vocalists studying in other institutions?

60
Would there be other effects from learning mindfulness in performance as
suggested by Langer et al. (2009), or increased enjoyment of performance as
suggested by Hribar (2012) on these wider demographics? Would
improvements in mindfulness enhance musicians’ skills, such as listening as
suggested by Anderson (2012) and Diaz (2013), or improvisation as
suggested by Edwards (2014)? Would there be an effect on teacher/pupil
relationships, learning instrumental technique, or in lessons? Would a targeted
mindfulness for musicians measure be more sensitive to music-specific
mindfulness changes over the course of an intervention?
It is possible now to access mindfulness courses across the world, in
mainstream education, in universities and conservatoires, and even online.
Research suggests that musicians might benefit from mindfulness courses,
but it is important to test training programmes empirically and provide
evidence for interventions in music education (Clark & Williamon, 2011). In
order to address this gap in the research, this thesis describes the
implementation of two studies to investigate the musician-specific effects of
mindfulness on musicians in education.

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Chapter Two - Methodology
This chapter will outline the research aims, the theoretical approach
and the research methodology used in this PhD. It will also specify the
approaches taken to address the research questions, and provide an overview
of analysis techniques, author reflexivity, and ethical considerations.
2.1 Research aims
This research attempts to address the following over-arching question:
What, if any, are the effects of teaching mindfulness to student musicians?
There are two broad aims of the current research that relate to the
mindfulness training of music students in higher education. The first seeks to
investigate what, if any, are the musician-specific benefits of teaching
mindfulness to group of different instrumentalists at a conservatoire and, more
specifically, through a replication study to singers at a conservatoire and a
university.
The second aim is to discover what, if any, mechanisms are at work,
when teaching mindfulness, that deliver benefits to music students.
2.2 Theoretical approach
Due to historical research in the life sciences working on the principles
of independent observation and measurement and the idea that there is a
reality to be discovered, a large amount of psychological research into social
and behavioural issues over the past 100 years has relied on positivist
approaches (Morgan, 2007). In a similar effort to be taken seriously by the
scientific community, mindfulness research since 1979 (see Chapter 1,

62
Section 1.1.1) has also relied on the positivist paradigm and seems reluctant
to change (Van Dam et al., 2017). These positivist approaches have been
useful in order to establish mindfulness, a psychological construct based on
ancient wisdom, as a topic of serious scientific study. However, in the later
part of the 20th century, new paradigms have developed with a different
ontology and epistemology, such as constructivism and interpretivism; the
latter proposes that there are multiple realities, that context is important, and
that the researcher is an intrinsic and subjective part of the research process
(Doyle, Brady, & Byrne, 2009). Wagner, Kawulich, Garner, and Botha (2012)
suggested that these paradigms were well suited for exploring and
understanding human and social issues. Koenig (2012) posited that such
world views were ideal for spiritual and health research, particularly in the
early stages because the data from these types of studies could be used to
develop quantitative measures in order to study the phenomena utilising larger
demographics. Koenig (2012) went on to say, however, that a mixed method
approach would obtain the full picture of the phenomenon under investigation
because, as well as quantitatively verifying truth and predicting outcomes,
they are also able to elucidate qualitatively how and why religious or
spirituality phenomena explored in a research context affects people. For
example, Lesiuk (2015, 2016) investigated a four-week mindfulness-based
music therapy intervention on women with breast cancer (n=15). As well as
testing the effects of the intervention on cancer treatment-impaired cognitive
function through a series of questionnaires, she also collected narrative
accounts from the participants’ homework assignments. The quantitative
results demonstrated an improvement in mood and attention over the

63
intervention (Lesiuk, 2015) but not only did the rich data from the weekly
narrative accounts reflect this improvement, the qualitative enquiry also
helped Lesiuk understand how their process of mental perspective changed
and why it benefitted them (Lesiuk, 2016). Despite the fact that it is considered
impossible by some philosophical purists to combine two opposing paradigms
(Niglas, 2000), mixed method studies are being performed by researchers and
this method is now known as the “third methodological movement” (Doyle et
al., 2009, p.175). However, before deciding on the appropriate philosophical
approach to the research questions, it is wise to evaluate previous pertinent
literature.
2.2.1 Positivism
It is important to note that, for many years, positivism has been
considered the “gold standard” in mainstream psychology (Doyle et al., 2009).
The positivist researcher/s in these cases viewed themselves as independent
from their object of study and worked under the assumption that there is an
objective theory that can be deduced using measuring instruments. With a
similar mindset, mindfulness researchers have attempted to define and
operationalise mindfulness in order to develop, validate and test measuring
instruments which have then been used to observe the effectiveness of
mindfulness interventions on different populations (Baer et al., 2006; Brown &
Ryan, 2003; Buchheld, Grossman, & Walach, 2001). They are often used in
conjunction with clinical measures that can investigate levels of stress,
anxiety, and depression (Gotink et al., 2015).

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In line with much psychological research, many music and
contemplative studies are fully quantitative (e.g. Farnsworth-Grodd &
Cameron, 2013; Steyn et al., 2016) or dominated by quantitative methods in
design (e.g. Khalsa et al., 2013; Stern et al., 2012). They investigate the
effects of mindfulness or contemplative training on MPA and/or psychological
well-being or flexibility with musicians. They often use one or more
mindfulness questionnaires combined with other targeted psychological
measures (e.g. Kenny Music Performance Anxiety Inventory (KMPAI); Kenny,
2009), which are administered at different time points to test interventions
(Butzer et al., 2015; Khalsa et al., 2009, 2013; Khalsa & Cope, 2006; Stern et
al., 2012; Steyn et al., 2016) or perform cross sectional style surveys
(Clevenger, 2015; Farnsworth-Grodd & Cameron, 2013; Serrano & Esprírito-
Santo, 2017). See Chapter 1, Section 1.2 for more information on these
studies. However, reviews of contemplative studies based purely on positivist
paradigms have noted that important contextual data, such as how and why
an intervention has had a significantly quantifiable effect, are lacking (Van
Dam et al., 2017). The use of a mindfulness questionnaire, for example, might
give an understanding of whether a participant had increased in mindfulness
over a period of time, defined and measured in a particular way, but it would
not give any detail as to how, or why, or the context in daily life. Critics have
therefore called for new methods of research that include other measurements
of mindfulness such as qualitative (Hanley et al., 2016) or mixed methods
approaches (Sauer et al., 2013).

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2.2.2 Constructivism/interpretivism
Given that the nature of reality can be different for different people, and
that ways of knowing and constructing knowledge can also vary, a rich,
contextual study can delve deeply into the unique experience of each
participant and thereafter, common threads can be gathered to build a
knowledge base (Brantmeier & Brantmeier, 2016; Denzin & Lincoln, 2011;
Lincoln & Guba, 1985). This is a useful paradigm for discovering the myriad of
effects that may have been caused by an intervention or are part of an
individual’s personal life experience. However, qualitative research, which
lacks the bias assurances inherent and expected in rigorous quantitative
studies, needs to follow a high level of quality in order to be worthy of attention
(Tracy, 2010). A good example of this sort of in-depth qualitative work can be
seen in the work by Gaunt (2008, 2010, 2011), which explored the individual
perceptions of music teachers and students in one-to-one instrumental tuition
at a conservatoire. Using this approach in a series of three studies brought a
multi-faceted viewpoint on the topic by triangulating individual, open-ended
responses from the main stakeholders. It critically examined the underlying
perceptions and assumptions that students and teachers make about each
other, uncovered inherent dynamics of power between them, and
demonstrated the need to re-evaluate this type of teaching paradigm in music
conservatoires.
There is only one example of a purely qualitative mindfulness and
music study in the previous literature. Newton (2015) investigated the effects
of a mindfulness intervention on musicians’ creativity (see Chapter 1, Section
1.2.2). The results suggested that the intervention had helped the three
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participants to be more creative in composition and performing as a result of
becoming more mindfully focused, attentive and less striving in attitude.
Whether the effects reported by participants were due to improved
mindfulness levels, however, is not clear because there were no quantitative
or objective measures which tested if this newly designed intervention taught
that which it was designed to teach. Using a reliable, tested mindfulness
questionnaire can help to validate an MBSR/MBCT intervention taught by a
new person or a newly developed MBI or MBSR/MBCT course with
modifications. The questionnaire can give more reassurance that the changes
reported in the qualitative process were due to the effects of the intervention
and allows direct comparison with other versions of the same intervention in
other studies.
2.2.3 Pragmatism
Mixing paradigms has been fraught with philosophical confusion and
“paradigm wars” (Doyle et al., 2009; Niglas, 2000) with the understanding that
rival philosophical underpinnings of the positivist/post-positivist and
interpretive/constructive paradigms were polar opposites and could not be
mixed. However, as Morgan (2007) suggests, it is not possible to be
completely objective or completely subjective. All research is, therefore,
realistically situated along a continuum between the two philosophical poles
(Creswell, 2003). Paradigms have had to adapt to the changing world of
research over time which can even be evidenced, for example, by the way
that positivism had to be subdivided into post-positivism thus suggesting that
paradigms are not abstract and timeless. Pragmatism as a philosophical

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underpinning is an approach often advised by mixed methods researchers
(Creswell, 2003; Doyle et al., 2009; Feilzer, 2010; Johnson, Onwuegbuzie, &
Turner, 2007; Morgan 2007). The connection of data is by abduction (i.e. a
prediction made from data), and the relationship to the research process is via
intersubjectivity (i.e. the psychological relations between people). The
inference from the data is not general to the whole population but could be
transferable to other populations (Morgan, 2007).
Johnson et al. (2007) attempted to develop a definition for mixed
methods by studying the definitions of 19 experts in the field. The researchers’
final definition was the following:
Mixed methods research is the type of research in which a researcher

or team of researchers combines elements of qualitative and
quantitative research approaches (e.g., use of qualitative and
quantitative viewpoints, data collection, analysis, inference techniques)
for the broad purposes of breadth and depth of understanding and
corroboration. (p.123)
This definition requires further specificity, such as the reasons for its adoption
and the typology employed. Mixed methods are used to mitigate against bias
by collecting data through different sources or methods (Jick, 1979), as this
can show diverse and complementary viewpoints that strengthen the evidence
gathered. This data can then be “triangulated” by studying the same
phenomena with a combination of methodologies (Denzin, 1989), for example,
by data triangulation and/or methodological triangulation. This could be
particularly useful for mindfulness research. As Van Dam, a regular critic and
assessor of mindfulness questionnaires, explained, this type of broader data
gathering would also address critics of the field of mindfulness research, who
have seen almost exclusive reliance on a logical positivist viewpoint (Van Dam
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et al., 2017). Much has been lauded in social media and the news about the
benefits of mindfulness but most of this reporting is based on research with
singular, and in some cases, weak methodological foundations (Sauer et al.,
2013). In fact, the field of psychology as a whole has had to address this issue
with calls for more rigorous research methods and replication studies (Van
Dam et al., 2017). A mixed methods study will offset weakness in a singular
research design and provide a completer and more comprehensive picture. It
can also be used to help instrument development. For example, data gathered
can be incorporated into a questionnaire or used to explore the data gained
from qualitative collection in more depth and context (Padgett, 2017; Rowan &
Wulff, 2007). Defining typology in a mixed method study is also important as
such research methods are flexible. To this end, experts have made several
attempts to operationalise and categorise typologies of mixed methods
studies. Leech and Ongwuegbuzie’s (2009) typology of a mixed methods
study is mainly a matter of three considerations: the timing of the data
gathering as either concurrent or sequential, the weight given to either
quantitative or qualitative data, and the point at which the methods are mixed
within the study.
In looking at previous relevant literature (Chapter 1, Section 1.2), some
of the more thorough and rigorous music and contemplative, or music and
cognitive mindfulness studies have used mixed methods with a variety of
typologies. For example, Langer et al. (2009) collected a large volume of
qualitative written responses in their study with orchestras and choirs and
quantified them in what might be described as a “primitive” triangulation rather
than a fully mixed methods approach (Jick, 1979). A number of studies have
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employed quantitative-dominant mixed-method style studies to test
contemplative and cognitive mindfulness interventions on psychological well-
being (Hribar, 2012), music listening (Diaz, 2013), and MPA, music
performance and music education (Chang et al., 2003; Hribar, 2012, Juncos &
Markman 2015; Juncos et al., 2017). In comparison, Czajkowski and Greasley
(2015) used a qualitative-dominant mixed-methods design to investigate the
effects of a mindfulness intervention on university vocalists.
It is the multifaceted viewpoints and more rounded, balanced reporting
of phenomena evidenced in the above mixed-method studies that led to a
similar approach being adopted for the projects in this thesis. Due to the
paucity of previous literature, the current research was weighted towards
gathering qualitative data. Quantitative data were used to assess the
effectiveness of the intervention in conventional ways. The qualitative data
and the Mindfulness for Musicians questionnaire (see Section 2.3.2) were
combined to investigate firstly whether there were any effects from learning
mindfulness in their lives as musicians and, if so, how and why the
intervention had changed participants’ experiences.
To summarise, using Leech and Onwuegbuzie’s (2009) typology, this
thesis used pragmatic-based, mixed, sequential, and qualitative-dominant
research designs to investigate the benefits of teaching mindfulness to music
students. This approach was taken in order to adopt a multi-faceted viewpoint
of the phenomena under investigation. The approach provided a validated and
tested measure of the effects of mindfulness interventions on students’ levels
of mindfulness. It also delivered a deep, contextual viewpoint of the self-

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reported changes from stakeholders and investigated mindfulness
mechanisms behind these benefits specific to music-related activities.
2.3 Specific methods
2.3.1 Sampling
For the first study, a “no restrictions” convenience sample was drawn
from interested GSMD music students who chose to take part in one of the
four Mindfulness for Performing Arts Students courses that were run during
academic years 2015-2017. They were offered £5 remuneration for completed
questionnaires and £10 for interviews. This was necessary to encourage busy
student participants to engage with the geographically distant nature of the
research gathering process as personal reminders from the researcher were
impossible, given that the participants resided in London and the researcher in
Leeds. The generalisability and transferability of the results of this study was
limited by the sample whereby only those who completed the course and who
self-selected for study had data entered into the project. However, as an initial
investigation using data gathered over four iterations, this meant that the data
covered a wide variety of instrumentalist types.
In the second Mindfulness for Singers (MfS) study, a convenience
sample of experimental and control student vocalists was gathered at the
university and the local conservatoire. Ideally, student participants were
encouraged to take part if they were having vocal lessons with a teacher at
their institution so that their teacher could be part of the blind study, but this
restriction was not enforced. The teacher sample was identified by
experimental and wait-list control participants but, for reasons of quality

71
assurance, as singing teaching in the UK is an unregulated industry, only
teachers who were employed by their relevant institution were invited to take
part. Experimental participants were offered £20 total remuneration or a
breakdown for completing research parts of the study; control participants
were offered £4 for completion of questionnaires. All teachers bar one agreed
to take part as blind participants. They were offered pro-rata remuneration for
their time in interviews but none accepted. This study ran over 2 years, utilised
students from a university and a conservatoire, and used a far more rigorous
methodology than the previous pilot study. As a result, the findings should be
transferable to many student singers at this level.
Self-report
Self-report measures, either by questionnaire or interview, are the key
data collection methods used in the current research. Therefore it is important
to consider self-report accuracy and reliability especially as it has been
recognised historically that participants are not always accurate when self-
reporting data (Nisbett & Wilson, 1977). Bhandari and Wagner (2006)
performed a comprehensive literature search (articles, n=42) on the accuracy
of self-reporting for a variety of populations. The research included in the
review compared the accuracy of self-reported utilisation of health care
services with other sources, such as administrative records. As a result of
their investigations, they suggested the following factors to facilitate accurate
self-report that researchers should consider when designing studies: the
sample population and their cognitive abilities, the socially acceptable nature
of the topic under investigation (e.g. topics about child abuse are not always
socially acceptable), the questionnaire design, the mode and time frame of
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data collection, the use of memory probes, and the self-report time-frame,
which should ideally be no longer than 6 months due to memory recall
deterioration. These factors were considered in both of the current studies
which utilised highly educated, non-clinical participants who were asked to
complete their interviews and the validated and tested questionnaire (FFMQ;
Baer et al., 2006) within one week of completing a socially acceptable
mindfulness course.
Social desirability bias, where participants may feel that they have to
answer questions in an interview in a way that would be viewed as favourable
by the interviewer, was considered in the current studies. At GSMD, the
researcher was not known personally to any of the participants and most
interviews were gathered over a large distance using Skype or a telephone
with an explicit information that all responses were confidential and would be
anonymised at source. In the MfS study, social desirability bias was
counteracted as much as possible by using questionnaires, an anonymous
diary method, and triangulation of student participants’ data using teacher
participants who were unknown to the researcher and had no vested interest
in the intervention.
2.3.2 Questionnaires
In order to help support the assumption that the mindfulness course
improved levels of mindfulness in participants, it was important to test this
using a mindfulness measure. There are a growing number of mindfulness
measures available (Andrei, Vesely, & Siegling, 2016; Chiesa, 2013;
Hindman, Glass, Arnkoff, & Maron, 2014; Park, Reilly-Spong & Gross, 2013;
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Sauer et al., 2013) and the reasons for choosing the Five Facet Mindfulness
Questionnaire are discussed below.
Five Facet Mindfulness Questionnaire
The Five Facet Mindfulness Questionnaire (FFMQ; Baer et al., 2006)
(Appendix A) was used in both the GSMD and MfS projects. It is one of the
more frequently used mindfulness scales (Andrei et al., 2016) and has
demonstrated the highest ratings on internal consistency and construct
validation in comparison with other mindfulness measures, in a systematic
review by Park et al. (2013).
The FFMQ is the culmination of an examination of the facet structure of
five existing mindfulness questionnaires: the Cognitive and Affective
Mindfulness Scale (CAMS; Feldman et al., 2007), the Freiburg Mindfulness
Inventory (FMI; Buchheld et al., 2001), the Kentucky Inventory of Mindfulness
Skills (KIMS; Baer, Smith, & Allen, 2004), the Mindfulness Attention
Awareness Scale (MAAS; Brown & Ryan, 2003) and the Southampton
Mindfulness Questionnaire (SMQ; Chadwick et al., 2008). The factor analysis
of the items within these measures found five facets of mindfulness: Observe,
Describe, Act with Awareness, Non-Judge, and Non-React. Other mindfulness
questionnaires only measure specific subscales or facets of mindfulness, such
as the MAAS (Brown & Ryan, 2003), which measures awareness and
attention. The FFMQ, however, covers a broader operationalisation and is
considered a more comprehensive and integrated measure in its coverage of
the different facets (Andrei et al., 2016; Bergomi, Tschacher, & Kupper, 2013;
Lilja, Lundh, Josefsson, & Falkenström, 2013; Noguchi, 2017). The scale has
39 items and the Likert scale range is from 1 to 5. The total score, therefore,
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ranges from 39 to 195. The anchors are “never or very rarely true”, “rarely
true”, “sometimes true”, “often true”, and “very often or always true”.
The psychometric properties of the FFMQ have been favourably tested
with a wide variety of populations throughout the world (see Table 2.1).
Through repeated testing, the FFMQ has been shown to be an effective tool
for measuring mindfulness over a period of time with meditators, but for those
who are non-meditators, it is recommended that the results should be reported
as separate facets rather than as a combined total score (Lomas et al., 2017).
This is because the Observe facet items are understood more clearly once
one has done mindfulness and meditation rather than before. Confirmatory
factor analysis has shown that a pre-intervention four-factor fit for non-clinical
non-meditators followed by a post-intervention five-factor fit measures the
non-meditator demographic best (Baer, 2016; Gu et al., 2016; Lilja et al.,
2013; Sugiura et al., 2012; Veehof et al., 2011; Williams, Dalgleish, Karl, &
Kuyken, 2014).
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Table 2.1 Countries within which the FFMQ has been translated, tested and
verified with different populations
Country Reference Cronbach α range

English Baer et al., 2006 0.75 to 0.91
Spain Calvete & Royuela-Colomer, 2016 0.75 to 0.91
Cebolla et al., 2012 0.81 to 0.91
Holland Bohlmeijer, Klooster, Fledderus, Veehof, &
Baer, 2011 0.73 to 0.91
de Bruin, Topper, Muskens, Bögels, & 0.70 to 0.87 (NM)
Kamphuis, 2012 0.72 to 0.89 (M)
Veehof, Klooster, Taal, Westerhof, &
Bohlmeijer, 2011 0.69 to 0.90
Norway Dundas, Vøllestad, Binder, & Sivertsen,
2013 0.69 to 0.95
France Heeren, Douilliez, Peschard, Debrauwere,
& Philippot, 2011 0.76 to 0.89
Sweden Lilja et al., 2011 0.75 to 0.90
Japan Sugiura, Sato, Ito, & Murakami, 2012 0.67 to 0.85
China Deng, Liu, Rodriguez, & Xia, 2011 0.45 to 0.84
NM = Non-meditators
M= Meditators
The FFMQ has previously been used by contemplative studies utilising
university and advanced music student participants (Butzer et al., 2015;
Czajkowski & Greasley, 2015; Farnsworth-Grodd & Cameron, 2013; Steyn et
al., 2016) suggesting it as a good fit for the current research. Hribar (2012)
used the MAAS, which would suggest a good parallel for the current GSMD
study. However, as the FFMQ has already incorporated the MAAS as part of
its development and considering that the MAAS is best used as a short,
straightforward measure of mindfulness, the FFMQ was chosen for use for
this study to provide a more in-depth analysis.

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Mindfulness for Musicians questionnaire
The Mindfulness for Musicians (MfM) questionnaire (Appendix B) was
developed as a response to FFMQ triangulation with interview findings during
the MfS pilot study (Czajkowski, 2013) (see Chapter 1, Section 1.2.2). In this
previous study, the FFMQ was used both pre- and post-intervention to
measure changes in general mindfulness over the duration of the MfS course.
In the interviews, participants in Czajkowski (2013) spoke about the
experience that learning mindfulness had on them as musicians but the FFMQ
did not identify many of the music-related experiences, which was possibly
due to its general nature. In order to investigate this hypothesis, a musician-
targeted questionnaire was designed for this PhD using data gained from the
pilot study to register student musician-related experiences from mindfulness
interventions that might be missed by the more general FFMQ.
In developing the MfM, each FFMQ item was coded with its facet and
then re-combined into facet groups. Examining the wording of the items in
each facet group, combined with a description of that facet, brought into clarity
the type of keywords and concepts that should be employed in wording the
items for the MfM questionnaire. For the Observe facet, the keywords were
“notice” and “pay attention”. For the Describe facet, the keywords were
“words” and “describe”. Act with Awareness keywords were “distracted,
awareness, attentive, automatically, and doing”. The Non-Judge concept was
more difficult to analyse. Here there seemed to be two groups of keywords
“feelings, emotions, thoughts, thinking, images, ideas” against “self-criticise,
good/bad, self-disapproval”. The same was discovered with the Non-React
facet. Here there were similar initial keywords to the Non-Judge, “feelings,
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emotions, thoughts, images” but this time against “not-react/react, get lost,
taken over, pause, calm”.
It was decided to have 15 items because other short form FFMQ
measures have 15 items (Baer, Carmody, & Hunsinger, 2012; Gu et al.,
2016). The pilot study identified that mindfulness had particular effects on
singers in three contexts: music lessons, music practice, and performance.
The 15 items were therefore divided into three groups to cover these contexts.
Each item used for Observe in the MfM used the same terminology, such as
“notice” and “attention” as that used for Observe in the FFMQ. Each item for
the Describe factor designed for the MfM used the FFMQ terminology of
“words” and “describe”. This process was repeated for the three remaining
factors: Act with Awareness, Non-React, and Non-Judge. One item
representing each of the five facets was assigned to each context group (see
Table 2.2). For example, for the facet Act with Awareness, there are three
context specific items that address changes reported by the singers in
Czajkowski (2013): “In instrumental or singing lessons, I always pay attention
and never daydream or get distracted”, “I’m easily distracted when practising
my voice or instrument,” and “I suspect that I usually perform on automatic
pilot.” Just like the FFMQ, the MfM has 5 Likert scale anchors: never or very
rarely true, rarely true, sometimes true, often true, and very often or always
true. This meant that there was a potential total score range of between 15
and 75.
Negative and positive statement design is balanced in the FFMQ:
nineteen items are negatively worded, and the other 20 are worded positively.
The MfM took the same approach, making just over half of the items
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negatively worded. The MfM is an original contribution for this PhD and is
currently unvalidated and untested. The scoring sheet for both questionnaires
can be found in Appendix C.

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Table 2.2 MfM measure design and item allocation
Context/Facet Music lessons Music Practice Performance
Observe MfM item 6 MfM item 1 MfM item 12
Describe MfM item 13 MfM item 7 MfM item 2
Act with Awareness MfM item 3 MfM item 14 MfM item 8
Non-Judge MfM item 9 MfM item 4 MfM item 15
Non-React MfM item 5 MfM item 10 MfM item 11
The participants were asked to complete the FFMQ and then the MfM
questionnaires to lead them from general mindfulness questions to music
specific ones.
2.3.3 Interviews
A private one-to-one interview method was chosen to encourage
participants to talk openly about their individual experiences as focus groups
can encourage participants to be influenced by their peers. The interview is
similar to a conversation in that it is verbal exchange between two persons but
it is orientated towards gaining information from one party for the benefit of the
other (Denzin, 1989). Semi-structured interviews were chosen for student and
teacher experimental participants in both the current studies for a variety of
reasons. In comparison to open-ended interviews, semi-structured interviews
encouraged the conversation to happen within a pre-prepared timescale,
which was important for busy students and teachers, and allowed the
research aims to be addressed more effectively in the time available. In
comparison to structured interviews, which tend to produce quantitative data,

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semi-structured interviews allowed participants more flexibility in their
answers, and also enabled the researcher to follow up interesting trains of
thought, investigate novel areas, or clarify points (DiCicco-Bloom & Crabtree,
2006).
It is recommended to test semi-structured interview questions in a pilot
study (Denzin, 1989) and this process was reported in the MfS pilot study
(Czajkowski & Greasley, 2015). In that study, the questions provided a large
amount of rich and contextual data so these previous questions were reused
for the two current studies. The questions for the MfS study can be found in
Appendix D. There were no major changes from the pilot study questions.
Questions that had been specifically addressed to vocal students were
modified to a general instrumental approach for the GSMD investigation (see
Appendix E). The design of all the student participant interviews started with
introductory questions about the practical experience of the course to put
participants at ease and focus their minds. Participants were then asked if
there had been any effects that they had noticed from doing the mindfulness
course in their instrumental lessons, private practice, rehearsals and
ensemble work, in performance or in general life. Sample questions included:
Do you feel that doing this mindfulness course has affected your experience of
learning to sing in lessons and/or practice sessions? Has learning to be more
mindful had any effect (bad or good) on your life as an instrumental/voice
learner that hasn’t been covered above? The interview culminated in an
important final question asking if they would recommend the course to other
music students; this gave participants the opportunity to summarise their
experience after their own reflective inquiry during the process of the
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interview. In the MfS study, the teacher participant interviews started with a
welcome and a reminder of what they had been asked to observe. Teachers
were then told how many of their students had taken the mindfulness course
and were asked if they could identify which students had participated.
Depending on the answer, subsequent open interview questions investigated
the areas wherein teachers noted changes and discussed the identified
participants in more detail (see Appendix F).
In response to the self-report research mentioned above (Bhandari &
Wagner, 2006), all interviews were completed as soon as possible after the
interventions and, for the longitudinal element in the MfS study, no more than
3 months after the completion of the course in order to mitigate against
retrospective bias or inaccuracies in reporting.
2.3.4 Diary method
An anonymous diary study was included in the MfS project. The
strength of a diary study is that participants can “express feelings that
otherwise would never be made public” and is “an immediate recording of
experience” (Denzin, 1989, p.193). In order to gain an anonymous qualitative
recording of participants’ real-time experiences in the MfS study, they were
asked to keep a daily diary chronicling the amount of time taken doing
mindfulness exercises and any thoughts or experiences. Each week they were
provided with a prepared sheet to complete (see Appendix G) and were asked
to return this at the beginning of the following week, putting the sheet face
down in a pile near the door of the treatment room so that it was impossible
for the researcher to know who had submitted each sheet. This diary was also
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an opportunity for participants to highlight issues or problems they had with
the mindfulness course or their reactions to it that they wished to be dealt with
anonymously during the next week’s session. It was hoped that participants
would be diligent in filling in the forms and that data on minutes of mindfulness
practice adherence could give an idea of how well participants had adhered to
the suggested duration of practice of 10 minutes a day. However, the students
knew this was a voluntary and anonymous element and many forms were not
handed in. Nevertheless, although those that were submitted could not be
used to evidence minutes and hours of mindfulness practice, they did provide
a rich source of “moment by moment” anonymous qualitative data for analysis
that offset potential bias arising from the interview study.
2.3.5 Replication
The replication of a novel intervention is a desirable process in
scientific research in order to build a rounded generalisable scientific
viewpoint (Edlund, 2016). This is particularly important in a nascent field
where measures, methods, and interventions are not well known and a study
cannot claim to be fully evidence-based if the research has happened at only
one site with a small sample size (Drotar, 2010). Pilot studies are also often
performed without rigorous methodology and are a good way of discovering if
further research would be beneficial. It is necessary to do replications because
there have been situations where replications have been performed and a
large percentage have failed (Evanschitzky & Armstrong, 2013). However,
there seems to be a dearth of replication, although there has been a call for it
in the social sciences since the 1970s (Reed, 2014). A study of the call for
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replication studies in neuroscience journals demonstrated that only 6% of the
465 journals encouraged the submission of replication studies, 8.6%
discouraged them by emphasising novel submissions, and 0.6% actively
refused replication reports (Yeung, 2017). However, some journals are
starting to reverse this process by actively accepting replication studies
(Edlund, 2016; Reed 2014).
In order to address the gap in the literature, the MfS project is a
replication project in order to investigate the results of the MfS pilot study
using a larger demographic and with a more rigorous methodology. If there is
clear overlap between the findings of the two studies, this will give substantive
support as to the efficacy of teaching mindfulness to singers in higher
education.
2.4 Analysis
2.4.1 Quantitative
Quantitative data analysis was performed using SPSS. Reliability
analyses were run on the questionnaire results for both the GSMD and MfS
studies and are reported in those chapters (GSMD, see Chapter 3, Section 4;
MfS, see Chapter 5). In both studies, normality tests were run in preparation
for subsequent questionnaire analyses which dictated whether parametric or
non-parametric tests were used. For both studies, within group pre- and post-
scores were analysed using the appropriate tests. In the MfS study, additional
independent baseline tests were run for the results from both institutions and
for the conservatoire participants, ANOVA tests were run, with post-hoc tests
where necessary.
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2.4.2 Qualitative
Diary data, MfM responses, and interview data were analysed using
thematic analysis (Braun & Clarke, 2006). This flexible method was used in
the GSMD study because of the inductive nature of the research question. It
was also employed in the current replication MfS study because thematic
analysis had been used in the original MfS study. It is an appropriate method
to explore the meaning and experience of participants in order to ascertain
their personal reality and offer a rich description of the effects of mindfulness
on them as musicians.
Braun and Clarke (2006) suggested a six-step process that is slow and
methodical, moving back and forth between the different steps. Initially, the
interview recordings were listened to in order to encourage familiarisation, and
the data were transcribed. The participants’ hand-written diary entries were
read and transcribed, and their responses to the MfM questionnaire were
investigated. If, over the course of the intervention, participants had increased
or decreased an MfM item result by two or more Likert scale levels, this was
noted. Then all the data were imported into NVivo software and re-read and
coded in a systematic way. There was constant reference back to the
transcripts and occasionally to the original recordings and diary entries to
confirm that themes reflected the entire data set. Finally, specific pertinent
examples of the data were chosen as illustration and combined with
references to related literature during the writing up process to provide a
scholarly response to the research questions. A more detailed description of
each study’s analysis can be found in the relevant chapters (GSMD, Chapter
3, Section 3.3; MfS, Chapter 4, Section 4.3).

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The author completed all the analysis. A second coder was not
employed in the process because there was no one available at the University
of Leeds, where the analysis took place, with the requisite experiential
knowledge of both mindfulness and music. Second coders can be both a
positive and negative influence on data analysis. In a positive way, they can
bring different perspectives and provide discussions to refine the process.
However, in a negative way, their differences in skill level, the reduction of
flexibility in the back and forth process (recommended by Braun and Clarke
(2006)), and the extra time needed for them to take part could have been
detrimental to the process (Berends & Johnston, 2005). Also, a codebook
cannot replace years of experience in mindfulness, in teaching and being a
student of music at a university and conservatoire, all of which were skills
brought to the process by the author.
2.4.3 Reflexivity
This section addresses the reflexivity of the researcher in order to allow
the reader to view the results through the correct lens and enhance the
studies’ credibility (Golafshani, 2003; Leung, 2015; Noble & Smith, 2015). It is
also important for the reader to be aware of the effect of previous research on
the formulation of the studies in this PhD. Specifically, the quasi-experimental,
single-blind, mixed methods MfS pilot study design and findings greatly
informed the process of this current MfS study’s controlled longitudinal
replication. Hribar’s (2012) unpublished work also had a large influence on the
planning of the GSMD project to which it sits as a parallel study.

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On a personal level, I am originally a french horn player and pianist
trained at a university, and a vocalist trained at a music conservatoire, giving
me an awareness of the different types of training experienced at the two
types of institution. I have taught voice for over 20 years and, during that time,
I taught for eight years at a university which gives me insight into vocal
teaching at this level. As a mindfulness practitioner since 2006, I have applied
mindfulness as both a performer, a teacher, and in my own continued
professional development as a singing student. I am therefore well situated to
investigate mindfulness phenomena with this demographic. However, I was
mindful of this personal experience and took care in both the design of the
projects and whilst facilitating interviews to avoid imposition of my subjective
opinions or viewpoint on participants. In order to do this, for example, the MfS
study design included anonymous diary feedback and a teachers’ blind study.
In addition, during the delivery of the MfS course, I impressed on participants
that I wanted them to practise mindfulness before singing-related activities
because I wanted to know their experiences, whatever they may be. During
interviews, I took care to follow the direction the participants took whilst they
answered questions. More information about my development of the
Mindfulness for Singers intervention is provided in Chapter 4, Section 4.2.5.2.
2.4.4 Ethics
Ethical approval was obtained for both studies from the University of
Leeds Ethics Committee (GSMD, PVAR14-101, Appendix H; MfS, PVAR 15-
008, Appendix I). Ethical approval for the collaborative study at the GSMD
was obtained from their Research Ethics Committee (see Appendix J) and
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approval for the study in collaboration with Leeds College of Music was
granted by the Head of Student Services and the Head of Postgraduate
Studies (see Appendix K), as they do not currently have a designated ethics
committee.
Participant information sheets (GSMD, see Appendix L; MfS student
experimental participants, see Appendix M; MfS teacher participants, see
Appendix N; MfS control participants, see Appendix O) and in-person group
information provided by the researcher fully informed interested participants
as to the purpose of the project, why they were chosen, their part in the
process and of the option to withdraw themselves or the data from the
research at any point up to a given date. They were told the benefits and
disadvantages of taking part and were assured that the personal information
they provided would be treated confidentially and held under the terms of the
Data Protection Act. They were informed that any data they gave would be
anonymised at source, kept safely, and would be destroyed 10 years after
publication. Written consent was also requested from all participants (GSMD,
see Appendix P; MfS student experimental participants, see Appendix Q; MfS
teacher participants, see Appendix R; MfS control participants, see Appendix
O).
A potential ethical issue was confidentiality and anonymity, particularly
for the MfS study where there were both teacher and student participants
involved. Both parties were asked not to talk to the other until after the study
was completed and both were assured that interviews would be anonymised
at source and that confidentiality would be maintained. Participants in the
GSMD study were also informed in the relevant participant documents and
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verbally at the beginning of interviews that their data would be confidential and
anonymised at source. The use of the computer to do research at home was a
potential ethical issue and all information needed to process the participants’
data, such as phone numbers, email addresses, and connections between
teacher and student participants, was kept both on the University M: drive
behind a password and on the researcher’s home computer behind two
different passwords.
2.5 Summary
This chapter has described the research aims and considered the
extant theoretical and methodological approaches to studying music and
contemplative studies. This was done in order to develop two research
designs to explore the effects of mindfulness on musicians in higher
education. Mixed methods approaches used for both studies were
underpinned by a pragmatic theoretical approach in order to measure both the
effectiveness of the interventions used in the two studies and also to explore
the deep, complex and contextual effects in the personal lives of the
participants over a two-year period. The following chapters report the process
of these research projects and present the results in detail.

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STUDY ONE: MINDFULNESS FOR INSTRUMENTALISTS
Chapter Three – Mindfulness for musicians: The effects of
mindfulness training on students at the Guildhall School of
Music and Drama
3.1 Introduction
There is very little research exploring the effects of a mindfulness
course on music students. This study attempts, therefore, to explore the
following research question: What are the effects of teaching mindfulness to
student musicians? The only other known research utilising this body of
students with this type of intervention was performed by Hribar (2012) who
found benefits of learning mindfulness on students’ psychological well-being
and music performance anxiety (see Chapter 1, Section 1.2.1). It is
anticipated, therefore, that the current study will find similar benefits of
learning mindfulness for musicians on their well-being and MPA. However,
there is far more to being a student musician than experiencing well-being and
acceptable levels of MPA. As a result of the pilot Mindfulness for Singers
study (Czajkowski, 2013), it is predicted that there may be effects for
instrumentalists in other music-specific contexts but these are, at present,
unknown. This study, therefore, aims to discover the effects of learning
mindfulness on students’ music-specific experiences as educational,
instrumental learners (e.g. lessons, music practices, performance
examinations). A secondary aim, should the first produce effects, would be to
explore the possible mechanisms behind these effects.

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3.2 Method
3.2.1 Ethical approval
After informal negotiations with the conservatoire (GSMD) and
permission from the lecturer of the Mindfulness for Performing Arts Students
course (MfPAS), ethical approval was gained from Leeds University and the
GSMD (Appendices H & J).
3.2.2 Participants
In October of each year, the MfPAS course runs a taster session for
that year’s new prospective student intake. In October 2015 and October
2016, the author visited the GSMD and introduced the research to prospective
participants at these taster sessions. GSMD students who chose to take the
MfPAS course were formally invited to take part in the research at their first
MfPAS session by the course leader.
Sixty-two participants started the course, 48 completed the course and
35 consented to be study participants and completed the pre-interview
questionnaires and documentation. Twenty-five participants completed the
second questionnaire (male n=7, age range=18-38 years, mean age=23,
SD=4.89, median age=22) and 21 of those (male n=6) took part in semi-
structured interviews.
Participants are detailed in Table 3.1.

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Table 3.1 GSMD interview participants’ details
No. of
Name Gender Class Age classes Instruments
Gordon m GSMD1 19 8 Jazz saxophone/Tuba
Inga f GSMD1 31 8 Piano
Peter m GSMD1 20 5 Jazz double bass/Guitar
Helen f GSMD1 24 7 Voice
Harry m GSMD1 24 4 Piano/Voice
Elizabeth f GSMD1 25 7 Voice
Chloe f GSMD1 22 8 Voice
Petra f GSMD2 23 5 Piano
Leonie f GSMD2 26 6 Voice
Adelina f GSMD2 19 7 Violin
James m GSMD2 22 7 Piano/Guitar/Percussion
Fantine f GSMD2 20 7 Voice
Suki f GSMD3 19 8 Violin/Piano
Paul m GSMD3 19 7 Piano/Double bass
Marguerita f GSMD3 19 8 Viola/Piano
Tony m GSMD3 18 7 Electronic music/Piano
Sheila f GSMD3 34 7 French horn
Katyia f GSMD3 21 6 Flute/Saxophone
Carolina f GSMD4 38 7 Violin
Karen f GSMD4 21 7 Clarinet/Voice
Daphne f GSMD4 23 8 Violin
No. of classes = number of mindfulness sessions attended.
All names listed are pseudonyms.

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3.2.3 Materials
The Five Facet Mindfulness Questionnaire (FFMQ) (Appendix A) and
the Mindfulness for Musicians (MfM) questionnaire (Appendix B) were both
administered to explore the effects of the mindfulness course on the student
musicians. The FFMQ, a 39-item measure, was developed using a factor
analysis of five mindfulness questionnaires (Baer et al., 2006), and has been
shown to be a popular, consistent, sensitive and valid measure of
mindfulness-based interventions (Christopher, Neuser, Michael, &
Baitmangalkar, 2012). The MfM is a 15-item measure based on the format of
the FFMQ. It was developed in response to the Mindfulness for Singers pilot
study (Czajkowski & Greasley, 2015) where participants disclosed musically-
related experiences that were not registered by the FFMQ, possibly due to its
general nature. The MfM is similar to the FFMQ except that all the statements
are targeted to a musician’s experience rather than general life experiences.
Further information about both these measures can be found in Chapter 2,
Section 2.3.2.
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3.2.4 Design
The study is a non-randomised non-controlled repeated measures
intervention design with post-intervention semi-structured interviews.
3.2.5 Procedure
This research covers four iterations of the MfPAS course over two
years: autumn term 2015 (GSMD1), spring term 2016 (GSMD2), autumn term
2016 (GSMD3) and spring term 2017 (GSMD4) (see Table 3.1 above).
Music students studying at the GSMD pay to take part in the MfPAS
course. Participants from the course were invited to take part in the study. The
MfPAS lecturer requested to administer the research documentation herself to
maintain the cohesiveness and privacy of each group. She administered the
Five Facet Mindfulness Questionnaire (Appendix A), Mindfulness for
Musicians Questionnaire (Appendix B), Participant Information Form
(Appendix L), Participant Consent Form (Appendix P), Participant Personal
Details Form (Appendix S), and Participant Questionnaire Data sheet
(Appendix T).
The FFMQ (Baer et al., 2006) (Appendix A) and MfM (Appendix B)
were administered pre- and post-MfPAS to assess the effects of the
mindfulness course. Participants completed documentation and measures
either on paper or online using the Bristol Online Survey (BOS) platform. The
BOS is recommended by Leeds University because data were stored within
The European Union and was protected by a password system.
The MfPAS course was a targeted MBSR course administered by a
trained mindfulness teacher (“CfMRP - Bangor University,” 2016) who is also

94
a highly experienced professional pianist. It consisted of 8-weekly 2-hour
musician-targeted psychoeducational sessions, which taught focused and
open monitoring meditations, involved group discussions, and included a 45-
minute formal daily practice regime and informal weekly tasks. The sessions
were delivered in groups of no more than 20 people and were held at the
same venue and on the same evening each week.
Within 2 weeks of the end of the course, interview participants took part
in one-to-one interviews of 20-40 minutes’ duration with the researcher either
face-to-face, by Skype, phone or Face Time. The interview questions (see
Appendix E) were ordered with general questions first to enable participants to
adjust to the interview process and covered topics such as general experience
of doing the course and experiences of home practice. Then questions were
asked which particularly addressed the research topic and covered the effects
of mindfulness in lessons, music practice, relationships with teachers and in
ensembles, and performance issues, such as nerves and stage experiences.
Finally, participants were encouraged to summarise their experience in a final
question asking whether they would recommend the course to other
musicians and, if so, why.
Participants in GSMD1 were reimbursed £10 for interviews. Due to
poor post-questionnaire completion in GSMD1, subsequent GSMD
participants were also reimbursed £5 for completing both questionnaires and
£10 for interviews. Both Leeds University and GSMD ethics committees
approved this amendment in December/January 2015 (Appendices U and V).

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3.3 Analysis
Quantitative data were scored (Appendix C) and analysed using SPSS.
All participants’ names were anonymised, each interview was heard in
its entirety to gain an overall awareness of the material and was then fully
transcribed and analysed following the principles of thematic analysis (Braun
& Clarke, 2006). The process involved several readings of the transcripts.
Transcriptions were then coded in NVivo Software and the results analytically
clustered to create themes. These themes were tested against the data a
second time and revised where necessary.
3.4 Quantitative results
The scores on the FFMQ (see Table 3.2) and MfM (see Table 3.3)
questionnaires increased significantly (i.e. more mindful) for all factors after
participation in the MfPAS course. The results were tested for normality and
homogeneity of variance and all assumptions were met for the FFMQ.
Therefore, paired t-tests were run for this questionnaire. However, only the
facets of Describe and Non-Judge met these assumptions in the MfM so non-
parametric related samples Wilcoxon tests were run on the variables Observe,
Act with Awareness and Non-React and paired t-tests were run on Describe
and Non-Judge. Reliability analyses were run on FFMQ and MfM in the facets
of Observe, Describe, Act with Awareness, Non-React and Non-Judge for
both the pre- and post-intervention scores from the 25 participants (Table 3.4).
Cronbach alpha results for the FFMQ were generally good and in line with
results found in other studies (see Section 2.3.2). The MfM had lower levels of
reliability, which may be due to having far fewer items per factor. Potential
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total score ranges for the FFMQ were between 39 and 195 and for the MfM
they were between 15 and 75.

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Table 3.2 Paired t-test pre- and post-intervention results for the Five Facet
Mindfulness Questionnaire
Pre Post
FFMQ Facets Mean (SD) Mean (SD) t-test
Observe 26.04 (5.98) 30.92 (4.75) t(24)=-4.877, p<.001
Describe 24.99 (5.82) 30.04 (5.43) t(24)=-4.039, p<.001
Act with awareness 19.48 (6.62) 27.08 (6.22) t(24)=-5.702, p<.001
Non-react 18.24 (4.19) 23.88 (4.83) t(24)=-5.330, p<.001
Non-judge 20.88 (7.44) 27.72 (6.79) t(24)=-5.716, p<.001
Table 3.3 Pre- and post-intervention results for the Mindfulness for Musicians
Questionnaire using paired t-tests and Wilcoxon tests
Pre Post
MfM Facet Mean (SD) Mean (SD) t-test
Observe 10.20 (2.20) 12.36 (1.85) Z=-3.740, p<.001
Describe 9.92 (2.45) 11.32 (2.06) t(24)=-2.662, p=.014
Act with awareness 9.48 (2.22) 11.24 (2.35) Z=-2.954, p=.003
Non-react 8.80 (2.93) 10.96 (1.93) Z=3.224, p=.001
Non-judge 7.24 (2.80) 9.80 (2.65) t(24)=-3.949, p=.001
Table 3.4 Reliability analysis on the GSMD pre- and post-intervention scores.
Cronbach alpha results
Cronbach α
Facets FFMQ MfM

Observe Pre 0.851 0.338
Observe Post 0.814 0.528
Describe Pre 0.883 0.788
Describe Post 0.888 0.686
Act with Awareness Pre 0.920 0.487
Act with Awareness Post 0.923 0.721
Non-React Pre 0.711 0.683
Non-React Post 0.894 0.407
Non-Judge Pre 0.919 0.491
Non-Judge Post 0.909 0.541
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3.5 Qualitative results
Participants talked about the effects of mindfulness in their general life
and as music students. There were three major themes: effects on student life
(see Figure 3.1), effects on instrumental learning (see Figure 3.2), and effects
on performance (see Figure 3.3). The thematic figures are a visual
representation of the relationship between themes and subthemes discussed
in this chapter. The numbers represent a quantification of interview responses
from the participants in order to demonstrate prevalence.

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Figure 3.1 Thematic overview: Mindfulness and general student life.
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Figure 3.2 Thematic overview of the effects of mindfulness on instrumental learning.
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Figure 3.3 Thematic overview of the effects of mindfulness on performance.
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3.5.1 Mindfulness and general effects
3.5.1.1 Student life
Reasons to do a mindfulness course
Participants gave a variety of reasons for choosing to do the
mindfulness course. Eight decided to take part due to emotional distress such
as general anxiety (Chloe, Elizabeth, Petra, Helen, Marguerita, Paul, Tony,
Carolina). This finding concurs with the main reason found in Pepping,
Walters, Davis, and O’Donovan (2016) who asked, amongst a variety of
questions, “Why did you first choose to start practicing mindfulness
meditation?” to 190 mindfulness participants from a university aged between
17 and 53 (M=21.34, SD=5.76).
Participants in the current study also mentioned seeing posters around
the GSMD or heard mindfulness recommended (Adelina, Karen, Daphne,
Katyia, Harry, Fantine, Leonie) by tutors (Harry, Daphne, Fantine, Leonie) and
friends (Katyia). Some participants wanted to develop personal and musician
skills (Chloe, Katyia), where personal skills were specified as self-control,
efficiency, focus, and concentration (Sheila, Suki, Daphne, Carolina, Chloe),
and Sheila also wanted to learn how to “chill”. Harry was particularly interested
in how the brain worked, as he enjoys teaching.
The Mindfulness Course
When asked about their experience of doing the mindfulness course,
the participants offered a variety of responses covering the session time,
session length, course content, their experience within the groups, and their
responses to the ending of the course.

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Participants commented on the time of day that sessions took place
(Harry, Petra, Helen, Peter, Sheila, Suki, Karen, Inga). They felt that the
evening was not good (Harry, Sheila, Helen, Petra, Peter) due to timetable
clashes (Harry), they struggled with motivation to attend (Sheila) and were
tired (Peter, Petra). Peter found it easy to fall asleep in long practices. Some
liked evening sessions as they felt they could leave the day behind (Suki,
Karen, Inga) so they could go home feeling calm (Inga) and Suki liked the
midweek session to reflect on the week and reset.
Fifteen participants mentioned the individual session lengths. Seven
were initially daunted by 2-hour sessions and the slow pace of exercises
(Chloe, Elizabeth, Adelina, Fantine, Petra, Katyia, Paul) but, once
accustomed, they settled and attitudes changed. “Gradually I realised that
these two hours are for me and I’m allowed to concentrate on just myself. So I
began to kind of love this time for myself” (Fantine). James, Gordon,
Marguerita, Suki, Tony, Karen and Peter felt that the session lengths were
ideal and for James, Karen, Suki and Helen the time seemed to go by quickly.
Eight participants (Gordon, Helen, Peter, James, Petra, Leonie, Tony,
Karen) said that the 8-week course was a good length of time and most liked
the content. Gordon and Tony thought that was a good length for beginners to
grasp the concepts but Chloe, who had done meditation previously, felt that
she got less out of it as practices were repeated. Several participants
(Marguerita, Elizabeth, Paul, Sheila, Daphne, Carolina) found the first session
a shock because it included a 40-minute silent meditation. Daphne worried “I
don’t think I’ll be able to finish this course” but soon found benefits when she
applied herself. Once they had accepted the time recalibrations, they reported
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that this aspect became much easier. Helen felt that the course developed
good life skills and Katyia and Marguerita liked the weekly variety. James and
Karen mentioned that they valued the supporting book by Williams and
Penman (2011).
Participants mentioned enjoying the group situation (Gordon, Helen,
Fantine, Marguerita, Paul, Suki, Petra) where they felt encouraged to listen
and talk about problems and experiences. It was described as therapeutic
(Gordon, Helen) and comfortable (Paul, Suki, Marguerita). Group numbers
fluctuated due to other commitments (Chloe, Paul, Suki) but Chloe found it
helpful to practise in a group, as practice was harder on her own.
Some of the participants highlighted issues they had to overcome.
Chloe, Marguerita and James felt that sitting comfortably was essential to
avoid unnecessary tension during practices. James was tall and found it
important to sit on two stacked chairs, so that his knees were positioned below
his hips. Daphne and Tony discovered that they had peers who had a
negative block about mindfulness when they spoke about it. Elizabeth had
been predisposed to feel negative about mindfulness but this changed as she
engaged in the class. Gordon found himself justifying internal self-criticism
when others were feeling released during Exploring Difficulties practices (see
Appendix W) but he persevered and became better at dealing with his own
emotional perception with self-compassion.
Helen, Fantine, Paul and Leonie were all sad when the course ended.
Helen described feeling “a bit scared now they're finished” and Paul wanted
the weekly reminder of having a regular mindfulness class to attend. All the
participants intimated that they would continue doing mindfulness exercises to

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a greater or to a lesser extent. Harry said that he had continued doing it as a
“top-up thing”, Tony mentioned that he had started going to the Buddhist
centre and Karen was looking into becoming a mindfulness teacher. Elizabeth
laughed at the question and said she had done a mindfulness exercise just
before the interview!
Mindfulness practice
The participants were asked about their daily mindfulness practice, and
responses ranged from the difficulty to find time, forgetting to do it, what they
found easiest, hardest, and most beneficial practices, what time of day they
chose to practise, what they found it useful for and some problems that they
encountered. Practice is either informal (e.g. aware of brushing teeth) or
formal (e.g. 40-minute Body Scan). There are also shorter 5-10-minute formal
breathing and sitting exercises.
Of the eight interviewed participants in Hribar (2012), five said that they
found it hard to commit to the time to practise mindfulness during the week
and three had difficulty in establishing a routine. In a similar way, four
participants in the current study discovered that it was easy to forget to
practise during the week (Inga, Leonie, Chloe, Peter) or found some weeks
easier than others (Katyia, Gordon, Karen). Karen reported that it was hard to
practise when very anxious and preferred to do the Nourishing and Depleting
exercise to help her (see Appendix W).
Chloe, Daphne and Fantine found it hard to practise away from the
group but Daphne said that, once the tutor had persuaded her to try at least
one exercise, she had started to see improvements. Some participants
(Gordon, Peter, Petra, Adelina, Gordon, Helen, Marguerita, Sheila, Carolina,

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Suki, Tony) mentioned that 40 minutes formal practice a day from the first
week was a daunting task because they were very busy, and some hardly
managed it at all (Petra, Peter, Adelina). People who overcame this in the first
few weeks found it became easier to find time to practise and their mindset
changed (Gordon, Carolina, Daphne, Suki, Tony, Marguerita, Helen) from “I’ve
got to do it” to “I want to do it” (Gordon). Sheila wished they had started with
shorter practices but Katyia felt that people should take the practice
requirements (explained in the introduction sessions) into account before
starting the course. Participants said that it was hard to practise late at night
because they had no concentration (Peter) or focus (Chloe) and Sheila and
James did a lot of mindful practice travelling on the London Underground.
Some participants said that they did targeted practice before music activities,
which is explored below in those sections. These findings suggest a potential
barrier to mindfulness practice engagement for musicians at a conservatoire in
that their time is very busy with lectures, instrumental lessons, rehearsals,
concerts and hours of individual music practice. Despite being told that this
practice time was necessary in the pre-intervention briefing, finding a regular
time to complete the required mindfulness practice could be a potential barrier
to participants taking the course.
Like participants in Hribar (2012), many participants reported that
informal practices, such as the 3-Minute Breathing Space (see Appendix W),
were easier than formal ones (Chloe, Petra, James, Katyia, Marguerita, Paul,
Sheila, Karen). They found that these seeped into their daily lives (Elizabeth,
Gordon, Helen, Peter, Adelina, Leonie, Petra, Katyia, Marguerita, Tony,
Daphne) and Helen said that the informal practices were “always there for
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you”. Harry felt that he had always been aware in this way and concentrated
on the formal practices instead.
Some participants mentioned Mindful Eating (Fantine, James, Suki,
Carolina, Paul, James) and Mindful Walking (James, Tony, Carolina, Daphne,
Paul). Fantine and Carolina found Mindful Eating interesting and made them
more conscious about all aspects of food. James kept forgetting until halfway
through a meal but he enjoyed mindful coffee drinking and mindfully walking
around London. Daphne found mindful practice very difficult to do. The first
exercise she tried alone was Mindful Walking and she realised that her right
foot slipped towards the right “a thing I do daily but it was really shocking for
me”. This was a “realisation point” and she became a committed mindfulness
student from then on.
Participants also reported problems when practising mindfulness.
Leonie said that it was two weeks before she was able to be aware of her
breathing without changing it. Adelina said that the formal practice MP3 tracks
became boring over time whereas Carolina found the tracks made practice
easier. Elizabeth, contrary to nature, reported adopting an “anti-authority”
approach to the MP3 practice tracks which she felt restrictive and developed
her own “mindful” creative approach. Katyia worried that she was not doing
mindfulness properly but soon accepted that was normal. Inga found the
Exploring Difficulties (Appendix W) practice hard but rewarding (see Section
3.5.2.5 for more details). The Exploring Difficulties practice is taught later in
the mindfulness course so that mental focus and concentration skills, which
will be needed for the Exploring Difficulties meditation, are developed and
practised. In Exploring Difficulties, participants are requested to bring to mind

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a problem from the present or the past in order to apply mindfulness
techniques to its physical manifestation and explore habitual mental
rumination. Bringing a problem to mind in order to meditate on it using skills
you have learnt is not an easy task but it can help to disentangle physical and
mental responses that may subsequently lead to relief.
Five participants in Hribar (2012) mentioned that the longer practices,
such as the Body Scan (see Appendix W), were less useful to them. However,
Chloe, Carolina and Inga in the current study liked them the best and Chloe
said that she felt a wave of calm after 40 minutes. Three participants liked it
least: Elizabeth felt in a rush, James found it hard and Leonie just didn’t like to
think of body parts (“blood and stuff”) because it made her uncomfortable.
Adjusting to college life
James, Helen, Gordon, Elizabeth, Chloe, Katyia, and Petra talked
about their adjustment to conservatoire life as first years (Helen, Gordon,
Chloe, Katyia, Petra) and as Master’s students (James, Elizabeth).
Problems described were getting used to critical teaching styles
(James), extreme work and stress (James, Chloe), a sudden rise in
expectation (Katyia) and college being overwhelming (Helen, Petra) where no-
one talked about their problems (Gordon). Chloe and James used breathing
exercises to help them to cope and Petra and Elizabeth found that the
mindfulness course helped them to break from the expected college mould.
On entering college, Katyia said that she was required to sight-read music “at
gig standard” and found this very stressful. She felt that mindfulness had
helped her to focus on the music and relax. “I think there is more work on that,
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but there was certainly a difference,” she said. Ramler et al. (2016) studied the
effects of a mindfulness course on non-self-selecting first years transitioning to
university. They concluded that those who were assigned to the mandated
First Year Seminars section that included the mindfulness course found it
easier to adjust and showed a reduction in psychological stress. In a review of
a variety of college programmes designed to help transition to higher
education in the USA, Conley et al. (2013), reported that “mindfulness
interventions were the most effective” (p. 296), especially those held in a
group format. It would seem that a mindfulness group course could also help
those transitioning from university or school to a music conservatoire.
Possible confounding factors
Participants mentioned doing a variety of other types of interventions
and it was not always easy to separate these effects from the mindfulness
course. Chloe started doing yoga before entering college, Elizabeth had been
doing it for 6 months, and Karen did it at home with YouTube videos. Chloe,
Karen and Leonie all started Alexander Technique (AT) at college either
before the mindfulness course (Leonie, Karen), for posture reasons (Karen),
or at the same time (Chloe). Yoga and AT are often part of performance skills
training for other performing arts courses, such as dance (Moyle, 2016).
Leonie had also learnt a singing technique called “accent breathing” but mixed
these exercises with the mindfulness exercises developing her own singing
warm up routine. Karen discovered that AT and mindfulness worked together
well where AT helped her to be externally aware of what posture she needed
and the Body Scan of the mindfulness course helped her to be internally
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proprioceptively aware and maintain a better posture when not in AT classes.
Elizabeth said that she had previously seen a performance psychologist and
done hypnosis but felt that this was the reason she had been able to approach
mindfulness more seriously to help her anxiety. Helen said she was doing
movement class at the conservatoire, which coincided with the mindfulness
course helping her to become very aware of her body, although she said, “the
Body Scan has definitely made an impact”. Adelina had taken part in a NLP
(Neuro-Linguistic Programming) course years earlier and had learnt similar
exercises to AT and mindfulness. This was the reason, she said, that had
brought her to the mindfulness course.
Participants were often not sure whether it was mindfulness or some
other life event that had made an effect change. Harry felt calmer at college
after mindfulness but also put that down to being more grown up. James felt
that the mindfulness, in combination with some lifestyle changes, could have
helped him with his anxiety where they complemented each other.
This may seem a problem for the study but the MfPAS is not run as a
separate, isolated entity at GSMD but is provided as a support to participants
in their lifelong learning as students and as students learning how to become
professional musicians or proto-performance musicians. The possibility that
mindfulness supported and aided other learning is a positive finding. It was
also heartening that participants were honest in their self-assessment and
were able to pinpoint areas where they felt unsure, as it suggests that they
were very sure about the areas with which they felt mindfulness had directly
and specifically helped them.

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Stress, mindset and well-being
Eight participants noted that the mindfulness course had helped them
to be generally calmer, less stressed, less anxious, on top of things, less
uptight and more relaxed in their personal lives (Chloe, James, Harry, Helen,
Peter, Fantine, Gordon, Paul and Petra). They felt that they had learnt useful
mindful strategies (Peter, Chloe, Gordon, Helen) or new perspectives from the
psychoeducation (Helen, Petra, Fantine, Chloe, James, Paul) to help deal with
stressful events which facilitated them in assessing whether to be stressed or
not (Petra, Paul), to let things go (Chloe, Fantine, Paul), apply positive self-talk
(Helen, Fantine, Paul) and use relaxation skills (Chloe, Peter). Stress was the
top factor that negatively affected music students in a study by Dews and
Williams (1989) where they discovered that students turn first to friends when
problems arise, but in this case, the students turned to an available
mindfulness course.
Four participants found that mindfulness helped them in dealing with
strong feelings in relationships. Emotions engendered by difficult personal
issues (Daphne), annoyance and anger (Gordon and Paul) or jealousy (Suki)
were helped by learning that experiencing negative feelings is normal and
healthy and that it is how you respond that makes the difference. Helen
developed a less self-involved mindset through doing the mindfulness course,
which she described as making the biggest difference in her life. For example,
she realised, if people do not say hello to her at college, that going “on that
Thought Bus… (Appendix W) in hindsight, it’s quite selfish… ‘This isn’t all
about you!’”
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Participants said that mindfulness had improved their overall general
well-being and was a life improvement (Gordon, James, Katyia, Inga,
Marguerita, Helen). Katyia reportedly reassessed her lifestyle choices saying,
Well mornings are nicer because I started, I decided to ...I was just the
sort of person who gets up as late as they can and just rushes out of
the door so I can sleep longer, and actually this was bringing me stress
for no reason. I think that mornings internally changed a lot since I did
the mindfulness probably because I thought about what will be good for
me and what I'm doing
Inga said that she took things easier and Marguerita found everything
in her daily life changed, saying, “I look forward to every day when I go to
bed”. Other studies with university age students found a beneficial effect of
mindfulness courses on general well-being (Byrne, Bond, & London, 2013;
Klainin-Yobas et al., 2016; Van Gordon, Shonin, Sumich, Sundin, & Griffiths,
2014) and this finding was also discovered by Hribar (2012) for music
students at the GSMD. It is important for establishments to develop initiatives
that can help students enhance health and well-being (Ginsborg et al., 2012).
In this case, the mindfulness course seemed to provide an effective place to
develop enhanced well-being for stressed music students, which could help
them when moving into the professional world where high levels of stress are
part of the job (Vaag et al., 2016).

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3.5.2 Effects of mindfulness on instrumental learning
3.5.2.1 Instrumental lessons
The participants noted that learning mindfulness had the effect in their
instrumental lessons of making them more focused, body aware, changed
their mindset to lessons, and encouraged them to become less self-critical.
Focus
Participants reported feeling more aware or focused in lessons (Chloe,
Harry, James). Lessons were described as more mindful (Elizabeth, Harry,
Marguerita, Gordon) and they found that they concentrated with less mind
wandering, worry, stress, and distractions to get in the way (Gordon, Chloe,
James, Carolina, Daphne, Suki, Leonie). In the MfM, item 3 (Appendix B)
addressed this area, “In instrumental or singing lessons, I always pay attention
and never daydream or get distracted”, and seven participants (Helen, Harry,
Gordon, Elizabeth, Adelina, Suki, Paul) had improvements over the
intervention period of +2 or more (see Chapter 2, 2.4.2).
Daphne found that increased concentration helped her in a particularly
difficult piece with constant semiquavers. Her teacher noted her enhanced
concentration levels and praised her for this improvement. James felt that his
lessons were more efficient and Leonie reported, “I was like, ‘Actually, even
my singing lesson has been really, really good lately.’ Not in terms of I was
good, but just how —, the process of it.”
Six participants mentioned no effect on mental focus, as Helen, Inga,
Paul, and Fantine felt that they had always been focused or responsive in
lessons, although Paul’s response to MfM item 3 increased by +2 over the

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intervention. Sheila and Petra found no change, although Petra said that she
had not been expecting one.
I guess in my lesson [things] haven't changed because they were never

like a problem before whereas things that were a problem like performing, the
audiences and stuff is where it's affected me most (Petra).
Body awareness
Participants noticed an improvement in body awareness in lessons
(Helen, Harry, Marguerita, Sheila, Suki, Daphne, Karen). They reported
becoming more aware of muscular sensation changes (Sheila, Marguerita,
Karen, Suki, Helen), which, they said, helped when learning technique (see
Section 3.5.2.3), released unneeded tension (Karen and Daphne) and
improved the sound (Karen).
Changing mindset and self-criticism
Six participants (Adelina, Leonie, Katyia, Marguerita, Paul and
Carolina) reported that their mental state for lessons changed over the course
of the mindfulness intervention and they became more kind to themselves with
less internal criticism. Eight participants (Helen, Gordon, Elizabeth, Fantine,
Paul, Marguerita, Katyia, Carolina) decreased their scores by 2 or more in the
negatively-worded MfM item 9 (Appendix B) “I’m always criticising myself in
singing or instrumental lessons”. In interview, Leonie said that she was more
ready to work and had less pre-lesson judgment, and Katyia described being
more relaxed in lessons. Adelina and Katyia, who described themselves as
self-critical perfectionists, said that they had learnt self-compassion on making
errors in lessons when feeling underprepared either due to being given more
work than could be handled (Adelina) or through realising that becoming a
musician is a work in progress (Katyia). As Adelina said,

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My teacher wants me to study two new Caprices every week which are
really difficult to be prepared after one week with two studies like that
and at the beginning I was, of course, not prepared the best because
it's impossible… then after some [mindful] practices and some
sessions…I could go to lesson being aware that I wasn't prepared at
the top but showing, doing the best I could and it was better…I could
say "Okay, I'm like that, I prepared until this point then I go" and it's the
same type of sentences that you say in mindfulness.
Both participants felt that their relationship with their teacher improved as a
result.
Gordon, Marguerita and Peter found that the mindfulness exercises
highlighted the different mental states that they felt in practices, lessons and
performances. Gordon and Marguerita decided to try to be in a mindful state
wherever they were. However, Peter used the different phases of mind to help
him enhance different parts of his learning process by being mentally tense in
practice and lessons to explore how it feels but being loose and free in
performance.
3.5.2.2 The teacher
There were a variety of mindfulness effects reported by the participants
on understanding the teacher’s advice, taking criticism and enhancing
communication.
Hearing and understanding
Peter, James, Suki, and Leonie found that the mindfulness course had
helped them to concentrate, accept, or be ready to “hear” the teacher better
and listen less judgmentally to the reality of what was being said. For
example, Suki said,

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Before I started learning with a new teacher and I was worrying about
how he hears me play - so I was worrying that I have to be really nice
and I need to be really good so that I can make nice sounding but so I
couldn't really concentrating on like what he's saying…I felt because
I'm thinking more about what he says in the moment so I could think
more, I could ask question instant after he says rather than just
accepting it. So that's the things that kind of changed in the lessons.
Karen realised that she focused too much on what the teacher was saying and
now focused more on sensations that she experienced in lessons, such as
extraneous tension and sensory effects of new technique, which improved her
sound and was noticed by her teacher. Peter said that he had to deal with a
lot of information from his teachers, which he tried to process all at once thus
missing the subsequent information. He reported using mindfulness to help
him focus, listen mindfully, and chose to internalise what was said later. He
mentioned that his lessons were now more effective.
Harry, Gordon, Karen and Marguerita found that doing mindfulness
helped them to understand better something the teacher had told or showed
them. Marguerita reported, “I feel I’m able to observe better what he does and
to apply it”. As an improvising jazz saxophonist, Gordon had been advised by
his teacher that he had “good lines” but that he needed to develop “the sound
of surprise”, something he had originally taken quite literally. However, he said
that learning mindfulness meant that he improvised more creatively in the
moment and less “mathematically” or “cerebrally”. He realised that this was
what his teacher had been advising him to do and he reported that the teacher
was very pleased with his progress. Harry’s teacher had suggested that he did
“mental instrumental practice”, a skill that Connelly and Williamon (2004)
described as highly useful for developing musicians. Harry, an advanced
student, had originally found that this type of practice was too hard due to
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feeling distracted, but discovered that focused mindfulness exercises helped
him to develop this skill.
Improved communication was a benefit noted by Helen, Katyia and
Elizabeth. Elizabeth said that she had previously been very anxious in lessons
but now felt more collaborative and communicative with her singing teacher
leading to less frustration in the room from him now she was more open.
Helen, who improved by +2 on MfM item 13 (Appendix B) which states “I can
easily describe to others the physical sensation I feel when I sing or play my
instrument”, also reported that her increased body awareness in lessons
helped her to communicate aspects of her technique more easily to her
teacher. Harry, however, felt that his teacher had not probably even noticed
him being more mindful in lessons because “she normally picks up on these
details”.
Teacher criticism
Fantine spoke of the importance of the teacher at conservatoire level,
something explored in far more detail by Gaunt (2008, 2010, 2011) (see
Chapter 2, Section 2.2.2). Gaunt discovered how implicit dynamics of power
within teacher/pupil pairings could make it difficult for students to verbalise
their thoughts within lessons or change teacher if unhappy and several
participants concurred with this and their reports suggested that little has
changed in conservatoires. Fantine said, “The teacher is such an important
person in your life, when they’re not happy, it’s a big deal.” She felt that taking
three breaths had helped her relationship with her teacher when it was
strained “so I don’t burst into tears.”

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It is not uncommon for some music students to be more negatively
affected by teacher criticism than others. In Atlas, Taggart, and Goodell
(2004), music students who scored high on the Atlas Sensitivity to Criticism
and who were more affected by teacher criticism improved less, found it
difficult to communicate with the teacher, and their enjoyment and confidence
was also reduced. They suggested that educators be aware that highly
sensitive students may need carefully thought out criticism. However, the
current study suggests that students can also take ownership of this issue and
learn skills to help them deal with taking criticism, which is an expected part of
music education. For example, participants in the current study said that they
found it easier to deal with criticism from their teachers as a result of doing the
mindfulness course (James, Fantine, Adelina, Chloe, Suki, Carolina, Daphne,
Elizabeth) where Elizabeth discovered that it was less personal now and felt
more detached. Helen, Adelina, Suki, Carolina, and Daphne, for example, all
described depending heavily on their self-perception of their teacher’s
approval or esteem. Both Helen and Adelina noted that they had found one
exercise from the mindfulness course to be particularly helpful. Participants
were asked to imagine a social situation where their teacher ignored them,
and investigate their own reactions. They immediately wondered what they
had done to make the teacher act this way, but in reality, they discovered that
it could have been nothing to do with them at all and it was impossible to know
for sure without asking. Suki, Carolina, and Daphne had realised that they had
worried too much about what they believed the teacher thought of them and
now described themselves as less accepting of the assumed power dynamic
and more confident to give opinions. Carolina described feeling confident to

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play Prokofiev despite her teacher not liking that style of music and Daphne
said,
Before the mindfulness course at the beginning of the year I always

had a tendency to agree with all the things that my teacher would say.
Now I can argue! It is just like it is in ensemble playing where I can
comment on music, I can say "actually I rather prefer this, actually this
doesn't work" that confidence has come up a bit more than in the
beginning of the year it was more "oh that's the teacher, if she says
that, don't mess with it" but now it's just more "what would suit best for
me?" so that's me coming to me, that I've realised.
Motivation to practise
Participants reported that, having learnt mindfulness, they were able to
transfer the benefits from music lessons into practice. Item 10 on the MfM
(Appendix B) states, “My private practice sessions are always affected by how
well or badly my instrumental/singing lesson went” and seven participants’
scores decreased by 2 (i.e. practice was less affected by music lesson
perception) over the course of the intervention (Helen, Chloe, Elizabeth, Petra,
Adelina, Paul, Katyia). Mackworth-Young (1990), studying pupil-centred
learning and teaching styles in piano lessons with four young children,
discovered better student/teacher relationships and a more positive lesson
experience for three pupils improved motivation and increased practice time.
In a similar way, the participants in the current study, who also reportedly
improved this aspect through learning mindfulness, possibly extend this
finding to students in conservatoires. For example, Helen, Katyia, and
Elizabeth suggested that, in their case, mindfully improved pupil-teacher
communication, as well as mindfulness in general, may have also helped
increase their motivation to practice. Karen did not demonstrate a change in
the MfM for this area but she said that she felt less motivation to practise if the
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lesson didn’t go well. However, thanks to the mindfulness course helping her
to have more self-compassion, she thought “don’t beat yourself up about it”
and guessed that her teacher had probably experienced similar days.
3.5.2.3 Body awareness and instrumental technique
Twenty of the twenty-one participants interviewed reported that they
had enhanced body awareness in general as a result of doing the mindfulness
course. Eight participants (Elizabeth, Gordon, Harry, Helen, Paul, Daphne,
Sheila, Karen) particularly noted the Body Scan technique as helping them to
be more aware of their bodies in lessons, music practices, and on stage when
learning and maintaining technique. The impact was that they described
feeling more aware of the sensory changes engendered by technical
instruction during instrumental lessons and that this helped in transferring
learning to practice and eventually onto stage. Participants reported being
more mindful of the whole body, specific areas of the body, and were able to
personally diagnose posture and tension issues. Mindfulness also helped
them to learn instrumental technique through mindful breathing exercises,
psycho-education, focused mental awareness and improved observations
skills.
Body aware
Leonie said about learning technique, “Sometimes I’m not sure if I’m
doing the right thing”. Participants (Gordon, Adelina, Marguerita, Fantine,
Leonie, Helen) found that being mindful when learning technique helped them
to know “the feeling when you get it right” (Fantine) or “wrong” (Gordon).
Adelina said that it helped her to get the correct position from the first moment
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and Marguerita reported she could react faster because “I’m there somehow.”
Marguerita, Suki and Gordon felt that it helped them to “really transfer it
[technique] to other things” (Gordon) such as performance.
Five participants (Paul, Sheila, Suki, Elizabeth, Daphne) used mindful
body awareness to bring themselves out of autopilot playing. For example,
Sheila, said,
I would try a break during the session and just think, ‘Am I doing? or am
I being?’ and that was probably more technically based because I
would often find, you know, you get into such a habit of doing all the
technical scales and whatever, that you don't necessarily get out of
them what you could because you're just doing it by rote. So every now
and again I'd stop in a practice and kind of, take a step back and think,
‘am I doing or being’ and then try and proceed from there and actually
be mindful about how I was, 'how' I was practicing the next scale or
whatever, and what did I want to achieve.
This body awareness when learning skills is as important in music as sports
training (Connolly & Williamon, 2004) and had been clearly enhanced by the
mindfulness exercises for these participants.
Some participants felt that they already had secure technique (Inga,
Harry, Katyia, Sheila, Carolina) and reported using enhanced body awareness
to maintain this to a high standard. Inga and Harry had previously had piano
training that included mindful-type exercises, such as playing one note over
and over in an intensely thoughtful way. Inga’s teacher had said to “obtain this
technical brilliancy, you just do very slowly and mindfully.” Katyia described
using mindfulness to keep her technique steady and Carolina used her
physical and technical awareness to create a musical phrase and “express it
more than before.”

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Parts of the body
Three participants discovered that they were now more aware of the
body as a whole when playing (Elizabeth, Harry, Fantine) where Elizabeth felt
that she had learnt how “everything in the body is interconnected and that
singing is actually a delicate balance” and Fantine felt she was conscious of
“breathing with my whole body.”
Other participants reported being more aware of specific parts of their
body. Wind players described becoming increasingly cognizant of their
embouchure (Gordon, Sheila, Karen) when it’s “more out on one side”
(Gordon, saxophone) or learning how to relax so that fatigue does not set in
(Karen, clarinet). Gordon was also conscious of his fingers being difficult to
uncurl after many hours of playing and said that he was glad to have more
mindful body awareness as a way to attend to this problem from a musician’s
health mindset. Pianists reported being more mindful of fingers, sides, back
and chest (Harry), hands (James) and wrists (Petra) in order to avoid strain
and maintain healthy seated body movement.
Helen, as a vocalist, described becoming “hyper aware of parts of my
body”. Areas noted by singers were shoulders (Helen), tongues (Helen,
Karen, Fantine), breathing mechanisms (Leonie, Karen), back of mouth, soft
palate, and cheekbones (Karen). Fantine said,
I guess being able to feel the sensations in your body, because we’re
allowed to be aware of them, I don’t know why we just forget. You just
do things without feeling or understanding why. So by doing the
mindfulness course-, I don’t know, it’s like a new door has opened.
Chloe was the only singer who mentioned no effect from enhanced body
awareness.
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String players like Paul (double bass) also said that he sensed more
into his hands, Suki (violin) was aware of her arm, and Daphne (violin) and
Peter (jazz bass) were conscious of tense shoulders. Daphne felt being
mindful and addressing this problem had a big effect on her playing.
Enhanced body awareness during hours of instrumental practice could be
efficacious for maintaining musicians’ health, as suggested by Ginsborg et al.
(2012). The current research extends this suggestion with the proposal that
mindfulness could be a possible method by which this enhanced body
awareness could be achieved.
Diagnosing problems.
Participants, becoming more mentally and physically aware from doing
the mindfulness course, discovered that they could more easily diagnose and
rectify posture and tension issues. This was hypothesised in Elliott (2010) who
suggested mindfulness could help singers be cognizant of bad habits and
learn to retrain them. Peter, James, Tony and Karen all reported posture
improvements as a result of learning mindfulness, “I’ve always had quite a bad
posture…it really helped with that, actually,” reported Peter. Tony spent most
of the day in a chair composing and he said that his posture had improved by
“listening to what the body is saying.”
High levels of playing-related muscle tension were found to be one of
two significant predictors for outcome indices of pain and symptom severity
and frequency over time of 240 professional musicians from Sydney in a study
by Davies and Mangion (2002). Being able to be aware of unnecessary
playing-related tension as a student whilst learning technique could help them
develop healthy playing behaviours and reduce pain and pain-related

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symptoms over a performing lifetime. As Harry had discovered, “literally any
tension in the body can affect the way that you play”. Eleven participants
(Chloe, Petra, Helen, Sheila, Harry, Fantine, Peter, Karen, Gordon, Paul,
Daphne) specifically noted the effect that learning mindfulness had on their
playing or singing related tension. Helen mentioned that she became tense
when she was anxious and Fantine discovered it could happen when over-
compensating whilst learning technique.
Sheila reported rectifying “sore shoulders”; Petra became aware of
“tense wrists” and learnt to relax a bit more. Helen diagnosed areas of tension
in her shoulders and she and Fantine both said that they used mindful body
awareness to help deal with bad habits such as tongue-root tension. Fantine
reported she was aware now when “before I didn’t know when it was
happening.” Peter said,
I think physically, I think I never realised how ridiculously tense my

body was, especially shoulders and posture as well. I've always had
quite a bad posture, I think specially doing quite a lot of this sitting, it
really helped with that, actually, just noticing how all these things
between thoughts and the body are connected has been quite a
breakthrough for me because it's very, very difficult to play the double
bass with tense shoulders and finding out that I was doing that quite a
lot of the time and trying to relax or like warm up and stuff before doing
anything definitely made a positive improvement.
These issues were also found in a study with Malaysian music students
where performers who reported tension, pain, and discomfort from playing
music identified the main problems to be found in the areas of the fingers,
hands, neck, arms, and shoulders (Lonsdale & Boon, 2016). The researchers’
advice was that music students should develop management strategies so
that healthy playing-related behaviours could be developed for the future. The
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current study extends this research by suggesting that learning mindfulness
would seem to be a good contender for an appropriate management strategy.
Tone and sound
Reducing tension also seemed to have an effect on sound and tone
quality. Sheila (french horn) used the Body Scan to help her be aware of
maintaining good support and breathing, and reported that,
The sound changes hugely. It’s just much more open, the phrasing is
better because it’s much more evened out, more open sound that
doesn’t sound as pinched and just lends itself better to being more
musical.
Daphne described finding a lot of tension in her shoulders when doing the
Body Scan in mindfulness classes and subsequently in instrumental lessons.
She spoke in detail of the positive effect of relaxing them on her violin playing
and sound, and the effect of tension on sound production she heard in others
where “it just ruins the performance from the start”. Peter felt that he could
also tell the difference between the sound a musician made when overly
tense, describing the sound as “aggressive” and “stifled” rather than a “large
easy sound”. He felt that this was very important in jazz. Gordon, another jazz
musician, found that the Body Scan helped him to be aware of what “tension
feels like” and he said that he now blows his saxophone more freely. This
tonal change, engendered by a mindful approach to instrumental playing, was
also observed in a similar way in Langer et al. (2009), where most listeners
preferred the orchestra’s mindful performance.
Karen is a case study for the effects of the mindfulness course, yoga
and Alexander Technique (AT) on playing related tension. Initially she said
she had developed pain through bad posture. She also described having
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tense elbows, fingers, legs, and a tense embouchure, which would regularly
collapse from fatigue. Working on her posture with AT allowed her to
understand that her back needed to support her arms holding the clarinet. She
felt that the Body Scan encouraged her to assess each of these body parts,
both internally and externally, which helped her to free up her fingers and
allowed her to trill faster. The Body Scan also alerted her to tension in her legs
and pelvis, which tensed the abdomen and then the chest. Originally, her
restricted breathing, airflow, and tense embouchure meant that the sound
became “trapped” and she would go through boxes of reeds. Using the Body
Scan and breathing exercises, she said that she had learnt to release this
unwanted tension, even during performances. Enhanced mindful attention
meant she felt able to concentrate better on staying relaxed when playing and
she used the psycho-education (Thought Buses (Appendix W)) to deal with
any unhelpful self-criticism. Now, she reported that her posture is better, she
described her arms, legs and fingers as being unlocked and her air supply as
more efficient. She said that she sensed far more resonant space inside her
chest, and that she now had no embouchure fatigue which consequently
meant that her sound had more overtones and was richer in quality. She felt
that her confidence had built and she said that even an examiner had noticed
her improvement over the year. Her teacher told the examiner that this was all
down to Karen learning relaxation and how to deal with tension in her body.
Mindfulness and AT, Karen reported, have “enhanced my playing massively”
and she said that she even gets through far fewer reeds now.
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3.5.2.4 Instrumental practice
Participants talked about how the mindfulness course had affected their
music instrument practice. They noted benefits from being more focused and
efficient, increased body awareness, a better ability to deal with problems
during music practice time, changes in practice length, a connection between
mindful and musical concepts, and more creativity in practice sessions.
Mindfulness practice before instrumental practice.
Although this was not something that was instigated or recommended
by the mindfulness trainer, 10 of the participants reported doing mindfulness
practice before some, or all, instrumental practices (see Table 3.5).
The targeted mindfulness practice mentioned most often was the 3-
Minute Breathing Space (Helen, Adelina, James, Sheila) and those who did
do mindfulness practice discovered that their focus and efficiency were
improved in their instrumental practice. Sheila felt that it put her mind “in the
right place to begin with” and Katyia found that instrument practices that
started this way were “really different.”

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Table 3.5 MfPAS participants who did mindfulness practice before

instrumental practice
Participant Instrument
Chloe Voice
Helen Voice
Fantine Voice
Leonie Voice
James Piano/Guitar/Percussion
Katyia Flute/Saxophone
Sheila French horn
Marguerita Viola/Piano
Carolina Violin
Adelina Violin
Focus and efficiency in instrumental practice
The most popular reported mindfulness effect on instrumental practice
was better focus (Chloe, Helen, Adelina, Petra, James, Sheila, Suki, Daphne,
Karen) and concentration (Adelina, James, Suki, Carolina, Daphne). Other
synonyms used by the participants were being more aware (Chloe), in the
zone (Helen, Adelina, James, Katyia), the right frame of mind (Helen),
conscious (Fantine, Marguerita), and detailed/precise (Marguerita). They
described less boredom (Peter, Karen, Fantine), inefficiency (Katyia), autopilot
practice (Paul, Karen), “just playing through” (Marguerita, Sheila), and mind
wandering (Gordon, Helen, Fantine, Paul). James, in fact, described a
“marked difference” in his instrumental practice. He kept reminding himself of
something the mindfulness trainer had suggested to him when he got
distracted: “escort your mind back to the task in hand”. James said,
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I've never really been taught how to practise before starting at this
college so I'm working to establish a routine and in order to remain
focused and not be distracted, that's where the mindfulness has come
into help with that.
This is an experience that is not unknown. In a similar way, for example,
Jørgensen (2000) reported that students in his study on instrumental music
practice had mentioned that training on how to practise had been neglected.
From the opposite perspective, in a questionnaire study with 94 music
teachers, teachers seemed to think that they taught practice techniques but,
on closer inspection, were found to talk more about the importance of practice
rather than the practicalities (Barry & Mcarthur, 1994).
Helen, Inga, Adelina, Carolina and Daphne’s scores for item 14 on the
MfM, “I’m easily distracted when practising my voice or instrument”,
decreased by 2 (i.e. they were less distracted) over the MfPAS course.
Distractions described by the participants could be through mental thoughts
(Inga), emails and phones (Suki, Daphne, Carolina, Karen), sounds from
outside (Daphne), wanting to play another piece (Fantine, James) and course
pressures (James, Karen). Interestingly, James’ score changed negatively by
2 (indicating he was more distracted) on the above item, so his perception of
this issue in interview suggested something different to his perception when
filling out the questionnaire.
Similarly to three participants in Hribar (2012), another frequently
reported effect in the current study was an increase in efficient practice
(Gordon, Harry, Helen, Adelina, James, Marguerita, Paul, Suki, Daphne,
Karen, Katyia, Sheila, Carolina). This is important because practice rooms and
time are a finite resource and, as Gordon observed, it is a “massive thing to

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get as much out of your practice as you can”. Participants noted learning
faster (Harry, Adelina, Carolina, Daphne) where Harry felt that mindfully
reading the score helped him to learn a large volume of piano
accompaniments “a lot quicker”. Chaffin and Lemieux (2004) linked the quality
of practice to achievement saying, “High levels of accomplishment also
requires that practice time be well spent” (p.20). Similarly, Ericsson, Krampe,
and Tesch-Romer (1993) emphasised the importance of focused and
motivated deliberate practice, rather than “natural talent”, as essential in the
achievement of expert music performance. Participants discovered that
mindfulness had improved their practice efficiency, which meant they felt that
they achieved more (Marguerita), practice was more productive (Helen,
James) and more fruitful (Paul). The current research extends the research of
Chaffin and Lemieux (2004) and Ericsson, Krampe, and Tesch-Romer (1993)
by suggesting that learning mindfulness could help students to maximise their
practice time by being more efficient and effective.
Body and aural awareness
Participants reported that being more mindful made them more aware
of their bodies and health in practice. This was a similar finding to that
reported in instrumental lessons (see Section 3.5.2.3). Inga said that knowing
how you press and release a piano key was crucial in learning Mozart and
suggested, “you practise it mindfully and it helps”. Gordon found himself
mindfully pre-hearing and feeling each note as he played his saxophone
rather than running on “finger memory” which, he said, improved his
improvisation skills. Elizabeth and Adelina mentioned that mindfulness helped
them to disassociate from the instrument to hear or perceive better from the
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outside. Adelina discovered that this was “really important” for her current
development and Elizabeth felt that she was dealing “with the detail without
losing sight of the whole”.
Problems during practice
Thirteen participants found that mindfulness helped them when their
practice was going wrong: some participants were physically tense or had
technical issues (see Section 3.5.2.3), some became mentally tense or
stressed (Helen, Katyia, Karen), and sometimes these issues were related
where, for example, Helen said,
What I do have a habit of doing is if I'm worrying about something then

if I then try and go and practise and I'm on this thought bus of worry,
getting off it is very difficult and it completely, like, soon as I'm stressed
or tense in any way it manifests itself in my voice and in my body and I
just tense up and it just means that it just completely affects my singing.
Participants used mindfulness to separate mood from practice (Helen,
Peter, Katyia, Sheila, Daphne, Karen, Marguerita) and Peter reported that he
could practise now when not in the mood, Sheila used it to help her deal with
homesickness, and Helen said,
I think just being able to use that breathing space to kind of come back
to the breath and focus on me before going into practice means that I
can leave any worries or anything I've been stressing about outside the
practice room when I go and really focus. And that's made a massive
difference for me actually.
Participants noted becoming aware when things were not going well in
practice (Chloe, Leonie, Fantine, Helen, Elizabeth, Sheila, Marguerita, Katyia,
Daphne, Karen, Suki) where originally they would have given up or maybe
forced themselves on. Inga said that she sometimes felt scared to make
decisions in practice, and difficult passages or negative thoughts were

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described by others as demoralising (Suki, Marguerita, Sheila, Karen) and
leading to procrastination (Inga, Karen, Suki, Marguerita). Steinfeld and
Brewer (2015) suggested that learning mindfulness skills could help with
psychological problems such as practice avoidance, only practising that which
is already mastered, or an unwillingness for self-scrutiny encountered during
music practice, and participants clarified this, adding empirical weight to the
suggestions of Steinfeld and Brewer (2015). Instead of giving up when
practice became difficult, some of them described taking a break and trying
some mindfulness exercises (Fantine, Helen, Elizabeth, Katyia, Sheila, Karen,
Suki) such as breathing practices (Helen, Sheila, Karen), Thought Buses
(Helen, Karen), Exploring Difficulties practice (Inga) or another task such as
composing (Katyia). They found that doing something mindful helped them to
realise that thoughts are just thoughts, put thoughts into perspective, learn to
be with the problem, and become more positive and carry on in a better
mindset (Leonie, Fantine, Helen, Elizabeth, Sheila, Katyia, Daphne, Karen,
Suki). Participants noted giving themselves more self-care (Katyia, Sheila,
Fantine, Marguerita) where Marguerita stopped criticising herself when
something went wrong. Fantine would try to practise again after a break and, if
things were still not working, just stop and not criticise herself.
Some participants said that they were less likely to worry about people
hearing them practise as a result of the mindfulness course. The MfM item 4
(Appendix B) stated, “If people can hear me practising, I know it’s irrational to
worry and I criticise myself for worrying”. Oddly, in this negatively-worded
item, two participants (Suki, Carolina) increased their scores (indicating that
they worried more) but eight others decreased by 2 or more over the course of
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the intervention (Helen, Chloe, Elizabeth, James, Paul, Marguerita, Sheila,
Katyia). However, no-one verbalised this effect in interview.
Practice length
Some of the participants mentioned that their actual and perceived
length of time practising changed over the course of the mindfulness
intervention, although Peter and Adelina noticed no difference.
Chloe, Elizabeth, James, Suki and Helen described practising for longer and
said that this was due to being in a better frame of mind (Helen) and feeling
more focused (James). Practice was perceived by Katyia and Sheila as longer
but Katyia realised that it was not longer in reality and Sheila found her
practice time was actually shorter. This slower time perception mirrors the
findings from the mindfulness participants in Kramer, Weger, and Sharma
(2013) where 40 undergraduates did a temporal bisection task after either a
10-minute mindfulness breathing exercise or listening to a 15-minute reading
from The Hobbit by J.R.R Tolkien.
However, Marguerita, Leonie, Daphne, Sheila and Paul reported
practising for a shorter time which they said was due to less distraction and
increased efficiency. Paul reduced 2 hours mindless practice into 30 minutes
focused practice and Daphne reduced from 6 hours to 3 hours a day.
The mindful/musical connection and instrumental practice structure.
Participants described developing a close connection between their
mindfulness practice and their instrumental practice (Elizabeth, Gordon, Peter,
James, Marguerita), a connection hypothesised on in detail by Steinfeld and
Brewer (2015) who suggested that mindfulness practice could serve as a
useful model for music practice. Participants reported approaching practice in

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“being mode” so that “I don’t have to go into practice mode because there is
no other mode other than being mindful” (Elizabeth) and James felt that his
formal mindful practices and his instrumental practices went “hand-in-hand”.
Some participants described changing the structure of their
instrumental practice in response to the mindfulness course. Inga stopped
setting goals and started to enjoy the journey whereas Sheila found that she
worked best when she used mindfulness skills to focus on the goal of an
exercise. Some participants mentioned breaking up their practice into smaller
sections (Leonie, Katyia, Marguerita, Karen). Katyia knew from doing
mindfulness exercises that she could concentrate for 20 minutes and said that
she now approached practicing a piece in the same way, just focusing for 20
minutes at a time. Marguerita used to do 2 hours practice a day. She found
that she could concentrate for 40 minutes so she did 40-minute sections of
instrumental practices and then took relaxation time. She used bells (like they
did in her mindfulness classes) to change her practice focus every 10 minutes,
switching to different pieces or re-practising technique or passages that she
had practised earlier.
Creativity in practice
To improve instrumental practice, Jørgensen (2004) advised students
to “try to introduce new elements into your practice” (p.88). The findings from
the current research extends the instruction from Jørgensen (2004) to suggest
that mindfulness might be a route to encouraging students to introduce new
elements into practice. For example, Elizabeth, Peter and Fantine found that
the mindfulness exercises encouraged them to be more creative in their music
practice. Elizabeth said that she enjoyed finding her singing practice more
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exploratory rather than a means to an end. Fantine described her practice as
more creative and less boring saying,
So in practice, every day is different. Your voice can be different every

single day. So it shouldn’t ever be boring, you shouldn’t ever see it like
that…definitely more creative, because if I’m seeing it with new eyes, I
try to, every time, then, I don’t know, you can bring something new.
You’ll realise things you didn’t see before. Even markings or dynamics.
When you’re going through it, sometimes you just don’t see them and
they’re so obvious, they’re on the page, but, I don’t know, things as
small as that.
Enjoyment
Four participants felt that the mindfulness training had helped them to
enjoy practice more (Katyia, Marguerita, Chloe, Helen) due to a practice
structure change (Katyia), being more conscious, aware and focused
(Marguerita, Chloe) or being in the right frame of mind (Helen), which
increased efficiency (Marguerita) and productivity (Marguerita, Helen) and
made them more satisfied with instrumental practice as a whole. Helen
reported that her teacher had also noticed her practice improvement.
Interconnection
Although the above information is sectionalised, participants indicated
that there was an interaction between the different elements that improved
practice with the mindfulness course as a trigger point. James said that being
more effective in practice through mindfulness meant that his performance
had improved because “everything’s connected” and Elizabeth found that the
mindfulness encouraged her to think how interconnected everything is where
vocal problems were sometimes indicative of a non-vocal problem.
Music psychology research into instrumental practice by researchers
such as Hallam, Lehmann, Ericsson, Jørgensen, and Nielsen is extensive. It

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suggests that efficient and quality practice, wherein students develop
extensive metacognitive skills such as acute self-awareness, concentration,
planning, monitoring, and evaluating skills, develops an excellent musician.
However, there is little in the research that addresses the effect of daily
changeable psychological factors on practice mindset or practical coping
advice in order to allow these superior cognitive skills to develop. Participants
in the current study seemed to have extended this research by reportedly
improving their metacognitive skills through training in mindfulness and
developed more efficient and productive practice as a result. Furthermore,
when a participant’s physical technique or mental state were wrong,
participants reported that the focused awareness practices and the mindful
psychoeducation encouraged them to be kinder to themselves, gave them
practical skills to keep going through difficult practice times, and helped them
to maintain motivation. This, it seemed, enhanced their learning experience,
creating an atmosphere that encouraged musical creativity and enjoyment
leading to improved performance and practice skills.
3.5.2.5 Group practice in ensembles and rehearsals
Participants found that learning to be mindful had an effect when
working with others in ensembles and groups. Participants felt that being more
mindful helped them to be more focused, aware or “zoned in more” when
working with others (Chloe, James, Katyia, Fantine, Elizabeth) and improved
rehearsal efficiency (Harry, Fantine). Elizabeth, for example, described
listening more, being more aware, and taking a less “panic stricken, frankly
egocentric” approach in rehearsals with choral scholars.

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Werner and Alterio (1996) suggested that developing listening skills is
an important step in becoming a good musician, as it deepens knowledge and
enhances creativity. Mindfulness training of only 15 minutes duration had
been seen to improve music listening skills of 132 university music students in
ensemble classes randomised to a mindfulness condition (n=69) and a control
(n=63) (Diaz, 2013) (see Chapter 1, Section 1.2.2). In a similar way,
participants (James, Gordon, Peter, Adelina, Elizabeth, Katyia, Paul, Suki) in
the current study also reported listening better, both musically and personally,
which improved interaction, connection, communication and creativity.
Listening to the music mindfully was said by some participants to help
them to be more creative in ensembles (Gordon, Peter, Adelina, Fantine,
Suki). Gordon felt that he played more freely and his improvisation within
groups was improved after doing the mindfulness course. Adelina described
using more expression now in rehearsals and Fantine found that she and her
ensemble were more creative, saying “you just bounce off each other”. Suki
reported, “I listen more how we played,” and was now more musically
opinionated, realising sooner what she wanted to say.
Working with other musicians can also be difficult with many
personalities and musical tastes interacting. Participants said that their mindful
work on thoughts and emotions helped them worry less about making
mistakes or others’ opinions (Katyia, Paul, Marguerita, Daphne, Adelina) and
participants described feeling more confident about their own ability, and
about voicing their musical opinions (Fantine, Sheila, Paul, Suki, Adelina,
James, Daphne). In the negatively-worded item 7 of the MfM (Appendix B),
“It’s hard for me to find the words to describe to others what I think or feel in
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rehearsal or practice sessions”, Daphne’s score decreased by 3 and this
translated to her interview where she said,
It is in ensemble playing where I can comment on music, I can say

“actually I rather prefer this, actually this doesn't work”. That confidence
has come up a bit more.
James discovered that learning mindfulness helped him to cope with
confrontational situations in rehearsals and Marguerita felt less upset if others
did not agree with her.
For Inga, learning how to interact with other musicians was an
important part of her journey in finding her own voice and she reported using
mindfulness to help her. She had realised that “I’m so bad at interacting with
people” and chose to challenge herself by exploring GSMD courses in
accompaniment and conducting. In becoming vulnerable and learning mindful
acceptance after being so used to being in control of one person (herself) on
stage, she described learning to be responsible for an orchestra or support
nervous singers. This, she said, put her in a new position especially when
working with non-virtuosic repertoire, such as Schubert songs, which requires
great understanding and depth. She had realised that her problems, resulting
in procrastination, were due to being scared. It was through the mindful
Exploring Difficulties work that she said she had discovered “a turning point”
and found support in working on that area.

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3.5.3 Effects of mindfulness in performance
3.5.3.1 Music performance anxiety
The mindfulness course was reported to have a variety of positive
effects on the participants as performers. Similarly to Hribar (2012), one of the
main areas they talked about was music performance anxiety (MPA). MPA is
an anxiety disorder particular to musical performers and has both mental and
physical symptoms, which, if significant enough, can impair performance
(Kenny, 2011).
Nine participants reported their experiences of MPA prior to
commencing the mindfulness course. They tended to experience high levels
of music performance anxiety either pre-performance or on stage (Elizabeth,
Helen, Fantine, Leonie, Petra, Marguerita, Sheila, Carolina, Karen). Gordon
spoke little about performance anxiety during his interview. However his post-
intervention MfM score on three questions that covered this topic suggested
that he had reduced performance anxiety over the intervention, as his MfM
showed mindfulness-level improvements of +9 above the pre-intervention MfM
score. Eight others mentioned having nerves or anxiety but not all the time
(Chloe, Harry, Adelina, James, Katyia, Paul, Suki, Gordon) and four
participants reported having hardly any performance nerves at all (Inga, Peter,
Tony, Daphne). Harry, Peter, and Adelina described feeling more “pumped”
than anxious.
Some participants reported having a lot of catastrophising thoughts
(Elizabeth, Helen, Petra) and described feeling “terrified” (Helen) or “panic”
(Elizabeth). Kenny (2011) described catastrophising and attention binding (a
preoccupation or involuntary focus on threat and danger) as the two most

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regular and worst “cognitive distortions” in MPA (p.123). Helen, Fantine and
Petra all intimated that their MPA had increased because of being
“overwhelmed” simply by enrolling at the GSMD. Participants described
themselves as stressed and anxious (Helen, Leonie, Marguerita) and having
bad thoughts (Petra, Carolina, Karen, Gordon). They worried about making
mistakes (Paul) or that they would not do their best (Leonie), were self-
judgmental (Karen) and responded by being jokey (Paul). Carolina and
Fantine felt that their minds wandered, or were confused and unclear, leading
Carolina to feel “afraid to be afraid”. The worst thing she found with MPA was
that “I can’t feel the music”.
Participants also mentioned having physical symptoms of MPA such as
shaking (Fantine, Suki, Carolina), sickness (Petra, Suki), faster breathing
(Marguerita, Paul, Carolina) or forgetting to breathe (Sheila). Marguerita’s and
Sheila’s hands sweated, and Carolina’s were cold. Sheila had a racing heart
and dry mouth whereas Marguerita felt her throat and chest were blocked.
Karen and Marguerita had excessive tension, Fantine had tingling sensations
and Helen did not feel good vocally.
Participants worried about what the audience might think (Fantine,
Adelina, Elizabeth, Petra, Leonie, Helen, Peter, Marguerita, Paul, Sheila, Suki,
Carolina, Daphne, Karen). They were concerned that audiences noticed
mistakes (Helen, Peter, Paul) or sat in judgment (Fantine, Elizabeth). Only
James spoke positively about how important the audience’s “vibe” is to the
success of a performance. Increased mindfulness for him meant that he felt
more outwardly aware, less introspective, and better able to listen to his band
members and the mood of the audience.

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Participants reported using a variety of non-mindfulness strategies to
help them with performance nerves such as imagery (Fantine, Carolina),
relaxation (Adelina), measured preparation (Harry), over practising (Leonie),
and Petra just hoped her preparation had been enough.
Mindfulness strategies for performance anxiety
Jahn (2013) suggested that “for performance anxiety, nothing brings
greater relief and clarity of mind than a breathing practice followed by
concentration or meditation” (p.332) and participants’ reports in the current
study seemed to support this suggestion.
Participants did a variety of sitting, standing and supine mindfulness
practices, and mindful yoga-type exercises, either directly pre-performance, or
days or weeks before in preparation. The most popular pre-performance
mindfulness exercises mentioned by participants were breathing practices
(Fantine, Helen, Petra, Katyia, Marguerita, Sheila, Suki, Carolina) and these
were also used whilst on stage when tense (Karen, Suki) and before solos
(Katyia). Harry said that he had always done mindful or singing- type
breathing exercises before performing, Elizabeth described warming her voice
up mindfully, and Sheila used the Headspace mobile phone application. Three
participants mentioned that they used psychoeducational mindfulness
exercises such as Thought Bus or Thought Clouds (Appendix W) to help deal
with unhelpful thoughts (Helen, Petra, Karen). However, Chloe did no targeted
mindfulness before performing and reported little effect of mindfulness on
stage and James said that he wished he had used mindfulness to help with
some difficult performance experiences.

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Awareness and response
Learning to be mindful is training for learning to notice and respond.
Once aware in the present moment, one can choose whether or not to
respond. Three participants described being aware of symptoms of MPA on
stage but were able “to be with” or accept these sensations as a result of
being more mindful. Marguerita said,
I think the breathing has helped me to calm down my fast breathing

definitely and I don't mind so much anymore when my fingers are
sweaty. So I think I used to think it was a problem that I had that but
now I don't mind that any more that much.
Carolina described being aware of her voice shaking but, due to being
mindful, she said that she could accept this effect of being nervous and
continued to perform in a positive way. Helen described a problem with an
adjudicator who publicly blamed her for a situation that was not her fault. She
said that she noticed her thoughts, became present with the emotion, did
some mindfulness exercises and did not let the experience damage her
performance.
Ten participants reported that they had increased awareness and were
able to respond better on stage (Elizabeth, Helen, Adelina, Fantine, Leonie,
Katyia, Sheila, Marguerita, Karen, Suki). Elizabeth noticed her MPA
catastrophising thoughts and, after doing a mindful exercise, she said that she
was able to feel grounded vocally and perform well. Adelina, Fantine and
Leonie said that they noticed their minds wandering in performance when
distracted by an audition panel’s behaviour (Adelina) or physical tingling and
shaking (Fantine). All three used mindfulness techniques to refocus on

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playing, communicating, expressing and being in control which, they said,
allowed more creativity (Leonie) and reduced panic (Fantine).
Katyia chose to do some mindful breathing as a feature solo came up
when she noticed she became stressed and had negative thoughts. After
performing well, she reflected on how she had let those types of thoughts
affect her performance in the past, saying to herself, “’What have I been doing
for so long?’” Karen became aware of tension in a performance, which was
both physical and mental. She did Thought Buses (Appendix W) for the
negative thoughts and breathing for her tension and, when the solos came up,
she said that she felt relaxed and confident and they went well.
Clark, Lisboa, and Williamon (2014a) investigated the thoughts and
perceptions of 29 conservatoire musicians before, during and after
performances. They found that if negative self-talk could be controlled and if
anxiety was viewed as facilitative, successful performances could follow. The
current study extends that research by suggesting that mindfulness seemed to
have helped those with MPA to develop psychological flexibility to help them
become aware of their negative thoughts and change their perspective on
anxiety, which resulted in better experiences on stage.
Audience perception
Davidson (2002) wrote that being aware of other people listening could
affect arousal levels and disturb musicians’ attention and mental balance
when performing. Participants in the current study concurred with Davidson
(2002) but noted further how mindfulness had helped them to deal with
performing in front of audiences. From the mindfulness course’s
psychoeducational (mental health education and information) discussions,

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participants learnt that they might imagine and create thoughts about what the
audience was thinking whereas, in reality, it is difficult to know another
person’s thoughts without directly asking. As a result, participants said that
they were able to reassess their perception of the audience and reported
worrying less about the audience’s imagined perceptions (Fantine, Marguerita,
Sheila, Karen) and felt more ambivalent towards them (Elizabeth). For
example, Karen said,
The typical thing that almost everyone does, I think, when they're in an
audition is that you watch, look over at the panel and then you try to
see their reactions or what they're writing or anything like that …so then
linking that with the mindfulness of not creating thoughts about what
they're thinking or what their body language might be giving off allowed
me to focus on giving a performance and being musical and everything
and playing how I wanted to play rather than letting my thoughts take
control of me and make me start fighting it.
Petra felt that mindfulness had helped her most in dealing with her perception
of the audience.
3.5.3.2 Effects of mindfulness on performing
Many people’s musicianship and performance skills are enveloped in
MPA. Participants reported that being able to deal with this area more
effectively allowed other positive effects in performance to emerge. Engaging
in mindfulness strategies was described as having effects on mental and
physical states, time perception, and creativity.

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Performance mindset and physical effects
Fourteen participants said that they felt more focused, aware, in the
moment, conscious or concentrated on stage as a result of learning
mindfulness (Chloe, Elizabeth, Gordon, Helen, Adelina, Fantine, James,
Leonie, Petra, Katyia, Marguerita, Sheila, Carolina, Karen). Physically,
Marguerita sensed her fingers on the fingerboard more and Sheila described
being aware of her breathing and support and cognitively engaging those
techniques in performance. Reductions in MPA physical symptoms were also
reported such as calmer breathing (Marguerita, Carolina), less heart pounding
and clammy hands (Sheila), and Petra stopped being sick, which she felt was
a great improvement.
Mentally, Karen thought her change of performance mindset was one
of the main benefits of being more mindful because, if her mental state does
not deplete, neither does her playing. Gordon’s playing the year before had
been criticised for being too influenced by other jazz musicians and he had felt
methodical, mathematical and cerebral on stage when improvising. Gordon
now felt freer, saying that his new mindful performance state “changes it [his
playing] massively” and a friend who knew his style mentioned, “’You sound
like a totally different player!’” Other peers had also given him compliments on
his originality. In a similar way, Edwards (2014) found that meditation induced
lower self-critical awareness during improvisation tasks for student soprano
recorder players and post-improvisation mood improved.
Participants experienced a variety of mental changes from being more
mindful on stage. James reported that he had more open awareness and
Leonie said,
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Sometimes I would be stressed for three weeks before something,

which is so much time for just one song… You have to focus on the
moment rather than be overthinking for a day or two before…it’s almost
like I keep my energy for the right moment rather than having all those
thoughts and trying to do everything.
Sheila thought more about what she could do better, Elizabeth felt
“liberated” (detached but connected), and Adelina experienced herself
monitoring her performance from without.
Marguerita said that she found herself able to fix problems during
performances without criticising herself. Paul and Sheila said that they
stopped worrying about making mistakes on stage and Peter felt that it was
okay now to make mistakes. Leonie discovered that she did not worry as
much when the pianist made mistakes than she would have done and Helen
said that she stopped dwelling on tiny mistakes as she had done in the past.
Suki, Daphne, Carolina and Fantine felt that mindfulness helped to clear or
tidy their thoughts aiding them to think straight and Paul, Carolina and Karen
described feeling more confident in performance.
Participants also described having more positive feelings on stage
(Carolina, Sheila, Helen, Fantine, Katyia, Sheila) where three felt more
grounded (Paul, Helen, Elizabeth). Connolly and Williamon (2004) advised
relaxation for optimal physical skill functioning and to manage over-arousal in
performance. As mindfulness training includes elements of relaxation, this
could have positive effects for a wide variety of instrumentalists and singers.
Ten participants reported feeling calmer and more relaxed whilst performing
after mindfulness training (Fantine, Marguerita, Sheila, Suki, Karen, Helen,
Petra, Katyia, Carolina, Leonie), and five felt more in control (Paul), physically
(Fantine, Leonie, Suki) and mentally (Daphne, Suki).

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Time, blur and memory
When musicians perform mindlessly on autopilot, the performance can
seem to be a “blur”, or go by very quickly, resulting in them being often unable
to remember the performance, and being dissatisfied. This can be because of
MPA where, for example, Fantine said that she was always left feeling “I wish
I could do it again”, or, as Karen reported, boredom, where she could not
seem to find an emotional reaction to the music she performed. MfM item 12
(Appendix B) asked whether participants found that performances went by in
less of a blur after doing the mindfulness course. Six participants had
improved scores (they performed less on automatic pilot) over the mindfulness
course by +2 (Gordon, Fantine, James Katyia), Helen improved by +3 and
Carolina by +4. In the interview, participants noted that they were able to
remember far more of what happened on stage when engaging in mindful
performance (Elizabeth, Gordon, Carolina, Helen, Fantine, Katyia, Karen,
Adelina, Leonie). Five participants noticed the time perception of mindful
performances as slower in comparison to their normal experience (Elizabeth,
Adelina, Leonie, Helen, Marguerita) but Carolina felt that her performances
were now proceeding at the right time. James, although his questionnaire
responses had improved by +2 over the intervention, mentioned that even
when mindful that his performances could still seem to be a “bit of a blur”,
Daphne had a “half and half” reaction and Petra still found performances were
blurry but felt that this was a work in progress.

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Expressivity
Oyan (2006) hypothesised that mindfulness and creativity were linked.
López-González and Limb (2012) found a temporal integration between
working memory, and the sustained and direct attention needed for creativity,
and mindfulness training has been seen to slow time perception (Kramer et
al., 2013) and improve working memory and attention (Mrazek, Franklin,
Phillips, Baird, & Schooler, 2013; Quach, Jastrowski Mano, & Alexander,
2015). This may explain why Adelina, Leonie and Fantine, who described
being more mindfully aware on stage and had slower time perception, seemed
to be able to use the extra time and clarity of mind they perceived in order to
“bring new things to the performance” (Fantine) and improve their expressivity
and creativity. Adelina said, for example,
Maybe the first time it happened, really a few times in life, I could be
really aware and in the 'flow' of the music, it was really beautiful
experience. It was because I could be inside but not too much so I
could monitor a bit but it was also comfortable.
Therefore, it is possible that choosing to be mindful on stage could also
encourage the several elements needed for a “flow” experience
(Csikszentmihalyi & Nakamura, 2002) to come together.
Participants described their mindful performances as more musical
(Petra, Carolina, Karen) with better phrasing (Elizabeth, Carolina). Elizabeth
discovered feeling more playful on stage and Fantine more spontaneous.
Helen and Gordon felt freer where Gordon thought being more mindful had
improved his improvising as he could respond in the moment to whatever
sounds came to his ears. Adelina discovered that she could change her sound
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in the moment and Sheila heard that her sound changed from pinched to
being more expansive due to being mindful of her technique on stage.
Participants described that it was easier to express themselves through
music (Fantine, Gordon, Carolina) and Fantine felt that her communication
had improved. Participants also said that they played with expressive musical
elements more such as dynamics (Fantine, Leonie, Petra), articulation (Petra)
and rubato (Fantine) when “in the moment” on stage.
3.5.3.3 Post-performance effects
When Helen had made a tiny breathing mistake in a performance
before learning mindfulness, she described going home and chastising
herself. Sheila described being in a “bad rut for days” if an audition went badly
in the past. Petra and Katyia said that they were never pleased with their
performances even if they had gone well. Over the course of the mindfulness
intervention, these participants reported more self-kindness and as a result,
Helen discovered that she did not now dwell on past mistakes, Katyia
reported, “I didn’t hate myself afterwards”, Petra described feeling less
annoyed after performances than usual and Sheila said she only “bawled my
eyes out” for one day after a bad audition and felt better the next day.
Marguerita did not feel she had a good performing experience after doing
mindfulness but she felt it had been useful to put the skills into practice.
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Final reactions
Elizabeth had been worried that being more mindful might detach her
from her connection with music but she described feeling a different type of
connection now and found that her performances were “not perfect, but
better”. Petra said of mindfulness’s effects on her as a musician that,
When I got here, I feel like in the right setting I will be able to perform
well. I know that I'm probably not, I don't want too crazy a career
because I, first of all, don't really want it and I don't think I'd be able to
handle it even if I was super mindful but I feel like the kind of things that
I want to do in life, I can see myself being able to do them now.
Carolina described being excited by her mindful performing experience and
took away a nice memory and Karen thought that her mindful auditions went
really well and the strategies were effective. She said that she would do
mindfulness before performing from now on and would recommend it to others
for MPA. Similarly to two participants in Hribar (2012), after being more
mindful on stage, Adelina and Fantine felt happier as performers, Leonie,
Marguerita and Helen described enjoying themselves on stage and Marguerita
felt that she had achieved more and felt more satisfied as a result. Helen felt
that the experience of performing more mindfully had been “life changing”, she
had had a good performance experience and was pleased with the
adjudicator’s compliments. “I had so much fun…it’s just I feel like a different
singer,” she said.
It would be expected that mindfulness would have a positive effect on
MPA, as it seems to have had a positive effect on anxiety as evidenced in
clinical research (e.g. Goldin & Gross, 2010; Gotink et al., 2015). However,
mindfulness seems to have had far more wide-ranging positive effects in
performance, sometimes as a result of reducing MPA, but also through other

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mechanisms such as time perception changes and more awareness in
general leading to enhanced creativity, control and pleasure in performing.
3.6 Summary
Teaching mindfulness to music students at the GSMD was reported by
them to significantly and positively impact on their lives as music students, not
just in health and well-being as suggested by Hribar (2012).
The areas in which the participants reported substantial improvements
included their experiences in lessons, relationships with instrumental teachers,
private practice, learning technique, dealing with MPA and in performance.
Some participants reported that their teachers had independently noted
improvements in them that the participants attributed to increased
mindfulness. All the participants were happy with the course, its impact on
their daily experiences and they felt that it would continue to improve their
lives into the future. They would highly recommend it to other musicians and
some participants advocated its inclusion at other higher education music
institutions.
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STUDY TWO: MINDFULNESS FOR SINGERS:
A REPLICATION STUDY
Chapter Four – Mindfulness for Singers:
Introduction, method and analysis
4.1 Introduction
This second study also addressed the research question: What are the
effects of teaching mindfulness to student musicians? However, the aim in this
case was to conduct a replication of a previous pilot study to explore if similar
results are found using a larger, more diverse demographic.
The pilot Mindfulness for Singers (MfS) study was completed for a
Master’s qualification (Czajkowski, 2013, see also Czajkowski & Greasley,
2015). In that study, benefits of mindfulness were found in the areas of
lessons, practice, performance, and general life. In lessons and practice,
mindfulness enhanced concentration and focus, and improved aural and
physical sensory awareness. This led to improvements in learning and
applying singing technique, enhanced transfer of technique to other singing
activities, and improvements in vocal sound and tone. In lessons,
teacher/pupil relationships were also positively affected and in practice,
problem solving (such as dealing with extraneous vocal tension) was easier,
quicker and effective. Participants also reported benefits on their music
performance anxiety, performance creativity, ability to take criticism, and in
daily life. The FFMQ (see Chapter 2, Section 2.3.2), which was completed
pre- and post-intervention showed significant improvements in two facets:

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Non-Judge and Non-React. Teachers identified six of the eight participants
eligible for the teachers’ blind study from a combined student total of 32.
There were only eight participants in the original quasi-experimental 1-
year pilot study so it was difficult to see if the positive findings could be
generalised to other singers, and if mindfulness could reliably be
recommended for inclusion in university music departments and
conservatoires. A study with a greater number of participants was needed to
see if the results could be replicated with a larger demographic over a broader
field of experience. Also a more robust methodology was required because
the researcher and the course developer and implementer were the same
person.
In the current replication project reported here, the original blind
teacher study component and the Five Facet Mindfulness Questionnaire
(FFMQ) were retained. The methodology was made more rigorous by
including a controlled design for the FFMQ, the introduction of a new,
purpose-designed Mindfulness for Musicians Questionnaire (see Chapter 2,
Section 2.3.2), a 3-month longitudinal element, and a diary element. The study
was extended to include student vocal majors and their teachers at a
university and a conservatoire, and was conducted over a period of 2 years.
A secondary aim, if the replication showed similar results, was to
explore the possible mechanisms at work that encouraged the effects
described by the participants.

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4.1.1 Reflexivity statement, pedagogic underpinnings and
development of the Mindfulness for Singers course.
I am an experienced performer and voice teacher. After studying
postgraduate voice at the Royal College of Music from 1995-1997, I embarked
on a 10-year performing career that has run alongside a 20-year teaching
portfolio with eight of those years teaching vocal majors at Reading University.
My vocal coach introduced me to The Power of Now by Eckhardt Tolle
in 2006. Soon after, I began to incorporate some of my personal present
moment experience into my singing, auditions, performing, and teaching. This
led to a realisation of how generally unaware my singing students were of
what they were doing when they were singing and when I introduced them to
the “power of now” it also seemed to have beneficial effects on them. In 2009,
an adult student brought it to my attention that I was teaching something
called “mindfulness” and I decided to search deeper into this new word, and
nascent world. This led me to complete the aforementioned investigatory
Master’s pilot research, and finally to this PhD.
I took part in the 8-week Mindfulness Based Pain and Illness
Management (MBPM) course in 2012 in preparation for running the Master’s
pilot study in 2013. Using my knowledge as a student, performer, and vocal
teacher, I based the Mindfulness for Singers course on the 8-week
mindfulness courses devised by Jon Kabat-Zinn (1990) and Williams and
Penman (2011), but targeted it towards student singers in higher education. In
2015, I attended the MBSR course in York, UK, as continued professional and
personal development in preparation for this PhD study. Sally Rose,
University of Leeds’ Staff Counselling and Psychological Support Service

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Manager, mentored me throughout the two-year PhD study. She is a highly
experienced mindfulness teacher who has run over 29 MBSR courses and
was trained at Bangor University, which is a highly-respected hub for
mindfulness teacher training.
The course was developed with higher education pedagogic research
in mind and utilises a large amount of student-led learning as recommended in
Biggs (2003) through personal observation, practical involvement, and group
and pair discussions, which creates experiential learning or “the process
whereby knowledge is created through the transformation of experience”
(Kolb, 1984, p.38). Healey (2005) recommended the inclusion of intense
inquiry-based personal reflection by students in higher education. This
occurred as part of the course and during the research interview process
where participants were encouraged to consider the effects and depth of their
mindfulness learning in both daily life and as singers. Race (2007)
recommended the use of online resources to support university learning.
Therefore a dedicated, resource-based website was developed which
included MP3s of the weekly formal practices, electronic reproduction of all
paper handouts for easy retrieval and reference, and links to articles and
further reading (www.mindfulnessforsingers.co.uk). There was also
consideration of those in the group who may have learning difficulties or
special needs by introducing autism/ASD-inspired visual timetables for each
session, and consideration of the needs of individual students for the Mindful
Walking, Yoga, and Mindful Eating exercises.
Following the process of a critically reflective teaching review
recommended by Brookfield (1995) and in line with Healey’s (2005)

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recommendation that higher education teaching should always include up-to-
date research, I updated the PhD MfS course in several ways as outlined in
the method (see Chapter 4, Section 4.2.5). I reflected on the experience of
teaching the mindfulness course from the current students’ eyes through the
anonymous diary feedback and took into account the previous pilot studies’
participant interview feedback. I asked for colleague perception by discussing
my teaching experience with my mindfulness mentor. I reflected on my
personal experience as a mindfulness practitioner and singer, and kept
abreast of current theory and research in the field of mindfulness.

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4.2 Method
4.2.1 Ethical approval
For the first and second year, ethical approval was gained from Leeds
University (UoL) (see Appendix I). For the second year, after 6 months’
informal negotiations with Leeds College of Music (LCOM), formal ethical
approval was gained from LCOM to extend the study to their institution
(Appendix K) and amendment approval was gained from UoL to include
LCOM in the study (Appendix X).
4.2.2 Participants
Participants were recruited via convenience sampling. The participants
were recruited from vocal students at the University of Leeds, Leeds College
of Music, and from singing teachers employed at those institutions. Students
were invited to take part in a free mindfulness course and offered £20 for their
participation as experimental or wait-list control participants, or £4 as non-
wait-list control participants. Teachers were offered payment pro-rata for their
time. Funding was provided from the PhD scholarship award.
For UoL students, Information Posters (Appendix Y) were displayed
around the School of Music. Invitation Posters were displayed three weeks
later (Appendix Z) and emails were circulated to the student population to
recruit experimental (Appendix AA) and control (Appendix AB) participants. A
similar protocol was run at LCOM, except that their recruitment information
was displayed on electronic screens around the institution as paper posters
were not allowed, and control and experimental participation invitation emails
were combined to reduce excessive email communication.

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Student participants
Over two years at both institutions, a total of 39 participants (males,
n=5) completed the MfS course. Participant demographics, enrolment and
completion details are in Table 4.1. All 39 completed both questionnaires,
which includes LCOM’s 10 wait-list controls of whom nine did a third
questionnaire in session eight of the course as part of an insightful and
reflective exercise. One wait-list control participant, who missed session eight
did not complete a post-intervention questionnaire.
38 participants from both institutions over two years completed the first
interview immediately after their course. Nearly 70% completed the second 3-
month interview (n=26; males, n=3). Details about the participants’ type of
vocal study are included in Table 4.2. At UoL, a total of 11 controls (males,
n=4) completed both questionnaires but did not take part in the intervention or
interviews.
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Table 4.1 Student participants who enrolled for the MfS Intervention from
2015-2017
UoL enrollers Participant Number Gender Mean (SD)

(m) age
MfS1 Experimental n=11 n=1 - -
MfS1 Control n=6 n=2 - -
MfS2 Control n=5 n=2 - -
Completers
Total Experimental n=17 n=1 21.88 6.85
Total Control n=11 n=4 19.81 1.47
LCOM
enrollers
MfS2 Wait-list n=13 n=2 - -
Completers
Total Experimental n=12 n=2 20.41 1.50
Total Wait-list n=10 n=2 20.16 1.46
(12*)
*The completed wait-list control questionnaire data from MfS Course dropouts
was included in the final analysis.
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Table 4.2 Vocal styles studied by the MfS participants 2015-2017
Type of vocal styles Participant

studied
Classical U1, U2, U3, U4, U5, U6, U7, U8, U9, U10, U13,
U15, U17, C1, C5, C9, C12, C18, C20
Opera/operetta U4, U7, U10, U13, U17, C1, C5, C12, C13, C14,
C20
Popular U4, U5, C3, C4, C6, C7, C8, C9, C10, C11, C15,
C16, C17, C19, C21
Jazz/blues U5, U12, U14, U16, C2, C8, C16
Church U11, U13, C12
Music theatre U11, U15, C18
Japanese/Spanish U3, C11
Own compositions C4, C17, C19, C21
Dropouts
At LCOM, two dropout wait-list control participants’ completed data
were included in the final analysis and they were offered £4 for their
contribution. One participant (from LCOM) dropped out from the first interview
component without explanation. Dropout information is detailed in Table 4.3.

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Table 4.3 Dropouts from the MfS Intervention 2015-2017
UoL Participant Gender Classes Reason

attended
MfS2 Experimental F 1 Left university
LCOM
MfS2 Experimental F 0 Glandular fever
MfS2 Experimental F 1 Timetable clash
MfS2 Experimental F 0 No appearance
MfS2 Wait-list* F 0 Timetable clash
MfS2 Wait-list* F 2 No reason given
MfS2 Wait-list F 0 Timetable clash
*The completed wait-list control questionnaire data from MfS Course dropouts
were included in the final analysis.
Teacher’s blind study eligibility
Twelve student participants at UoL were eligible for the teachers’ blind
study. Five participants were not eligible for the following reasons: they had
changed teacher over the Christmas vacation, they had stopped having
lessons, the institution did not employ their teacher or they were subsequently
found not to have a current teacher. At LCOM, three of the 22 student
participants were not eligible for the teachers’ study because their teacher did
not respond to the invitation to take part. A total of 31 student participants from
both institutions were eligible for the teachers’ study (n=11, males n=2).
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Teacher participants
In total, 12 teachers were approached to take part in the study. At UoL,
three female teachers were approached and all consented to take part over
the 2-year study. Vocal teachers at LCOM were approached only for the
second year of the study (n=9; males n=2) and eight (males n=2) chose to
take part. Two teachers at UoL (Despina, Beatrice) and three at the LCOM
(Lucia, Papageno, Tosca) taught classical vocal style, one teacher at the
university and one at the conservatoire taught jazz styles (Ella, Sade). The
rest taught popular vocal styles at LCOM (Elvis, Sade, Adele, Enya, Joni).
4.2.3 Materials
The questionnaires used for this study included the Five Facet
Mindfulness Questionnaire (FFMQ; Baer, Smith, Hopkins, Krietemeyer, &
Toney, 2006) (see Appendix A) that was used for the original pilot MfS study,
and the Mindfulness for Musicians questionnaire (MfM) (see Appendix B)
developed for the current project. For more detailed information on both
questionnaires, please see Chapter 2, 2.3.2. To summarise, the FFMQ is a
respected, well used, and validated mindfulness questionnaire (Andrei et al.,
2016) used for clinical and non-clinical demographics. It is used to assess
levels of mindfulness over the duration of a mindfulness course and has 39
statements with 5 Likert-style responses for each statement. The MfM was
designed in response to the original MfS pilot study because, in reading the
FFMQ responses in conjunction with the interview responses from that study,
some subtle relationships between the singers’ vocal experience of
mindfulness were not reflected in the more general FFMQ responses. The
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MfM is worded and designed in a similar style to the FFMQ but with 15
statements covering the five facets explored though situations pertinent to
music student participants. It was hoped that the targeted MfM questionnaire
would give further insight into the relationship between mindfulness and
singing over the intervention when used both as a questionnaire in its own
right and in triangulation with the interview responses. Both questionnaires
were analysed using the score sheet in Appendix C. The items on both
questionnaires were negatively and positively worded to help prevent
response bias, so in calculating the results, negative and positive scoring was
carefully observed. Plastic acetates were made with the positive and negative
scores to be placed over the paper score sheets to aid accurate reverse and
normal scoring. Excel was used to help in accurate reverse and normal
scoring of results from the online questionnaire responses.
4.2.4 Design
This study was run at the UoL for two years and, during the second
year, LCOM students and teachers were also invited to take part which
allowed further exploration of the effects of mindfulness on a wider range of
singers and musical styles (see Table 4.2). LCOM do not have a dedicated
ethics committee but, after a 6-month dialogue with and amongst managerial
staff, ethical approval to extend the study was gained from UoL and LCOM
(see Appendices K and X).
This study is a mixed methods experimental design with an emphasis
on qualitative methods. The independent variable is the mindfulness
intervention (MfS course) and the dependent variable is the effect of the MfS
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course on the student participants measured using the following: two
controlled (UoL) or randomised controlled (LCOM) pre- and post-
questionnaires (FFMQ and MfM) comparing levels of mindfulness through the
facets of Observe, Describe, Act with Awareness, Non-Judge and Non-React
(see Section 2.3.2); two semi-structured interviews, one immediately after the
intervention and another 3 months later; an anonymous intervention-
concurrent diary; and a teachers’ blind study.
Firstly, the FFMQ and the MfM were used pre- and post-intervention for
all the student participants. At the UoL, a controlled design was used with
participants who chose to take part either as experimental participants who did
the intervention, or control participants who did not. At LCOM, all student
participants expressed interest in taking part in the intervention. As there were
twice as many participants as expected at LCOM, and there were at least
eight weeks from the information briefing sessions (which mirrored the length
of the intervention) until the start of the intervention, it was decided to
randomly allocate them to wait-list controls and experimental participants in
order to run a randomised controlled trial. The questionnaire data gathered by
these methods is reported separately by institution.
A diary was introduced as a concurrent part of the intervention.
Participants were asked to note the length of time engaged in mindfulness
activities and record thoughts, questions, or observations during the weeks
between sessions. This gave participants the opportunity to give feedback that
was useful for my reflection as the course leader, and provided an anonymous
method for participants to raise any concerns. From a research viewpoint, it
helped to reduce demand effects and captured changes in student

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participants’ mindfulness and vocal behaviour as the course progressed.
Immediately after the intervention, semi-structured interviews of approximately
30 minutes were run with MfS course student participants. A second semi-
structured interview of about 20 minutes’ duration was run 3 months later after
performance examinations.
A semi-structured interview blind study involved MfS course
participants’ teachers. They were originally invited to two interviews scheduled
at similar times to the students, but it was discovered early on that many
teachers stopped giving lessons just after the intervention because the final
term was mainly for private study and examinations. As this meant that they
were unlikely to be able to report any further observations, all teachers bar
one were interviewed once, directly after the intervention (the average length
of interviews was 20 minutes). A timeline detailing the research design
operated at the university can be found in Figure 4.1, and for the college, see
Figure 4.2.
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UoL timeline for MfS1 and MfS2
Pre-intervention questionnaires (FFMQ and MFM) for experimental and
control participants (November 2015 and 2016)
MfS COURSE INTERVENTION and concurrent anonymous diary
(January to March 2016 and 2017)
Post-intervention questionnaires (FFMQ and MfM) for experimental
and control participants (March 2016 and 2017).
1st interviews with student and teacher participants (March 2016 and
2017)
2nd 3-month interviews with student participants (June 2016 and 2017)
Figure 4.1 UoL controlled experimental design timeline.

167
LCOM timeline for MfS2
1st questionnaires (FFMQ and MFM) for wait-list control participants

(November 2016).
2nd questionnaire (FFMQ and MfM) for wait-list control participants and
pre-intervention questionnaires for experimental participants (January
2017).
MfS COURSE INTERVENTION and concurrent anonymous diary

(January to March 2017)
Post-intervention questionnaires (FFMQ and MfM) for experimental

and wait-list control participants (March 2017).
1st interviews with student and teacher participants (March 2017).
2nd 3-month interviews with student participants (June 2017).
Figure 4.2 LCOM randomised controlled experimental design timeline.
4.2.5 Procedure
4.2.5.1 Preparation and pre-MfS data gathering
All students who responded and wished to be experimental participants
at both UoL in the academic years 2015-2016 and 2016-2017, and LCOM in
the academic year starting in 2016-2017, were invited to information briefing
sessions in the first term to learn what the course offered them, the
commitment expected from them, and to receive the Student Participant
Information Form (Appendix M) in paper form. If they then chose to enrol, they
were asked to fill out the Student Consent Form (Appendix Q), the Yoga
Consent Form (Appendix AC), and the Student Registration Form (Appendix
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AD). At UoL, experimental participants filled out paper versions of the FFMQ
and MfM Questionnaires (Appendices A and B) during the briefing sessions.
For safety reasons, no student was allowed to participate as an experimental
participant unless they had been to an information briefing session. Part of this
session clearly stated that the MfS Course was not a clinical or therapeutic
intervention and included recommendations for those who knew they had
clinically diagnosed mental issues, and who still wished to take part, to consult
with medical professionals before taking the course. Alongside
recommendations from the National Center for Complementary and
Integrative Health (NIH, 2006) and NHS/Mental Health Foundation
recommendations (‘FAQ: Be Mindful’, n.d.), this information was aimed at
those in the group who might have PTSD, schizophrenia, bipolar, clinical
anxiety, depression, or other related mental health conditions.
UoL experimental and all LCOM participants were asked to put the
name of their vocal teacher on the Student Registration Form and teacher
participants were recruited from this list. Vocal teachers were sent an
invitation letter (Appendix AE) and a follow up email (Appendix AF). Those
who agreed to take part were given the Teacher Information Sheet (Appendix
N), completed Consent Forms (Appendix R), and Registration Forms
(Appendix AG).
UoL control participants were not met in person and were contacted via
email only. Those who registered interest received an email with the
Participant Information Details and Consent Details combined (Appendix O).
At a similar time as the UoL experimental participants filled out their paper
forms, control participants gave their details, consent, and completed FFMQ
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and MfM questionnaire responses online using the Bristol Online Survey tool
in accordance with University of Leeds recommendations.
Immediately after the briefing sessions, LCOM wait-list participants
were requested by email to submit their first FFMQ and MfM questionnaires
using the Bristol Online Survey tool. In the second term, a week before the
intervention started, LCOM wait-list control participants were requested via
email to fill out their second set of FFMQ and MfM questionnaires online using
the Bristol Online Survey tool. At the same time, LCOM experimental
participants were requested via email to complete their pre-intervention FFMQ
and MfM questionnaires also using the Bristol Online Survey tool. All LCOM
participants completed their final FFMQ and MfM questionnaires in paper form
in the last session of the MfS course.
Rooms to house the course were negotiated and booked in each
institution, and interested participants’ timetables were gathered and analysed
to find the optimal times for the course to run so that as many participants as
possible could take part.
The MfS Course was run in the second academic term (after
Christmas) at both institutions. This allowed singing teachers to have had at
least one term’s experience teaching their students before being asked to
observe any behaviour change that might be attributable to the intervention in
order to identify possible MfS participants.

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4.2.5.2 The Mindfulness for Singers course
The 8-week course was accompanied by a dedicated website
(www.mindfulnessforsingers.co.uk) with information about the whole course,
the session details for each week, the weekly hand-outs and practice
instructions (in case participants lost their paper copies), MP3 tracks with the
formal practices in both playable and downloadable formats, and general
information about the researcher and contact details.
A course duration of 8 weeks was used because that is the length that
Jon Kabat-Zinn initially chose for the MBSR course (Kabat-Zinn, 2011).
Mindfulness courses of 8 weeks’ duration have also been shown to be
efficacious in clinical settings (Gotink et al., 2015). Clinical MBSR and MBCT
sessions are usually 2 to 2.5 hours in length and can be held with large
classes of up to 20 or more participants. The sessions in the MfS were 1 hour
in length. This is because it was considered that the participants were non-
clinical, class sizes were kept small enabling more participation in discussions
and activities, and that this time length would fit in well with their existing
timetables.
Each session was accompanied by a visible timetable, hand-outs
pertinent to the week’s exercises and practice, and a blank diary/journal sheet
(Appendix G) to be filled out during the week and handed in anonymously at
the beginning of the following week. The researcher provided participants with
the resources needed to take part in the mindfulness exercises such as yoga
mats, blankets and pillows for supine exercises, food items, and pens and
paper for any writing tasks.

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There were a few modifications to the original MfS course in response
to reflective consideration, mentor advice, and participant request.
o Introduction of a weekly visual timetable.
o New research was mentioned as discussion demanded: links
between mindfulness and music-making (Steinfeld & Brewer,
2015); mindfulness and listening (Diaz, 2013); event-related
potentials (Gunkelman & Johnstone, 2005); and the positive
effect of short mindfulness exercises on academic memory recall
(Ramsburg & Youmans, 2014).
o Participants were asked to wear name stickers for the first few
sessions to aid familiarity and group cohesiveness.
o Introduction of the diary had the effect of changing some
content, as questions raised anonymously were addressed
within subsequent sessions.
o Participants’ peer-to-peer criticisms in the Week 7 Mindful
Performance Workshop were recorded and sent to participants
for later reflection.
o The Exploring Difficulties practice was elongated and modified to
include references to performance anxiety: general information
(Kenny, 2011); yoga and MPA (Khalsa, Butzer, Shorter,
Reinhardt, & Cope, 2013); and mindfulness and MPA
(Farnsworth-Grodd & Cameron, 2013).
More details about each of the practices learnt in the mindfulness
course are available in Appendix W, and further information about the topics
covered in each week and the terminology used are available in Appendix AH.
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Week 1
Week one (visible timetable see Appendix AI) started with a welcome
talk, introductions, and information about the course accompanied by the
Overview and Contents hand-out (Appendix AJ). There followed a discussion
on the definition of mindfulness, and a discussion on the concept of “being on
autopilot” (see Appendix AH) and participants offered their own experiences.
Participants then started learning mindfulness with a Breathing Awareness
exercise (Appendix W) (Kabat-Zinn, 1990), which led into a group discussion
on the experience of becoming aware of the breath in a new way. This
exercise was then expanded into the Breathing Journey exercise (Kabat-Zinn,
1990, adapted by the author, see Appendix W). After a group discussion
comparing experiences from the two breathing exercises, participants learned
the 3-Minute Breathing Space (Appendix W; hand-out in Appendix AK)
(Williams & Penman, 2011) and explored the experience in discussion. This
flowed into a discussion about the present moment and the types of task
participants might do on autopilot. Participants chose a task, such as brushing
teeth, of which to become particularly aware during the week as an informal
mindfulness practice. Then the Mindful Movement exercise was introduced
(Appendix W; hand-out in Appendix AL) (Kabat-Zinn, 1990; Williams &
Penman, 2011) as the formal 10-minute daily practice for that week and was
followed by an experience discussion session. Blank journals were handed
out, questions were invited, and the session ended.

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Week 2
This week (visual timetable in Appendix AM), like most subsequent
weeks, started with the 3-Minute Breathing Space, a recapitulation of the
previous week and a chance for participants to ask questions and share
thoughts and experiences from the week’s mindfulness practices. Participants
placed their completed mindful journals face down on a nearby table to retain
anonymity.
A research-based educational component explored the commonality of
modern day stress and anxiety with reference to its historical necessity for
successful human evolution, and encouraged participants to share their own
experiences particularly in the field of music performance anxiety. This was
followed by a talk about somaesthetics (body consciousness) and the
body/mind connection that led into the participants experiencing the Body
Scan (Appendix W; hand-out in Appendix AN) (Kabat-Zinn, 1990; Williams &
Penman, 2011, adapted by the author for singers), which was that week’s 10-
minute formal practice. After a group discussion about the experience of the
Body Scan, there was a talk about the expectation and reality of doing
mindfulness, and participants were introduced to the concept of Being and
Doing modes (see Appendix AH). Participants then did a Mindful Breathing
exercise (Kabat-Zinn, 1990; Williams & Penman, 2011), had a discussion, and
talked about research on the effects of mindfulness on health. Participants
were encouraged to become aware of a different habit/task for the next week
as their informal practice. Questions were invited and journals were
distributed.
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Week 3
Week 3 (visual timetable in Appendix AO) began like Week 2. The first
new exercise was Mindful Yoga (Kabat-Zinn, 1990) with yoga poses used to
explore the relationships between the awareness of necessary muscles, the
relaxation of unnecessary muscles, and the association of the body’s different
postures to breath changes. This was followed by a research-based talk about
performance nerves where the participants shared their own experiences.
Then the participants were introduced to the mindful concept of primary and
secondary suffering (see Appendix AH) and invited to approach possible
future performance nerves with this in mind. They did two versions of the
Mindful Breathing exercise: the Breathing Journey, and the Breathing
Counting exercise (Appendix W; hand-out in Appendix AP) (Williams &
Penman, 2011). These were the 10-minute formal weekly exercises. A post-
exercise group discussion was followed with a discussion about our present
moment experience of life as pleasant, unpleasant, or neutral. As an informal
practice, participants were encouraged to become aware of how they viewed
moments during the following week as pleasant, unpleasant or neutral, and to
be curious as to their tendency of mind in moments of neutrality. Questions
were once again invited, food intolerances ascertained in preparation for the
Mindful Eating exercise in week 4, and blank journals were handed out.
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Week 4
Week 4 (visual timetable in Appendix AQ) started like Week 2. Then a
research-based talk was followed by a group discussion on perception,
criticism, and judgment. These subjects were subsequently practically
explored in the Mindful Eating exercise (Appendix W) (Kabat-Zinn, 1990;
Williams & Penman, 2011). This exercise was done with raisins, and then
dairy chocolate or vegan chocolate (at participants’ preference). After a group
discussion about the experience, there was a talk about the concept of
“cataloguing” (i.e. systematic listing, see Appendix AH). Participants went into
pairs to take part in a Mindful Listening exercise (Appendix W) where for a
specified length of time they were encouraged to listen attentively and
mindfully to each other talk without mentally “cataloguing” or preparing a
response. After a short insightful discussion, this was extended into the
Sounds and Thoughts practice (Appendix W; hand-out in Appendix AR)
(Kabat-Zinn, 1990; William & Penman, 2011), which was introduced as the 10-
minute formal practice that week. The informal practice in Week 4 was a
musically-based Mindful Listening exercise (Appendix W; hand-out in
Appendix AR). As usual, questions were invited and the journal was handed
out.
Week 5
Week 5 is a very practical week (Appendix AS) involving two Mindful
Walking exercises (Kabat-Zinn, 1990). The first exercise involved participants
coming into an intense present moment awareness of their own normal
walking style, posture, and balance, watching others walk, copying others
walking, and finally observing and experiencing walking as though going on

176
stage to perform. This was punctuated by discussions about what had been
observed and experienced. Then participants were taken on a pre-prepared
mindful walk around their institution’s campus (Appendix W) followed by
another discussion when back in the room before being given a Mindful
Walking hand-out (Appendix AT) as the informal practice for the week and
recommended to use the Body Scan or Mindful Movement again as the formal
10-minute daily mindfulness practice.
Week 6
Week 6 (visual timetable in Appendix AU) started in a similar way to
Week 2. This was followed by a talk about how we orientate ourselves to life,
the choices that mindfulness can give, and a recapitulation of pre-performance
nerves strategies. Participants were informed about the next session, the
Mindful Performance Workshop, and a discussion followed. Then participants
were introduced to the Exploring Difficulties and Loving Kindness exercise
(see Appendix W; hand-out in Appendix AV) (Williams & Penman, 2011),
which was the next week’s 10-minute formal exercise, should the participants
wish to do it, and this was followed by a reflective group discussion. The
informal weekly practice could be chosen by the participants from the list on
the Week 6 hand-out (Appendix AV).
Week 7
Week 7 is unique to the MfS course where participants were able to
use all the mindfulness techniques learnt in the previous few weeks in a highly
targeted manner during a singing performance workshop (visual timetable,
see Appendix AW). Where teaching and experiences in the other weeks were
177
targeted towards both singing and daily life, this week’s session was purely
dedicated to mindfulness for participants as singers.
After the normal question and answer session at the beginning of the
session, participants, many of them feeling nervous, were taken through the
Breathing Journey, Breathing Counting, a sitting Body Scan, and some
Mindful Movement to test these various exercises on pre-performance nerves.
Participants pulled coloured stones out of a bag before each individual
performance slot to determine by chance if they would sing next. Each
performer was asked to stay in the moment as much as possible when
performing, audience members were asked to stay in the moment as much as
possible when listening. After each individual performance, audience
participants were asked to give constructive critical feedback. The performing
participant was again reminded to stay as much in the present moment when
listening to the criticism in order to accept and mindfully hear all the feedback.
Performances and criticisms were recorded and disseminated to each
participant after the session so that they could listen and see if their memory
matched the reality. Audience members were also asked to see if they could
tell if and when the performer was in the present moment. This was then
correlated with the performer’s self-reported experience. At the end, the
journal and the final hand-out (Appendix AX) were distributed. The weekly 10-
minute formal practice was to be chosen by participants from the previous 7
weeks’ experience, and their informal practice was also their choice. They
were also encouraged to search for other recommended sources of
mindfulness practices, such as on the Internet and YouTube.

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Week 8
Week 8 (visual timetable in Appendix AY) started the same as Week 2
and a summing up talk was given. This was followed by a Nourishing and
Depleting exercise (Appendix W) and a discussion, followed by a long supine
Body Scan. Experimental participants and wait-list controls completed the
post-intervention questionnaire as part of an insightful and reflective exercise
at the end of this session, which gave participants the chance to reflect on
their experience of mindfulness through this medium.
4.2.5.3 Post-intervention data gathering procedure.
Student and teacher participants were interviewed in the week following
the eighth session before the Easter vacation. All interviews were recorded on
two machines, a computer using Audacity and the researcher’s mobile phone
using a recording application, in case one or the other froze or crashed. All
interview recordings were taken after consent had been given and filenames
were anonymised at source.
The student interviews involved semi-structured questions (Appendix
D) which covered general experience of the course, questions about the
effects of mindfulness in singing lessons, practice and performance, and in
their daily lives. They lasted, on average, for 30 minutes each.
The teacher interviews also involved semi-structured questions
(Appendix F) and started with a reminder about what mindfulness was and
which criteria they had been asked to observe (Appendix N). Then they were
asked how many students they had in total and which of those they thought
might have done the mindfulness course. From this point on, interviews could
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either explore why a participant had not been chosen or why a participant had
been identified. Due to ethical considerations, information about students who
were identified but were not part of the study was not encouraged. Interviews
lasted, on average, for 15 minutes. Teachers were offered payment pro rata
for their time but, very generously, none of the teachers would accept
payment when offered.
A reminder email was sent to the UoL control participants to complete
their second questionnaire via the Bristol Online Survey tool in the same week
that the UoL experimental participants were completing the MfS Course Week
8 session and their post-intervention questionnaires. They were paid on
retrieval of their completed online questionnaires.
Three months later after completion of performance examinations, MfS
experimental participants were contacted via text and email and invited to take
part in the final interview. This interview was also semi-structured and followed
the same line of enquiry as the first interview (see Appendix D) except a little
more time was given to explore participants’ experience of mindfulness on
performance. These interviews lasted, on average, around 20 minutes.
MfS participants were offered their promised remuneration at the end of
the research elements and all bar one accepted.
4.2.5.4 Challenges
Involving students, teachers, and academics from two different
institutions provided many logistical problems that needed to be overcome.
The first year was easier using only students and facilities at the university
but, in order to extend the demographic of the study, it was decided to offer
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students at the local music conservatoire the chance to take part. This
decision was made in order to embrace as many styles of singing as possible.
At the University, most of the students study classical styles of singing,
although there are a few jazz students. However, at LCOM, most students
study popular music styles with a few students focusing on jazz and classical
singing styles. This methodological decision provided a more balanced
demographic of musical styles for the MfS study. There were 6 months of
negotiation with the conservatoire before ethical approval was granted and the
project could go ahead. From that point on, room bookings, institution
timetables, student and teacher contact restrictions due to necessary privacy
and security rules, and student schedules proved to be organisational
challenges. Teachers at the conservatoire were approached initially via letter
but, when that proved to be ineffective, they were contacted via email through
academic staff until contacts were established. During the spring term, the
MfS course needed to navigate limited room booking availability at the
conservatoire. Although times and dates for the designated room were pre-
arranged with the room organiser, it was often used by other LCOM staff on
an adhoc basis that caused regular double bookings. The course also had to
accommodate students’ lessons and seminars reorganised by LCOM at short
notice, a Reading Week where some participants went home, and an Opera
Week that was compulsory for “classical track” participants. Despite this, I
sent regular MfS session reminders, which were appreciated by the
participants, and I tried to be as flexible as possible, which meant that most
affected participants were accommodated by the timetable and supported by
extra small group or one-to-one catch-up sessions. A few dropouts were

181
unfortunately inevitable due to institutional timetable rescheduling during the
week the course started.
The Exploring Difficulties practice (Appendix W) is difficult by nature.
Preparations were made by informing the Counselling Service at both
institutions and providing students with information about counselling and
counselling services during the session should it be needed during the week.
In the first iteration at the university, two participants became tearful in the
class, although they described this experience as cathartic. I contacted Sally
Rose, my mindfulness mentor, for advice and made myself as available as
possible should anyone need support or guidance during this particular week
but no one contacted me.
4.3 Analysis
Quantitative data were scored (Appendix C) and analysed using SPSS.
Normality tests were run to check homogeneity of variance, and subsequently
parametric and non-parametric tests were used as appropriate.
In order to allow the maximum flexibility in analysis of the various types
of qualitative data gathered under a pragmatic mixed methods based
methodology, analysis was done using thematic analysis (Braun & Clarke,
2006) and used NVivo, Excel, and Word for Mac software (see Chapter 2,
Section 2.4.2). Braun and Clarke’s (2006) six-step process was followed
carefully for analysis of the interview, diary, and MfM questionnaire data.
All personal data for participants were compiled onto a double
password secured document and held on a password secured computer. This
document included anonymity details such as interview identifiers,

182
questionnaire identifiers, teacher identification status, and demographic details
to facilitate triangulation of data during the analysis process. Each interview
was heard in its entirety, transcribed into a Word document, saved under an
anonymous identifier and uploaded to NVivo software. The handwritten diary
data were transcribed into a Word document, saved under institution and
week filenames, and uploaded to NVivo. The responses to the MfM
questionnaire were analysed to identify participants who had improved or
decreased by two or more Likert scale levels and these data and the MfM
questionnaire were uploaded to NVivo. A preliminary pencil and paper coding
was made using a random collection of ten percent of the interview data in
order to gain an overview of the type of node filenames that might be required
for NVivo broad coding purposes. The interview transcription data and diary
data were carefully read and broadly coded into NVivo nodes. The items from
the MfM questionnaire were also broadly coded and the participants’ improved
and/or decreased results were included taking into account reverse scoring.
Each node was read in its entirety to gain an overview of the data story and a
decision was made as to how these data might best be presented. It was
possible to look at all instances of, for example, references to changes in self-
perceived focus across musical context (i.e. across lessons, practice,
rehearsals/ensembles, and performance). However, the majority of the data
showed a cascading effect of mindfulness within context (e.g. one effect
triggering the next), so it was decided to present the data more deeply and
truthfully to the participants’ experience in this way.
In order to explore the participants’ responses more deeply, it was
decided to combine use of NVivo with Excel. The NVivo for Mac application
183
did not allow for multiple coding of a text section (context) while also allowing
individual code-related terminology highlighting (detail) within each node.
Using Excel allowed for a more flexible, finer and more detailed analysis that
could take place whilst keeping the data visible within a broader context in
NVivo. Each node title was transferred to an Excel file title, (e.g.
‘lessons/teacher’). The nodes were read closely again and new subcodes
were titled on a master Excel worksheet (see Figure 4.3 for a hierarchical
example of the organisation of Excel worksheets within the node
“performance”). Titled individual Excel worksheet tabs were used for more
detailed analysis of each subcode. The node was read again and finer data
from each participant were transferred into the relevant worksheets under
participant identity. As the data were transferred, further finer coding grew
down the left side of the worksheet. The Excel worksheet was flipped by
ninety degrees so that the data would read down the page. With constant
reference back to the original transcripts, NVivo nodes, and occasionally the
original recordings, data were transferred into dedicated Word files and
subsequently ordered into groups for writing up under subheadings. The
number of participants who provided data in each subheading was recorded to
later represent prevalence. Subheadings were gathered under headings,
which became themes. The data were referenced again to find good verbatim
examples from participants to illustrate each theme, and outside research was
included to provide literature-based context to accompany the findings. The
data were then written up into the results detailed below.

184
Performance
Performance experience
Venues
Events
Music performed
Mindfulness for performance
Doing the course to improve performance.
Non-mindfulness strategies
Mindfulness exercises used
MPA Pre-mindfulness Why they had MPA

Problems (singing technique)
Problems (mentally)
Problems (performance elements)
Problems (physical)
Audience criticism
Time perception
Memory of performance
Misc
MPA Post –mindfulness Performed in the present? (Zone)

Mindfulness effect (on technique)
Knock on effects (technique)
Mindfulness effects (mentally)
Knock on effects (mentally)
Mindfulness effects (physical)
Knock on effects (physical)
Mindfulness effects (performance)
Knock on effects (performance)
Audience
Time perception
Memory of performance
Post mindfulness effects (not MPA)

Individual
Problems on stage dealt with?
Happier
Feedback
Figure 4.3 Hierarchical representation example of finer coding in Excel.

185
Chapter Five – Mindfulness for Singers: Quantitative results
This chapter reports the results from quantitative data for the Five
Facet Mindfulness Questionnaire (FFMQ) and the Mindfulness for Musicians
Questionnaire (MfM) (see Chapter 2, Section 2.3.2 for more information).
Internal reliability analyses were run on the pre- and post-intervention data
from the FFMQ and MfM results: Observe, Describe, Act with Awareness,
Non-React, Non-Judge. Due to the small amount of participants, the tests
were run on the combined data provided by the experimental participants, and
the combined data of the control participants from both institutions (see Table
5.1). Cronbach alpha results for the FFMQ for both groups fall within similar
levels as those reported in other studies, for example, Baer et al., (2006) (see
Section 2.3.2, Table 5.1). The MfM, as would be expected with a
questionnaire in development, has far less internal reliability. It also has far
fewer items than the FFMQ, which increases the instability. There are two
results of particular note. The experimental participant Non-Judge pre-
intervention results of α=0.052 are very low but they are much higher for the
control group (α=0.462). The negative results for the control group for Non-
React post-intervention results are different to the positive results from the
experimental group and provide partial evidence that the items for this group
are not measuring the same facet. This suggests that these factors need
further study and testing before being used for the general music student-wide
community.
Subsequent tests on data collected from both institutions are recorded
separately because the data were gathered using two methods, one controlled
(UoL) and one randomly controlled (LCOM).

186
Table 5.1 Reliability analyses results for the FFMQ and MfM both pre- and
post-intervention for experimental and control participants at both institutions
Experimental Cronbach α
Facets FFMQ MfM
Non-React Post 0.673 0.498
Controls Cronbach α
Facets FFMQ MfM
Non-React Post 0.792 -0.677
As there is currently debate about the validity of the Observe facet in
the FFMQ for pre-intervention measure due to the fact that understanding of
the statements may be lacking in naïve mindfulness participants (Rudkin,
Medvedev, & Siegert, 2017) (see Chapter 2, Section 2.3.2), scores are
displayed in this study as individual facets.

187
5.1 University questionnaire study
Tests were run for the FFMQ and MfM between the experimental and
control participants to ascertain their situation at baseline. Tests were run for
homogeneity of variance and all assumptions were met for the FFMQ and
MfM group scores, except for the MfM Describe facet. A Mann-Whitney test
was run for the MfM Describe facet and independent t-tests were run for the
other facets (all tests were two-tailed, at 0.05 significance level). Results did
not suggest any significant differences between the groups at baseline (see
Table 5.2).
188
Table 5.2 University FFMQ and MfM independent t-tests for experimental and
control participants at baseline
Facet Condition Baseline

t-test Mean (SD)
FFMQ Observe Experimental t(26)=0.298, p=0.768 28.59 3.91
Control 28.18 2.82
FFMQ Describe Experimental t(26)=2.022, p=0.054 26.88 4.78
Control 23.18 4.64
FFMQ Act with
Experimental t(26)=0.894, p=0.380 23.59 5.30
Awareness
Control 21.91 4.04
FFMQ Non-React Experimental t(26)=-0.155, p=0.878 20.88 4.61
Control 20.64 3.14
FFMQ Non-Judge Experimental t(26)=-1.005, p=0.324 22.35 6.30
Control 24.64 5.10
Facet Condition Baseline

t-test Mean (SD)
MfM Observe Experimental t(26)=0.285, p=0.778 10.29 1.57
Control 10.09 2.21
MfM Describe Experimental U=132, p=0.730 8.06 2.30
Control 9.64 1.36
MfM Act with
Experimental t(26)=-0.169, p=0.867 9.41 2.24
Awareness
Control 9.55 1.70
MfM Non-React Experimental t(26)=-0.180, p=0.858 8.94 1.92
Control 9.09 2.47
MfM Non-Judge Experimental t(26)=-1.576, p=0.127 7.24 1.68
Control 8.27 1.74
* = significant to
p<.05
189
Tests were run on the pre- and post-intervention scores from the FFMQ
and MfM questionnaires to ascertain if there were any differences within the
groups. Results were normally distributed for the facets of Observe, Describe,
Act with Awareness, Non-Judge, and Non-React in both experimental and
control groups for the FFMQ and the MfM measures except for the pre-
intervention Act with Awareness facet for the FFMQ test in the experimental
group. The non-parametric Wilcoxon test was run on the pre-intervention Act
with Awareness facet in the experimental group and paired t-tests were run for
the other facets for both groups in both measures (see Table 5.3 and Table
5.4).
190
Table 5.3 University FFMQ pre- and post-intervention results for experimental
(EP) and control groups (C) using paired t-tests and Wilcoxon test
University (EP) Pre Post

Facet Mean (SD) Mean (SD) t-test
FFMQ Observe 28.59 3.90 31.35 3.16 t(16)=-3.124, p=0.007*
FFMQ Describe 26.88 4.78 29.53 6.09 t(16)=-2.619, p=0.019*
FFMQ Act with 23.59 5.30 25.06 5.68 t(16)=-1.148, p=0.268
Awareness Z=-1.091, p=0.275
FFMQ Non-React 20.88 4.60 22.94 3.32 t(16)=-2.161, p=0.046*
FFMQ Non-Judge 22.35 6.30 25.17 5.98 t(16)=-2.017, p=0.061
University (C) Pre Post

FFMQ Observe 28.18 2.82 28.55 3.07 t(10)=-0.415, p=0.687
FFMQ Describe 23.18 4.64 25.73 6.06 t(10)=-1.347, p=0.208
FFMQ Act with 21.91 4.03 21.64 4.00 t(10)=0.157, p=0.878
Awareness
FFMQ Non-React 20.64 3.13 19.82 4.14 t(10)=0.785, p=0.451
FFMQ Non-Judge 24.64 5.10 24.00 4.14 t(10)=0.432, p=0.675
* = significant to p<.05
As can be seen from Table 5.3, there was a statistically significant
improvement between the pre- and post-intervention scores for the
experimental group in the facets of Observe, Describe, and Non-React for the
FFMQ. There was no statistical change between the pre- and post-
intervention period for the control group. However, as the control group was
somewhat smaller than the experimental group, this may not be as significant
as it first appears.
191
Table 5.4 University MfM pre- and post-intervention results for experimental
(EP) and control (C) groups utilising paired t-tests
University (EP) Pre Post

MfM Observe 10.29 1.57 10.71 1.89 t(16)=-0.941, p=0.361
MfM Describe 8.06 2.30 10.18 2.18 t(16)=-4.854, p=0.001*
MfM Act with 9.41 2.23 9.53 2.29 t(16)=-0.180, p=0.859
Awareness
MfM Non-React 8.94 1.91 10.35 2.02 t(16)=-2.669, p=0.017*
MfM Non-Judge 7.24 1.67 8.65 2.52 t(16)=-2.742, p=0.014*
University (C) Pre Post

MfM Observe 10.09 2.21 10.00 1.90 t(10)=0.1, p=0.922
MfM Describe 9.64 1.36 9.64 2.34 t(10)=-0.001, p=1.00
MfM Act with 9.55 1.70 8.64 2.01 t(10)=0.969, p=0.356
Awareness
MfM Non-React 9.09 2.47 9.00 0.34 t(10)=0.142, p=0.89
MfM Non-Judge 8.27 1.74 8.27 1.68 t(10)=0.001, p=1.00
As can be seen from Table 5.4 there are significant results for the
experimental participants in the post-intervention facets of Describe, Non-
React, and Non-Judge for the MfM questionnaire in comparison to their pre-
intervention scores. There were no significant differences between the pre-
and post-intervention period for the controls. However, with the control group
having a smaller number of participants than the experimental group, this may
have consequences for the interpretation of these results in comparing the two
groups by suggesting that the difference between them is not as obvious as it
might appear.
192
5.2 Conservatoire questionnaire study
There were sufficient participants who enrolled at the conservatoire to
run a randomised controlled trial and both the experimental group and the
wait-list group were more evenly matched in sample size, which should give
the results more statistical power than those reported in the UoL section of
this study.
The wait-list control group completed their first questionnaires (WLC1)
in November 2016 and did their second questionnaires (WLC2) in January
2017. The experimental participants also took their pre-intervention
questionnaires (EP1) in January 2017. At this point, both experimental and
wait-list participants took part in the intervention (Jan-March 2017), so the
wait-list group therefore became renamed wait-list experimental (WLE)
participants. In March, experimental and WLE participants completed the
questionnaires again as part of a reflective exercise in Week 8 of the MfS
course (EP2, WLE). This meant that the wait-list group produced data at three
time points rather than two.
It was decided not to ignore the extra data provided by this group, so
analysis was done in three ways. See Figure 5.1 for a visual representation.
1. Analysis has been performed comparing the EP participants’
pre- (EP1) and post-intervention (EP2) FFMQ and MfM
questionnaire results.
2. Analysis was performed for the wait-list controls between their
November 2016 (WLC1) and January 2017 (WLC2) pre-
intervention score results for the FFMQ and the MfM.

193
3. The wait-list controls second pre-intervention scores taken in
January 2017 (WLC2) and their post-intervention scores
completed in March 2017 (WLE) were combined with the EP1
and EP2 scores and analysis was performed on FFMQ and
MfM questionnaire results provided by participants pre- and
post-intervention.
WLC EP+WLE
WLC1 WLC2 WLE
(1st questionnaire) (2nd questionnaire) (3rd questionnaire)
Nov 2016 Jan 2017 MfS course March 2017
EP1 EP2
(Pre-intervention (Post-intervention
Questionnaire) Questionnaire)
EP
Figure 5.1 MfS experimental and Wait-list control participant analysis.
5.2.1 Baseline tests for the FFMQ and MfM for conservatoire
participants.
Independent t-tests were run to assess baseline scores for all the
participants. Tests were run for homogeneity of variance and all assumptions
were met for the FFMQ and MfM in all conditions. The results are reported for
the FFMQ in Table 5.5 and for the MfM in Table 5.6. None of the baseline
score differences between groups were significant.

194
Table 5.5 Conservatoire FFMQ independent t-tests for experimental and

control participants at baseline
Facet Condition Pre

t-test Mean (SD)
FFMQ Observe EP t(22)=-1.501, p=0.147 25.17 6.67
WLC 28.83 5.20
FFMQ Describe EP t(22)=0.069, p=0.945 23.33 5.61
WLC 23.17 6.15
FFMQ Act with
EP t(22)=-0.516, p=0.611 20.08 6.63
Awareness
WLC 21.50 6.82
FFMQ Non-React EP t(22)=0.602, p=0.554 18.83 4.67
WLC 17.75 4.14
FFMQ Non-Judge EP t(22)=0.096, p=0.924 21.75 6.84
WLC 21.50 5.82
Facet Condition Pre

t-test Mean (SD)
FFMQ Observe EP+WLE t(31)=-0.95, p=0.350 26.81 6.23
WLC 28.83 5.20
FFMQ Describe EP+WLE t(31)=0.036, p=0.971 23.10 4.96
WLC 23.17 6.15
FFMQ Act with
EP+WLE t(31)=-0.576, p=0.569 20.14 6.34
Awareness
WLC 21.50 6.82
FFMQ Non-React EP+WLE t(31)=0.315, p=0.755 18.24 4.37
WLC 17.75 4.14
FFMQ Non-Judge EP+WLE t(31)=-0.305, p=0.763 20.81 6.49
WLC 21.50 5.82
* = significant to
p<.05
195
Table 5.6 Conservatoire MfM independent t-tests for experimental and control
participants at baseline
Facet Condition Pre

t-test Mean (SD)
MfM Observe EP t(22)=-0.748, p=0.462 9.50 3.23
WLC 10.33 2.10
MfM Describe EP t(22)=1.12, p=0.275 9.42 2.23
WLC 8.33 2.50
MfM Act with
EP t(22)=-0.563, p=0.579 8.50 2.88
Awareness
WLC 9.08 2.15
MfM Non-React EP t(22)=-0.459, p=0.651 8.33 2.10
WLC 8.75 2.34
MfM Non-Judge EP t(22)=0.801, p=0.431 7.42 1.56
WLC 6.67 2.84
Facet Condition Pre

t-test Mean (SD)
MfM Observe EP+WLE t(31)=-0.902, p=0.374 9.48 2.87
WLC 10.33 2.10
MfM Describe EP+WLE t(31)=0.443, p=0.661 8.71 2.31
WLC 8.33 2.50
MfM Act with
EP+WLE t(31)=-0.527, p=0.602 8.62 2.58
Awareness
WLC 9.08 2.15
MfM Non-React EP+WLE t(31)=-0.251, p=0.803 8.57 1.72
WLC 8.75 2.34
MfM Non-Judge EP+WLE t(31)=1.219, p=0.232 7.67 1.88
WLC 6.67 2.84
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5.2.2 Five Facet Mindfulness Questionnaire results for
conservatoire participants.
In preparation for analysing the within-group pre- and post-intervention
data for the participants, tests for normality and homogeneity of variance were
run for the FFMQ. Results were normally distributed for all groups and paired
t-tests were performed (see Table 5.7).

197
Table 5.7 Conservatoire FFMQ pre- and post-intervention results for

experimental (EP) and experimental and wait-list experimental (EP+WLE) and
wait-list control (WLC) groups using paired t-tests
Conservatoire (EP) Pre Post

FFMQ Observe 25.17 6.67 29.50 5.13 t(11)=-3.625, p=0.004*
FFMQ Describe 23.33 5.61 28.33 6.65 t(11)=-3.191, p=0.009*
FFMQ Act with 20.08 6.63 23.33 5.11 t(11)=-2.263, p=0.045*
Awareness
FFMQ Non-React 18.83 4.67 22.17 3.30 t(11)=-2.677, p=0.022*
FFMQ Non-Judge 21.75 6.84 26.58 6.16 t(11)=-2.667, p=0.022*
Conservatoire
(EP&WLE) Pre Post
Facets Mean (SD) Mean (SD) t-test
FFMQ Observe 26.81 6.23 30.90 4.86 t(20)=-5.187, p=0.001*
FFMQ Describe 23.10 4.96 28.05 5.27 t(20)=-5.241, p=0.001*
FFMQ Act with 20.14 6.34 24.81 5.04 t(20)=-4.318, p=0.001*
Awareness
FFMQ Non-React 18.24 4.37 21.95 3.44 t(20)=-4.102, p=0.001*
FFMQ Non-Judge 20.81 6.49 26.67 6.16 t(20)=-4.692, p=0.001*
Conservatoire (WLC) Pre Post

FFMQ Observe 28.83 5.20 27.67 5.26 t(11)=1.011, p=0.334
FFMQ Describe 23.17 6.15 21.50 6.65 t(11)=1.715, p=0.114
FFMQ Act with 21.50 6.82 20.17 6.16 t(11)=1.087, p=0.300
Awareness
FFMQ Non-React 17.75 4.14 17.42 3.78 t(11)=0.298, p=0.771
FFMQ Non-Judge 21.50 5.82 20.08 5.58 t(11)=0.961, p=0.357
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As can be seen in Table 5.7, there are significant differences between
pre- and post-intervention results for all facets in the FFMQ for the EP
participants. This can be seen in comparison with the WLC group who
demonstrated no significant improvement in scores over this time scale. There
are also highly significant results for the EP+WLE groups between pre- and
post-intervention scores in comparison with the pre-intervention WLC group
scores from before and after a similar 8-week time length.
In order to compare post-intervention differences between the three
groups (wait-list controls (WLC), experimental participants (EP), and wait-list
controls that became experimental participants (WLE)) in the conservatoire
study, one-way ANOVA tests were performed for each facet of the FFMQ (see
Appendix AZ for graphic plots). Assumption tests were run for each group and
all assumptions were met for all facets except for the Describe facet and the
Act with Awareness facet. One-way ANOVA tests, therefore, were run on the
Observe, Non-Judge and Non-React facets, and Kruskal-Wallis tests were run
on the Describe and Act with Awareness facets. All results are reported in
Table 5.8.
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Table 5.8 FFMQ post-intervention change score one-way ANOVA and

Kruskal-Wallis test results for the Conservatoire participants
FFMQ Facets Group Means (SD) ANOVA results
Observe F(2,27)=6.937, p=0.004*

WLC -1.22 3.35
EP 4.33 4.14
WLE 3.78 2.99
Describe H(2)=13.358, p=0.01*
WLC -1.89 2.93
EP 4.92 5.43
WLE 4.89 2.52
Act with
H(2)=9.493, p=0.009*
Awareness
WLC -1.67 4.5
EP 3.25 4.97
WLE 5.56 4.5
Non-React F(2,27)=2.061, p=0.147
WLC 0.56 3.5
EP 3.33 4.31
WLE 4.22 4.11
Non-Judge F(2,27)=7.341, p=0.003*
WLC -2.33 5.07
EP 4.83 6.28
WLE 7.22 4.89
Results in Table 5.8 show statistical differences between the groups for
the following facets: Observe, Describe, Act with Awareness, and Non-Judge.
To investigate group differences, Tukey post-hoc tests were performed on the
Observe and Non-Judge facets. Independent-samples Kruskal-Wallis tests
were run for the Describe and Act with Awareness facet.
Tukey pairwise comparisons for Observe showed that there were no
significant differences between EP and WLE groups at post-test (p=0.935).
The EP, however, demonstrated significantly higher post-scores than the WLC
200
(p=0.05). The WLE also demonstrated significantly higher post-scores than
the WLC (p=0.017).
Pairwise comparisons for the Describe Independent-Sample Kruskal-
Wallis test demonstrated that there were no significant differences at post-test
between the EP and WLE (p=0.698). However, there were significantly higher
post-test scores for the EP in comparison with the WLC (p=0.005). There
were also significantly higher scores for the WLE in comparison with WLC
(p=0.003).
Pairwise comparisons for the Act with Awareness Independent-Sample
Kruskal-Wallis test demonstrated no significant differences between the WLC
and the EP (p=0.129) or between the EP and the WLE group (p=0.654).
However, there was a significant improvement in post-scores for the WLE in
comparison with WLC (p=0.007).
Pairwise comparisons for the facet of Non-Judge using Tukey post-hoc
tests showed no differences between the EP and WLE (p=0.598). However,
there were significantly higher scores at post-test for EP in comparison with
WLC (p=0.018). There were also significantly higher scores at post-test for the
WLE in comparison to WLC (p=0.003).

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5.2.3 Mindfulness for Musicians results for conservatoire
participants.
In tests for homogeneity of variance in the MfM, experimental group
(EP) results were not normally distributed for the post-intervention Non-Judge
facet. Therefore, the non-parametric Wilcoxon test was run on the Non-Judge
facet for the EP MfM post-intervention. Results were normally distributed for
the other facets in all conditions and paired t-tests were run for the MfM
EP+WLE group and for the MfM WLC group. Results are reported below in
Table 5.9.
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Table 5.9 Conservatoire MfM pre- and post-intervention results for

experimental (EP) and experimental and wait-list experimental (EP+WLE) and
wait-list control (WLC) groups using paired t-tests and Wilcoxon tests
Conservatoire (EP) Pre Post

MfM Observe 9.50 3.23 11.25 2.56 t(11)=-2.782, p=0.018*
MfM Describe 9.42 2.23 9.92 2.35 t(11)=-0.804, p=0.438
MfM Act with 8.50 2.88 9.83 1.64 t(11)=-1.627, p=0.132
Awareness
MfM Non-React 8.33 2.10 9.58 1.98 t(11)=-2.322, p=0.04*
MfM Non-Judge 7.42 1.56 7.75 1.49 Z=-0.362, p=0.717
Conservatoire
(EP&WLE) Pre Post
MfM Observe 9.48 2.87 10.95 2.27 t(20)=-3.277, p=0.004*
MfM Describe 8.71 2.31 9.90 2.32 t(20)=-2.583, p=0.018*
MfM Act with 8.62 2.58 9.86 1.77 t(20)=-2.227, p=0.038*
Awareness
MfM Non-React 8.57 1.72 9.95 1.99 t(20)=-3.360, p=0.003*
MfM Non-Judge 7.67 1.88 8.24 1.76 t(20)=-1.351, p=0.192
Conservatoire (WLC) Pre Post

MfM Observe 10.33 2.10 9.50 2.15 t(11)=1.603, p=0.137
MfM Describe 8.33 2.50 8.00 1.91 t(11)=0.462, p=0.653
MfM Act with 9.08 2.15 8.83 2.08 t(11)=0.761, p=0.463
Awareness
MfM Non-React 8.75 2.34 8.57 1.29 t(11)=0.000, p=1.000
MfM Non-Judge 6.67 2.84 7.75 2.14 t(11)=-1.569, p=0.145
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In the MfM, significant results were reported in the facets of Observe
and Non-React for the EP group between pre- and post-intervention scores.
The WLC over a similar 8-week period showed no significant score increases.
However, when EP+WLE groups were combined, there were significant
results from pre- to post-intervention in all facets except for Non-Judge.
In order to compare differences between the three groups in the
conservatoire study, (wait-list controls (WLC), experimental participants (EP),
and wait-list controls that became experimental participants (WLE), one-way
ANOVA assumption tests were performed for each facet of the MfM.
Assumptions were met for all facets except for Act with Awareness
(homogeneity of variance). The non-parametric Kruskal-Wallis test was run on
the facet Act with Awareness and one-way ANOVA tests were run on the
other facets. The results are reported in Table 5.10 (see Appendix AZ for
graphic plots).
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Table 5.10 MfM post-intervention change score one-way ANOVA and Kruskal-
Wallis test results for the Conservatoire participants
MfM Facets Group Means (SD) ANOVA results
Observe F(2,27)=4.860, p<0.016*

WLC -1.00 1.94
EP 1.75 2.18
WLE 1.11 1.96
Describe F(2,27)=5.850, p<0.008*
WLC -1.22 2.22
EP 0.50 2.15
WLE 2.11 1.76
Act with
Awareness H(2)=1.775, p=0.412
WLC -0.22 1.30
EP 1.33 2.84
WLE 1.11 2.26
Non-React F(2,27)=2.604, p<0.092
WLC -0.33 1.87
EP 1.25 1.86
WLE 1.56 2.01
Non-Judge F(2,27)=0.191, p<0.827
WLC 0.78 2.68
EP 0.33 1.92
WLE 0.63 2.14
Results showed a statistical difference between the groups for the
following facets: Observe, and Describe. To investigate group differences,
Tukey post-hoc tests were performed on these facets.
Tukey HSD pairwise comparisons for the MfM Observe showed that
there were no significant differences between post-scores of the WLC and
WLE (p=0.092). There were also no significant differences between the post-
scores of the EP and the WLE (p=0.761). However, there were significant
higher results for the EP post-scores than the WLC (p=0.014).

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Pairwise comparisons for the MfM Describe facet Tukey HSD test
demonstrated no significant post-score differences between the WLC and EP
(p=0.161) or between the WLE and EP (p=0.200). However, there were
significant improvements at post-test in comparison between the WLE and
WLC (p=0.006).
5.3 Comparisons
The data in the pilot study (Czajkowski, 2013) were gathered using a
quasi-experimental pre- and post-intervention design using the FFMQ, which
found significant improvements in mindfulness over the MfS course in the
facets of Non-React and Non-Judge. This is different to the present study,
which found positive improvements in levels of mindfulness as measured by
the FFMQ in the facets of Observe, Describe and Non-React for the university
experimental cohort and in all facets for the conservatoire experimental
groups. There were also differences between baseline means of students at
the institutions. Further tables explore the different starting points for the two
institutions for comparison (for the FFMQ see Table 5.11 and for the MfM, see
Table 5.12). Although there are mainly non-significant results suggesting that
the participants at both institutions were starting from a similar position as
regards mindfulness, there is one significant result for the FFMQ Describe
facet and some results close to significance for the Act with Awareness and
Non-React facets between the conservatoire EP/WLE (CEP/WLE) and the
university EP (UEP) groups. This would suggest that, as regards general
mindfulness, the participants in the conservatoire group were slightly lower in
their starting levels of mindfulness than the university cohort.

206
Tests were run for homogeneity of variance and all assumptions were
met for the FFMQ and MfM results, except for the FFMQ Describe facet within
the CEP/WLE and UEP group, the FFMQ Observe facet within the CEP and
UEP group, and in the MfM Non-Judge facet within the CEP/WLE and UEP
group.
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Table 5.11 Baseline measure comparison between the FFMQ pre-intervention

(WLE) using independent t-tests and Mann-Whitney tests
FFMQ Facet Condition Mean (SD) t-test

Pre Observe CEP+WLE 26.81 6.23 t(36)=-1.024, p=0.313
UEP 28.59 3.91
Describe CEP+WLE 23.10 4.96 U=251.5, p=0.031*^
UEP 26.88 4.78
Act with
Awareness CEP+WLE 20.14 6.33 t(36)=-1.79, p=0.082
UEP 23.59 5.30
Non-React CEP+WLE 18.24 4.37 t(36)=-1.81, p=0.079
UEP 20.88 4.61
Non-Judge CEP+WLE 20.81 6.49 t(36)=-0.738, p=0.465
Pre UEP 22.35 6.30
Observe
CEP 25.17 6.67 U=142, p=0.080^
UEP 28.59 3.91
Describe CEP 23.33 5.61 t(27)=-1.832, p=0.078
UEP 26.88 4.78
Act with
Awareness CEP 20.08 6.63 t(27)=-1.581, p=0.125
UEP 23.59 5.30
Non-React CEP 18.83 4.67 t(27)=-1.173, p=0.251
UEP 20.88 4.61
Non-Judge CEP 21.75 6.84 t(27)=-0.245, p=0.808
UEP 22.35 6.30
^ = homogeneity of variance not assumed.
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Table 5.12 Baseline measure comparison between the MfM pre-intervention

(WLE) using independent t-tests and Mann-Whitney tests
MfM Facet Condition Mean (SD) t-test

Pre Observe CEP+WLE 9.48 2.87 t(36)=-1.051, p=0.3
UEP 10.29 1.57
Describe CEP+WLE 8.71 2.31 t(34.8)=0.872, p=0.389
UEP 8.06 2.30
Act with
Awareness CEP+WLE 8.62 2.58 t(36)=-0.999, p=0.325
UEP 9.41 2.24
Non-React CEP+WLE 8.57 1.72 t(36)=-0.626, p=0.535
UEP 8.94 1.92
Non-Judge CEP+WLE 7.67 1.88 U=159, p=0.581^
UEP 7.24 1.68
Pre Observe CEP 9.50 3.23 t(27)=-0.88, p=0.386
UEP 10.29 1.57
Describe CEP 9.42 2.23 t(27)=1.582, p=0.125
UEP 8.06 2.30
Act with
Awareness CEP 8.50 2.88 t(27)=-0.961, p=0.345
UEP 9.41 2.24
Non-React CEP 8.33 2.10 t(27)=-0.808, p=0.426
UEP 8.94 1.92
Non-Judge CEP 7.42 1.56 t(27)=0.295, p=0.771
UEP 7.24 1.68
^ = homogeneity of variance not assumed
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Chapter Six – Mindfulness for Singers qualitative results:
General overview
6.1 Introduction
According to the results from the FFMQ and MfM questionnaires
reported in Chapter 5, the MfS course improved mindfulness levels of both
university and conservatoire experimental cohorts in comparison to controls.
In order to find what qualitative effect these mindfulness improvements had on
student and teacher participants, data were gathered through interviews,
diaries, and comparison of individual student participants’ pre- and post-
intervention MfM responses. These data were subsequently analysed (see
Chapter 4, Section 4.3).
The qualitative results from the MfS study are presented in Chapters 6
to 10: Chapter 6 details the experience of doing the mindfulness course and
its effects on the student participants in general life; Chapter 7 presents the
effects of learning mindfulness in singing lessons; Chapter 8 details the effects
in solo and group practice sessions; the effects of learning mindfulness on
performance can be found in Chapter 9; and Chapter 10 presents the MfS
study summary. Figure 6.1 provides a visual navigational overview of the
chapters in the MfS study.
Throughout the next five qualitative results chapters, participants are
designated by type as either being from the university cohort (U) or from the
conservatoire group (C). Data were also taken from self-report diaries
designated as either U Diaries (from the university cohort), or C Diaries
(conservatoire group), followed by the number of the week in which the diary
210
entry was made. As a replication study, there is appropriate reference to the
pilot study (Czajkowski, 2013) throughout.
Figure 6.1 Navigational overview of the MfS results chapters.
6.2 The Mindfulness for Singers course experience
The participants provided data about the MfS course and its effects on
their general lives as students. They talked about why they decided to do a
mindfulness course, the experience of doing the course, the experience of
practicing mindfulness and problems they encountered (see Figure 6.2).

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Figure 6.2 Thematic overview of the MfS course experience.
6.2.1 Deciding to do a mindfulness course
Participants volunteered reasons for doing a mindfulness course for
singers. Similarly to Czajkowski (2013), most participants had never done
mindfulness before, some had done it once or “bits” of mindfulness type
experiences (U5, U9, C13, C15, C18) and some were experienced meditators
(C2, U15). Participants had read about it (C11) or been introduced by a family
member (C10, C13, C17, U15). The reasons they gave for choosing to take
part varied between simple interest in the concept, hope for improvement both
musically and personally, and help for specific problems, such as music
performance anxiety. Results are tabled below (see Table 6.1).

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Table 6.1 Reasons participants gave for taking the MfS course
Reasons for taking the MfS Participants

Course
Self-exploratory U1, U9, U14, U16, U17, C1, C3, C6, C7
General anxiety U10, U14, C1, C19, C21, C4, C9
Personal well-being improvement U2, U14, C1, C7
Improve concentration or reduce U3, U7, U8, C4, C7
distraction
Improve mindfulness skills and/or U5, C2, C4, C6
develop a mindfulness routine
Course addressed to helping U2, U7, U9, U12, U17, C1, C11, C17, C5,
singers C7
Performance anxiety U1, U7, U8, U13, U14, U15, C1, C6, C7,
C12, C21
Performance in general U7, U16, U9, C7
Might be useful in my career C1, C7
Just interested/how it works U12, U16, U17, C10, C11, C12, C13,
C14, C15, C16, C17, C18, C19, C2, C3,
C5, C8
6.2.2 Reflections on the MfS course
As described in detail in Chapter 4 (Section 4.2.5.2), participants were
taught focused attention, open monitoring, and compassion-based
mindfulness practical exercises combined with facilitator-led research-based
psychoeducation, and mindful inquiry group discussions.
Participants liked the 8-week course format (U2, U3, U5, U6, U10, U16,
C14, C18, C19) and eleven participants wanted it to go on longer or did not
want the course to end (U3, U6, U7, U8, U11, U13, C1, C4, C10, C13, C16).
They felt that once a week was good (U1, U9, U16, C3, C11) and they
appreciated the regularity, which helped keep them on track and to keep
213
practising (U2, U9, C1, C3, C5, C7, C9, C11). They liked the timing of the
once-weekly sessions (U1, U9, U16, C3, C11).
Session lengths in the MBSR and MBCT are usually 2 to 2.5 hours in
length but with a non-clinical demographic, and consideration of the
participants’ timetables and institution room constraints, it was decided that
sessions should be an hour in length. Twenty-eight participants found the hour
was a good length of time but four participants would have preferred longer
sessions (U13, C1, C10, C12).
Participants felt that the course was a good, effective starting point on
their mindfulness journey (U4, U8, U17, C4, C16), they thought that they
understood the purpose, it was interesting, and covered the necessary
essentials (U5, U8, U14, C5, C6). Fourteen participants volunteered the
information that they enjoyed the course (U1, U7, U17, C1, C2, C3, C4, C8,
C9, C12, C13, C15, C19, C21).
The MfS course had a group limit of 10 due to room constraints and
facilities required and participants said that they liked the group format (U1,
U4, U5, U6, U7, U8, U9, U14, U15). They said that it was good to become
friends with other singers in their institutions with whom they would not
normally have come into contact (U2, U3, U7, C11). They said that they
enjoyed listening to, and learning from sharing experiences (U4, U8, U15,
C11). They felt less alone in their anxiety (U7, U15, C16) and became aware
that “everyone is in the same boat” (C16).
Class attendance was satisfactory on the whole (see Table 6.2).
Studies assessing MBSR often exclude data from participants who attend
fewer than 6 classes, however those in this study who reported dedicated
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practice through missed weeks, and caught up using email communication,
were keen to take part in the study and their data were included.
215
Table 6.2 MfS student participant attendance record
Class
attendance Participants
U1, U2, U3, U6, U7, U8, U10, U11, U12, U17,
8 sessions
C1, C10, C13, C14, C20
7 sessions U4, U5, U14, U16, C2, C5, C11, C12, C16, C18, C21
6 sessions U9, U13, U15, C3, C4, C7, C15, C17, C19
5 sessions C9
4 sessions C6, C8
6.2.3 Mindfulness practice
In each session, participants were given a 10-minute formal
mindfulness exercise and informal practices to practise during the week (see
Section 4.2.5.2). This gave participants chance to experience formal and
informal mindfulness throughout each week in a targeted (for singing
purposes) and general manner. A schedule of the practice requirements can
be found in Appendix AJ.
All the formal practices had dedicated MP3 tracks available on the
accompanying website (www.mindfulnessforsingers.co.uk) to listen to or
download. A lot of participants used these tracks to help them practise and
described them as helpful (U1, U2, U3, U6, U7, U11, U14, U17, C2, C5, C11,
C13, C19, C20). Voices used for recorded guided meditation can have an
impact on the listener and were occasionally mentioned in interview as being
liked (U2, U6, U10, U11, U12, U17, C5, C11, C16, C20) or not liked (U15,
C15). Some participants preferred to work without the MP3 (U5, U16), and
some started by using the tracks but soon abandoned them once they knew
what to do (U10, C16, C20).

216
Participants were also asked to keep a daily journal, noting down
minutes of practice and any findings. A limitation of the study is that not all
participants adhered to the journal requirements and so it is difficult to assess
participants’ average practice time accurately. U1, U9 and U11, however, liked
the journals, which they said helped them keep focus during the week.
Participants sometimes compared the formal and informal practices.
Most found the informal practices easier or quicker to do (U1, U10, U13, U15,
U16, C2, C4, C6, C7, C9, C12, C13, C14, C16, C17, C18, C19, C21) as they
could be done anywhere (C7) or more often (C12). However, several
discovered that the formal exercises were easier to do than the informal ones
(U2, U5, U12, U14, C3, C5, C12, C16) because they were guided and time
was dedicated to the practice.
Participants also wanted to inform the researcher of their favourite
exercises. Unlike Czajkowski (2013), where the most popular mindfulness
exercise was Mindful Movement, the Body Scan was most popular in this
study (U1, U6, U7, U10, C9, C11, C14, C21, U Diary 6, C Diary 7) followed by
the Breathing Counting (U1, U9, U10, C11, C16, U Diary 3), which U10 found
particularly helped with her panic attacks. An anonymous participant in U
Diary 2 reported that spending 2 mindful minutes on the toilet resulted in
“unexpected pleasure!”
217
6.2.4 Mindfulness practice problems
Normally participants are requested to engage in 45 minutes or more of
mindfulness practice a day when taking part in a traditional MBSR or MBCT
course, but it is not categorically known how much effect mindfulness practice
has on developing mindfulness or what is the optimum “dosage” (Berghoff,
Wheeless, Ritzert, Wooley, & Forsyth, 2017; Manuel, Somohano & Bowen,
2016). It is understood in music education that length and quality of practice
can have significant effects on music skills (Chaffin & Lemieux, 2004) and a
clinical based RCT found that mindfulness practice is associated with
improvements in clinical populations with regards to relapse from depression
(Crane et al., 2014). Berghoff et al. (2017), however, compared 10-minutes
with 20-minutes mindfulness practice over two weeks using a sample of non-
clinical undergraduate students similar to those in the current MfS study. They
found that both groups demonstrated an increase in mindfulness and
reductions in stress, with slightly higher increases for the 20-minutes group in
self-compassion. Berghoff et al. (2017) concluded that the results did not
support giving lengthy meditation practice for MBI. As a result, to be in
keeping with the original course but also considering that students are busy
people, a daily practice of 10 minutes was suggested. However, although
most participants seemed to do regular practice, they, like other musician
participants in Czajkowski (2013) and Hribar (2012), reported finding it hard to
find even 10 minutes a day (U3, U4, U5, U8, U10, U11, C1, C3, C8, C9, C12,
C13, C14, C20, C21, U Diary 1, C Diary 4, and 7). Some participants reported
doing more than the required 10 minutes (U1, C1, C2, C8) up to 30 minutes a
218
day (C10). C10 was the only participant to mention that doing this amount of
mindfulness could give her a problem and she clarified why.
I can be a bit, ‘Woowoowoowoowoo,’ so usually it brings me down a

bit, which is really good. But a couple of times it’s made me slightly
depressed. It’s really weird. It’s kind of taken me so far down that I
wake up and I’m like, ‘Oh,’ weirdly. In a weird, strange mood. So that’s
a bit funny. But in general I think it’s quite good because it kind of
levels my being here a bit more.
Feeling depressed after meditating is a condition that has been
reported in the literature. Cebolla, Demarzo, Martins, Soler, and Garcia-
Campaya, (2017) in a study searching for the unwanted effects of meditation
practice with a non-clinical sample of mainly women from Spain (n=342)
where 87 also reported unwanted effects such as boredom, occasional mental
confusion, and temporary depression. In that study, unwanted effects were
more likely to appear in those who did focused awareness individual practice
for more than 20 minutes, and were mostly transitory without need for
discontinuation, or medical attention. Unwanted effects are well known in the
Buddhist literature but are only recently being studied in western cognitive
research (Lindahl, Fisher, Cooper, Rosen, & Britton, 2017), and the current
suggestion is to take medical advice before doing a mindfulness course if one
has been clinically diagnosed with mental health problems (NIH, 2006). That
the MfS Course was not a therapy or a clinical intervention was made very
clear to the participants in the introductory sessions and it was advised that
those who knew that they had clinical diagnoses should seek approval from
their medical advisors before taking part. Counselling services at both
institutions were informed about the MfS course in case participants had
problems and participants were informed about the counselling services.

219
Participants sometimes said that they found it hard to remember to do
the practice (U5, U7, U8, U10, U11, U13, C5, C7, C11, C21, C Diary 1, and 7)
and U7, U13 and C21 put a reminder on their phones. U9 and C4 felt that
having time purely to themselves made them feel a little guilty and almost self-
indulgent, and others reported their own mental resistance to doing
mindfulness practice at home (U5, U8, U9, C4, C15, C17, U Diary 2, and 3).
Many participants mentioned feeling distracted during practice but this
is to be expected as the point of doing focused attention exercises is to train
the “monkey mind” by gently, non-judgmentally, but constantly bringing the
attention back to the chosen focus. Distractions mentioned by the participants
included fidgeting, phones and emails, feeling stressed, and tiredness. At the
beginning of the course, participants wrote about feeling tired and either falling
asleep during or straight after the mindfulness practice sessions but this
stopped being reported in the anonymous diaries after three weeks (U Diary 1,
and 2, C Diary 1, and 3). Being non-judgmental in practice is often a new
experience and, although they were encouraged to be non-judgmental in the
sessions, some anonymous participants initially reported that frustration and
impatience could affect their practice. As a result, this situation was discussed
more in the sessions and, as C14 said, “I tried to not stress about that too
much”. Anonymous reports of frustration and impatience also dwindled as the
course progressed and only appeared in early diary entries (U Diaries 1, 4,
and 5, C Diaries 2, 3, and 4). One participant had physical pain when doing
the Mindful Movement, so was advised to refrain from this practice and she
chose to take it up later in the course (U7).

220
Particular exercises could cause problems for certain participants and
they were encouraged either to stop that exercise, or to work with the
experience, whichever was appropriate for them. C5 found being more aware
of putting on make up made her feel uncomfortable so she stopped this
practice. C12 felt being aware of blood rushing around the body made her
squeamish, and a participant reporting in U Diary 4 wrote that paying attention
to food was “gross”. Participants found the Body Scan hard to do on their own
(U1, C Diary 3) and U5 said he was worried that someone might walk in the
practice room whilst he was doing this usually supine practice on the floor.
Some participants reported that the most difficult exercise, Exploring
Difficulties, was hard to do during the week (U1, U14, U17, U Diary 5 and 6)
but did not report any further consequences either in interview or
anonymously in the diaries.
6.2.5 Continuing the Mindfulness practice
In Czajkowski (2013) every participant said that they wanted to carry on
doing mindfulness. In a similar way in the immediate post-intervention
interview, every participant expressed an interest in continuing with the
mindfulness practice after completion of the course to a greater or lesser
extent. Twenty-six of the 38 participants agreed to be interviewed
longitudinally at the 3-month period. Twenty-five had continued doing
mindfulness and one had not (U15). U15 said that although she had MPA, that
she would rather pretend the performance would not happen because it was
easier and have a glass of wine instead. In general life she felt she was
already mindful naturally.

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It may have been possible that participants told me they would continue
with their practice due to demand characteristics, because, for example, they
felt that this might be something I would want to hear. However, in
investigating further, they told me the many different ways in which they had
continued their mindfulness practice which were specific to their needs and
which did not, in most cases, continue in the same way that they had been
taught in the MfS course. Many participants had continued a regular practice
(U10, U2, U4, U6, U7, U8, C1, C11, C14, C16, C17, C2, C20, C21, C4)
although it was not necessarily done on a daily basis (U6, U7, C16, C4).
Some participants practised mindfulness less than they had when doing the
mindfulness course (U4, U5, U8, U10, U11, U12, C1, C5, C7, C17), which
was put down to needing motivation (U5) or a structure (U8).
Participants in the longitudinal study named the exercises that
resonated most strongly with them, the Body Scan being the most popular
(U3, U7, U17, C2, C11, C14, C18, C21), followed by breathing exercises (U2,
U12, U17, C14, C20, U10, U14, C11), Yoga (U2, U12), Mindful Movement
(C20), and Sounds and Thoughts (C18). One participant was doing
Transcendental Meditation (mantra) (C2), another used the Headspace
application (C20), and two more were working through the mindfulness book
that was suggested in the MfS course (Williams & Penman, 2011) (C1, C21).
Participants had continued to use the mindfulness exercises in a
targeted manner specific for their needs (U4, U17, C4, U17): before singing
lessons (U10, U17, C5, C20, C21), before singing practices (U2, U3, U6, U17,
C2, C5, C20, C21), before performing (U1, U2, U4, U6, U8, U10, U12, U14,
U17, C2, C4, C5, C7, C14, C18, C20, C21) and after performing to relax (C16,
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C17). Participants also reported using it in daily life (U6, U10, C11), and at
stressful times (U2, U14, C1, C16, C21). They noticed the benefits of the
practice (U4, U5, U11, C16, C17, C20), and being in the present moment
(C14, C21) and they found it assisted at anxious times (U1, U2, U14, C14,
C21) to feel calm (U14, C14, C21), focused and controlled (C14). Only U15
had found the mindfulness no help and stopped the practice. Apart from U15,
every participant in the 3-month longitudinal interviews said that they would
carry on using mindfulness in their own particular ways to a greater or lesser
extent in their lives and for singing purposes, with some reaffirming their
commitment quite strongly.

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6.3 Mindfulness, student life and general well-being.
Student participants spoke about the effects of mindfulness on student
life and general well-being: lifestyle development, effects on sleep, academic
life and study, general stress and anxiety, the effects of developing awareness
in daily life, the impact on relationships with friends and family, and as general
non-singing musicians (Figure 6.3).
Figure 6.3 Thematic overview of the effects of mindfulness on student life and
well-being.
6.3.1 Lifestyle development, and reported effects on sleep
Participants in the current study often tailored mindfulness exercises to
suit their lifestyle and preferences. They mentioned the time of day and effect
of doing mindfulness exercises that were not specifically targeted before
singing activities. Participants who mentioned doing mindfulness in the
morning usually did them on waking up. The main effect reported was one of
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feeling more awake than normal (U1, U10, U6, U7, U Diaries 2 and 7 and C
Diary 1) and feeling more energised (U7, U12, C Diaries 2). Participants felt
other mentally positive effects during the day, such as being more present
(U7, C Diary 1), and in a good mental frame of mind (C Diary 7, C5, U14,
C20).
Other participants did the mindfulness exercises at night. The literature
is tentatively positive about the effects of mindfulness or meditation on sleep.
As there are different types of insomnia, however, meditation can help some
people more than others, and when objective measures are used, rather than
self-report, results can be mixed (Ong, Ulmer, & Manber, 2012). Participants
in the present study gave self-report data about the effects of mindfulness on
their sleep. Certain mindfulness exercises in this study were mentioned as
being particularly beneficial for sleep: breathing exercises (U3, U6, C14, C18,
U Diary 2, 3 and 5, C Diary 1 and 4), open monitoring thought awareness
exercises (C6, C Diary 7, U Diary 7), but the most popular was Body Scan
(U3, U10, U17, C9, U Diary 1, C Diary 2). Breathing exercises were said to
help relaxation (U Diary 5, C18) and stopped over thinking (C Diary 1). The
Body Scan was reported to help with relaxing physical tension (U3, U10, C
Diary 2, C9), ease the mind (U17), and learn to accept noises from outside
(U3). However, one participant found that doing a Mindful Listening exercise
before bed made them “alive to sounds” which was “not good” (U Diary 4),
and a participant in U Diary 6 found the Body Scan left them more awake and
on edge than sleepy. There were no attempts in this study to delve more
rigorously into this aspect, but conflicting results mirror the literature and were
a recurring theme in the participants’ data. Some participants mentioned doing

225
mindfulness at night time but did not comment on sleep (U1, U12, C11, C13,
C16) but two participants said mindfulness exercises helped in general
relaxation or to wind down after a busy day (U1, U12).
6.3.2 Academic life
Participants reported that their academic lives at university and
conservatoire were sometimes difficult to deal with. They mentioned the
effects of mindfulness practices on mindset in lectures, studying, doing
assignments, revising, and doing exams and they used the full range of
mindfulness studies to help them.
Despite not being specifically asked to do mindfulness before lectures,
participants still found that mindfulness had effects on them in classes ranging
from musicology to song writing (U3, U17, C1, C4, C5, C6, C21). Before
learning mindfulness, they reported feeling easily distracted in lectures (U3,
C4, C5). After mindfulness, C4 said she noticed when her mind had become
distracted, and other participants reported improved concentration and focus
(U3, C1, C4, C5, U17) which encouraged C5 to become more involved,
interested and find it easier to do subsequent essay tasks.
When studying, participants said that they could easily procrastinate
(U7), be distracted (U16) or realise reading was not “going in” (U Diary 1).
They felt tense (C Diary 4) with back tension (U Diary 7) and stress (C9). After
doing a mindful exercise, like drinking tea mindfully (U16), participants felt
more focused (U7, U16, U Diary 1), relaxed (C Diary 4, U16, U Diary 7) with
less worry and calmer minds (C9, U16, C Diary 5). Deadlines for writing
assignments caused stress (C14, U2, U1, C4, U Diary 2) but participants said
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that being more mindful helped them to rush less, stay positive, and feel
calmer and more relaxed (C4, U2, U1, U Diary 2). U2 and U6 felt that
mindfulness helped them when revising. U6 was doing a lot of memorising
and found that the mindfulness exercises gave her a grounding foundation
before each study session, saying, “I was able to learn so many more quotes
and remember so many more points and things that I don't think I would have
remembered otherwise”.
Exams were also said to cause stress where participants reported that
they were over-thinking and worrying that they had not done enough (U4, U1,
U Diary 1). Being more mindful in exams, they said, helped them to be calmer
(U1, U4, U Diary 1) where U4 rationalised, “This is it, can’t change it now!”
6.3.3 Stress and anxiety
Tosca, a vocal teacher of many years, mentioned that nearly all her
vocal students were on some sort of medication for anxiety or stress. “It’s so
prevalent now”, she said, “It’s very scary…was it always there?” Elvis, a
conservatoire teacher, said, “If you talk to our counselling service, they’re like,
it’s like double what we’ve ever seen in the past.” Stress was also mentioned
by participants in Czajkowski (2013), in Hribar (2012), and was a common
theme in research with high school students (Burnett, 2009).
It was very clearly stated before, and at several points during the
intervention, that the MfS course was not a therapy, neither was it a clinical
intervention, and should not be considered as such. However, like Czajkowski
(2013), and Hribar (2012), during the course, music student participants were
particularly helped by the intervention of mindfulness when dealing with

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anxiety and stress in daily life. It was often mentioned in the diary data (U
Diaries 1, 2, 3, 6, 7, C Diaries 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7) and eighteen participants also
talked about it in interview.
Reported symptoms of stress and anxiety included a faster heartbeat,
tension, tightness, shaking, sickness, panic, fear of socialisation, and
numbness. Mentally, participants described over thinking, having a lot on their
minds, or clinging to thoughts (U Diary 6, U2, U16, C Diary 1, 2, 3, 4, C1, C4,
C9, C18). More seriously, clinically diagnosed chest pains (Costochondritis),
skin conditions, clinical anxiety, panic attacks, and depression were
mentioned (C4, C9, C14, U10).
Participants found that mindfulness exercises, such as those in Table
6.3 had a positive effect on their stress and anxiety where general unspecified
breathing exercises and the Body Scan were mentioned as helping most
often. Participants described having less anxiety and stress after doing
mindfulness exercises using a variety of terminology such as feeling calmer,
less distress, reduced tension, feeling more grounded, relaxed, and connected
(U1, U2, U4, U6, U10, U14, U15, C4, C9, C11, C14, C16, C21, U Diaries 1, 2,
3, 6, 7, C Diaries 1, 4, 6, 7). They also mentioned feeling more present (U10,
U14, U16, C4, C21) which helped them deal with daily stress and anxiety. Not
everyone had a positive response. One anonymous participant found it was of
no help for stress (C Diary 4), and another in U Diary 1 found that the
exercises had made them realise how anxious they were taking exams, which
is a normal step in mindfulness development for some people who have
subconsciously ignored emotions and feelings in the past. U16 had not found
it directly effective but, like C21, she liked having something to do, a strategy
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to help. However, other participants had very positive responses. U10
reported having had no panic attacks since starting the mindfulness course,
C9 said that she had only had chest tension once, C4 reported that she had
not engaged in OCD behaviours, and C21 found that using the techniques
took away his tension completely.
Where stress and anxiety were concerned, the participants described
new responses to daily life, such as seeing what is important, being more
rational or having a different frame of mind (C4, C9, C11, C Diary 4). They
mentioned being more self-compassionate and kind and used more mental
positive talk (U2, U10, U13, C9, C11, C14, C18, C Diary 5), such as “You can
do it” (U2) which increased confidence (U13) and made them feel better
(C18). They described clearer, quieter, and more accepting mindsets (U1,
U15, C9, C Diary 1), although some said that they still felt thoughts clinging (C
Diary 3).
Symptomatically, participants reported reduced tension, less shaking, a
more solid speaking voice, and deeper and freer breaths (U13, C4, C13, U
Diary 7, C Diaries 1, 2). They were also able to notice stress and anxiety
building up quicker, which encouraged them to engage in self-care more
efficiently (U2, U13, C1, C Diaries 4, 7). Altogether, many participants
described mindfulness as “helpful” for stress and anxiety (U1, U2, U4, U10,
U16, C1, C2, C4, C16, C21, U Diaries 3, 7, C Diaries 6, 7), U10 felt it was not
100% due to the mindfulness course but it had “definitely helped”. It was
reported as the main coping general stress strategy for C2 and C4, where C4
felt that it could only be because of mindfulness that her chronic anxiety had
been relieved because she had tried everything else.

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Table 6.3 Types of mindfulness exercises specified by MfS participants for

daily stress and anxiety
Types of mindfulness
exercises used for daily Participants
stress and anxiety
U2, U13, U Diaries 1, 6, 7, C Diaries 1, 4, 5,
General breathing exercises
6, 7
Body Scan U6, C9, C21, U Diary 2, C Diaries 2, 4
Breathing Counting U1, U10, U14, U Diaries 6, 7
3-Minute Breathing Space U1, U Diary 1, C Diary 1
Mindful Movement U16, U Diary 7
Mindful Walking U2, C4, U16
Yoga U2
Habit awareness U16
Breathing Journey U Diary 7
6.3.4 Developing awareness
Participants also talked about their general mindful awareness
development that was not associated with singing. The diaries were full of
reports of increased physical body awareness during and after mindfulness
exercises, such as being aware of heavy limbs, tired arms, tingling, muscles,
walking, posture, face, hands, and beating hearts, temperature, momentum,
and taste (U Diary 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 7, C Diary 1, 2, 5). In interview, participants
also mentioned becoming more body aware (U3, U5, U6, U7, U11, C3, C9),
as U5 said after describing his favourite exercise, Mindful Movement,
I suppose I just felt like it had the biggest effect. I felt most conscious of
the way my body felt afterwards. I always felt very tall after doing it as
well.
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They also reported new awareness of mental states such as mood
awareness, thoughts arising, feelings such as impatience, over-thinking even
when life was good, noticing what the mind does when rushing, spotting when
they were distracted, feeling more present in mind, and realising that they
were mindful of some things and not others (U5, U7, U8, C4, C7, C17, U
Diaries 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 7, C Diaries 1, 2, 4, 5) where a distinction between
mindfulness and happiness was noticed which was found intriguing by one
participant (U Diary 5),
I think it’s important to make the distinction between mindfulness and

happiness – being more aware doesn’t mean you can deal with it.
Perhaps this is more of a reflection of myself at the moment but from
brief bits of mindfulness that I have done before, it does seem to be a
trend.
6.3.5 Friends and family
Participants reported that being more mindful helped them become
more aware of other people’s movements, speaking, and how they interacted
less or more with friends (U7, U8, C7, U Diaries 4, 5) but U15 felt she had
always been naturally aware in this way. In conversation, we often spend time
thinking about our response while someone else is talking. This often means
that attentive and present moment listening is lacking. Part of the mindfulness
course involved listening exercises where participants were encouraged to
have a conversation with another participant, the goal being to listen fully to
the other person before responding. Like participants in Czajkowski (2013),
some participants reported that the mindfulness course helped them to listen
more attentively, which then had a positive effect on their relationships with
friends and family (U6, U8, U11, C5, U Diary 6, C Diary 7) and developed
more profound (U Diary 6) and sensitive relationships (U11). They found it

231
easier to interact with others (U5, U6, U11, C5, C15, C19, C21, C Diary 4)
through noticing quicker if their attention had wandered from the interaction
(C5, C15), found that they became more self-reflective on their treatment of
others (U5, C5), could control self-release from social anxiety (C19, C21), thus
building stronger relationships (C5). Demand characteristic bias was probably
strong in this area because the teaching and practice of Mindful Listening to
friends was made very explicit. However, it is interesting to note all the
different ways that participants experienced the effects of utilising more
mindful listening in their daily lives, which were not explicit in the teaching.
6.3.6 The non-singing musician.
Singers, as musicians, are aware that listening is important but
participants found that they became more observant of music and sounds
around them in a new, enhanced way that was not related to their singing (U8,
U11, U Diaries 4, 5, 7). Participants in Diaz (2013) also found that a small
amount of mindfulness training heightened their experience in music listening
increasing attention, flow, and aesthetic responses (see Chapter 1, Section
1.2.2). MfS participants became more aware of their physicality being
affected by music and sounds and how others who performed used their
bodies (U Diary 4 and 6, U11, U12). U11 was intrigued as to how her body
responded to different music, and U12 noticed everyone’s individual stage
presence, which she had not perceived before. More performance aspects
were observed in other people’s performances, such as dynamics, staccato,
styles, and timbres (U Diary 4, U12), such as piano strings resonating. The
participants reported becoming more aware of music’s effect on their mood

232
changes, they noted their mental response to music and lyrics and became
aware of watching the mind drift away, and became frustrated with disliked
music (U Diary 4, 6, and 7, U11, C Dairy 1). It was reportedly easier to be
present with live music versus recorded music, soloist versus a group,
instrumental music versus a singer, and liked rather than disliked music styles
(U Diary 4, 6, C Diary 6). Participants also said that they had become aware of
a variety of new things, such as lyrics in familiar songs that they they had
never heard before, being too busy to really listen to music, or that music is a
‘doing’ rather than a ‘being’ experience (U8, U11, U Diary 4, C Diary 6, and 7).
U8 realised that she had not been “listening” to music but just “hearing” it in
the past and was determined to change and become more “respectful”.
Participants also found themselves enjoying the Mindful Listening experience
(see Appendices W and AR) more than expected, reporting that they found
elements they liked in previously disliked music, or an enhanced, heightened
physical and mental connection to music and lyrics that they had not felt
before (U Diary 4, C Diary 6). One anonymous university participant said,
listening to “One of my fave songs…I loved it tenfold!” and another said it
“makes me appreciate music and my hearing a lot more”.
Participants also mentioned the effects of mindfulness on their
instrumental studies in piano (U Diary 6, U3, C Diary 4, C6, C8), violin (U
Diary 2, U3), and composing (C10). Before being more mindful, U3 said that
she felt self-critical, played automatically without hearing or feeling, and was
nervous about not concentrating in performance. C8, also a pianist, described
feeling tense in his posture and that he could not express himself in solo
playing as he felt unbalanced and rigid. After mindfulness, participants

233
reported feeling more relaxed (U Diary 2), less self-critical (U3, C10) and
concentrated and focused (U Diary 6, U3, C6, C10) where U3 felt that it was
now normal to get distracted but “it’s all about bringing it back”. U3 felt that
she was more able to feel her fingers and be aware of sound production in
practice, and used breathing to control her shaking hands in performances.
Participants mentioned that they felt more comfortable playing (U3, C8), and
in a better position to express themselves creatively (U3, C8, C10).
Mindfulness had a big effect on C10 when composing which was similar to
findings in Newton (2015) where three composers found mindfulness
meditation had enhanced their focus and awareness and the ability of “non-
striving”, which helped them be more creative. C10 mentioned being more
focused which helped her to make choices from a variety of musical
possibilities, saying, “it made me just think about -, just to accept what you do,
and the music is a big part of what you do…see how it goes”.
6.4 Chapter summary
This chapter has described the participants’ experience of taking a
mindfulness course and reported the effects of learning mindfulness on their
student life and general well-being. It has shown that student participants
enjoyed doing the mindfulness course and occasionally found it hard to do the
regular daily practice but nearly every participant said they would continue
with the practice after the course ended which was reiterated by them in the 3-
month interviews. They described a variety of beneficial effects from doing the
course in their daily lives, such as positive effects on getting to sleep,
improvements in lifestyle, and help with academic workload stresses and

234
examination periods. Many said that they found relief for general daily life
stress and anxiety, even though the course was not designed as a therapy.
They described developing more awareness in daily life, there was a positive
improvement in relationships with friends and family, and they said that they
were more appreciative of music and sounds even when they were not
personally and practically engaged in musical activities. The next chapter
describes the findings relating to learning mindfulness in singing lessons,
which includes the reported mental and physical effects in lessons, and the
reported effects on the student/teacher relationship.

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Chapter Seven – Mindfulness for Singers qualitative results:
Singing lessons
7.1 Introduction
This chapter investigates the qualitative effects of learning mindfulness
in the area of singing lessons and combines data from both student and
teacher participants. After a short contextual introduction, there is the report
from the teachers’ blind study, followed by findings from both sets of
participants in two major themes: mindfulness effects on mental mindsets, and
the effects of mindfulness on physical awareness and learning singing
technique. The chapter concludes with a section reporting the teacher
validation of the course and a chapter summary. The major themes and
subthemes in this chapter are detailed in Figure 7.1.
In Czajkowski (2013), participants reported positive effects in singing
lessons, such as improvements in focus, increases in body awareness that
enhanced learning singing technique, and improvements in teacher/pupil
relationships. In the teachers’ blind study, teacher participants were able to
identify 6 of the 8 participants from a combined total student register of 32.

236
Figure 7.1 Thematic overview map of the effects of mindfulness in singing lessons.
237
Participants were asked to do 10-minute formal mindfulness exercises
directly before singing lessons and every participant in Czajkowski (2013)
reported doing this before some, or all, singing lessons. However, participants
in the current study described a variety of compliance: before every lesson,
some lessons, or none at all (although this group did report doing mindfulness
regularly at other times of the day) (see Table 7.1). Those who expressed
difficulty in doing mindfulness before singing lessons were asked the reasons
why. Problems identified were that lessons could be straight after lectures
(U2, C3, C5), irregular (C2), or were too early in the morning (C7, C8).
Participants could be late to attend (C11, C16, C18), and have a long distance
to travel (U8). U15 chose not to do as asked but C17, however, did
mindfulness exercises during, as well as before, her lessons.
Early in the MfS course, participants were asked, prior to singing
lessons, to test out a specific mindfulness exercise learnt during the session
the week before. However, towards the end of the course, they were
encouraged to use whatever they found most useful. Some participants
specified the mindful exercises they had chosen to do before singing lessons
and their responses are detailed in Table 7.2.

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Table 7.1 Mindfulness participants who did mindfulness exercises directly

before singing lessons
Mindfulness before lessons Participants

Most or all lessons U1, U2, U3, U4, U6, U7, U9, U10, U12, U14,
U16, U17
C1, C2, C4, C6, C9, C10, C12, C13, C14,
C15, C16, C17, C18, C21
Sometimes/not always U5, U8, C3, C5, C11, C19, C20
None at all U11, U13, U15, C7, C8
Table 7.2 Mindfulness practices that participants specified using prior to

singing lessons
Mindfulness practices Participants

Body Scan U1, U5, U6, U7, U9, U10, U16
C3, C5, C9, C11, C12, C13
U Diary Week 1, C Diary week 1
Breathing Journey U6, C1, C15, C21
U Diary Week 5
Breathing Counting U4, U10, U16, C11
C Diary week 1
Breathing - general U4, U7, U12
C Diary week 1
C3, C6, C10, C11, C13, C14, C16
Mindful Movement U4, U7, U12, C3
U Diary week 5, C Diary week 1
Walking Meditation U16
Sounds and Thoughts C6
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7.2 The teacher blind study
Student participants were eligible for the teachers’ blind study if they
had a university or conservatoire-approved teacher and if they were with that
same teacher for the academic term before and during the study.
Participants’ teachers were interviewed at the end of the intervention to see if
they could ascertain which of their students had participated in the intervention
(see Appendix F for the interview questions).
At the university over two years, 12 out of 17 student participants were
eligible for this part of the study and they were taught by three university
singing teachers who consented to take part. Five participants were ineligible:
they changed teacher, did not have a university accredited vocal teacher, or
stopped lessons during the intervention (U5, U8, U11, U13, U14). The
teachers had a combined total student register of 38 over the two years. They
identified seven of the 12 eligible participants.
At the conservatoire, there were 22 participants who completed the
course who were taught by a total of nine conservatoire teachers. One teacher
did not respond to the invitation to take part resulting in three participants
being ineligible for the teachers’ study (C2, C8, C11). Eight teachers identified
12 of the 19 remaining out of their combined student total of 98.
To summarise, 11 singing teachers taught a total of 136 students over
a period of two years at two institutions. This included a MfS participant subset
of 31 who took part in five iterations of the MfS course. Of these 31, teachers
correctly identified 19 participants (see Figure 7.2). In 2013, Czajkowski had
eight eligible MfS student participants taught by three singing teachers who
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taught a total of 38 students. The teachers correctly identified six participants
(see Figure 7.3).
The reasons that teachers gave for correctly identifying students
covered improvements in observed changes in students over a variety of
areas: attitude to the teacher, to the lessons, to learning technique, in their
voice, to themselves, and in performance. These topics are discussed in more
detail and in comparison to student participants’ interview data later in this
chapter.
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Total singing student population of 11

teachers in 2016/2017, n=136
Non MfS singing students

(n=105)
MfS participants identified
(n=19)
MfS participants unidentified
(n=12)
unidentified in the current study.
Total singing student population of 3

teachers in 2013, n=38
Non MfS singing students

(n=24)
MfS participants identified
(n=6)
MfS participants
unidentified (n=2)
unidentified in Czajkowski (2013).

242
Once the teachers had specified which of their students they thought
had taken the course, they were told which, if any, of their students had been
missed and asked for their opinion on this non-identification. At the university,
the teachers gave reasons for non-identification of five participants: voice
being a second study (U3), gradual improvement over time (U12, U16), and
always being excellent students (U4, U7). At LCOM, the teachers did not
identify seven participants and they gave the following reasons for non-
identification: C6’s change was attributed by her teacher to something else,
which C6 attributed in the interviews to the mindfulness course (see Section
7.4.6). C7 had not attended enough lessons that term for a change to be
noticed, C9 had demonstrated no big difference of behaviour in lessons, C14
had no reason given, C17’s change was attributed to a phone call with her
teacher, and C19 had not been expected to be interested in this type of
course. One participant who completed the course did not turn up to the
interview and therefore has no interview identification tag (DH) or interview
data for comparison to teacher data. Despite not being identified, DH was
described as originally being frantic and disorganised but, after the
intervention, being a little calmer with a better attitude and more focused.
Identification status is summarised in Table 7.3 but, due to the ease
with which it might be possible to detect students and teachers from their
pairings, details about which teacher identified which student are obscured.
An overview of each teacher’s specialism and student identification details is
shown in Table 7.4.

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Table 7.3 Teachers’ identification of students as MfS participants
Identification status Participants

Not eligible for the blind teacher study U5, U8, U11, U13, U14, C2, C8, C11
Identified U1, U2, U6, U9, U10, U15, U17, C1,
C3, C4, C5, C10, C12, C13, C15,
C16, C18, C20, C21
Not identified U3, U4, U7, U12, U16, C6, C7, C9,
C14, C17, C19, DH
Table 7.4 Overview of teacher participant details and student identification
Teacher Institution Styles Total Total MfS Total MfS

taught students participants identified
Beatrice U Classical 10 4 3
Despina U Classical 16 6 4
Ella U Jazz 12 2 0
Elvis C Pop 25 2 1
Sade C Jazz/pop 14 1 1
Adele C Pop 8 3 1
Lucia C Classical 8 4 2
Enya C Pop 9 2 1
Papageno C Classical 7 2 2
Tosca C Classical 6 2 2
Joni C Pop 21 3 2
Total 136 31 19
U= University
C= Conservatoire
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7.3 Mindfulness effects on mental mindsets in singing lessons
7.3.1 Introduction.
Singing lessons are collaborations between students and teachers and
relations between them are paramount to success (Gaunt, 2008). Although it
was the student participants who learnt mindfulness and applied it in lessons,
both teachers and students noticed and described the effects of mindfulness
on the process.
The relationship between students and teachers at universities and
conservatoires has been a topic for some debate in the past. Kingsbury in his
study into conservatoires in America (2001) found that students and
instrumental teachers considered a positive relationship to be a “necessity by
almost everyone” (p. 38). Gaunt, however, in a trio of studies at the GSMD
(2008, 2010, 2011) (see Chapter 2, Section 2.2.2) looked into relationships
between students and teachers from both viewpoints and found this “positive
relationship” somewhat wanting.
In 2010, Gaunt investigated students’ perceptions of good and bad
qualities in an instrumental teacher: good qualities were being constructively
critical, caring, and having a sense of humour, and bad qualities were
described as being distant, abrupt, or unpredictable. Participants in the current
study, in a similar way to those reported in Gaunt (2008), also spoke about
their relationship with their singing teachers and vice versa during the
interviews and reported similar findings. They also took research further by
speaking about the effects of mindfulness on these relationships and on their
singing education. Pre-mindfulness, eight of the 38 participants described
being content with their singing teacher in general (U5, U6, U14, U15, U16,
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C3, C7, C10) where, for example, U16 described her lessons as a “nice
environment” and where her teacher gave her plenty of positive feedback.
However, some student participants reported being frustrated, irritated, or
stressed by teachers (U4, U7, U10, C4, C9, C19). Teachers described being
dissatisfied when student/participants were not organised, or did little practice,
were moody, or seemed uncommitted. They also commented when students
were under confident or over confident, too pleasing or too controversial, or
too self-conscious or overly self-critical.
Post-mindfulness, participants described mindset changes engendered
by becoming more mindful such as: being more in the present with
improvements in attention and focus, developing a balance, relaxed, calm and
positive mindset, better ability to take criticism, improvements in self-criticism,
and more productive and efficient lessons. Teachers also observed students’
mindset changes and how they impacted on pupil/teacher relationships,
communication, and the singing lesson process. These changes are
described in more detail in the next sections.
7.3.2 In the “present moment” in lessons
In Czajkowski (2013), pilot study participants said that doing
mindfulness activities directly before lessons had the effect of “separating”
singing lessons from other activities. This finding was reiterated by
participants in the current study (C3, C5, C Diary Week 1). As a result,
participants in both studies described feeling more in the present moment
during the lesson using a variety of synonyms. They described feeling more
attentive and focused, more grounded (U4, U6), “in the zone” (C3, U14), being
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“here” (C13), not in their “own world” (C20), and more present (U15, C15,
C17). C19 felt she was brought into the room “right now”, similarly to U5, C1,
and C6. They also felt calmer and more positive where U2 described feeling in
the right mindset, and U7 was able to “get rid of the crap” before going into
learn. Teachers also noted improvements in the lesson attitudes and mindsets
of their identified student/participants. They described them as more receptive,
responsive, collaborative, open minded, descriptive, and less moody (U2, U6,
U10, C12, C15, C16, C20, C21). Identified students were also described by
teachers as more hardworking, communicative, positive, reflective, open,
polite, and attentive in lessons than before (U1, U9, U15, U17, C1, C3, C10,
C20).
7.3.3 Focus and attention
Attention can be an issue in any repetitive form of learning as “from
kindergarten on, if not before, we are all told to pay attention. Although no one
feels it necessary to explain what this means” (Langer, 1998, p.35). A study of
96 piano lessons with 48 teachers who taught two pupils each was
undertaken by Kostka (1984). She observed that students were inattentive for,
on average, 15% of the lesson time, which had a bearing on learning
effectiveness. Diaz (2013) suggested mindfulness might increase
concentration and awareness for tasks relating to music such as psychomotor
or creative activities. The most prevalent effects reported by participants in the
present study were being more aware and focused in lessons which extends
Diaz’s ideas possibly from speculation closer to fact. Participants felt less on
automatic pilot (U1), more concentrated (U2, C4), conscious (U10), and
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attentive (C20). However, C9 said that this depended on her mood despite
improving by +2 on the associated item 3 of the MfM “In instrumental or
singing lessons, I always pay attention and never daydream or get distracted.”
In interview, C11, C13, C20, and C17 said that they were aware that their
minds used to wander in singing lessons or get easily distracted, and they
were part of the large group of 29 participants who described feeling more
focused after doing mindfulness exercises (U4, U6, U7, U8, U9, U10, U14,
U16, U17, C2, C3, C4, C5, C8, C9, C11, C13, C15, C16, C17, C18, C19, C20,
C21) or more aware (U1, U3, C2, C4, C10, C12, C13, C15, C17). This large
group effect matches well with Czajkowski (2013) where all participants
described feeling more focused, aware and concentrated in lessons after
doing mindfulness beforehand. Teachers who guessed that their students had
been participants mentioned that U1, C20, C3 and C4 were always seen as
focused and attentive. Ten participants were described by teachers as
definitely having improved in attentiveness, concentration, awareness, or
focus (U2, U10, U15, C4, C5, C10, C15, C16, C18, C21), an effect also
noticed by the teachers of participants in Czajkowski (2013). Of C15, teacher
Joni said, “she's come in with a definite focus,” and C15 corroborated this.
There were some interesting relationships between participants’ responses to
MfM item 3 and participants’ interview responses. As expected, participants
who improved by +2 (C2, C9) and +3 (C11, U17) also reported feeling more
focused or aware in interview. However, 4 of the 5 participants who scored -2
on this statement over the course of the intervention (C4, C5, U8, U10, U13)
also mentioned improvements in focus and attention in the interview. Only
U13 was silent on this subject, although this may have been because she did
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not have singing lessons. It is curious to wonder why these MfM scores for
participants decreased over the intervention when, for example, C5
commented,
When I did it beforehand, I was … ‘Okay, this is my singing lesson, …

this is what I want to work on,’ and I was really focused. It made such a
difference.
It is possible that participants were more likely to give answers they thought
the researcher wished to hear in interview and to be more candid in the more
anonymous questionnaires. However, this participant also immediately
compared her experience of being more focused in other areas of singing with
detail so it is possible that on the day of the questionnaire, she was not feeling
as focused as normal.
Other participants discovered that their general listening was improved
(U4, U6, U8, C8, C13, C15, C17, C20), for example, C17 said that she was
able to take more from the lessons, able to process more what had been said,
and understand better what needed to be done. Teachers described
improvements in participants’ listening skills (U2, C3, C13, C15, C18), which
had also been noted by teacher participants in Czajkowski (2013).
7.3.4 Feeling calmer in lessons
Participants said that they felt more centred, relaxed, balanced, calmer,
and more positive in lessons (U2, U7, U10, U14, U17, C2, C6, C8, C10, C11,
C14, C16, C17, C18, C19, C20) where C11 said, “I just feel like things come
easier. Maybe perhaps because I’m relaxed, more relaxed, or just calmer in a
sense and I’m not worrying”. C15 and C11 felt less impatient, and C6
described feeling more comfortable. In this current study, as well as the pilot
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study (Czajkowski, 2013), teachers described identified participants being
more relaxed, calmer, settled, more still, or composed in lessons after doing
mindfulness (C4, C6, C13, C15, C16, C18) where C6 was less likely to cry,
and C18 displayed more rational boundaries.
7.3.5 Taking criticism
Participants reported having no problems taking criticism from their
teachers where it was pleasantly and constructively given (U1, U3, U5, U6,
U10, U16, C7) but U10 found that her teacher regularly criticised her and
“often not in the most pleasant way. It's just quite abrupt.” Several participants
felt the same about their experience of abrupt or sarcastic criticism (U4, C4,
C5 and C9) but others felt that it was their reception of the criticism that was
the problem (C12, C16, C18, U6, U8, C9, U10). They described wanting
approval (C16) or berated themselves if things went wrong (U6, U8). Some
participants were highly self critical when things went wrong (U14, C3, C14,
C16, C18). This meant that participants developed mixed feelings about
singing lessons. U6 said, “It's funny how scared you can feel even though it’s
just your singing lesson” and other participants also reported feeling anxious
about lessons (C4, C8, C9, C10, C13, C16, C18, C21). They were worried
about their volume of work (C10), being busy and yet underprepared (C4,
C16) and C9 worried about her teacher’s “passive-aggressive” teaching style,
and was concerned afterwards if, through anxiety, she had not attended. C9
felt that she should have changed teachers at the beginning of the year but
had not changed because she had been worried about her teacher’s reaction,
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an issue highlighted in Gaunt (2008) where changes had been delayed
because students reported fearing their teacher’s response.
Criticism is a necessary part of every teacher’s duty but it must be
carefully handled if it is to be effective and promote improvement (Atlas et al.,
2004). Students’ abilities to deal with any type of criticism can vary from day to
day but there are some students who are more sensitive and find taking
criticism harder than others. In 1994, Atlas designed the Sensitive to Criticism
Scale and used it with 19 college music students (Atlas et al., 2004). The
researchers discovered that those who were the most sensitive could lose
confidence and motivation due to teacher criticism. This could affect the
student/teacher relationship and they advised that music teachers should be
aware of this and sensitive to the different personalities of their students. Part
of the MfS course included discussions and practical exercises in dealing with
criticism as a singer and in daily life. Participants were encouraged to use self-
inquiry to investigate their mental and physical response to criticism, realise
that criticism as a singer is rarely personally directed, and apply mindfulness
techniques when listening to criticism from peers during Week 7’s
Performance Workshop. Recordings were taken of the Week 7 performances
and criticisms, and participants were sent their individual contributions as MP3
tracks to listen to later in order to see if their memory of the criticism they
received matched the reality on the recording.
From the current participants’ reports, the MfS course seemed to have
a positive influence in this area for a large majority in a similar way to
participants in Czajkowski (2013) who described feeling less offended, less
upset, and more accepting of criticism. Like them, current participants

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reported being able to listen to and assess criticism in a new way (U2, U4,
U10, C1, C2, C4, C5, C6, C9, C11, C12, C13, C16, C18, C19), where, for
example, U4 did Breathing Counting whilst her teacher talked to help her keep
distance from the criticism. Participants also deflected criticism in a variety of
ways. C9 described thinking to herself “‘Yes, she said this, she is like this, but
I can’t change her. It’s her personality, not my personality’” which put her in a
better frame of mind, C1 and C16 decided that their teacher’s criticism was
only to help them be better, and U10 realised that she could handle criticism
better if she felt it was just the singing and the song being criticised, and not
her personally. Criticisms were taken with “a pinch of salt” (C1), C4 decided
that her teacher’s opinion “isn’t everything”, and applied positive thoughts,
such as “it’s going to be fine” (C4, C5). As a result, participants found it easier
to handle criticism in general, not letting it get them down (U2, U10, C6, C9,
C11, C13, C18). Only U9 reported that doing mindfulness did not help with
criticism from her teacher but others felt that being able to cope with criticism
improved communication (U10, U12, U14, C5, C17, C18, C19) and U10 said
in her longitudinal interview that lessons “just seemed to flow so much more
easily maybe because I was just more alert and being able to communicate
with her better”.
They recognised that their mindset and attitude in lessons had changed
to a more accepting stance (U10, U17, C9, C11, C16). C16 said,
Before I was just-, yes, I just wanted them to say, ‘Oh, that’s really
good,’ but now I just think, ‘That’s not what the lesson’s for. What’s the
point if you want them to say that?’ It’s nice to have compliments on
the things you are doing well, because it keeps you feeling like, ‘Oh
yes, I’m improving. It’s not all bad,’ but being able to balance the
positive and the constructive things, and, yes, just not getting bogged
down by the negatives.
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Teachers also noticed a change in identified participants who were seen to
take criticism better, be more open to feedback, less afraid of failure, (U2, U6,
U8, U9, U15, C1, C10, C15, C16, C20, C21) and be more positive (U9, U15,
C16, C19, C21). Participants said that they felt more relaxed and less anxious
with teachers (C4, C14, C18, C21, C19).
7.3.6 Self-criticism
Participants said that doing mindfulness before lessons also helped
them engage with themselves more kindly and with less self-criticism if things
did not go well (U6, U8, U14, U16, C4, C6, C8, C14, C17, C18, C19) where,
for example, C6 said,
It’s made me less-, I’m not in my head as much, so it means I’m less
self-conscious about making mistakes. I feel more comfortable as well.
I’m just there and I’m just like, ‘Well, I’m going to do what I’m going to
do and if I make a mistake that’s that.’ I don’t feel as much pressure,
which is nice as well.
Student participants who had been seen as sensitive, anxious or overly
self-critical by teachers, were described as seeming less self-critical (C1, C6,
C13, C15), more self-compassionate, more accepting of themselves and their
voices, being more rational, more grounded and happier (C1, C4, C5, C6,
C13, C15, C18). C6, for example, was seen by her teacher to accept herself
more as a person so that she could accept who she is as a performer. Six of
the eight music student participants in Hribar (2012) also reported an
increased sense of acceptance and self-compassion as musicians after
learning mindfulness and there was a similar finding in Czajkowski (2013)
from both students and teachers.

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Teachers in the current study saw student participants as more
accepting but still aware of the work that needed to be done (C4, C6, C13,
C18). Tosca felt that C13, for example, was originally extremely critical of her
own voice. She had been seen to learn to accept where she “is” vocally in the
present but still with the consideration that there is always an improvement to
be made. However, where this ability to accept the reality of the vocal present
was mostly seen to be a positive, in one case this was considered a negative.
Lucia felt that C5 had come to accept her own “croony voice”, resisted
adopting technical advice about diaphragmic support, which would address
this problem, and had taken a vocal step back. Conversely, C5 said that her
teacher had told her in the past that she got very worked up about her singing
and needed to be easier on herself, which was why she had taken the
mindfulness course. On the subject of support, she said the Body Scan had
helped her to improve her body awareness and that “it’s really improved over
the past few weeks”.
As there was such a discrepancy between C5 and Lucia’s responses,
C5 was asked at her longitudinal interview if there had been any conversation
between her and Lucia. However, C5 said that she had not had a lesson since
finishing the course. The reason for the discrepancy is therefore a matter of
speculation but in looking at the responses from the three other students of
Lucia that were interviewed, there may have been general difficulties in
communication between Lucia and her students. Their responses suggested
that Lucia and her students did not always understand each other clearly and
this could be the reason why there is a discrepancy between C5 and Lucia in
this instance.
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Participants reported feeling more confident with teachers (U7, U10,
U17, C11, C14, C17, C18) and happier to question (U7, U10). Teachers also
noticed an improvement in levels of confidence in the student participants (U1,
U6, U9, U17, C1, C4, C6, C12, C16, C18, C20) where U1 was described as
making “more of an entrance” into the studio and C4 was noted by her teacher
as being more direct, saying “this is what I’m doing”.
7.3.7 Productive and efficient lessons
As a result of new positive mindsets, participants reported more
productive or efficient lessons, especially when they had some agency in the
lesson structure and content. U12 felt that she learnt faster, U16 said the
lesson was more directed, and U17 described her lessons as having more
structure. C13, C18 and C19 and participants who wrote in C Diaries 1 and 5
reported more productive lessons with better organisation of time.
Participants’ teachers also noticed some participants being more organised in
lessons (U2, U15, U17, C13), for example, U2 was discovered writing things
down. U17 said, “After I took the mindfulness lessons, I started to be thinking
of a structure of my lesson” and teacher Despina had noticed this saying, “Of
late, she's been very organised about what she wants to do in lesson which is
good.”
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7.4 Mindfulness effects on physical awareness and learning
singing technique
7.4.1 Introduction
On average, over 50% of teaching in lessons is about technique
(Burwell, Pickukp, & Young, 2003). Teachers and students find it difficult to
teach and learn vocal technique because neither can see or show much of the
physical process happening (Welch & Sundberg, 2002). Students learning
voice only have two recourses to immediate feedback: auditory and physical.
It is impossible for participants to hear their own voices accurately whilst
singing (Howell, 1985), and therefore micromuscular awareness is very useful
but it is difficult to develop. Mindfulness practice has been shown to be
beneficial in improving interoceptive body awareness (internal organ
movement, for example, lungs, abdominals) for a large group of the general
public (Bornemann, Herbert, Mehling, & Singer, 2015), and proprioceptive
awareness (stimuli from within the body to do with position and motion) for a
small group of meditators in comparison to non-meditators (Naranjo &
Schmidt, 2012).
Before doing mindfulness, the participants described being confused
about the body parts referred to in technical vocal teaching, never having
been taught about them, misunderstanding, or finding it hard to locate or even
hear what needed changing (U1, U2, U4, U5, U7, U12, U17, C4, C5, C18,
C20). They also mentioned that teachers’ methods of instruction were
sometimes too metaphorical and not based in current vocal science (U4, U7).
Clark, Lisboa, and Williamon (2014b) noted that “music students' training is
typically based on experience and tradition rather than evidence-based

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scientific principles” (p. 298) and, as can be seen in the current research, this
is sometimes still the case. Teachers found some students normally quick to
learn (U4), and receptive to new information (U6, C3). However, others
seemed wary of new technique (U1, U2, U17, C20) or found it difficult
because they seemed unaware of their physique (U1, U2, C4, C12, U17, C20)
and teachers mentioned being less pleased with their technical progress (U1,
U2, C20).
After doing the Body Scan (mainly interoceptive), Mindful Movement
(proprioceptive) and Breathing Journey (intero- and proprioceptive)
mindfulness exercises (see Appendix W), participants described becoming
more aware of their bodies in singing lessons which helped in learning singing
technique and improved sound production. Specific body part awareness was
reported as improving communication with the teacher, which changed
technical learning mindsets, helped in learning posture, breathing support,
dealing with physical unnecessary tension, producing vowel shapes,
connecting technique together, and improved sound and tone which was
noted by teachers.
7.4.2 Improved awareness of physical sensations and learning
singing technique.
Thirty-six of the 38 participants reported feeling more aware of the
physical sensations of their whole bodies when learning technique in singing
lessons after doing mindfulness exercises. Only U11, and U13 mentioned no
effect but U11 and U13 did not have singing lessons. Improved micromuscular
awareness was also mentioned by all participants learning singing technique

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in the original MfS course (Czajkowski, 2013) so, in developing the MfM, item
6 addressed this possible effect, stating, “When learning technique in lessons,
I notice new tiny muscular sensations or small changes in sound production
as they happen.” Six participants improved by +2 or +3 over the course of the
intervention (C3, C6, C9, C15, U6, C19) and they all described this effect in
interview but two participants (C13, C14) decreased by 2 which was
unexpected considering that during their interviews, they both spoke about
improved micromuscular awareness. It is possible that, when face-to-face with
the interviewer, participants felt that they ought to have improved their
micromuscular awareness. However, it could also be because on the day that
they did the second questionnaire, they were feeling tired or were not as
aware as normal. Student participants were also observed by their teachers to
be more physically aware (U15, C4, C6, C10, C12, C16, C20, C21), with C20
being described as “more in his body”.
Participants’ relationship to the teacher, levels of communication and
learning of technique were described as being affected by improved body
awareness, for example, U17 and C11 felt more willing to try out advice and
U5 described taking physical technical advice more seriously. Some student
participants seemed to teachers to be more accepting of new technical
information where before there had been some resistance (U1, U2, C3, C10,
C12, C15, C16, C20), except for C5, whose teacher felt she was too accepting
now of her “croony” style of singing and less engaged in trying to change it.
Conversely, C16 and C20 were described as far happier to be experimental.
Participants said that when their teacher talked, that they were able to listen
and respond easier, better, and more efficiently because they were able to
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pay attention, feel, and be more mindfully aware of the body sensations
involved in learning new technique (U1, U2, U5, U6, U7, U12, C5, C13, C18).
Participants said that this helped them be more productive and communicative
about the requisite body parts (U2, U6, U12, C5, C18). For example, U6 said,
I try to get here at least ten minutes early so I can do a Breathing

Journey or Body Scan and it just does make you feel a lot more
grounded, and you pay much more attention to how your body's
moving as you sing. Now when my teacher says, "Lift the soft palate,"
or pay attention to sensation, so the technique can breathe, I find it
much more easy.
Being more aware of muscular and body sensations was said to make
learning technique quicker (C4, C6, C10, C11, C17, C20, U12), and easier to
relocate sensations and feelings later (C17, C11, C4, C20). C21 thought that,
although mindfulness seemed to help in focusing on technique, it did not help
in learning technique, but C20 said, “I’ve actually improved more in the last
few weeks than I have within the last semester”, which was confirmed by his
teacher.
Participants said that they felt more body attentive and connected (U1,
U8, U14, C20, C Diary Week 1), took more notice of how the whole body felt
or worked when singing, the adjustments that they made, and how the parts fit
together (U2, U3, U6, U14, C5, C11, C16, C18). Several participants
described being aware of their whole body in a way they had not experienced
before (C16, C17, C2, C3, C4, C10) where, for example, C3 said,
I really like the mindful breathing – that kind of got me aware, because
obviously breathing’s such a big thing in singing. It just got me aware
of myself and my whole system. That worked really well, as did the
mindful movement, because when I warm up, you’re meant to warm up
everything, but I tend to just warm up my voice. So if I’ve just woken up,
my body’s still asleep, whereas if I’ve done the Mindful Movement then
I’m all there, rather than just my voice.
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7.4.3 Mindful awareness of specific parts of the voice
Regarding learning technique, Welch and Sundberg (2002) said that
“practice of constituent elements in isolation can facilitate conscious
awareness and control of basic coordination” (p. 266) in preparation for
musical elements to be added as necessary. In a similar way, participants in
both this study and Czajkowski (2013) mentioned becoming aware of specific
parts of their vocal principles (body parts used for singing, see Table 7.5) but
they took this further by reporting that changes happened as a result of doing
the mindfulness exercises such as the Body Scan and Breathing Journey (see
Table 7.5). This enabled them to be more aware of these “constituent
elements” in lessons and practice and enhanced technical learning and
assimilation.
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Table 7.5 Vocal principles mentioned by participants that were noticed more
after doing mindfulness exercises before singing lessons
Body parts Participants

Back U1, U12, U15, C8
Shoulders U7, U12, C10
Neck C4, C8, C10
Mouth U2, U3, U7, U12, C5, C11, C17
Tongue U3, U5, C1, C9, C11, C12, C15, C20
Soft palate U5
Jaw U5, U10, C10, C11, C15
Abdomen/diaphragm U3, U5, C2, C5, C8, C12, C15, C21
Larynx C12, C20
Throat U5, C10, C17, C21
Ribcage/chest U4, C9, C11, C21
Pelvic floor U7
Legs C5
7.4.4 Posture and vocal breathing support
Several participants said that mindfulness had helped them to be more
body aware and improve their posture (U4, U10, U12, U16, C4, C8, C13).
They also found that being more physically aware of their bodies from doing
mindfulness before singing lessons had helped them in learning a key vocal
technique known by a variety of names such as breath control, breath support,
abdominal or diaphragm support, or generically as “breathing”. Current
participants described the mindful breathing exercises as helping them to
become more generally aware of their singing breath (U1, C3, C7, C8, C16,
C20, C Diary Week 5, U Diary Week 3) and U9, C11, C13, C14 found that
they were able to relax abdominal musculature to take deeper, more relaxed
inspirational breaths which, they said, reduced vocal tension encouraged by

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snatched, surface inspiration. Fourteen participants reported more physical
awareness of the abdominal breath support musculature, such as the
diaphragm and pelvic floor muscles, and felt more in control of their voices as
a result (U2, U3, U5, U7, U10, U16, C2, C5, C12, C13, C14, C15, C16, C21).
U7, as an advanced vocalist, described mindfulness as helping her to become
aware of different types of abdominal support musculature needed for different
parts of her vocal range, whereas beginner vocalists, like C4 and C5, were
newly learning the technique.
…Then doing support where my singing teacher was like, ‘You need to
get in the abdominal muscles, you need to do this,’ and I was able to be
like, ‘Oh yes, I know where that is,’ because I focused on it. When I
could feel the breathing going through it, I suddenly knew where all the
little pieces fit together. So it made such a difference. I was able to just
locate it, whereas before I was often quite confused about it and I
would think I was doing it. (C5)
Participants in this study said that mindfulness helped them to be more aware
when they were not engaging breath support or were developing bad habits.
These were described as being able to be quickly rectified (U7, U9, C5, C20,
C Diary Week 2). In comparison, U15 was learning breath control, but chose
not to do mindfulness at the beginning of her lessons. Her teacher used a lot
of metaphors when teaching technique which U15 liked. For example, to
improve breath support she was encouraging U15 to imagine she was a tent
pole. When asked what this was meant to achieve, U15 said that it meant, “so
I don’t move around and stuff”, but when asked to explain further answered, “I
don’t really know how to do it.”
Mindfulness exercises before lessons were described by beginner and
advanced students as helping with vowel shaping (U3, C5, U1, C1, U16). U3,
a beginner singer was aware that she was finding vowel shaping difficult but
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was “able to get it right quicker” after mindfulness. C1, an advanced learner,
had noticed “little muscular changes” after learning mindfulness and had been
able to control her tongue better when using a singing exercise called “Dial-a-
Vowel” (see Appendix BA) to develop homogenous vocal tone over the vowel
spectrum. She said she was now able to keep her tongue up at the back
touching her back teeth (/i/) and shape the vowels whilst keeping her pharynx
and tongue a similar length to maintain tone quality.
7.4.5 Vocal tension
Elliott (2010) suggested that unnecessary vocal tension could be
released and dissolved with mindfulness. Participants in this study, who were
aware of extraneous tension in some of the vocal principles, provided some
empirical evidence for Elliot’s suggestion by describing being able to use
mindfulness to help locate, relax or release them. Some participants found
that their problems resolved with mindfulness exercises, such as back (U12),
shoulder (U7, C10), stomach (U14), legs (C5) and chest tension (C9) where,
for example, C8 said,
Breathing into a particular part of the body helps to completely release

tension in those areas of the body and in other areas as well. I found it
really kind of helps to get the tension down in the neck area as well.
One of the technical tension issues mentioned most by participants was
tongue root tension (C1, C9, C12, C13). C13 explained that being mindful
meant that she was more aware of the smaller muscular details and became
mindful when it was gripped and where it should be (i.e. lifted), which made it
easier to sing. According to her teacher, the sound “apparently comes across
a lot clearer”. The next most reported tense body part relaxed by mindful
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awareness was the jaw (U10, C11, C15, C16) where a tense jaw was
described by C16 as restricting. Mindfulness, she said, helped her to relax
both the jaw where she felt the tension and the mind that was worrying about
this tension, which helped her to make a more open sound. Her teacher had
also noticed C16’s improvement over the course of the intervention, saying,
She's more relaxed in relation to the subject and as a consequence, I

think that it has a physical implication in less muscular tension and
makes it easier to sing, so she's more consistent.
U12 and U4 felt that the Mindful Movement exercise made them less
physically tense, and C2 could feel tension in her body in general, which
affected her sound and she reported that mindfulness had helped this issue.
C18 said, “You can’t sing if you get panicky” and found that mindfully
breathing into tension helped her panic less. Eight participants said that they
felt more physically relaxed in lessons in general after doing mindfulness
exercises (U2, U7, C6, C10, C14, C16, C17, C21).
7.4.6 Sound and tone
Participants reported that being more mindful and focused when
learning technique in their singing lessons had the effect of improving the
sound that they made. They felt that the voice was more confident (U17, C21)
and stronger (U16, C21). C15, U5, and U12 said that they were more aware of
their tone colour, and vocal resonance (U5), which helped U12 to find a
warmer tone and was described as helping pitching issues (U3, U12).
Teacher Papageno described C12 as developing a freer sound over
the duration of the intervention, and C12 had also noticed that his voice had
stopped “cracking” saying that being mindfully aware of his breathing

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mechanism had helped his support. Papageno also described C20 as starting
to produce big, open sounds and C20 said that after listening more mindfully
to his teacher that “I’ve improved, and he can hear that.” Papageno said that
C12 and C20 had both demonstrated excellent technical improvement due to
increased proprioception over the course of the intervention.
C6 was working on tone. She was encouraged in a lesson in front of
her peers to “take out a lot of tone that I’d accidentally put on my voice” and to
sing with “completely my own tone, and it was hard.” It was easy to slip back
when “belting” (see Appendix BA) and she had to project her voice forward
rather than back. She said that mindfulness had made her “more aware of my
body’s response when they told me to do certain things, so then I could
replicate better” and attributed her success to learning mindfulness. Her
teacher also talked about feeling worried during this same group lesson as C6
could easily burst in to tears and “was quick to set off.” He said with surprise,
“she did it…she didn’t get it right then but in the next lesson she was ‘on that’,
a lot more accepting of her own voice.” Once he knew C6 had been doing the
mindfulness course, he said that her success was “probably because of this
[the training in the lesson] AND the mindfulness…I think it’s both of them.”
7.5 Teacher validation
Teachers primarily identified participants on the improvements that
were seen in lessons or performances over the duration of the course. In
some areas, teacher and student responses mirrored each other, and in
others, benefits were seen by one party on one side in a specific area but not
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noticed by the other. Despite this, teachers and participants were in accord
that the mindfulness intervention had had a positive impact in the vocal studio.
Participants knew that their teachers were happier as they told them
they had improved over the course of the intervention (U1, C5, C6, C18, C20)
and C18’s teacher told her that she had “miraculously improved” during that
time. Papageno had noticed a big change in C12 at Week 6 of the
mindfulness intervention.
I think I would connect the technical development and his openness

and greater receptivity together and say there is a similar kind of locus
point around that single session when I noticed from one week to the
next a totally, very measurable transformation.
U9 and C1 had been seen by their teachers to give unexpectedly good
performances. Tosca saw a visible improvement in music performance anxiety
and performance for C13. C13 agreed, reporting that before doing
mindfulness she had “lost any faith” in herself during performance.
Only C5 and her teacher, Lucia, did not agree with each other. C5
reported a mindful improvement in all aspects of singing, but Lucia, seeing C5
become accepting of her vocal technique, said that she preferred her to “battle
with the issue” (see Section 7.3.6). Despite this one example, teachers
described the intervention as being very helpful and even the teacher above
had seen a dramatic improvement in the other student that she identified (C1)
who she said had blossomed over the intervention in dealing with over-
sensitive self-criticism and was developing visibly improved “poise” on stage.
Lucia said, “I can really see that this [course] would have helped her (C1) to
do that” and she was grateful for the help.

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Despina, who had been a blind teacher participant for all three
interventions run at the university including the pilot study, described the MfS
course as operating harmoniously in collaboration with her work and
despaired that “the ones who need it don’t sign up!” Elvis said of the MfS
course,
But I have got to say, the proof is in the pudding with both of those
[students], it's not an imaginary change, it's not change that we want to
be there, it's genuine physical change with both of those students.
Sade, who picked the correct participant from a possible 14 students said,
“Annie! It works!” Tosca, Joni, Elvis and Adele, based on their experience of
students taking the MfS course, also asked for more information about
mindfulness.
7.6 Chapter summary
This chapter has described the effects of the MfS course on singing
lessons as experienced by teacher and pupil participants. Singing lessons are
repeated week after week, sometimes for years with the same teacher, and it
can be very easy for students to slip into “autopilot” mode, thus inhibiting their
ability to listen and learn effectively. On the whole, participants engaged
closely with the research requirements and they, and their teachers, found a
variety of positive effects in their lessons leading to 19 of the 31 eligible
participants being identified by their teachers as having done the mindfulness
course. Teachers reported a wide variety of improvements in their MfS
students and were very positive about the benefit of the course in tandem with
their own teaching.
Participants in Czajkowski (2013) found a wide variety of benefits from

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doing mindfulness before singing lessons and in a similar, but broader way,
current participants reported changes in attitude in lessons, such as being
more in the present moment, more focused and aware, relaxed and calm, less
negatively self-critical, and more confident. They described improved micro
muscular awareness that helped in learning vocal technique, reduced vocal
and physical tension, and improved sound and tone. Relationships with
singing teachers were often improved: participants said that they found it
easier to take criticism from within and without, easier to communicate about
technical matters, and their listening skills were enhanced, which lead to a
more positive lesson environment and improved learning.
The only finding from Czajkowski (2013) not replicated was the effect of
mindfulness on combining individual vocal technique into a cohesive whole,
although it was mentioned in the GSMD study. Apart from that, like
Czajkowski (2013), this replication has shown that mindfulness may be a
highly positive influence in singing lessons at both university and music
college. The next chapter describes the reported effects of mindfulness in solo
vocal practice and in group and ensembles practices.

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Chapter Eight – Mindfulness for Singers qualitative results:
Private, and group instrumental practice.
This chapter details the accounts of the effects of learning mindfulness
on student participants in private singing practice, and group rehearsals and
ensembles. Doing mindfulness before private practice was attributed by
participants to have had a positive effect on general practice mindset, focus,
practice structure, body awareness and technique, sound production, and
creativity. The effect of mindfulness in group practices as reported by
participants covered improvements in focus, calmness and present moment
awareness, musicianship skills, and personal and interpersonal skills.
8.1 The effects of mindfulness on private singing practice
8.1.1 Introduction
Practice is important to improve skills for performance (Salmon, 1990)
and research suggests that quality practice utilising metacognitive abilities is
most advisable, rather than mindless repetition (Chaffin & Lemieux, 2004;
Hallam, 2001). Participants in the pilot study (Czajkowski, 2013) described the
effects that doing a few minutes of mindfulness had on their private, solo
singing practice, improving metacognitive abilities, and producing more quality
practice. They reported that they felt more focused, aware and “in the zone”
and that their practice was more efficient and effective. Practice length was
affected as was organisation and usage, and they also reported finding help in
relieving tension and with problem solving.
Current student participants were encouraged to use the 10-minute
exercises that they had practised in each week’s session before singing
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practices (see Appendix AJ). This gave them the chance to try out all the
mindfulness exercises, but towards the end of the course, they were
encouraged to use the exercises that had resonated with them the most. All
participants, except for U15, C9, C12, and C17, reported doing some
mindfulness exercises directly before singing practice. Participants
occasionally specified which mindfulness exercises they had used before
singing practices as being particular favourites (see Table 8.1). In Czajkowski
(2013), Mindful Movement was the most popular exercise before singing
practice but breathing exercises in this study superseded this.
Despite U15, C9, C12, and C17 reporting no targeted mindfulness
practice before singing practices, all participants reported effects from learning
to be more mindful on this activity. They found positive effects of mindfulness
on their practice mindset, such as improved motivation and less negative self-
criticism. They also reported an impact on the structure of their practices,
learning technique and making sound, length of time practising, and dealing
with problems in practice. An overview of the thematic findings are detailed in
Figure 8.1 and the inter-relations reported by the student participants between
the themes are discussed in more detail within this chapter.

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Table 8.1 Mindfulness exercises that the participants particularly used for
singing practice
Mindfulness exercises Participants or Diary Entries

Breathing (general) U11, U12, U14, U17
C Diaries* Weeks 1, 6, 7
C1, C2, C3, C4, C6, C7, C9, C10, C14, C19
Breathing Counting U Diaries* Week 3
U1, U4, U10
Breathing Journey U Diaries* Week 3
U6, U17
C4
3-minute Breathing U Diaries * Week 1
Space U1, U3, U6, U13
Mindful Movement U Diaries* Week 1
C Diaries* Weeks 1, 4, 5
U1, U2, U5, U6, U7, U12
C1, C3, C11, C19, C20
Body Scan U Diaries* Weeks 2, 5, 6, 7
C Diaries* Week 5
U2, U5, U6, U7, U9, U14, U17
C2, C3, C20
Mindful Walking U13
Sounds and Thoughts U Diaries* Week 4
C6
• U = University participants’ diary submissions
• C = Conservatoire participants’ diary submissions
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Figure 8.1 Thematic overview of the effects of mindfulness in singing private practice.
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8.1.2 General mindset improvement
Participants reported that their mindset generally improved after doing
mindfulness before solo singing practice where before they described
themselves as moody, bored, or uptight (U5, U6, U7, U9, U10, U14, C1).
Participants said that they had less anxiety, stress, or frustration, as
evidenced in the U Diaries for Weeks 1 and 6, and the C Diaries for week 2,
which was confirmed in interview by U2, U14, U16, and C2. Before learning
mindfulness, participants reported feeling impatient and rushing through
practice sessions (U12, U16, C2, C9) but U2, U6, U14 and C9 said that they
had more patience in vocal practice after doing mindfulness.
Current participants’ responses supported and extended Farnsworth
Grodd’s (2012) suggestion that positive emotional states, including increased
confidence, would be a possible effect of increasing musicians’ mindfulness
by providing some empirical support for their ideas. After doing mindfulness,
participants in the current study reported feeling more confident in practice
(U8, U13, U17, C18) where U13 said, “I think it (mindfulness) makes me feel
more confident which in turn makes me sound more confident”. This was also
a finding in Newton (2015), who investigated the effects of mindfulness on
musical creativity, where one of the three participants observed that her
experience of singing was enriched and she described an increase in
confidence.
A popular response in the current study was that mindfulness helped
the participants to feel more calm and relaxed in singing practice which was
mentioned in the U Diaries for Weeks 2, 4, and 6 and in the C Diaries for
Weeks 2, 5, and 6. Participants also mentioned this effect in interview (U1,

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U2, U5, U12, C6, C7, C14, C17, C18, C21), where U1, for example, had done
some mindfulness when practising for her vocal exams saying, “I just do it to
calm me down and I find that really helps”.
Participants said that they became more aware of how to practise (U2)
and why they were practising (C16, C19). Their motivation to practise that had
been described as weak before (C14, C18) improved after doing a few
minutes’ mindful exercises (U7, U8, U15, C5, C9, C11, C14, C16, C18, C
Diaries Week 1 and Week 3). Gaunt (2010) found that students at the GSMD
relied heavily on their perception of how successful their previous lesson was
to give them motivation for practice. The MfM investigated the effect of
mindfulness in this area in item 10: “My private practice sessions are always
affected by how well or badly my instrumental/singing lesson went”. It was
hoped that more mindful participants’ scores would decrease in this
negatively-worded item over the duration of the mindfulness course, and that
they would find that being more mindful would lessen the effect of lesson
experience on subsequent practice motivation. Participants C6, U6, and U8
decreased by 2, C13 and C14 decreased by 3 but C21 increased his score by
2. Interestingly, no participants specifically mentioned this finding in interview,
although U6 did describe finding it easier to transfer learning from singing
lessons to practice, U8 and C14 felt more motivation to practise, and C6, C14
and C21 reported that their practice was more enjoyable now. Other
participants felt increased engagement in practice (U7, U8, U10, U17, C5, C8,
C11). They also reported being able to notice improvements in practice
sessions (U2, U6).

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In the interviews, some participants reported being less self-critical and
more accepting of mistakes in practice (U4, U14, U17, C14, C18) and were
less concerned by others listening nearby or looking into practice rooms whilst
they practised (U7, U11, U15, U17, C19). Although U16, U5, and U3 had not
found that mindfulness helped with their negative response to this type of
situation, U11 summarised those who had benefited, saying, “I guess that the
course has created a sense of awareness that-, okay, don’t worry about other
people…just carry on”. Item 4 in the MfM also covered this area, stating, “If
people can hear me practising, I know it’s irrational to worry and I criticise
myself”. In this negatively-worded item, U2, U12, and C18 decreased their
scores by 2, and U4 decreased by 3, suggesting that these participants
became less concerned by this issue over the duration of the mindfulness
course. However, C12 and C19 increased their scores by 2 and C6 by 3,
although C19’s response is curious considering that she volunteered
information about this area in the interview. She said that she used to think,
‘My flat mates can hear me and I'm going to annoy them by singing
etc.’ but as the process went on over the 8 weeks, I was able to be like
‘well at the end of the day we're all singers and that I need to practise’
so I was able to not think about them during the practice.
Conversely, U4 mentioned that she used to feel worried about friends hearing
her practise at home, but as she felt more comfortable practising in the music
department, she suggested that it may have just been a change of practice
venue that had prompted the change.

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8.1.3 Focused, attentive, and aware.
Before doing mindfulness at the beginning of private singing practice,
participants reported that they were easily distracted when practising (U4, U7,
U9, U10, U16, C3, C5, C6, C10, C11, C13, C14, C16, C18, C19, C20). C5
and C11 blamed their mobile phones, and C20 and C11 said they might be
tempted to play the piano instead of singing, which is an activity known as
“noodling”. Other participants mentioned feeling mindless or “zoned out” in
practice sessions (U8, C7, C18). Whilst investigating the development of
metacognition in musicians, participants in Hallam (2001) also reported
difficulties with concentration in practice and, as Langer (1998) asked, “How
much piano…can one learn while daydreaming about some other activity?” (p.
25).
Like Hribar (2012), and Czajkowski (2013), one of the most common
improvements of learning mindfulness mentioned in interview by the
participants in the current study was being focused, attentive and aware in
singing practice (see Table 8.2). For example, C7 described being more
aware of how she felt doing vocal exercises after mindfulness, saying, “it’s the
same exercises, but every time I practise it feels different” and that she had
never thought about that before. C5 described originally going into the practice
room but instead of singing, she would play on Facebook, however, she said,
If I’ve done mindfulness beforehand I’ll go in and I’ll be like, “This is it.
I’m doing it.” I can be like, “Okay, I’ve started to wander. Let’s go back”.
Awareness and attention are areas that are particularly targeted by the
mindfulness exercises, which are designed to improve these qualities, so a
statement addressing this issue was included in the MfM. Item 14 posed, “I’m
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easily distracted when practising my voice or instrument” and nine participants
decreased their scores on this negatively-worded item by 2 for this statement
over the intervention suggesting that they were now less easily distracted.
This finding was also corroborated in their interviews (U6, U8, U11, U15, C3,
C9, C13, C15, C19).

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Table 8.2 Participants who reported being more focused and aware
Participants reported Participants

feeling more…
Focused U1, U2, U4, U7, U8, U10, U12, U14, U15, U17,
U Diaries Week 1, C Diaries Weeks 1, 2, 4,
C1, C2, C5, C6, C7, C10, C11, C13, C14, C15,
C16, C18, C19, C20, C21
Concentrated U10, C15
Attentive U Diaries 3,
C5, C11
Aware U3, U5, U7, U11, U12, U16,
U Diaries Weeks 1, 2, 3, 7,
C3, C4, C7, C17, C18, C20
“In the zone” or the U1, U4, U5, U6, U7, U8, U9, U12, U14, U16, U17
present moment C Diaries 1, 5, 6,
C1, C3, C11, C15, C19
8.1.4 Changes in practice structure
Participants reported that being more focused and in a better frame of
mind after doing mindfulness before private practice had encouraged them to
change their practice structure, had an effect on time perception and length of
practice time, helped them deal with problems when practising, and, as a
result, practice sessions had become more efficient and effective. Participants
described doing singing practice every day (U1, U3, C14, C15, C18, C19,
C20), some did a few hours a week (U10, C2, C17) and some felt they did not
do as much as they should (C12, C13, U7). Reported practice time varied
from 30 minutes to an hour (U1, U3, U9, U12, C18, C19), up to 2 hours a day
(U17, C5, C10, C11, C14, C16, C20) and up to 3 hours split over the day (U8).
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As a result of being more focused and efficient from increased
mindfulness, some participants said that they changed what they did in
singing practice and reflected more (U6, U16, C20, C21). They described
developing more structure and routine (U16, U17, C6, C8), described trying
out new songs (C8), did more exercises (C14) or, as C16 said
I’m just doing the bits that I wouldn’t have done before, that before I
would have left until the last minute and just done badly. Yes, just
giving me more motivation to do that, understanding why I’m doing it, if
that makes sense.
De Felice (2004) suggested that musicians practising “one measure at a time,
one finger at a time” (p. 84) would be able to stay more absorbed in the
present if they were more mindful. This suggestion was supported by self-
report evidence from participants in the current study. Nine participants, who
said that they had previously just sung through their songs in practice, started
practise sections of songs in more detail (U1, U2, U7, U8, U17, C1, C5, C8,
C20). They also said that they found it easier to plan for future practice
sessions (U2, U12, U16).
Doing mindfulness before singing practices also seemed to have an
effect on actual and self-perceived practice time for some of the participants
(see Table 8.3). This was another finding that mirrored Czajkowski (2013)
where two participants found they practised for longer due to feeling more
creative and engaged and one participant practised for a shorter length due to
being more efficient and effective in practice.

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Table 8.3 Actual and perceived practice time changes reported by mindful
singing participants
Practice time Participants

Practice time is longer U2, U4, U6, U12, C2, C6, C15, C16, C19, C20
Practice time is shorter U10, C5, C11, C13
Practice time seems U6, U9, U10, U12, C11, C16
slower
Practice time seems U7, C1, C2, C6, C13, C14, C15, C18, C19, C20,
faster C21
Various reasons were given for these actual and perceived changes in
practice time. The participants who practised longer thought that it could be
due to increased enjoyment (U4, U6) and better productivity (C15, C16, C19).
Every participant who practised for a shorter length thought that it could be
due to improved efficiency, for example, C5 said, “I’m able to do more in a
shorter space”. De Felice (2004) also theorised that musicians who were more
mindful would not need “unnecessary extra hours” of practice due to
extraneous mindless practice but this was only true for a few of the
participants in this current study. U9, who felt time was longer in the practice
rooms, described practising staying in the present moment for each piece in
preparation for performance, and U12 described doing the same which made
the time seem slower. Six of the eleven participants who felt that practices
seemed to pass faster than before the mindfulness intervention, said that
practice sessions were more enjoyable. For example, C14 said,
Before I did the mindfulness course, I would just go to the practice

room just because I wrote it in my diary that I was going to practise, but
now … I enjoy it so much and I actually look forward to practice.
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Bruser, in 2011, suggested that meditation calmed the mind allowing
musicians to notice habits such as “pushing ourselves too hard” or “tightening
our muscles” extraneously (p.107) and, as she said in an earlier book,
“struggle does not produce beautiful music” (Bruser, 1997, p.13). Participants
mentioned using mindfulness meditation during singing practices in a similar
way as that suggested by Bruser (1997, 2011) and reported that it did help to
deal with problems such as stress (U2, C9, C15, C20), creative block (C10),
struggling (U2, C4), and being self-judgmental (C18). They felt it helped them
to take a step back (U2), have “fresh eyes” (U6), or a “clear head” (C10) and
become aware of “absolutely everything” (C4). They described feeling less
frustrated (U6, U9, U14) and persevering more (U2, U6, U9, C9, C15),
meaning that they did not give up and leave the practice room (U2, U9, C15).
In the current study, one of the most reported effects of being more
focused and aware in singing practice as a result of doing mindfulness
beforehand was that participants felt that they did more effective and efficient
practice (U4, U6, U7, U8, U10, U16, C1, C5, C11, C13, C15, C16, U Diaries
Week 3). C11 said, “I feel like my attention and my focus is better and I feel
like I don’t have to go over stuff many times”. On the basis of his research with
music students investigating the effect of mindfulness on music listening, Diaz
(2013) had suggested that “mindfulness practice may serve as a useful means
of maximising practice time” (p.15). Reports from some of the participants in
the current study supported Diaz’s suggestion. For example, participants
described themselves as doing more quality practice (U3, C6), being more
productive (C13, C19, U Diaries Week 7), and found it easier and quicker to
identify problems (C20, U1, U Diaries Week 4) after doing mindfulness. This
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replicates with Czajkowski (2013) and supports research by Hribar (2012) with
participant musicians at the GSMD where 3 of the 8 participants mentioned
this effect in interview, and where one participant also put down greater
practice efficiency to being more mindfully focused. It also supported De
Felice’s suggestion (2004) (see Chapter 1, Section 1.2.1) that higher levels of
concentration from mindfulness practice would enhance productivity and
efficiency in the music practice room.
8.1.5 Body awareness and technique
Evidence that the body and the mind are intimately connected is now
well accepted and vocal education is an area where this is of primary use and
importance (Thurman & Welch, 2000). So it is not surprising that being more
mentally focused and aware in singing practices from doing mindfulness
exercises also translated to enhanced body awareness, which had an effect
on participants practising their vocal technique. The MfM questionnaire stated
in item 1, “When I am practising, I pay close attention to how things physically
feel or sound as I am playing or singing”. Four participants increased by +2
(C2, C3, C7, C9) and U5 and U13 increased by +3 and all these participants
mentioned this effect in interview. Only U14 decreased by 2 for this item but in
the interview she said, “I'm more aware of how I'm feeling and how I can
control my body better and it's a better practice”, so it is possible that she felt
that she ought to tell the interviewer this information or it is possible that since
doing the questionnaire, she had discovered this information in the intervening
week. Interviews by the other participants with larger questionnaire quotient
increases, however, upheld their questionnaire responses in interview.

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At least 18 participants (not including those in the diaries) reported
feeling more aware of, or connected to, their body in some way (see Table
8.4). Being more body aware was described as having a positive effect on
reducing unnecessary tension, practicing breath control and working on
technique, transferring learning from lessons to practice, and working on bad
habits.
One of the key techniques learnt by singers is that of diaphragmic or
abdominal breath control because it has a big impact on quality of sound,
especially for high notes (Sundberg, 1992). At least 18 participants (not
counting the diary feedback) reported that being more mindfully aware of their
bodies in singing practice had a positive effect on them learning, practising,
and using this technique (see Table 8.4). For example, C11 said,
Being aware of the physical sensations…my breathing and the tension

in my abdominal area, because I feel like I-, I don’t know. I strain
myself sometimes. I’m like, ‘Why am I contracting everything? No, let
go, it’s fine, just relax.’ It’s more little things like that and just pitch and
just swooping into the notes, high notes, just supporting everything
really well.
Participants found that being more aware of parts of their bodies and micro
muscular movements helped them in being more generally aware of what the
voice feels like (U12, C9), what the voice is doing (U13, U14) and how to use
it (U15, C16). Posture was reported to be improved (U13, U16, C1) and
participants said that they became more aware of the usage of their vocal
principles such as the jaw, tongue, and soft palate to work on vowel shaping,
articulation, and vocal resonance (U2, U5, U13, U16, U17, C1, C5, C11, C14).
One of the major impacts of being more mindfully aware of the body
was the effect on physical tension (see Table 8.4). Participants described
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becoming more aware of tension in general and specifically in the throat, jaw
and neck (U5, C1, C9, C11, C Diaries Week 6), and shoulders and arms (U5,
C1, C11, C19, C Diaries Week 1). For example, C10 used it to become aware
of unnecessary tensions when using the vocal “belting” technique (see
Appendix BA), saying,
I’ve been working a lot with belting and things like that, so for me I can’t
physically do it when I tense up, and it just gets squeaky and bit weird.
So when I relax all the muscles, I can actually do it and it feels easy
and I know I don’t strain my voice. It’s because I-, ‘Oh, it’s hard,’ and I
tense up and I tense up and I tense up. So it helps me to just relax and
just do it.
Participants also reported finding it easier to transfer information learnt
from singing lessons into their practices due to increased micro-muscular
memory and awareness (U2, U4, C1, C4, C17, C19, C20). For example, C1
said,
I’ll know that I’ve really taken note as to what’s moving, even in the
small muscular parts, and then try and repeat that on my own without
[teacher’s name] there, and then I know that I’m doing it right.
Participants found it easier to work on bad vocal habits (U13, C5, C18, C20).
C18 discovered that she could correct technique in the moment when her
“breathing goes out of whack” and C20 found it easier to become aware of his
jaw jutting forward, if his breathing was wrong or if his knees were locking.
This supports Elliott’s (2010) personal experience that using mindfulness in
singing practice can help retrain bad vocal habits. C18 pointed out that good
technique makes singing effortless because you have to focus on the
technique or it goes wrong and it is important to be in the present moment to
sing properly.
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Table 8.4 Participants’ reports of three major effects of mindfulness exercises

on physical awareness in singing practices
Major effects Participants/Diary entries

Improved body U2, U3, U7, U11, U12, U15, U16
awareness U Diaries Week 3, 4, C Diaries Weeks 2, 6
C1, C3, C4, C7, C9, C14, C15, C19, C20, C21
Positive effects on U1, U2, U3, U4, U9, U11, U12, U13, U14, U16
learning singing U Diaries Weeks 3, 7
support/breath control C5, C6, C11, C12, C15, C18, C19, C21
Dealing with tension U2, U4, U5, U7, U12

U Diaries Weeks 1, 2, 7, C Diaries Weeks 1, 3, 6, 7
C1, C2, C7, C9, C10, C11, C17, C19, C20
8.1.6 Sound
After doing mindfulness before singing practices, participants described
developing improved mindful listening skills in regard to their own voices.
Participants reported more awareness of the sound they were making (U12,
U16, C2, C6) where C6 had done a lot of work around mindful listening as she
was keen to develop her own individual vocal sound in the pop genre. She
said,
[I’m] trying to make it so that my tone is my own and not put on, so it’s
still working with that a bit…I’d say I’m more aware. I think it’s because
I’ve improved my musical ear as well, but I’m more aware of whether
something sounds a little bit off. I think that also helps because I do a
lot of mindfulness around sound.
Participants reported improved vocal sound discernment between “good”
sounds and “bad” sounds (U5, U12, U16, C2, C5, C6). For example, C2
described learning the self-perceived difference between making relaxed and

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tense sounds, where tense sounds were described as sometimes being useful
in jazz for story telling purposes.
Ten participants reported that their vocal quality had improved (U3, U4,
U5, U13, U17, C2, C17, C18, C19, C21) where increased awareness and
application of abdominal support enhanced self-perceived sound output (U3,
U13, C19, U17) and sounds were more confident and less “wobbly” (U13).
Teachers also noticed improvements in sound and technique when students
returned to lessons (see Chapter 7), for example, C18 said, “Yes, I’ve
definitely improved” and Tosca, her teacher, identified her in the blind study
because she had been one of her two students who had made the most
progress over the intervention.
8.1.7 Exploration in singing practice
A few participants also played with creative, expressive, and
performance elements in singing practices in a way that they had not done
before learning mindfulness. This supported Farnsworth Grodd’s (2012)
theory, which suggested that increasing mindfulness in musicians would
encourage more exploratory practice. It also extended Farnsworth Grodd’s
theory because the participants in the current study reported in greater depth
what these exploratory practices were for them.
Participants, after doing mindfulness before singing practice, described
spending time going further than the music on the page (U7, U10) and
practising songs in different ways (U7, C17, U Diaries Week 6). C17 said, for
example,
It’s more kind of being very aware at the time. That’s my safe time to
just play with the songs and how I’m singing stuff.
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In a similar way, the three participants in Newton (2015) reported that
developing enhanced awareness and focus and cultivating a non-striving
attitude from a 4-week mindfulness intervention helped them to develop
creativity in their music making. In Week 5 of the MfS course, participants did
Mindful Walking and this was linked to stage presence and walking on stage.
U13 described taking this mindful learning into her practice sessions for
exploration:
I thought that being critiqued on how I do walk from that made me have
to be more aware of posture and how I'm standing and what sort of,
how I'm presenting myself and I felt that trickled into then as I'm
practising.
MfS participants also described spending time discovering their own
individual “sound” (U12, U17), and practising playing with performance
elements such as emotion (U9, U12), and character (U2).
8.1.8 Section summary
This section has described the results detailing the reported effects of
learning mindfulness on solo vocal practice. Those who suggested that
mindfulness may have an effect on musicians’ instrumental practice (De
Felice, 2004; Elliott, 2010; Farnsworth-Grodd (2012); Hribar, 2012; Steinfeld &
Brewer, 2015), posited that there would be a variety of beneficial effects such
as improved concentration, efficiency, goal directed thoughts, positive
emotional states, confidence, perseverance, motivation, and enjoyment, and
these, and more, have been evidenced in both Czajkowski (2013) and this
replication study.
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One of the clearest findings from this thematic analysis is that doing
mindfulness before practising singing has reportedly had a positive effect on
participants’ mindset going into a solo vocal practice session. From that point
on, a cascade of beneficial effects on mental awareness, focus, efficient
practice, and improved practice structures seemed to fall. Increased body
awareness reportedly helped participants to improve their vocal technique,
listening skills, sound, performance and creativity in practice. Participants
described using mindful strategies that helped them when frustration and
stress entered the practice room, and, maybe most importantly of all, they
described themselves as beginning to enjoy practice more, leading them to be
more motivated to practise again (U3, U4, U6, U7, C4, C5, C11, C14, C16,
C18, C19, C20, C21). The next section describes the reported effects of
learning mindfulness in group ensemble practices and rehearsals.
8.2 The effects of mindfulness on group rehearsals and
ensembles practice.
8.2.1 Introduction
Performers’ musical, social, and organisational skills in rehearsal and
ensemble practice are important for any successful ensemble performance
(Ginsborg & King, 2012; Lim, 2014; Murnighan & Conlon, 1991). These skills
are “crucial in enabling musicians to collaborate in pursuit of their collective
artistic endeavours” (Lim, 2014, p.307). Pulman (2014) researched the types
of highly prized qualities that music educators wanted to encourage with
ensemble band classes to prepare students for professional life: self-
confidence, intrinsic motivation, communication/negotiation, self-initiative,

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resourcefulness, and conflict management. Music ensembles are sometimes
used as work groups’ examples in business research (Langer et al., 2009) and
mindfulness has been shown to have a positive effect on such relationships
and skills in business research (Lomas et al., 2017).
Participants were encouraged to do mindfulness exercises every day
and specifically before musical activities such as rehearsals and ensembles.
Ensembles in which participants said they had contributed are reported in
Table 8.5.
The types of mindfulness exercises that participants identified using as
preparation were varied: 3-Minute Breathing Space, Mindful Movement, Body
Scan, Breathing Journey, general breathing exercises, and Sounds and
Thoughts. Participants described doing breathing exercises during rehearsals
to help focus or deal with difficult moments (C4, U Diary Week 7). They also
wrote in the diary about doing mindfulness after rehearsals (U Diary Week 3,
and 4, C Diary Week 7) where it was reported to help relaxation after a difficult
rehearsal, or to be more objective, and helped consolidate the information
learnt in the rehearsal. There was little report of the effects of mindfulness on
rehearsals and ensembles in Czajkowski (2013) due to the scope and extent
of that report, but participants talked more extensively about this area in the
current study.
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Table 8.5 Rehearsal and ensemble experiences described by MfS participants

in interview
Ensembles Participants
Small chamber choir U2, U4, U5, U8, U9, U10, U11, U13, U15, U17
Hall Choir C1, C2
Ensemble Choir
Chamber Choir
Clothworkers Consort
Project Choir
Leeds Baroque
Acappella group
Opera Society U4, U7, U13, U17
C1, C5, C14, C18, C20
Band (with U5, U12, U16
instrumentalists) C11, C2, C3, C4, C6, C7, C8, C9, C11, C13,
C15, C16, C17, C18, C19, C21
Duet U16
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Rowbury (2009) felt that one of the aspects of a good chorister was
self-awareness and attentiveness, and music education researchers have
been exploring different ways to improve attention, attitude and performance
outcomes in ensemble rehearsals (Brendell, 1996; Dunn, 1997; Price, 1983).
Brendell (1996) investigated attentiveness during rehearsal warm ups for 33
high school choral rehearsals, Dunn (1997) tested different types of teacher
reinforcement on attentiveness in ensembles using high school choirs, and
Price (1986) researched the effect of three types of conductor task
presentation for a symphonic band in rehearsals. In all cases, researchers
found that keeping students actively engaged meant more on task behaviour,
such as attentiveness to the conductor with less off-topic communication.
After doing mindfulness, participants in the current study reported being
more focused and in the “zone” in rehearsals and ensembles, and becoming
more self-compassionate and empathetic. They said that this positively
affected musical collaboration, musical listening, vocal technique and sound,
and performance elements. Participants also reported that it had a beneficial
effect on relationships with others both musically and personally, and helped
improved confidence, and rehearsal experience. Figure 8.2 provides a
thematic overview diagram followed by a more in-depth analysis of the
relationship between findings as reported by the participants.

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Figure 8.2 Thematic overview of the effects of mindfulness in ensembles/rehearsals group practice.
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8.2.2 Focus, calmness, and present moment awareness.
Pulman (2014) found that rehearsals could have an effect on attention
where one of his student participants admitted, “We can get fatigued over time
and you lose focus...nothing changes and it's so monotonous,” (p.303). After
preparing by using MfS exercises, a large proportion of participants in this
current study mentioned feeling more focused, alert, or aware in rehearsals
(U2, U4, U7, U8, U10, U13, U16, C2, C11, C12, C15, C19, U Diary Week 7, C
Diaries Weeks 6, and 7). Participants also described feeling calmer or relaxed
in rehearsals and within ensembles (U8, U13, C1, C2, C11, C18, C21, U
Diaries Weeks 3, and 7, C Diary Weeks 1, 6). Participants reported that being
more mindful in rehearsals helped them to be less stressed in general (C1,
C11), created a good “mindframe” for the rehearsal (U8, C Diary Week 7) and
provided a nicer environment (C5). Participants felt more positive (U2), were
more productive (C19) and enjoyed rehearsals and ensemble sessions more
(U4, U8, C16).
8.2.3 Improved musicianship skills
A common finding for the MfS participants was that being more focused
and calmer improved their listening skills (U2, U7, U10, U13, U16, C11, C15,
C19), which is listed as a key quality for good choir members in Rowbury
(2009). Several participants reported that they could decipher more, their
listening was more precise, or that it was easier to identify different musical
sounds within the texture better (U2, U7, C11, C15, C19) and they that felt
their improvisations had improved too (C11, U7, C Diary Week 7). U13 said,
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I think it helped a lot with listening skills with being able to hone in with
different people and to different voices and to intervals in particular and
especially in opera where it's an awful lot of ‘soloist sings a bit’ and
‘chorus react and adds to it.’
U16 said that improved mindful listening helped her when setting electronic
equipment volume levels for her band, which was something that Pulman
(2009) specifically mentioned as a problem in student pop music rehearsal
ensembles.
Lim (2014) found that an important part of being in the highly
successful professional vocal ensemble, The Swingle Singers, was the ability
to listen and “tune in” or “blend” (balance their sound with others). MfS
participants described that improved listening skills helped them to be more
aware of their voices within a musical texture and to blend better (U2, U7,
U10, U13, U16, U17, C12, C13, C18) with improved pitching accuracy (U7,
U10, U13) which Biasutti (2013) described as an “indispensible performer
skill”.
Participants also noted that being more focused and mindful helped
them to watch the conductor of ensembles more closely (U7, U10) or observe
how their band looked when they played (C19). They said that they felt more
aware of the ensemble (U7), were more able to contribute confidently (U2,
U17, C15, C16), and felt better at interacting and collaborating (U10, U13,
C11). For example, U10 said,
Yeah, I think being generally more aware of things has made me able
to listen to other parts more…I watch the conductor much better. Yeah,
my accuracy has gotten a lot better. I think, therefore, the inflections
and things have improved as well.
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Biasutti’s (2013) “indispensable performer skills” also included good
technique and sound. MfS participants noticed being more physically aware of
their body parts used for singing during rehearsals and with ensembles (U11,
C2), which improved technique such as breath control (C2, C17, U Diary
Week 7), noticeably improved vocal projection (U Diary Week 2), and made
singing high notes easier (C2, C17). Participants reported being more aware
of rhythm, timing, and cues (U7, U10, U16), dynamics (U16), and felt better at
acting and improvising in their groups (C11, C20, U7, U17, C Diary Week 5).
Four participants volunteered for a musical leadership role in their
respective institutions (U2, U4, U5, C2) and, through mindfulness, U2 realised
that she had not been interacting or listening to the group she conducted.
Biasutti (2013), when studying professional conductors and performers’
rehearsing strategies, felt that listening skills were important for leaders to
spot mistakes more quickly. Being more mindful, U2 and U4 both said that
their listening had improved and mistakes in rehearsals were recognised
quicker. Biasutti (2013) also found that orchestras preferred conductors who
gave clear and ordered instructions. After mindfulness, U4 described that she
explained and articulated musical concepts better and U5 said,
It’s just being able to give clear instructions for warm ups. Stretching
right up on your tip toes then flopping down, feeling each vertebrae,
kind of like something that might not have particularly occurred to me
before doing this course.
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8.2.4 Improved personal and interpersonal skills.
Criticism can arise in a variety of ways, from being overly and
negatively self-critical, musically negative about others in rehearsals, and
through being judgmental of peers in rehearsal organisation. Personal and
interpersonal skills are very important for successful ensemble performances
and rehearsals (Ginsborg & King, 2012; Lim, 2014) and although institutions
hoped that encouraging band rehearsals and ensembles would teach social
skills to students, there were still improvements that could be made (Pulman,
2009). These improvements included the recognition and evaluation of
individual and group contributions to the process, promoted a pleasant and
workmanlike rehearsing environment, included activities that foster specific
rehearsal skills, and provided opportunities for students to lead.
Participants described themselves before doing mindfulness as being
self-critical, particularly about making mistakes in rehearsals or in ensembles,
and imagined criticism from others or worried about letting colleagues down
(U2, U4, C5, C16). They said that the mindfulness course had helped them to
deal with imagined criticism more rationally and to realise that everyone
makes mistakes (U2). As a result, they reported feeling less self-critical, less
anxious, less negative, and more comfortable in rehearsals (U2, U4, U16,
U17, C5, C16, U Diary Week 4).
Negative musical criticism from peers can create tension between band
members during rehearsals (Pulman, 2009) and a positive group dynamic is
key to success. Before becoming more mindful, MfS participants described
themselves as being negatively critical of other ensemble members
sometimes due to others’ lower musical skill or experience levels (U4, C4,
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C18) or their subjective expectations of others’ commitment and music
practice (C4, C5, C18). For example, U4 said of an unauditioned chorus that
she was in,
There are completely varying levels of experienced singers and not

complete novices, but not as experienced singers, and I think I had a
tendency to get a little bit frustrated when people weren’t doing things
exactly right…I think the mindfulness has helped me just accept that
actually we’re not doing it because it’s professional, we’re doing it
because we all enjoy it and I absolutely loved Magic Flute. It was one of
the best weeks, it was so fun.
In a similar way to U4, C5, C18, and U10 chose to become more
accepting of others in ensembles. C5 summarised, “Now I’m just like, ‘That’s
fine. That happens. We’ll get it next week’, I’m just more able to deal with it”.
Organisationally, good choir members have punctuality, commitment
and consideration for others (Rowbury 2009), and students in pop bands want
equal contribution and commitment from everyone (Pulman, 2009).
Organising students is well known to be a difficult experience despite modern
technology. Participants found that organising rehearsals with their peers
could be incredibly frustrating and described themselves as upset, angry, and
stressed when colleagues demonstrated little commitment (C1, C11, C5, C7,
C18, C19). Only C7 reported not trying a mindful approach to this problem and
therefore had found no help and there were no indications that mindfulness
had improved participants’ actual organisational skills. Other participants,
however, described becoming less controlling (C19), more accepting, hopeful,
and empathetic with peers (C1, C11, C5, C18, C19) and calmer as a result
(C1, C11, C5, C19).
Ginsborg and King (2012) discovered that performers in professional
duets confidently asked and gave more opinions than their student
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counterparts in rehearsals suggesting that this is more advanced rehearsal
behaviour, and confidence in rehearsals is desired by both institutional tutors
and students (Pulman, 2009). In their interviews, some MfS participants
reported feeling more confident as a result of becoming more mindful which
helped with dealing with rehearsal nerves and anxiety. This improvement
tended to demonstrate itself through participants speaking up, and/or
contributing more to the rehearsal process (U2, U4, U7, U17, C9, C15, C16, U
Diary Week 2). Like participants who displayed behaviour changes as a result
of taking part in an ACT/MPA intervention (Juncos et al., 2017), U4 found the
confidence through mindfully dealing with nerves and anxiety to start
conducting an ensemble, and C16 said
Just yesterday, I brought in one of my own tunes that I wrote, which

was really scary, but it was fine. I really enjoyed doing it…I think it’s just
being more aware of it’s okay to feel anxious but it just doesn’t need to
happen or there’s no actual reason for it apart from you thinking either,
‘I’m not good enough,’ or, ‘This isn’t good enough,’ but there’s no
reason for that and now I feel like, ‘Oh, I am good enough.’
The MfM item 7 explored communication in rehearsals and ensembles,
stating, “It’s hard for me to find the words to describe to others what I think or
feel in rehearsal or practice sessions”. The scores of participants C1, C8, C19,
and U2 decreased on this negatively-worded item by 2 suggesting that they
were finding it easier to find words to express themselves in rehearsals. Only
C14 had increased their score over the course of the intervention but, oddly,
like C6 and C13, who decreased by 3, she said nothing about this aspect in
the interviews. Other interviewees’ reports correlated with their questionnaire
score where C1 noted that she had become less frustrated with others in
rehearsal organisation, C8 felt his musical ideas were “a lot more true”, C19
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said that she could communicate better with her band, and U2 discovered that
she spoke up more confidently in rehearsals.
This section has described the effects of learning mindfulness on
ensemble practices and rehearsals. To be an effective, successful,
professional vocal ensemble, Lim’s research (2014) with the Swingle Singers
suggested that excellent personal, and interpersonal skills, such as self-
awareness, restraint, interpersonal awareness, and mutual sensitivity, are
needed. Not all participants highlighted the effects of mindfulness in
rehearsals and ensembles with some not mentioning them in the interviews at
all (U6, U12, U14, U15, C3, C6, C10, C14), or that it had little effect (U1, U9).
However, the other twenty-eight participants volunteered a variety of positive
effects from being more mindful through focused attention training, and
developing self-compassion and empathy for others. Participants said that
they felt more focused in rehearsals and “in the moment” which improved their
listening skills, musical collaboration, and impacted positively on technique,
and performance elements. They said mindfulness had improved their
personal and interpersonal skills by helping them to become increasingly
aware of those around them, more realistic regarding self-criticism, develop
restraint in criticising peers musically, and more sensitive to others from an
organisational point of view. Improved mindfulness skills have been reported
by the MfS participants to have had a marked effect on them as participators,
organisers, and leaders in classical, jazz, and popular music ensembles and
bands musically, socially, and organizationally. This, they said, led to more
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positive rehearsal environments, confident and happier students, and, in some
cases, improved performances (see Chapter 9, Section 9.3.7). The next
chapter describes the effects of learning mindfulness on performance
elements, such as music performance anxiety and aspects of performing on
stage.
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Chapter Nine – Mindfulness for Singers qualitative results:
Performance
9.1 Introduction
This chapter reports the effects of teaching mindfulness to student
singers in the area of music performance. The mindfulness course addressed
performance through presentation of research, group discussions, and a
workshop. In the mindful performance workshop in Week 7, participants did a
selection of mindfulness exercises, performed an unaccompanied song in
front of the group, and were then subject to constructive criticism from the
trainer and the peer group whilst being instructed to breathe and remain
mindful. The entire session was recorded and each participant received an
individual MP3 of their performance and criticism for comparison with their
memory of the event.
Music performance anxiety (MPA) was of concern to many participants
(see Section 9.2.1). Butzer et al. (2015) reported that participants in their
study found that yogic breath control techniques immediately before
performances were most effective in reducing performance anxiety. Therefore,
participants in the current study were also encouraged to test the effects of at
least 10 minutes of pre-performance mindfulness exercises as close as
possible to the beginning of each performing activity.
In interview, the participants spoke generally about their use of
mindfulness for performance, the types of performance that they did, and the
styles of music they performed. The subsequent effects of mindfulness on
performance that they reported could be gathered into two major themes:
effects on music performance anxiety, and effects on aspects of music

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performance. As regards music performance anxiety, they spoke about the
positive effects of mindfulness on acceptance or reduction of physical
symptoms, changes in mindset, improvements in vocal technique, and better
audience perception (see Figure 9.1). Mindfulness also had an impact on
music performance experience and participants’ responses are gathered
under the following themes: increased present moment awareness on stage;
changes in time perception and improved memory retention; enhanced
performance elements (communication, listening, creativity); increased ability
to deal with the unexpected; improved feedback, and enhanced enjoyment
(Figure 9.2). These findings provided further support for research from the
pilot study (Czajkowski, 2013), where participants had reported the benefits of
mindfulness in performance in similar areas: music performance anxiety,
mental mindsets, physical awareness and vocal technique, creativity,
audience perception, and dealing with the unexpected in performance.

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Figure 9.1 Thematic overview of the effects of mindfulness on MPA.
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Figure 9.2 Thematic overview of the effects of mindfulness on performance elements.
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9.1.1 Mindfulness practice, performance opportunities, and music
styles of the MfS participants
Participants described testing the mindfulness exercises in a wide
variety of performance opportunities. Everyone had the opportunity to try them
out in Week 7 of the MfS course as part of the MfS Course but even before
this point many participants reported that they had already started to use
them. They tested them out as soloists and ensemble members both inside
and outside their institutions. Internally, they were used for conservatoire
Performance in Context sessions, university performance classes, and before
technical, recital, and year-end performance examinations. They also used the
mindfulness exercises in the following arenas when performing in public: final
performance examinations, opera productions, evening and lunchtime
concerts, recitals, showcases, gigs, open mic sessions, and even a fashion
show. They were used for auditions, recordings, weddings and funerals, both
locally, and nationally. Participants mentioned performing a variety of musical
styles: classical (including opera, operetta, classical recitals, and church
music), musical theatre, popular music styles (including indie, pop, rock, own
compositions), and jazz and blues (Table 9.1).
A few participants sang in more than one style in more than one type of
venue. Some accompanied themselves, some worked with bands, and others
performed with orchestras and pianists. Some were doing and had done
professional gigs but the grand majority of performing was unpaid.
Thirty-six of the 38 participants described engaging in mindfulness
exercises before performing activities with breathing exercises reported as
being the most popular. As well as doing the traditional mindfulness exercises,
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participants also described putting suggestions from the psycho-education into
practice. For example, they watched and listened to others perform mindfully:
it had been suggested to the participants in Week 7 that, as well as doing
mindfulness exercises in performances, they could also choose to focus their
attention on others performing in that present moment. They also reported
choosing to engage in positive mental talk (U2, C1, C5, C10, C11, C17).
Another group reported focusing on their physical motion (physicality) to assist
concentration prior to performance. The different types of exercises used are
detailed in Table 9.2.
Two participants did no mindfulness before performances. U16 had
been too ill to perform that term and U15 said, “I found pretending that the
performance wouldn't happen was more easier than accepting that it would
happen” and used other techniques like relying on her singing teacher’s
support and drinking a glass of wine.
Several participants also used mindfulness during performances whilst
they were on stage (U4, U6, U14, C4, C7, C10, C14, C17). They used
breathing exercises (U4, U14, C7, C14), or took a moment between songs
(C10).
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Table 9.1 Styles of music performed by MfS participants
Classical Musical Theatre Pop Jazz

U1, U2, U3, U4, U11, U15, C18 U4, U5, C3, C4, U5, U12, U14,
U5, U6, U7, U8, C6, C7, C8, C10, U16
U9, U10, U11, C11, C15, C16, C2, C8, C9, C16
U13, U15, U17 C17, C19, C21
C1, C5, C9, C12,
C13, C14, C18,
C20
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Table 9.2 Mindfulness exercises used by participants prior to performance
Mindfulness exercise Participants

Breathing U1, U4, U5, U6, U7, U8, U11, U12, U13, U17, C1,
(unspecified) C2, C4, C6, C8, C9, C10, C11, C13, C14, C15, C17,
C18, C19
Breathing Counting U1, U4, U14, C1, C3, C5, C12, C16
Breathing (3-Minute) U1, C19
Breathing Journey U4, U9, U13
Body Scan U2, U3, U5, U6, U7, U8, U10, U11, U14, U17, C1,
C3, C4, C5, C9, C10, C13, C16, C18, C21
Mindfully watch/listen U12, U14, C1, C7, C13, C16, C18
to others perform
Positive mental talk U2, C1, C5, C7, C10, C11, C14, C17
Mindful Movement U12, C5, C11, C20
Focus on physicality C7, C13, C17
Exploring Difficulties C1, C19
Mindful Walking U8, C4, U10
Sounds and Thoughts C18, C20
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9.2 Mindfulness and music performance anxiety
9.2.1 Introduction
Music performance anxiety (MPA) affects many musicians both
physically and mentally, and these aspects are often related and negatively
cyclical in their operation (Kenny, 2011). Cornett-Murtada (2012) suggested
that “music performance involves an intimate dance between the mind and the
physical body” (p.16) where a challenge in one area would create problems in
the other. However, De Felice (2004) suggested that not all MPA is bad if it
does not disrupt performing or unduly disturb the performer’s mental well-
being, but thought that mindfulness might help those who are deeply affected.
Participants in this study were not formally measured in levels of MPA but
although nearly every participant, like those in Czajkowski’s study (2013),
mentioned having some level of performance anxiety, some described being
more deeply affected than others.
Participants self-identified their levels of MPA and their data fell into
groups when discussing the effects of mindfulness on performance (Table
9.3). Thirteen participants specified performance anxiety as one of the main
reasons why they chose to do a mindfulness course (Group A). Another 30
described performance anxiety symptoms in some detail during the interviews
(Group B) and the final eight did not verbalise many symptoms or mindfulness
effects in this area (Group C). In summary, fewer than 50% of the university
cohort demonstrated a higher severity of performance anxiety symptoms
compared to over 85% of the conservatoire contingent. This result is perhaps
unsurprising because the expectation of the conservatoire students and staff
is that they are training for, and will be performing as a lifelong career,
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whereas a performing career is not necessarily the expected career path for
university students.
9.2.2 Mindfulness and the physical symptoms of MPA
Chopin described feeling choked, paralysed, and struck dumb by music
performance anxiety (Kenny, 2011) and participants in the MfS study also
described debilitating physical symptoms of their MPA. Participants reported a
variety of symptoms: nervous sensations in the stomach (C10, U4) feeling sick
(U1, C4, C12, C16), feeling their hearts racing (U8, C5, C16), being sweaty
(C1, C7, C10, C4), being energy-less (U17, U10), and breathlessness (C12,
C14) “Tension…” said De Felice (2004, p.79), “tends to collect in the
shoulders, hands, neck, vertebral column and jaws”, and this was confirmed
by participants who felt substantial tension in these parts of the body (C14,
U6, U9, C7, C1, C10, C11, C14). The most frequently reported symptom of
MPA was some sort of shaking (U6, U9, U10, U12, C3, C4, C6, C14, C16,
C18). Hands were mentioned the most (U14, C7, C11, C14, C15, C20, C21),
then legs (C1, C2, C11, C12), and C21 had a “ridiculous amount of adrenaline
pumped” to his head, which made his head shake and hurt.
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Table 9.3 Music performance anxiety: Participant group assignment
Did mindfulness for MPA symptoms mentioned MPA

MPA in interview miscellaneous
Group A Group B Group C
U1, U7, U8, U13, U1, U4, U6, U7, U8, U9, U10, U2, U3, U5, U11,
U14, U15, C1, C6, U12, U13, U14, U15, U17, U16, C8, C9, C19
C7, C12, C21 C1, C2, C3, C4, C5, C6, C7,
C10, C11, C12, C13, C14,
C15, C16, C17, C18, C20,
C21
After discussing the reasons for MPA symptoms in the MfS sessions,
and experimenting with mindfulness exercises, participants found a variety of
beneficial effects. They reported feeling generally more bodily relaxed (U1,
U12, C5, C7, C10, C14) and physically more sturdy or grounded (U1, C2, C3,
U10). Using mindfulness did not take away all the symptoms. Although C10
and C13 reported that they stopped experiencing stomach churning, U14 and
C12 still described having the odd “butterfly” (U14) but felt that it was better.
C21 felt that doing the Body Scan completely took away his shaking head
caused by a painful rush of adrenaline and other participants reported
reductions in leg and hand shaking (U13, C2, C13, C18).
De Felice (2004) suggested that performers should do Dr. Kabat-Zinn’s
Body Scan to be aware of muscle tension with MPA in order to be able to
release it. Participants in the current study who did the Body Scan, and other
mindfulness exercises, reported feeling less tension in their bodies (C1, C3,
C7, C14) whereas other participants said that they were able to notice
tensions in their bodies, feel them, breath into them and watch them go (U1,
U7, U12). One group assimilated mindful acceptance and developed

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psychological flexibility when faced with MPA symptoms that would not go.
They described non-judgmentally accepting, allowing, and observing MPA
symptoms such as body shaking and tension (C3, C7, C12, C16, C17, C20,
C21) and C12 even said he started to enjoy the sensation. This was a similar
finding to Juncos et al. (2017) where the seven music college participants who
took part in an Acceptance, Commitment Therapy (ACT) course for MPA (see
Chapter 1, 1.2.1) found that instead of eliminating MPA, the mindfulness skills
helped them to defuse and accept the symptoms which subsequently
improved performance experience.
9.2.3 Mindfulness, MPA, and vocal technique in performance
Music performance anxiety symptoms often affect vocal technique and
performance. Participants reported problems with breathing, support, posture,
vocal shaking, tension, and general feelings of lack of control. In singing, the
term “breath” can apply to both inspiration and expiration; “support” is the
controlled expiration of breath using the diaphragm, intercostal and abdominal
muscles. A “controlled breath” would, therefore, also be support. “Control”
however, could mean control over one or a variety of vocal principles (e.g. the
tongue, soft palate, the jaw).
MPA was described as making participants feel breathless (U1, C5,
C13, C14, C16, C20), and experience lack of control (U9, U17, C5, C14, C20).
Others reported lack of diaphragmic support for singing (U8, U17, C5, C14,
C15, C16, C18). Vocal tone and sound was said to be disrupted (U8,U13,
U17, C20), and participants felt that they were tense (C1, C15, C18, C20).
None of the lower MPA group mentioned any of these technical issues.
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Mindfulness exercises had a variety of beneficial effects on vocal
technical issues affected by MPA. Participants described feeling generally
more in control (U1, U14, U17, C1, C4, C13, C14, C17, C18, C20), which U17
found particularly helped when performing cadenzas. The mindfulness course
is based around the awareness of sensations of breath and body to bring
participants into the present moment so, expectedly, improved bodily
awareness of the singing breath was a popular finding. Participants
discovered that their breathing had improved (U6, U9, U17, C13, C14, C20).
Participants reportedly became more aware of their breathing technique (U1,
U4), and the movement of breath through the body (U4, C5). They also
mentioned thinking, focusing, or concentrating more on breath in performance
(U7, C1, C12, C20). They described being able to regulate breath (U12, U8),
and were able to correct breathing if they noticed problems (U12, C18, C20).
They also reported that their vocal support improved (U1, U8, C5, C13, C21),
and they were more conscious of the support musculature (C15, C18, C20).
For example, C14 said,
When I do breathing exercises, I feel like it calms me down somehow

so my hands aren't as shaky and my breathing comes down and I can
actually support - which is, I guess, the most important part of singing.
Participants also described becoming sensorily mindful of other parts of
their body when singing (U14, C3, C20): C14 relaxed her eyebrows when
singing and defocused from her jaw and tongue to avoid tensing them up,
conversely C15 focused on her jaw and neck to observe tension there and
release it.
With better breathing and support, participants reported improvements
in their singing experience with vocalising seeming easier, more relaxed and
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gliding (C2, C4, C14, C18). They also mentioned a change in sound quality to
a more solid (U13), stronger (C15), earthy (C18), stable, richer, and clearer
tone (C20) although U1 reported hearing no difference. With better breath and
support on stage, participants said that they found it easier to prepare for high
notes (U12, U17, C1) and that they did not need to be fearful of high pitches
anymore (U8, C14).
9.2.4 Mindfulness and mental anxiety
Kenny (2011) noted that there are many ways that humans can give
themselves mental anguish and Driskill (2012), when researching the
symptoms, causes and coping strategies used by singers with MPA, noted
that negative mental self-talk is well known. Like participants in Czajkowski
(2013), current participants compared their pre-mindfulness distressing mental
thoughts and audience perception with post-mindfulness experiences.
Before mindfulness, participants with self-reported higher levels of MPA
described feeling mental panic (U1, U7, U17, C3, C5, C18) and lack of
confidence (U8, U15, U17). Some reported feeling hyper aware (C6, C7) but
most felt unfocused or lost concentration (U1, U8, U9, C4, C5, C7, C12, C16).
U10 also described losing concentration but as a low MPA sufferer, she said
this was because she was too relaxed. Participants said that they worried
generally about things possibly going wrong on stage (U1, U8, C4, C5, C16)
or about everything to do with performance (C5, C6, C7, C14, C17, C20).
They were highly self-critical (C11, C15, C17) and very concerned about
making mistakes on stage (U1, U4, U8, U13, C2, C4, C5, C10, C14, C16)
where C5 said, “I’ll just be worried about everything I’m going to do wrong”.
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Participants described inner turmoil (U4, U7, C1, C13, C17) They worried
about being underprepared (U13, C1, C4, C11, C18), about illness or pain
(C5, C6, C10), or had negative thoughts and painful memories from the past
(U1, C11, U10). The only element discussed in Czajkowski (2013) that was
not mentioned in the current study was a fear of performing new repertoire.
The mindfulness course and exercises encouraged participants to
focus into the reality of the present moment and apply self-compassion to their
experience. After the course and exercises, for example, C11 said, “I’m aware
we create these things in our minds” and reported feeling more focused and
calm, changing her negative mindset. Like Czajkowski (2013), mindfulness
was reported as reducing self-criticism, increasing confidence, and improving
mindsets for performing which enhanced the performance experience. In
comparison to their pre-mindfulness performance experiences, thirteen of the
higher MPA affected participants in the current study described feeling more
confident, grounded or in control on stage (U4, U7, U8, U9, U13, U14, U15,
U17, C2, C3, C11, C13, C14, C16). Eighteen participants in this study felt
more aware, focused, lucid or concentrated (U4, U7, U12, U14, U17, C2, C3,
C4, C5, C6, C7, C10, C11, C12, C15, C16, C20, C21) but three participants
sometimes felt too focused in performance and wanted to lose themselves in
the music more (C1, C7, U6). Fifteen participants, like seven of the eight
participants in Czajkowski (2013), described feeling calmer, more relaxed,
content and more comfortable on stage (U1, U4, U7, U14, U17, C1, C2, C6,
C7, C11, C14, C16, C17, C18, C21).
Mindset changes triggered by developing mindfulness were wide and
varied. Participants described developing more acceptance of the reality of

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going on stage and performing (U1, U4, U6, C16, C18) and felt that it was
acceptable to be nervous (U12, C1, C10, C14). Mindset changes could also
be ongoing; for example, C1 said,
I still have this link to it in my head where if I start to get more and more
anxious or worried about something, I straight away think "stay in the
present moment" so even though I haven't been practicing a lot of the
actual set tasks and stuff, I have been sat before and just given myself
a few minutes of just thinking "what can I hear, what can I smell, what
can I see RIGHT now" rather than worrying in my head and I think
that's definitely been a constant thing for me that I never would have
thought of before I did the course.
Participants found more of a balance between catastrophe and not
caring (U8, U10), felt the seriousness of the event had been reduced (U1, C1),
or that their thoughts were more rational or in perspective (U7, U17, C1, C16,
C17) where C16 said, “I think it’s more having an awareness over the fact that
I’m not rubbish, it’s not helping me in any way to be thinking that”. They
discovered that their thoughts in general were more ordered or more gathered
(U7, U15, C1, C20). Many participants reported having fewer negative
thoughts or had replaced negative thoughts with positive thoughts and
experiences (U1, U7, U12, U14, U17, C1, C2, C4, C11, C14, C16, C17). This
led to fewer worries in general (U1, C13, C14, C15, C16, C18). For example,
U4 said,
I feel like I can feel my breath going through my body and I think I
always feel-, I always go back to a feeling of being grounded, because
I’m quite aware that when I overthink things, get nervous. It feels like
everything’s up here rather than it just kind of-, I think I can much more
easily get to a point where I’m like, “Okay, I’m being held by the ground.
The ground is here, my breath is here. These are my constants.”
The MfS course was designed to encourage participants to have more
self-compassion, in a similar way that they would have compassion for a

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friend, and to be more accepting of themselves and their experiences.
Participants described becoming less self-critical about their past or worried
about making mistakes in the future and more accepting of the present (U1,
U4, U8, C2, C6, C14, C16) as C16 said in her longitudinal interview,
I feel before I did any mindfulness, I was thinking more ‘this is really
bad, I'm really bad’ but I don't think of that as much … it's just doing
your best really.
Three participants in Czajkowski (2013) had mentioned becoming less
self-critical of themselves before and during performances and so this was
also included in the MfM questionnaire. MfM item 15 states, “Before
performing, I tell myself that I shouldn’t be thinking the way I’m thinking and
criticise my feelings” and this issue was also brought up in interview by the
participants. On this negatively-worded item, U2 and U15 decreased by 2
where U15 said her mind was quieter and U2 was less in her “own little world”.
C1 and U3 decreased by 3: C1 said in her interview that it was now “okay to
be nervous”, and U3 described having a more settled mind. C4, C8, C10, and
U11, though, increased their score on this question by 2. C8, C10 and U11
reported no improvements but they did not report a problem either, however,
C4 said in her interview that mindfulness can help “take away so much guilt”
pre-performance so it is unsure as to why her response had increased in the
post-questionnaire. It is possible that becoming more aware of thought
processes through learning mindfulness can illuminate previous thinking that
had been mindlessly accepted before.
On the whole, participants reported similar findings to those in Chang et
al. (2003), who found that performance anxiety was decreased in the
meditation group of nine music students in higher education in comparison to

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ten controls (see Chapter 1, Section 1.2.1). Driskill (2012) had also noted the
possible benefits of yoga and meditation on MPA induced mental anguish,
which has been supported here by data from the MfS participants. However,
the current study takes these findings further by providing far more detail and
depth in terms of what particular aspects of MPA were reduced by learning
mindfulness and also what the subsequent effects were for these particular
participants.
9.2.5 Mindfulness and audience perception
In a similar way to Chopin, who apparently felt highly intimidated by
audiences and pronounced himself as “not fitted to give concerts” (p.1, Kenny,
2011), audience perception promoted a large amount of mental anxiety for
some MfS participants. Fear of audiences is not rare, for example, in LeBlanc,
Jin, Obert, and Siivola (1997), types of audience presence had a physiological
and psychological debilitating effect on performing student musicians. Twenty-
seven high school musicians performed under three conditions: firstly with no
audience, secondly with just one researcher, and thirdly with 4 researchers, a
peer group, and participants knew they were being recorded. The participants’
self-reported anxiety rose significantly under each condition but heart rate
measurements, which remained static for the first two conditions, rose
significantly under the third condition.
Participants in the current study reported being adversely affected by
audiences (U15, U17, C1, C10), where some were scared if they could even
see an audience (U1, C7), and many were concerned about what the
audience thought of them and their singing (U1, U4, U8, U17, C1, C6, C7,
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C10, C14, C20). Types of audience caused anxiety where some participants
said that they disliked performing in front of peers, family, and friends (U8,
U14, C5, C14, U11) and preferred strangers (C4, C5, C7, C11) and some
preferred family and friends in the audience (U17, U6). Unsurprisingly,
participants felt nervous singing in front of examiners or audition panels that
were writing when they sang (U1, U4, U7, U12, C2, C4, C5, C11, C15, C17,
C20). Size or type of venue concerned participants: U13 disliked performing in
big settings and C7 disliked large audiences, but others preferred large
audiences (C17 C11, C4, U4, C20). C5, U4, and C21 disliked performing in
intimate events and some participants preferred performing in ensembles
rather than as soloists (C1, C8, C16).
Training in the mindfulness course was designed to encourage
participants to consider audiences, audition, and examination panels in a
different way suggesting that it is actually impossible to know what people
really think or why they acted in a certain way until given written or verbal
feedback. Loving Kindness exercises (Appendix W) and reflective group
discussions were included to encourage a mindset change where participants
could view their performance as a gift to audiences, feel the audience as an
integral and welcome part of the performing process, and to remember their
own experiences and thought processes as audience members themselves.
After this training, participants reported less concern about audience
perception (U4, U8, U15, U17, C5, C14, C17, C20, C21). U4, C5 and C17
said that they almost forgot that the audience was there, as U4 said,
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With the Blue concert I don't think I've ever enjoyed a performance
more than I did with that one. I sang the Mermaid's Song (like I did in
the mindfulness session) and I just really got involved with the piece
and I was not thinking about anything about what the audience were
thinking and I just really enjoyed singing that and I felt so in the
moment.
Other participants, like those who felt more audience aware in Czajkowski
(2013), described feeling far more comfortable observing their audiences and
using eye contact (U8, U17, C4, C7, C17). Six participants felt happier
engaging and communicating with audiences during performance (U17, C1,
C11, C15, C17) where, for example, U17 said,
I was very afraid of audiences, very afraid and then when I was on
stage I realised that I was able to look at their reactions as well so I
would get feedback from them if I was doing well, if they were
understanding me, so I was more confident and more calm to actually
communicate with them whereas before I wouldn't.
C13 attributed her MPA improvement to the MfS course, C18 described
feeling able to volunteer for performing opportunities, which was something
she had never done before, and although some others still felt a little nervous,
they described themselves as having the “right amount of nerves” (U10), and
C4 said, “even when I’m afraid, it’s still okay”.
9.2.6 Physical and mental effects of mindfulness on those with
lower levels of MPA
None of the participants with lower MPA mentioned any technical
problems affected by MPA except for C19, although U2 and U3 did report that
being more mindful increased body sensation and vocal control. C19,
although she does not get particularly nervous when performing out of college,
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reported having a bad experience in one of the Performance in Context
classes where she was given a lot of criticism, saying,
I definitely had to use mindfulness in that situation…otherwise I would

have cried. I had to just take a second and breathe but do it under
scrutiny because people could see I was welling up and then I just had
to focus on in the present moment and the present time and think ‘this
is all going to benefit me for the future’ so then doing that, it helps me
take the criticism better and helped me to retain the information better
because I took myself out of the situation for a second, realised why I
was actually in that situation, and then I was able to put myself back in
it.
The participants in Group C (see Table 9.3, p.282) also discovered
positive effects of doing mindfulness on their mental state on stage in the
following main areas: increased confidence and control (U2), increased
awareness or focus (U2, U3, C9), feeling calmer (U3, U11, C19) and more
ordered thoughts (U3, C8, C19). However, none of them mentioned
reductions in their perception of the seriousness of the events, in negative
thoughts, or in worry. Neither did they mention acceptance of performing or
developing a more rational perspective of the audience but they had not
expressed these areas as problems as a result of excessive MPA either.
As expected, learning mindfulness seems to have had a positive effect
on those participants who self-reported higher levels of MPA. Ortiz-Brugués
(2009) researched the systems affected by MPA and discovered that there
were somatic, emotional, and cognitive challenges which encouraged
unwanted behavioural manifestations. Butzer et al. (2015), who have been
studying the effect of yoga on elite student musicians at the Tanglewood
Music Centre since 2005, discovered that mindfulness, amongst other effects,
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“reduced the cognitive and somatic symptoms of music performance anxiety”
(p.196). In general, MfS participants who gave more severe reports of pre-
mindfulness MPA and who engaged in mindfulness exercises before
performances, also reported a reduction in MPA or described a greater ability
to accept the symptoms as necessary for performance. They said that
learning mindfulness had a positive effect on dealing with somatic,
physiological, emotional and cognitive expressions of MPA. Further more,
their reports of their experiences advanced the research literature by
explaining the ways that learning mindfulness had changed their perception of
the audience, and had a positive effect on performance behaviour and
experience.
9.3 Mindfulness effects on aspects of music performance.
9.3.1 Performing experience before mindfulness
There was little data given by participants about remembered
experiences of their performing on stage prior to mindfulness. This may be
because many described themselves as experiencing pre-mindfulness
performances in a blur (U2, U16, U17, C4, C6, C7, C9, C14, C15, C16),
having no memory of what they had done afterwards (U1, U6, U8, U9, U12,
C15, U17, C2, C5, C13, C14, C16) and, as a result, not knowing if feedback
reflected their performance (C5, C14). Those with higher MPA said that if they
remembered anything that it would be the bad things (U1, U15, C18) or crying
after every performance (U8, C18). C9, as a member of the low MPA cohort,
reported that performances were a blur, but she said,

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I wasn’t nervous, it was just-, that was an autopilot thing. I knew all my
songs in my set, I’d sing them, but now I’m definitely more there.
Those who did talk about performances before mindfulness described
feeling tense (U1, C4, C14, C18) with rigid eyebrows and stiff arms and they
struggled with expressing emotion and character (U9, U17, C1, C4, C7, C12).
Various participants felt that they performed on autopilot (U12, C4, C15), or
went through the motions (U8, C19), and C16, a jazz singer, said,
Then especially going on to trading [trading solos: a jazz improvisation

technique] and before I would just not listen to what the other person
was doing, I’d just be doing nonsense, completely unrelated, and now
I’m really listening... I would just shut off myself and just not...and even
if I knew I had to do a cue, I would not do it because I was
embarrassed or nervous but now I'm able to have more command.
Several participants described giving less than their best on stage (C1,
C4, C14, C16, C19, U8, U9, U10) using words like “switched off” (U8), “glaze”
or “gloss over” (C1, U10). Participants said that they were not able to employ
performance elements such as dynamics or vocal effects (C1, C6, C4, C18),
and found that nerves could take over at the end (U8, U14). MPA Group C
participants had more to say on the issue of performance than technique but
their responses clustered around half-hearted and lack lustre performances
rather than making mistakes or being tense.
9.3.2 Performing in the present moment
Since doing the mindfulness course and targeted exercises pre-
performance (see Table 9.2, p.279), every participant except U16 said that
they had performed on stage in the present moment to a certain extent.
Participants, liked those in Czajkowski (2013), felt that they were more zoned
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in, grounded, “in the space”, or were able to stay present with the music more
on stage (U1, U6, U7, U8, U14, U17, C1, C3, C7, C9, C19). U6 said “it was
remarkable, because I am aware, and I’m not usually” and C13 said, “I
wouldn’t say that I’m completely there, but definitely more than before”. As De
Felice (2004) said, “Nobody enjoys listening to an automatic performance” (p.
78) and statement 8 in the MfM addressed the issue of performing in the
present moment: “I suspect that I usually perform on automatic pilot”. For this
negatively-worded item, 6 participants decreased their score by 2 (U14, C3,
C6, C9, C16, U6) and C19 by 3. This suggests that these participants had
learned to stay in the present moment more on stage over the course of the
intervention. The score provided by C19 was corroborated by her in the
interview:
When we sang at the Uni ... I was able to concentrate on the present
moment and it made it easier to relate the song to people…so yes, it's
definitely helped me.
As well as being more aware, participants said that they noticed when they
were mindless (C1, C14), and they made fewer mistakes (U6, U11, U12, C4,
C13, C17) like forgetting words (C13, U11).
The exceptions were U16, who had been ill for a long time and did no
performing, and U15 who chose not to use the techniques but still reported
performing in the present moment. When asked, “When you are in the present
moment on stage, what do you do with your performance?” she stalled for six
seconds and said, “Well, I can notice when I worry that it will get much
worse…and I just tell myself to stop being silly” and she reported being unable
to produce on stage what she had prepared in the practice room. Maybe if
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U15 had chosen to do some mindfulness or meditation before performing, she
might have found some positive or negative effects.
Clark, Lisboa, and Williamon (2014a), investigated the thoughts and
perceptions of music students in performance, and discovered that feeling out
of control could affect performance quality and enjoyment. Participants who
used mindfulness before performances, however, reported feeling more in
control on stage (U2, U3, U5, C1, C3, C5, C11, C14, C17, C19) and U2 said,
I was aware more of my face and my eyes. I saw someone else’s

performance class and they just looked really alive in their eyes so I
tried to use that in the performance. It was really bizarre because I was
telling myself to do it while I was performing which was kind of nice
because I felt I was in control of it.
They also felt more engaged, interested, energised and involved (U1,
U4, U8, U14, C3, C4, C7, C14, C17, C18) in their performances where C14
said,
I just felt like I owned it! I mean, not like the whole performance but I
could at least show, I don't know, 70 or 75% of what I am capable of
doing instead whereas when I'm nervous, I can't control it. I don't know,
30% maybe I can control but not more than that.
Like participants in Juncos et al. (2017), confidence levels had risen for
U6 (who reported a stronger announcing voice), U10, U17, C14, C17 and
C18. C18 said, “I don’t look like I don’t want to be there.”
9.3.3 Time perception and memory retention
Kabat-Zinn (2016) explored the time perception changes that
mindfulness engenders in daily life and suggested that mindfulness “reduces
the chaos and increases the order of the mind” (p.1239), which meant that
one’s experience of time would slow down. Many participants in the current
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study similarly reported mindfulness-induced time perception changes where
time on stage felt longer or songs felt slower than they were (U1, U6, U8, U9,
U10, U12, U14, U17, C2, C3, C4, C5, C6, C8, C9, C10, C11, C12, C14, C16,
C17, C18, C20), for example, C18 said, “It felt like forever, I’m not going to lie
to you!” However, participants’ reports in the current study extended the
literature by explaining what they felt they did with this “extra” time.
Participants reported that they had time to think and plan ahead to set things
up (U10, U12, C4, C11) and time to think more about performance elements
(U1, U8, U12, C2, C17). Some participants (C2, C7, C13) felt that, rather than
the time seeming slower, performances now felt like they “go at the right
speed” (C7). Only C21 and C5 described time on stage as seeming quicker
after mindfulness than before.
Ramsburg and Youmans (2014) explored the effect that mindfulness
had on memory and knowledge retention in the higher education classroom
with three studies that randomly assigned participants to a 6-minute
mindfulness exercise or sitting quietly before lectures. In each study, the
mindfulness participants remembered more from the lectures than the controls
although the authors were still unsure as to the mechanisms that created
these changes. They suggested it could be due to improved self-regulation.
Participants in interview in the pilot study (Czajkowski, 2013) mentioned their
mindful performance experiences as being less automatic, slower, and clearer
so item 12 on the MfM addressed this issue: “Performances always seem to
have gone by in a big blur”. Nine participants decreased their mindfulness
scores (indicating less blur) on this question post-intervention by 2 (U1, U6,
U10, U12, U13, C9, C15, C17, C19). Only U8 increased her score by 2 but
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she reported differently in the interviews saying, “it's all still a bit of a blur but
definitely less so than it was before”. In the interviews, participants spoke of
experiencing better memory of their performances (U1, U2, U6, U8, U12, U17,
C1, C2, C5, C7, C9, C13, C14, C15, C16, C17, C18) including six from the
nine whose scores decreased in the questionnaire. Findings from the current
study may have some possible explanation for the memory improvement
evidenced in Ramsburg and Youmans (2014) and extend the literature in this
matter. They suggest that it may be due to time perception changes
engendered by mindfully improved present moment focused awareness.
However, as Ramsburg and Youmans’ (2014) study was entirely measured by
questionnaires, the participants in their study were unable to inform the
researchers of any other possible mechanisms that were not measured by the
quantitative scales.
9.3.4 Communication
Communication is a key element of performance but different singers in
different genres have different goals in performance. Classical music
participants reported a keenness to embody characters. This was not so
important for those doing popular and jazz type music who were more
interested in the quality of their improvisation both using vocal elements and
pitch. However, all groups were interested in communication, stage presence,
and emotional expression.
Participants described an improvement in their communication as a
result of being more mindful on stage (U9, U14, U17, C3, C4, C7, C10, C11,
C14, C15, C16, C17, C18, C19) where U9 said,

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It’s helped me convey my emotions better and my characterisation, so,

so much, because that’s something that I struggled with before and-
…Just being able to convey the character in the first place is quite a big
deal for me, but yes, particularly with the words, with regards to the
words as well. That’s helped a lot with doing this and reflecting the
words in my body language and some movement and stuff as well.
Participants noticed a greater ability to portray their characters or the
character of the piece on stage (U1, U2, U4, U7, U8, U9, U17, C2, C5, C12,
C19, C20, C Diary Week 2) where C5 said she realised in the moment that
she could represent her character in her vocal runs, “which I hadn't done in
any of my performances leading up to my exam, so that made a big
difference”. Participants mentioned concentrating more on portraying
emotions (C5, C8, C10, C14, C18, C21, U9) where C18 said, “It used to make
me feel uncomfortable, but now…the emotion just seems to pour out and it’s
just nice”. Participants described feeling more expressive on stage and were
increasingly able to act (U4, U9, U14, C2, C4, C7, C12, C13, C17, C18, C19,
C20), and participants mentioned using more facial expressions (U3, U12,
U14, C2, C5, C7, C14, C18). They reported feeling more physically aware of
posture, hand positions, body expression and having heightened senses on
stage (U1, U4, U9, U12, U17, C1, C2, C4, C5, C7, C10, C11, C17, C18, C20).
They felt freer to do physical movement in performance (U4, U9, C1, C5, C7,
C10, C18) and felt less tense (C18), and mentioned being able to move arms
and hands (U1, U17, C7, C18) and to use the performance space more in the
moment (C1). C17 said,
It’s nicer, because it means I’m more with the people, with my band as
well. So I find myself dancing with people on the stage as well, which I
wouldn’t before. I do have a really, really lovely group, so they’re
receiving it as well, it’s not like I’m doing something and them just
standing there, so it’s nice to have that interaction.
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In a music listening and mindfulness study, music students told Diaz
(2013) that their attention improved, they were able to focus without distraction
and listening was improved. In a similar way, participants in the present study
also reported better music listening skills on stage (U3, U12, C9, C11, C16,
C17), helping them to emulate other instruments more (C9, C16, C17) and to
be aware of other musical elements happening around them, incorporating
these into their improvisations (U12, C9, C16). They said that they were more
conscious of interaction and communication both musically and verbally with
other musicians (C5, C16, U14, C2, C9, C17), where C16 said,
I was able to communicate with the band and I was really bad at that
before and I think that has to do with being aware and accepting where
I am.
She concluded that this was one of the most important things she had learnt
from mindfulness.
9.3.5 Creativity and expressivity
Some MfS participants said that they were pleased to be able to
transfer their practised performance into the performance venue (U8, U12, C1,
C4, C7, C16, C20) where C20, for example, said,
I think when I was preparing, I went over the words quite a lot and
made sure I knew exactly what they meant so that I could, so it could
be something I was thinking about when I was performing. I guess I
made myself really aware before hand what characters should be
feeling and I guess I could be more aware and I guess that comes
across through the performance.
However, performance creativity is enhanced when a performer can
bring something fresh to the music. Oyan (2006) had suggested that
mindfulness might reduce MPA symptoms and increase creativity. Langer et

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al. (2009) studied the effect of mindfulness instruction on orchestral
participants’ creativity and discovered that the instrumentalists introduced
small changes leading to a rendition that was more enjoyable to perform and
hear (see Chapter 1, Section 1.2.2). Many MfS participants’ responses
concurred with the existing literature but took that research further by reporting
the specific small changes that they made. Participants reported a new ability
to play with musical elements and do novel things on stage that had not been
practised beforehand (U4, U9, U10, U12, U14, U17, C1, C2, C3, C4, C5, C6,
C7, C8, C9, C11, C12, C14, C17, C18, C21), such as improvising or
embellishing the music or changing physical movements in the moment (U12,
U14, C1, C2, C5, C6, C9, C12). Some participants found that they did this
unexpectedly or it surprised them (C1, C2, C5, C6, C12), including classical
vocalists. C12, for example, said that during singing “Pastorello d’un povero
Armento” from Handel’s Rodelinda that
I improvised a little bit, which was a bit weird. Just like a few
ornaments. I didn’t expect that. Afterwards I was like, ‘So why did I do
that?’ but my pianist, he said, ‘What happened there?’ I was like, ‘Oh,
was it bad?’ He was like, ‘No, it was brill.’ I was like, ‘Oh, great. Fair
enough.’ I don’t know, it’s quite life-changing.
C2 described suddenly deciding to perform her own compositions barefoot
saying it seemed more natural and it felt like “a decision in the moment”. Four
participants thought that being more creative on stage was a work in progress
(U1, U6, U9, C4) where they hoped to become more ambitious in the future.
The types of elements that they reported playing with in the moment were
tempo (U4, U14, C3, C9), rubato (C2, C4, C8, C11), rhythm (U12, C17, C21)
and phrasing (U10), but the most popular was dynamics (U12, U14, C1, C2,
C4, C7, C8, C9, C11, C12, C14, C18, C21). Participants described playing
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with eye contact (U14, C7), musical expression (C4, C12), and word painting
and shaping (U9, C3, C4, C14, C17, C18, C21). Participants in Czajkowski
(2013) also reported playing with expression, dynamics, and vocal tone.
Current MfS participants also mentioned that they were more aware of
their sound and tone on stage (U5, U12, U17, C1, C4, C6, C10, C15, C16,
C17, C19), and being more vocally flexible (C10, C17). They described
playing with note onset and offset (C4, C6, C15, C17, C19) (see Appendix
BA), and their vocal tone (C6, C15, C16, C19) in the moment on stage.
9.3.6 Dealing with the unexpected on stage
Some participants described experiences on stage that were
unexpected such as making a mistake themselves or something going wrong
in the performing environment. When things go wrong in performance,
performers can often be thrown by the event or once it has occurred, think
back to it while singing, which can encourage present and future mistakes. As
part of the mindfulness training, participants were introduced to the concept
that it is possible with mindful awareness to observe reality and change
normally automatic assumptions and behaviours in the moment before they
become fixed.
Participants reported that by having trained their attention with
mindfulness exercises that they responded better to adverse unexpected
events in performance by being able to refocus on the task at hand quickly,
not letting irrational thoughts intrude whilst singing. This was also noted by
participants in Czajkowski (2013), so MfM item 11 addressed this issue: “If
something unexpectedly happens when I am on stage, I notice it without

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reacting and easily carry on performing”. Some participants increased their
score by +2 over the course of the intervention (C19, U3, U8, U13, U15) but
participant C3 decreased by 2. Interestingly, none of these participants
mentioned this improvement specifically in their interviews but other
participants did.
After mindfulness, when participants made mistakes themselves on
stage such as missing high notes or forgetting words (U1, U17, C15, C17,
C18, C20) they reported that it did not bother them at the time as they
accepted the problem had happened (C17) and moved on. As C20 said,
I messed up one of the ornaments slightly so...it just passed me by

and I didn't really think about it … it's normally the sort of thing that I
cling on to and it would affect the rest of my performance.
Other participants had things happen to them in performance such as
other people forgetting words (U7), incorrect cues from other singers (U17), a
props problem (C1), not being able to hear the monitors (C4), an alarm going
off in an exam (C5) and a guitarist being out of tune (C11). They admitted that
this would normally affect them but that they felt calm, dealt with the problem
quickly, or that it did not bother them, and they were able to carry on without
the performance being affected.
9.3.7 Feedback and enjoyment
Participants also gave information about the feedback they received
from their performances. Eleven participants had good or very good results
from their university (U1, U2, U8, U10) or conservatoire (C1, C2, C4, C5, C16,
C18, C20) examinations and, as some participants had not received results by
the time of the second 3-month interview, this may have been more.
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Improvements covered better communication, more facial and body
expression, increased emotion presentation, more confidence, stage
presence, characterisation, and breath control. For example, the examiner
noticed and congratulated C5’s performance when she stayed in control
through the alarm and she gained an excellent report. Unfortunately for U12
and U15 the feedback was less positive but U12 was not discouraged and
said that she would keep on gigging despite the marks. Teachers’
performance feedback was also good for U17, C13, C14, C18, where C13’s
teacher told her she had noted that she looked more confident and C18’s
teacher said to her, “You’ve just miraculously improved”.
Other participants were given positive feedback from outside sources
such as friends, parents, and musical colleagues after giving, what they felt to
be, mindful performances. Similarly to Langer et al. (2009) where an audience
was able to tell the difference between a mindful and a non-mindful
performance (and preferred the mindful rendition), it may have been possible
for external observers to have noticed improvements in the MfS participants’
more mindful performances. Band members and pianists complimented C11,
C15, and C12; and friends were reported as seeing an improvement in
performing mindset, character, voice, and stage presence for U4, U14, U17,
C2, C5, and C7. U17 deputised professionally for an opera when the lead
soprano became ill. She used mindfulness to help her deal with inevitable
errors and production changes, which she said would normally have disturbed
her. However, the conductor complimented her on the quick and calm way
that she dealt with each situation, which, she said, had built her confidence
and performance enjoyment. It could be possible that friends and family would
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have given positive feedback no matter whether the participant had done
mindfulness or not, but these participants felt that mindfulness had had a part
to play in these improvements.
De Felice (2004) postulated that doing mindfulness meditation would
help musicians enjoy their music, their sound and themselves. Langer et al.
(2009) also discovered that the instrumentalists in their study enjoyed
performing more when mindful. All the Tanglewood music college participants
in Khalsa and Cope (2006) reported more enjoyment of performing and two of
the eight student participants in Hribar (2012) mentioned enjoying
performances more after doing mindfulness. In a similar way in the current
study, eighteen current participants described enjoying the experience of
performing mindfully on stage more than before (U1, U2, U4, U5, U8, U14,
U17, C1, C2, C3, C4, C5, C7, C9, C11, C12, C14, C17). C6 and C10 said
they felt more comfortable on stage and five others were positive (U7, C20,
U12, C13, C18). As C14 put it, “I actually believe that I can be a performer one
day.”
9.4 Chapter summary
This chapter has described the general results from the effects of
learning mindfulness on performance as described in interview by the MfS
student participants. Previous literature has shown that mindfulness is helpful
for non-musicians with clinical levels of anxiety (see Chapter 1, Section 1.2.1)
and so it is not unexpected to find that it is helpful for those with MPA. Despite
not having a formal measure of MPA in this current study, the data suggested
that participants fell into three main groups: those who chose to do the MfS
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course to help with their MPA, those who spoke about MPA symptoms in
interview, and those who barely mentioned it. If a participant had a higher
level of MPA, the mindfulness exercises seemed to help alleviate or
encouraged acceptance of physical and mental symptoms supporting the
evidence from the literature. This seemed to break the negative cycle that
often occurs to affect and occasionally destroy performances, followed by a
positive cascade of effects on performance experience. On those participants
with lower levels of MPA, however, mindfulness also seemed to have a
positive effect on mental performance mindsets, which enhanced and
improved their performance experience. The MfS course, therefore, may have
not just had effects on those vocalists afflicted with MPA but also on those
without. Jahn (2013) suggested in his book, The Singer’s Guide to Complete
Health, that adopting an Eastern philosophical approach to performance
would help with increasing focus, acceptance, equanimity, and elements of
self-compassion to encourage maximal performance in all vocal performers. In
the current study, the Eastern philosophy-inspired MfS course may have
demonstrated a positive impact on those starting to deal with excessive MPA,
and those without it, in improving awareness and focus on stage, listening
skills, technical skills, increasing flexibility in the face of adversity, enhancing
creative performance skills and communication skills, reducing negative self-
criticism, and improve memory skills useful for reflection and self-assessment.
Participants felt that their performances were audibly improved and externally
verified, and that they experienced more enjoyment.
Mindfulness may be beneficial for all musicians in performance,
regardless of whether they have high or low or non-existent levels of MPA and
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most participants felt that it had been a beneficial intervention for them as
student performers. The next chapter discusses the longitudinal element of
this research and summarises the study as a whole.

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Chapter Ten – Mindfulness for Singers qualitative results
10.1 Longitudinal interview reports
In the longitudinal interviews, some participants compared the
difference in lessons, practices and performances from the end of the
intervention to three months afterwards. Many participants stopped having
lessons after the Easter vacation, which was just after they had provided their
first interviews, so some of them had relatively little new to report in this area
in interview three months later. The opposite situation applied to performance
experiences as most participants performed little during the intervention but
had taken part in year-end examinations and performances by the time of the
longitudinal interviews and naturally wanted to talk about these experiences.
This section, however, concentrates only on comparisons of participants’
experiences in lessons, practice, and performances between the two
interviews.
Some participants reported changes in lessons after having continued
doing mindfulness since the intervention. They talked about new physical
effects, effects on mood and mindset, effects on teacher relationships, and
effects on productivity in lessons. Several participants remarked that nothing
remarkable had changed (U10, U2, U5, U8, C17, C20, C5, U12) but
sometimes they qualified this with further information. They talked about
developing better body awareness (U1, U10, U2, U3, U6, U7, C5) which
helped with breathing (C5) into the back (U1), using support muscles (U10),
working on jaw tension (U10), and making more of the breath (U2). U7 said
she was aware of not trusting herself when singing runs but that being more
mindful had not helped her in trusting herself better. They talked about the
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effect of mindfulness on mood and mindset where U10, C18, and U4 found
they were calmer in lessons, U6 and U10 felt more focused but where U1 felt
improvements were “hit and miss” depending on her mood. Participants
reported changes in teacher/pupil relationships that developed over time. U2,
U10, and U6 felt their communication over technical matters had improved,
although U10 was not sure if this was due to mindfulness or not. U4 and C18
found that doing mindfulness had progressively helped in dealing with criticism
and stress in lessons. For example, U4 said,
I found that when I first did the counting I found that I couldn't relax as
much but then actually afterwards that helped me distance myself and
sometimes in lessons, just counting while she was saying something,
like counting and breathing would help me to ease up a little bit.
Finally, C18 and U6 felt that lessons were increasingly more productive and
efficient.
In vocal practice, participants mentioned that mindfulness had
developed the following areas over the intervening three months: body
awareness and technique, and practice mindset. Participants reported that
continuing to do mindfulness before practice had improved their body
awareness which helped with breathing (U1, U2), voice control and flexibility
(C21) and, body tension (U4), how vocal support should feel (U3), and vowels
(U2). U7 felt it helped her in preparing for a big performance by examining the
music more closely and that she was more aware when things had gone right
rather than just when things had gone wrong. U3 tried a small experiment as
she had found so much help from doing mindfulness before singing practice
by not doing some for a session during the intervening 3 months and was
surprised to find that her voice was as weak and airy as it had been before.
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She said that she went back to doing mindfulness before singing practices
from that point on. Some participants found mindfulness had increasingly
helped in their mindset within vocal practice. U6 felt it had become a
comforting routine to get her into a positive space. U10 felt her breath was
steadier and got into practicing quicker. Participants reported feeling more
focused (U2, U10, U7, U8, C18, C5) and more patient (U2), and relaxed and
happier (U4). C18 felt far less distracted and C5, when replying to the
question asking whether she had had any new experiences in practices since
finished the mindfulness course, said,
Not really, just really continued the same way. I've just felt more me
and able to control my breathing and when I've been in the practice
rooms and practicing, I've just been a lot more focused on what I want
to do so rather than going in an sitting on my phone for ages and
looking outside the window, I've gone in and thought, ‘This is what I
want to do’ and I've been in it and I've done the work and it's took me a
lot less time. So I just keep building on that type of thing and it just gets
easier every time really.
Three participants used mindfulness in order to relax, calm down and
cope with nerves before singing practice (C18, U8, U17) as working on
performance pieces made them realise that their exams were approaching.
Participants who did not do regular performing talked about their
recent experiences in exams and concerts in the longitudinal interviews, often
comparing their mindful performing experiences positively against the
previous year’s examinations. However, some participants were more
seasoned performers and had interesting insights on how mindfulness had
impacted on their latest performance experiences. U1, for example, reported
doing 20 minutes mindfulness before her final singing examination and said
that she felt more prepared and in control in comparison to earlier singing
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experiences. U10 reported never feeling many nerves when performing
normally but experienced “tingling nerves, which are quite good ones to get
you excited for it” after doing mindfulness exercises. U14 regularly performed
and said that she got nerves but mindfulness had helped, saying, “Usually it
starts as I’m singing and it wasn’t that bad this time around.” She continued, “I
guess it’s just because I was very calm, I guess I was more in the moment
than worrying about how I sounded or what else was going on.” C11
performed regularly and said that she much preferred performing to people
she did not know making examinations difficult for her. She reported that
doing mindfulness helped her to focus in her examination and said, “I smiled,
and I was really telling a story when I was singing so I was trying to look at
them because that’s my style of performance” and that she felt more
comfortable. C17, who regularly did gigs, had an interesting insight, saying
I feel like the more I do it, in a way, the less I need mindfulness with
performing and then I need it for other things. For me it's more of an
appreciation, like actually appreciating that you're doing what you love and
you're having fun and not just doing it and then it's gone. Have the time to
think about it, which is really nice.
Stern, Khalsa and Hofmann (2012) employed 7-14 months longitudinal
questionnaires when investigating the effects of yoga and meditation on
students’ music performance anxiety (see Section 1.2.1). The participants who
provided longitudinal questionnaire data reported continuing their yoga and
meditation practices and their follow-up results demonstrated a trend towards
significant decreases in MPA suggesting continued improvement. The current
study extends these findings with qualitative evidence that continuing to do
mindfulness after the intervention was reported by participants to have had
further effects in their lessons, practices and when performing, suggesting that
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continuing mindfulness practice had increasingly helped participants to
develop and improve their personal experiences in these music-related
domains, not just in MPA.
10.2 Overall summary of the study
Participants engaged well with the course and research requirements,
and only one student participant reported that they would not be carrying on
doing mindfulness in the future. Despite this, she, and every student
participant and several of the teacher participants said that they would
recommend it to other student singers. Advanced vocalist U7, concluded:
Mindfulness has made me aware of the talent that I have and the ability
that I have…it's made me fall back in love with singing and the pleasure
that I get from singing.
The original pilot MfS study (Czajkowski, 2013) was very positive and
suggested that teaching mindfulness to singers could be a useful intervention.
However, in replicating it with a far more rigorous methodology including a
controlled and randomised controlled quantitative design, a blind teachers’
study, utilising anonymous diaries, and adding a longitudinal element, the
overwhelming conclusion from this study is that teaching a mindfulness course
to singers in higher education was tremendously useful and helpful for them
as learners, proto-performers, and in daily life.

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Chapter 11: General discussion
This thesis has sought to investigate the effects of teaching
mindfulness to student musicians in higher education through a series of
studies at universities and conservatoires using a variety of different methods
including pre- and post-mindfulness intervention questionnaires, and semi-
structured interviews. This final chapter summarises the key findings across
the studies and their implications, and critically evaluates the methodology. It
also provides recommendations and directions for future research.
11.1 Summary of the key findings
This thesis had two main aims. The first was to investigate the music
specific effects of teaching mindfulness to music students and the second was
to explore the mindfulness mechanisms that may lie behind those changes.
Two studies using predominantly qualitative mixed methods designs were
used to investigate these phenomena. No previous studies have explored the
effects of mindfulness training on music students or investigated the
mechanisms of mindfulness as regards musicians in such depth.
Significant results from the quantitative mindfulness measures
suggested that mindfulness training improved levels of mindfulness over the
studied interventions. Participants from both studies reported that doing
mindfulness had positively impacted on their instrumental one-to-one lessons,
solo practice sessions, group rehearsals and ensemble practices,
performance anxiety, and performance experience. In the MfS study,
participants’ singing teachers were also able to identify many of the
experimental participants from their total student register by observation alone

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and reported benefits on their musical and interpersonal relationships with
students.
The key findings are discussed below in two main sections: the effects
of learning mindfulness on musicians, and the mechanisms through which
mindfulness may work on this demographic. The first section discusses the
effects of mindfulness on mental states in solo instrumental practice, effects in
rehearsals and ensembles, and effects on time perception and in
performance. This section concludes with a discussion on the outcomes of the
MfS replication study. The second section explores the mechanisms of
mindfulness such as attention regulation, body awareness, emotion
regulation, self-perception, and the integration of these mechanisms in
musician-specific contexts
11.2 Key findings
11.2.1 The effects of learning mindfulness on musicians
Mindfulness effects on solo practice mental states
In the music performance literature, there have been several
investigations of the most efficient and effective way of practising a musical
instrument. This research tends to focus on practical aspects, such as
cognitive strategies (Jørgensen, 2004; Nielsen, 2004) and effective or quality
practice methods (Chaffin & Lemieux, 2004; Lehmann & Ericsson, 1997).
However, there is a dearth of experimental research into the mental state with
which students enter the practice room and what effect that, and problems in
the practice room, might have on subsequent practice behaviours and
performance outcomes.
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From taking a few mindful moments before practice, participants found
that they were in a different mental state when they entered the practice room,
helping them to separate mood and practice, and putting them in the right
frame of mind to focus on work. Participants then found that, should problems
arrive such as frustration, creative block, being self-judgmental, or mental or
physical tension, they had a strategy that could help. If they took a few
moments of mindfulness in the practice room, they reported having a clearer
mind, more perspective, or more ordered thoughts. This helped some
participants to continue to practise whereas before they might have left the
room, but it also gave other participants the self-awareness to leave when it
was obvious to them that it would be detrimental to stay and force the
situation. As a result, participants in the current studies reported that learning
mindfulness helped them to cultivate more productive, effective, and efficient
private instrumental practices.
Much of the existing music practice literature is about finding the best
way to do practice. Chaffin and Lemieux (2004), for example, identified five
fundamental characteristics of musical excellence in music practice as
concentration, goal-setting, self-evaluation, having strategies and keeping in
mind the finished product. There have been comparisons between experts
and children’s musician’s practice, which have discovered that the experts had
extensive metacognitive abilities where, once again, concentration, planning,
monitoring and evaluation were key (Hallam, 1997). Jørgensen (2004), also
discussed strategies for individual practice, such as planning, preparation,
evaluation, developing conscious attention, and knowing the strategies that
work for you. It is possible to know a great deal about research-evaluated

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quality practice methods but when a problem, maybe in general life, or the
inability to master a particularly tricky technical skill, has affected one’s
feelings and emotions, one’s mindset during practice is unlikely to be optimal.
This can be the difference between knowing about quality practice methods
and actually doing them. Steinfeld and Brewer (2015) suggested that
mindfulness might help protect the musician from practice avoidance. A third
of the MfS participants and over half of the GSMD contributors provided
empirical support for this theory.
Mindfulness effects in rehearsals and ensembles
An unexpected finding was the effects of learning mindfulness in
rehearsals and ensembles, which had not been observed or theorised before.
After doing a few minutes of mindfulness before group rehearsals and
ensembles, several of the GSMD and MfS participants described being more
focused and aware, and they felt that they had developed improved listening
skills and were more confident to give opinions and contribute to proceedings.
The MfS participants reported enhanced observation physically and
musically within groups, and improved blending, pitching and instrumental
technique. They also described developing useful personal and interpersonal
skills, such as less self-criticism, and kinder judgment of others, and spoke of
an increased ability to deal with organisational issues.
As research has discovered that attentiveness in rehearsals can be
affected by how much participants are kept on task by the leader (Brendel,
1996; Dunn, 1997; Price 1983), the effect of feeling more attentive reported in
rehearsals in the current study could have been due to changes in leadership
or leading approach which was not controlled for in this study. It would be
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useful in future studies to take this possibility into consideration when
designing a more focused study investigating the effects of mindfulness on
rehearsals and ensembles by taking care to note or control leadership style
and approach in order to report on this possible variable.
Mindfulness, performance, and time perception
It was predicted that mindfulness would have a positive impact on
music performance anxiety (MPA) due to a variety of mindfulness and
contemplative studies with musicians with MPA (see Chapter 1, Section
1.2.1), and work in the clinical domain that demonstrated the efficacy of
mindfulness training in cases of clinical stress and anxiety (see Chapter 1,
Section 1.1.3). In line with the existing literature, participants with high self-
reported levels of MPA in both studies found benefits of doing mindfulness on
the physical and mental symptoms of MPA, and on the causes of MPA, such
as audience anxiety.
However, those participants who demonstrated lower levels of MPA,
and those who were mindfully starting to cope better, also spoke in detail in
the interviews about other effects of mindfulness on aspects of their
performance experience. This is something that is rarely captured in
mindfulness MPA studies and has not been researched or described in such
detail to date.
Nearly every participant in the GSMD and MfS studies reported greatly
improved focus and concentration on stage. They described being able to
perform in the present moment and less automatically, and many confirmed
that they were better able to deal with the unexpected happening on stage.
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About half of the participants in both the current studies also self-
reported improved creativity on stage. They described improvising more freely
and confidently, using more tempo, rubato, rhythm, phrasing, and dynamic
changes in the moment. They felt better able to prepare technically for difficult
passages, and felt more expressive and freer physically. They reported
improved listening skills and characterisation, and greater emotion portrayal
and interaction with other performers and the audience. Teachers in the MfS
study also noticed positive performance changes from the MfS student
participants.
GSMD and MfS participants reported performing better whilst being
more mindful, and remembered more of what they had done on stage. They
had also received better feedback from peers, “blinded” teacher participants,
and examiners.
Many of the improvements in performance may have been down to a
key mechanism not suggested by any previous music and contemplative
theory or experimental study - that of a time perception change engendered
by being able to come, at will, into the present moment on stage. Jon Kabat-
Zinn (2016) has suggested that doing mindfulness may affect time perception
by slowing it down perceptually and over half of the GSMD students and two
thirds of the MfS participants reported that performances seemed to take
longer than normal or the “right” amount of time, were clearer, and went by in
less of a blur. As a result of the perception of “extra time” and mental clarity on
stage, participants described being able to make technical adjustments when
needed, listen more closely to peers and accompanists, take the time to act,
use more characterisation, improvise, or play with the music more creatively;
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they were also less surprised if something happened out of the ordinary. As a
result, they reported feeling more in control and had increased confidence.
They felt that their performances were more successful, they gained better
feedback, and had more performance enjoyment. Mindfulness therefore had a
positive impact on aspects of performance and performance experience as
well as helping with MPA.
Replication
Replications are desirable for a range of different reasons, such as
providing a broader evidence base for interventions tested in small pilot
studies and building a rounded scientific viewpoint. They are particularly called
for in the nascent field of mindfulness (Van Dam et al., 2017). Therefore, the
current replication MfS study, with a more rigorous and longitudinal design
utilising a wider demographic, was necessary to test the results that had been
discovered in the MfS pilot study (Czajkowski, 2013). This is because
interventions should not be taught at music colleges or university music
departments without rigorous empirical evidence of their efficacy.
The findings in the MfS study demonstrated a particularly close
replication of the findings from Czajkowski (2013), so it is now possible to
confidently assert that teaching mindfulness to student singers at university
and conservatoire has significant positive effects. The pilot study results have
been verified by five times more student participants, twice as many
institutions, and four times more teachers in the blind study. A novel finding
from the longitudinal study is that two-thirds of current student participants, bar
one, were continuing to benefit from doing the MfS course in singing and daily
life, and had continued their mindfulness practice. Informal conversations with
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past students from the pilot study have confirmed that some have continued
past the 2 years mark. The GSMD study also demonstrated that teaching
mindfulness to vocal students at LCOM in the MfS study had similar positive
results.
A novel finding was that similar effects were found by non-vocal
instrumentalists at the GSMD in many areas of their music education and
performing lives. For example, improved focused awareness led to improved
body awareness that had a positive impact on learning technique whether one
was a singer, or a violinist, or a jazz saxophonist. The process was the same;
the only difference was through becoming aware of different parts of the body
pertinent to instrument type. This would suggest that a replication may return
a similar response as that for the MfS replication study and strengthens the
assumption that teaching mindfulness in higher education is beneficial to
instrumentalists.
11.2.2 Mechanisms of mindfulness for musicians
The second research aim explored the mechanisms of mindfulness that
delivered these benefits to music students. Hölzel et al. (2011) suggested a
mechanistic framework of mindfulness using conceptual, psychological, and
neural studies from the mindfulness clinical and theoretical fields (see Chapter
1, Section 1.1.2). They proposed four mechanisms of mindfulness: attention
regulation, body awareness, emotion regulation and self-perception. It was
noted that these mechanisms were underpinned by attention regulation and
might be activated separately during meditation but that they also interacted
with each other to develop mindful living. It became clear during analysis that
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this theoretical framework mapped well with the results from the current
studies. As a result, it is possible to see these mechanisms at work within the
musicians learning mindfulness. This section combines results from both
studies as many effects overlapped between the demographics, and whilst
these findings were not applicable to all students, the general patterns of how
the findings relate to this framework are summarised below.
Attention regulation
One of the most prevalent responses from participants in musical
contexts was that they felt more focused and attentive from learning
mindfulness and that this led to other improvements. Developing better
attention regulation, they said, lessened distractions and mind wandering in
lessons and practice, and they felt that they performed less automatically. In
lessons, they reported that this led to more productive sessions that, in the
MfS study, were also noticed by singing teachers. In solo practice, participants
described becoming aware of their practice behaviours, changing their
practice structure, and becoming more productive. A key effect noted by
participants was a change in time perception, which had an impact in practice
sessions and on stage. In practice, some participants reported working for
longer periods due to being in a better frame of mind, whereas some practised
for shorter durations because they said that they were more efficient. Others
perceived the time in the practice room to be shorter although it stayed the
same because they were enjoying themselves and being more creative, and
some felt that the time was longer because they were mentally more
“present”. On stage, many participants reported that time seemed to slow
down and performance experiences became less “blurry” when they were
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more attentive in the moment. This clarity of mind and “extra time” meant that
they were better able to transfer that which had been learnt in practice
successfully to the stage. They also found that they had time to be more
creative on stage introducing new performance elements, such as rubato,
dynamics, or improving characterisation. They described feeling more in
control and creative, and having a clearer memory of the performance after
they left the stage. This enabled more effective understanding of feedback
and improved performance enjoyment.
Body awareness
Participants stated that they had learned to focus attention on internal
and external body sensations through the Body Scan and Breathing
exercises. A novel finding was that students were able to describe specific
parts of the body that they had become aware of as a result of learning to be
more mindful. This awareness was often instrument-specific (e.g. wind players
became more aware of sensory feedback from their lips, vocalists felt clearer
physical sensations from their breathing mechanisms) and encouraged them
to have more focused body awareness when learning and assimilating
technical skills in lessons and practices. As a result, they also described
enhanced communication with teachers on technical matters. They became
more aware of unnecessary tension in the body in lessons, practice and
performance, and with a slower time perception on stage, enhanced body
awareness meant that they were able to implement technical learning to
improve sound and communication in the moment on stage.

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Emotion regulation
Participants reported enhanced emotion regulation, and described
feeling calmer and more relaxed in lessons, private practices, rehearsals, and
performances. This led to more open learning experiences, and, for example,
increased patience in solo practice sessions. In rehearsals, participants’
accounts suggested that they were developing emotional abilities to deal with
organisational issues and musical disagreements with peers. Enhanced
emotion regulation on stage meant that when something happened that was
unexpected, participants were able to handle distractions more effectively and
performances were less disturbed. Participants with MPA also described
becoming more aware of pre-performance emotions, thoughts and feelings
and were pleased to have developed mindful strategies to help improve their
mental mindset both in preparation, whilst on stage, and post-performance.
Self-perception
Learning to be less negatively self-judgmental, and to respond rather
than react to external events or internal thoughts, can help one develop self-
perception. The participants described changes in self-perception, such as
being less critical of themselves in lessons, practices, rehearsals, and
performances, and they reported rises in confidence in these music-specific
areas. In lessons, participants said that they found it easier to take criticism
from the teacher by deflecting the judgment away from a personal attack and
not react in an overly emotional manner. When problems arose in solo
practice, such as frustration with a technical difficulty or the mind being
distracted to ruminate on a relationship issue, participants reported
responding by being kinder to themselves and taking a quiet moment of

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mindfulness to choose a course of action rather than following a habitual
response, such as giving up or forcing themselves on. This often led to more
extensive practice and better use of time in the practice room. Also, for those
with MPA for whom doing mindfulness did not relieve or expunge symptoms,
they found that they were better able to accept those symptoms and simply let
them be, without panic, added anxiety, or negative self-judgment.
Integrated mechanisms
The mechanisms above were also reported by participants to be
integrated but in musician-specific ways. For example, participants described
how, when learning technique in lessons, improved attention regulation helped
them to be more focused in the moment when learning new skills; enhanced
body awareness helped in identifying novel physical sensations from the new
technique, and improved technical communication with the teacher.
Developing emotion regulation and self-perception helped in dealing with self-
criticism and taking criticism from the teacher during the technical learning
process. The participants reported feeling calmer in lessons and found it
easier to “hear” the teacher in the moment, which enhanced receptivity of new
information and improved the interpersonal relationship. In the MfS study,
such changes of behaviour led teachers to identify students as mindfulness
participants.
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11.3 Evaluation of the methods and approaches used in this
thesis, and future recommendations
This section discusses the strengths and limitations of the methods and
approaches used in both the GSMD and MfS studies and provides future
recommendations. The areas discussed are study design, sampling, and
reflexivity and bias.
11.3.1 Study design
Both studies in this thesis adopted a mixed-methods qualitative-
dominant design. However, most music and contemplative studies use a
quantitative approach, and studies using this design were outlined and
assessed in Chapter 2 (see Section 2.2). This prevalence reflects mindfulness
and psychological research in general, as positivism is still seen to give social
science research a serious stance in the scientific community. Most
quantitative research, however, is only valid when testing elements already
known and quantified. As was seen in Hribar (2012), if a researcher adds
some qualitative context, new findings can emerge that were not known
before. This is the strength of a mixed-methods qualitative-dominant approach
and the novel results found during this thesis uphold this design decision.
Using a quantitative design with the participants demonstrated that there may
be a correlation between levels of mindfulness and the mindfulness course,
and using a controlled and a randomised controlled design in the MfS study
provided evidence that the MfS course may have raised levels of mindfulness
in the participants in comparison with controls. Interviews allowed all the
participants to add their unique experience within context in a nascent field. In

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the MfS study, adding a qualitative diary method allowed participants to
engage anonymously using their own words freely. Employing teachers in the
MfS blind study highlighted the outwardly visible effects of mindfulness and
allowed teachers to give their viewpoints openly and confidentially. Taking a
rigorous qualitative-dominant approach facilitated a fully rounded, multi-
faceted study of the effects of mindfulness on student musicians. The value in
using this approach is clear from the depth of experience reported by the
student and teacher participants of their engagement with mindfulness in
musician-specific contexts: results are both transferable and generalisable for
the musician community.
The quantitative elements of both studies, however, had limitations. In
the GSMD, an evenly matched control group was absent. A control group
would have been useful to help isolate whether it was mindfulness or some
other variable that caused a change in the participants and this study is
weaker as a result of not employing such a device. Due to the organisation
and provision of the mindfulness course at the GSMD being out of the control
of the researcher, a controlled design was not possible. However, this study
is, primarily, an exploratory rather than an explanatory study and, in the cases
of both studies, the FFMQ was administered to assess participants’ perceived
mindfulness changes over time to provide support for the qualitative research
rather than as an stand-alone gathering of data. As the exploratory results
from the GSMD study were so encouraging, further research would be
recommended to find out if the positive questionnaire results could be
replicated using a randomised controlled trial.

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The MfS study, although employing a controlled and randomised
controlled trial, operated a treatment as usual or wait-list control group rather
than a competing intervention. Although a control group in this study did help
in isolating the mindfulness variable, a comparison group using an alternative
treatment, such as the Alexander Technique or Feldenkrais, would have been
useful to compare mindfulness against another treatment. This was not
chosen because there is very limited research on the Alexander Technique
and Feldenkrais method, so it is difficult to know the true benefit of these
interventions. In addition, there are no Alexander Technique teachers
currently operating at the University of Leeds and no Feldenkrais teachers at
either institution. However, it would be interesting in the future to run a RCT
mindfulness for musicians’ study in comparison to an 8-week course of
Alexander Technique or Feldenkrais for musicians should experienced
teachers of those methods be available.
Another limitation was the unvalidated nature of the musician-specific
MfM questionnaire (see Chapter 2, Section 2.3.2), which is still under
development. Due to the resources required to fully test and validate this
questionnaire, which would include many participants and a longer time scale
for test and retesting, it was not possible to complete this work within the
context of this PhD. This, unfortunately, may negatively affect the
dependability of the quantitative results of this part of the study. A preliminary
reliability analysis was performed on the MfM data from the GSMD and the
MfS participants. The results, combined with some of the responses from
participants in the interviews, suggest that this measure needs further testing
and refining. However, it is important to remember that this type of reliability

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testing is usually performed with a large cohort of participants and so the
smaller numbers of participants who provided data for this test, in this case,
may have negatively affected the results. Despite this, the MfM results
represent an interesting accompaniment to the interview data, and provide
another method of response for the participants. A study would be
recommended to validate this measure, perhaps developing it further in
collaboration with the original FFMQ developers. This would be particularly
useful to support further research evaluating the effects of mindfulness on
other musicians’ demographics such as professionals or students in school. It
could also help investigate the relative efficacy of individual mindfulness
exercises, such as the Body Scan or Mindful Eating, on these groups.
Many of the participants in the current studies reported that they had
music performance anxiety. A large majority of the previous literature studying
the effects of mindfulness on musicians has already focused primarily on MPA
using quantitative methods. Therefore, it was decided to explore a unique,
predominantly qualitative approach to the exploration of the general effects of
teaching mindfulness to musicians in music education. Of course, future
research could combine a validated MfM questionnaire with some established
MPA-type pre-and post-intervention measures (e.g. KMPAI; Kenny, 2009)
and/or reputable clinical questionnaires on stress and anxiety (e.g. STAI;
Spielberger, Gorsuch, Lushene, Vagg, & Jacobs, 1983) in a randomised
controlled trial. However, musicians do not often “fit in a box” as a
demographic. Based on the results of this thesis, it is recommended that
design of any psychological study for musicians should be accompanied by a

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qualitative element, as the varied responses individuals provide give far
greater contextual understanding of the “how” and “why” of change.
Another limitation was being unable to log the amount of mindfulness
practice time undertaken by each participant, particularly in the MfS study.
Although the mindfulness research is inconclusive as to the efficacy of time
engaged in mindfulness practice (Vettese, Toneatto, Stea, Nguyen, & Wang,
2009), there is no doubt of the importance of practice for musicians in music
education to enhance skills (Chaffin & Lemieux, 2004). It would have been
useful to be able to gather data on practice time to ascertain if participants in
general had been able to complete the intervention instructions. As the diaries
were anonymous, it would have been impossible to connect lengths of
practice time specifically with participant outcomes to gain a closer view of the
possible relationship. However, the anonymity of the practice journal was of
key importance to control for self-report bias considering that the researcher
was both researching and running the intervention. It was also useful in
gathering moment-by-moment data. In future, it might be possible to use an
iPhone or Android Mindfulness application to gather individual participants’
practice data in isolation from anonymous self-report feedback. However, this
would also require participants to engage the application for each practice
session.
It is possible that some of the recruitment materials (Participant
Information Form, Appendix M; Information Poster, Appendix Z; Invitation
Email, Appendix AA) and some of the research-based content in the MfS
course may have primed the experimental participants in the MfS as to the
types of experiences they would expect to find from learning mindfulness.

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From a demand characteristics point of view, this may have influenced what
the experimental participants talked about during their interviews and have
affected the veracity of the results. Whilst it is possible this bias may have
arisen from the recruitment materials, there was very little music-related
mindfulness research utilised as part of the MfS course, which should not in
itself have generated such bias. The main research referred to in the course
was of a general mindfulness or psychological/evolutionary/health nature in a
similar way to that used in general MBSR/MBCT courses. The only music-
related mindfulness research mentioned was Diaz’s (2013) study of
mindfulness and music listening and a reference to Steinfeld and Brewer’s
(2015) suggestion that there may be a connection between music-making and
mindfulness practice. Interestingly, relatively few participants mentioned that
mindfulness had an effect on their music listening but this should be taken into
account when assessing the efficacy of the course in this area. One of the
exercises, the Body Scan, made reference to body parts also used in singing
and this may have primed participants to be aware of these areas. However,
from the initial information briefing session, and at each MfS session,
participants were requested to try the mindfulness exercises with the explicit
request that the research aspect of the course was looking for their own
personal experiences, or lack of experiences as singers. Participants seemed
to like the idea that they were co-researchers in the project rather than just
“guinea pigs” and many of them seemed to take this request seriously.
Despite this, it is important to look at the recruitment materials and see what
contexts and effects were mentioned in order to compare them with

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participants’ responses in interview. The recruitment materials mentioned the
areas detailed in Table 11.1.

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Table 11.1 Context and effects of learning mindfulness for singers as

mentioned in study recruitment materials
Context Effect
Lessons Learning singing technique
Micro muscular movement awareness
Criticism
Stress
Teacher/pupil relationships
Effective learning
Music Changes/enhancement of practice

practice behaviours
Performance Nerves/stress
Flow
Attention/focus/control
Orchestra/cast/audience awareness
Stage movement/acting
Creativity
Memory
Physical awareness
Participants referred to all these items, except for flow, in interview.
However, beyond these general areas mentioned in the recruitment materials,
there were no specifics given on how these experiences would manifest. It is
clear from the research detailed in Chapters 7 to 10 that participants’
experiences were, in many cases, very detailed and pertinent to the individual.
There were also many other areas not mentioned in the recruitment materials
that were experienced and divulged in the interviews (see Table 11.2).
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Table 11.2 Context and effects of learning mindfulness on singers not

mentioned in recruitment materials
Context Effect
Lessons Less self-criticism
More productive and efficient lessons
Reduced vocal tension
Improved sound and tone
Improved focus and attention
Music Practices Better ability to deal with problems

Time perception changes
Less vocal tension
Better transfer of learning from lessons to
practice
Improved vocal technique
Improved creativity/performance skills practice
More focused and aware
Rehearsals and Everything in this section apart from music

Ensembles listening
Performance Improved vocal technique in performance

Time perception changes
Better ability to deal with the unexpected on
stage
More enjoyment of performing
Improvements in tone and sound
It is well known in educational circles that transferral of knowledge from
one area to another is a difficult procedure and that this transfer has to be
explicit using well-practised routines or an effortful search for connections
(Perkins & Salomon, 2002). Students are notorious for not finding connections
even when they have been explicitly taught to do so for examination purposes,
so it may be unlikely that the information in the recruitment materials had a
dramatic effect on the reports given two months later in an interview when
participants had been given the explicit information to give their own personal
experience. However, it is wise to read the reports from the participants whilst
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bearing in mind that these recruitment materials may have had some impact
on their responses. In future, it might be worth not mentioning any possible
effects of learning mindfulness on musicians in recruitment materials and rely
on the well-known effects of mindfulness to draw students to participate in a
study.
11.3.2 Sampling
At the GSMD, it was hoped that most of the participants of four
iterations of the MfPAS (approximately 60-70) over two years would take part
in the questionnaires and that a subsection of about 20 would take part in
interviews. However, despite funding being added to the study for participants
who completed questionnaires for GSMD iterations 2, 3 and 4, only a total of
25 participants completed the pre- and post-intervention questionnaires for all
four iterations, whereas 21 participants took part in interviews. Participant
numbers for quantitative mindfulness interventions studies are normally small
in comparison to clinical studies but more participants would have increased
the amount of questionnaire data that could be analysed and it would have
improved the representative nature of the results. A good way to encourage
more participants would have been to personally meet those participants who
were committed to taking the MfPAS. However, despite requesting to be
involved in the running of the mindfulness sessions at the GSMD, it was only
possible to speak to prospective MfPAS students at a pre-course “taster”
meeting. The reasons why some participants dropped out of the course
partway through are not known and those who chose to take part could be
those who had a positive experience, both of which issues may have
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influenced the mainly positive results from this study. However, 21 participants
for the interview part of this study was slightly more than expected, and the
duration of this research project allowed a wide variety of instrumentalists of
different ages and experience to take part in the interview process. This
approach has provided a rich, deep, and contextual overview of the musician-
specific effects of learning mindfulness on different instrument types in this
demographic. In future, including a sample of participants’ teachers or
examiners would be particularly useful in assessing whether the effects of the
course on their students were observable to teachers/assessors who know
them well.
Another issue that should be taken into account when reading the
results of the GSMD study is that participants paid to take the MfPAS course.
This may have meant that they had a vested interest in the course having
taught them something and may possibly have influenced their answers to the
positive in the interviews.
In the MfS study, one of the key limitations is that of gender parity. This
project primarily involved female singers due to the necessary ethical
voluntary participant recruitment process. Only a total of five male singing
students chose to take part in the intervention and four of the controls at the
university were also male. Apocryphally, the paucity of male singers in the UK
is well known (Rowbury, 2007) and so, although it does mean that the
research results are biased from a predominantly female perspective, this
study’s participant demographic is quite normal and representative of singers
in higher education (Nettl, 1995). As more participants were involved than
were expected, the MfS participants also covered all the years of education
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and styles of singing available at both institutions and allowed a more in-depth
exploration of the effects of learning mindfulness on singers than had been
managed previously. In comparison, a third of the GSMD study participants
are male, which provides a more gender-balanced report of the self-perceived
effects of mindfulness on mainly instrumental musicians.
Another limitation of the MfS study was the recruitment of controls at
the University of Leeds. An email was sent to recruit those who had not
chosen to take part as experimental participants to be controls and these
participants were not met in person. People who chose to be control
participants may not have chosen to take part in a large study that would have
taken up a large amount of time for a variety of reasons: maybe they were too
busy, or maybe they did not feel the need to learn to be mindful. This means
that the recruitment of the controls was not perfectly matched with the
recruitment of experimental participants at this institution. As a result, demand
characteristics may have been lower for this demographic meaning that the
quantitative results could have been affected and this should be taken into
consideration when reading these results. In future, to avoid possible
confounds in demand characteristics in recruiting controls, it would be useful
to follow a similar protocol to that used in the Leeds College of Music study
where all participants followed the same recruitment procedure. It is
interesting to note that, despite being recruited in the same way as
experimental participants, wait list controls at this institution demonstrated
non-significant results between their first two questionnaire results in a similar
way to those controls at UoL.

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The mainly positive results from this study with instrumentalists at the
GSMD, and singers in higher education in Leeds with MPA, suggest that
future research using a sample of the professional music community could be
beneficial. MPA, for example, has been noted in professional opera
performers (Kenny, Davis, & Oates, 2004) and orchestral players and soloists
are known to have both physical and mental stressors in their daily and
professional lives (Fishbein et al., 1988). A project teaching an 8-week
mindfulness course to these demographics would be recommended to
investigate whether their subsequent mindful music experiences within the
professional world would be different. Would mindfulness have similar positive
effects on maintaining a professional-grade instrumental technique as there
were for students learning one? Does it have an effect on music performance
anxiety or change practice or life behaviour strategies? Would professionals
have valued learning mindfulness when they were doing their training? As
mindfulness courses and online interventions are easily accessible now
around the world, this is an area that would benefit highly from further
investigation.
It would also be interesting to teach a mindfulness course to
instrumental teachers and investigate the effects on their teaching methods
and the possible impact on their students. Would the students notice their
teachers had taken part in a mindfulness course? Would it have any effect on
the musical and interpersonal relationships between the students and
teachers? Would the teachers change any structural or pedagogic elements of
their normal teaching methods in response to learning mindfulness? These

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and many other questions could be future topics of mindfulness and music
research.
11.3.3 Reflexivity and bias
Qualitative research has inherent strengths and weaknesses,
especially when a studied intervention is both designed and investigated by
the same person. Major concerns are that participants might inflate their
interview responses when interviewed by someone they knew, and that there
could be a bias from the researcher towards a positive report which may
reduce the value of the findings.
A positive aspect of the qualitative data gather at the GSMD was that
participants were completely unknown to the researcher, the intervention was
taught by a lecturer at the GSMD, and interview responses were confidential
and primarily gathered at a distance over the phone or via Skype. This
reduced the possibility of positive bias. In the MfS project, however, the
researcher ran the intervention and the interviews and therefore became
personally known to the student participants. Students often do not wish to
disappoint the course tutor, and due to the recruitment materials, they may
have preconceived ideas as to the effects they might be expected to
experience. It is possible that they may have unwittingly then experienced and
reported those effects to the researcher, which could positively bias their
report and the final results. However, the nature of the intervention demanded
that the designer, deliverer, and analyst must have both mindfulness and
singing experience.
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In order to encourage the trustworthiness and dependability of the
interview responses, the MfS research process was designed with rigorous
checks in place: the pre- and post-questionnaires were controlled (university)
and randomised controlled (conservatoire); initial interviews were held within a
week of the intervention, and the longitudinal interviews within 6 months, as
recommended by Bhandari and Wagner (2006); intervention daily diary data
were collected anonymously; and, in the teachers’ blind study, none of the
teachers was known personally to the researcher. The anonymous diary is a
limitation in itself as the findings are not attributable to individual participants
and the results had to be analysed en masse. However, this also allowed
participants the opportunity to give feedback freely and openly, and helped to
counteract possible result bias involved in this study.
At all points during these studies, I have made my position clear as a
practitioner of mindfulness and a highly experienced singer and voice teacher,
and the results should be read with this reflexivity in mind. I found that doing
some mindfulness exercises before interviews helped me to stay focused on
the content reported by the participants, and to gently investigate interesting
phenomena further. This also helped me to guide loquacious participants back
to the topic in diplomatic ways. Student participants in both studies seemed
pleased to hear of my experience as an ex-university and ex-conservatoire
vocal and instrumental student when interviewing them but I was mindful not
to impose my views on them. University students and conservatoire students
have different pressures and expectations on them. The university cohort
seemed more equally pressured by academic and performance concerns in
response to career aspirations that were not necessarily grounded in music,

368
whereas the conservatoire students seemed to feel a particular implicit
pressure on them to become professional performers. They engaged more
closely with me knowing that I understood their unique learning contexts,
pressures, and the terminology that they used. Singing teachers also seemed
to relax visibly once I had informed them of my singing teacher training and
experience and I felt they became more open and technically specific in their
responses.
A suggestion for future research would be to employ more independent
evaluators of the interview data or utilise a second musician-trained
mindfulness teacher or similarly knowledgeable research partner should one
be available. In MPA mindfulness studies, the use of additional objective
measures, such as measuring cortisol levels to examine physiological
stressors, may also be useful. For example, in a review and meta-analysis of
interventions to reduce stress in university students, Regehr, Glancy, and Pitts
(2012) found that there were lower levels of cortisol in experimental
participants who took part in cognitive, behavioural and mindfulness
interventions. And, more specifically to meditation, Tang et al. (2007)
discovered that five days’ training in meditation improved self-regulation and
attention for 8 undergraduates with measureable decreases in stress-related
cortisol. This method, therefore, may prove useful in measuring levels of
stress in mindfulness and MPA studies.

369
11.4 Implications
There are implications for management at music institutions in higher
education, school children engaged in music activities, and music
professionals from the results of this study investigating the effects of teaching
mindfulness to musicians. Most universities and many music conservatoires
are part of the Healthy Universities initiative and are now becoming more
invested in musicians’ health and wellbeing as more evidence comes to light
of the stresses and strains experienced by student musicians in pursuit of
peak artistry. Schools are becoming more concerned about stress and anxiety
in their students, which would include student musicians. Professional
musicians (like professional athletes) also need mental and physical help from
health and wellbeing specialists supported by evidence-based programmes,
such as this, in order to keep bodies and minds in peak physical and mental
states for performance.
Mindfulness training at a music conservatoire was recently described
as a “lifestyle enabler” to optimal health in a Musical Impact study
investigating the perceptions of musicians’ health and wellbeing provision in
music conservatoires (Perkins, Reid, Araújo, Clark, & Williamon, 2017). In the
current thesis, the positive results from both the GSMD and the MfS studies
suggested that teaching mindfulness to musicians at universities and
conservatoires can be a highly effective intervention in all aspects of music-
specific educational learning and preparation for a future performing and
teaching life. Eight-week mindfulness courses, which have repeatedly
demonstrated their efficacy in the clinical domain (Gotink et al., 2015) and
have been used to positive effect for music students (Hribar, 2015), should
370
ideally, therefore, be made available in music departments and music
conservatoires across the country. It is acknowledged that there may not be
the resources to run a full 8-week course, however, shorter courses have
been shown to have a positive impact (Tang et al., 2007; Tang, Tang, Jiang, &
Posner, 2014). However, longer courses would probably enable students to
embed the practices in their daily lives. Practically, courses could be
implemented as part of a university or conservatoire’s Health Promotion
Framework that is advised as part of the Health Promotion in Schools of Music
project (Chesky, Dawson & Manchester, 2006). However, as mindfulness may
not be acceptable to everyone, as evidenced by the experiences mentioned
by Daphne and Tony in the GSMD study, it might be better to utilise a visiting
specialist with mindfulness and music performance/teaching experience who
could provide a regular voluntary extra-curricular course for those who wish to
take part. For example, the MfPAS course at the GSMD is currently run by
GSMD lecturer who is also trained as a mindfulness teacher. The classes are
subsidised by the conservatoire and students pay a small fee to take part. At
universities, they could be run as voluntary “discovery” type modules in a
similar style to that suggested in Appendix BB or as an accessory to
compulsory musicians’ health and well-being courses.
For school children, vocal and instrumental behaviour patterns are
developed from the first moment the student steps into the teacher’s studio.
As mindfulness has been shown to be beneficial for students in schools
personally and academically, and as the government are keen to include
mindfulness to enhance school students’ lives (Mindfulness All-Party
Parliamentary Group, 2015), the implications from this study suggest that
371
teaching mindfulness in a targeted way to child and adolescent musicians
would also be of great benefit to their mental and physical health when
developing musical skills.
The accepted tradition for professional musicians that one should
physically suffer for one’s art and that depression and anxiety are the “flip”
side of musical genius are rapidly declining as more and more musicians
commit suicide or speak about their problems (Barton, 2015). Professional
musicians are now looking for ways to improve their lives in general, in
physical ways and in mental respects. The implication from this research is
that mindfulness should have a positive and beneficial impact on both working
with physical problems, and in dealing with the multi-faceted stresses,
anxieties, and mental health issues that plague professional musicians.
Mindfulness courses are regularly available around the world and, from the
current research, professional musicians should feel reassured that investing
the time and energy required in doing a mindfulness course could be of
immense benefit to them professionally and personally.
Indeed, for all musicians, it is possible to access mindfulness through
mobile applications. As some mindfulness applications have demonstrated
their efficacy in teaching mindfulness to the general public (Spijkerman, Pots,
& Bohlmeijer, 2016), this would imply that Android or iPhone applications
specifically designed to teach mindfulness skills couched in music-specific
terms for students and professionals would be of great value. Musicians, with
their nomadic lifestyle, are often not able to commit to long term interventions
held in a regular place at a regular time. There is evidence that mindfulness
applications can be beneficial to help reduce stress (Economides, Martman,

372
Bell, & Sanderson, 2018) and reduce mind wandering (Bennike, Wieghorst, &
Kirk, 2017). Therefore, a targeted application, available whenever needed,
perhaps just before going on stage or in the practice room, for example, could
be beneficial.
The implication is also clear for music psychology and psychological
research in general, that if future researchers include qualitative and other
design elements within their studies, important effects of interventions can be
discovered. The wide variety of experience expressed by the participants in
both of the current studies in this research has given clear evidence of the
importance of including qualitative research especially in such a nascent field
as mindfulness and musicians. This study has shown that it is possible to
conduct rigorous research using a mixed methods approach in order to
provide strong evidence within the fields of contemplative and music
psychology research.
11.5 Concluding remarks
According to the literature, music students are arriving at university and
music college more stressed and anxious than they have before, so there is a
clear benefit for institutions to provide adequate, specifically tailored, and
evidence-based health and well-being interventions. In both of the current
studies, the mindfulness intervention was reported by participants to have had
a positive effect on student musicians whether they are at a university or a
conservatoire, both musically and generally. For example, participants
reported better abilities to learn instrumental technique, improved
teacher/pupil relationships, described developing more efficient and effective

373
music practice, and found enhanced music and communication skills in
rehearsal and ensembles. In performance, mindfulness has not just positively
impacted on those with high levels of MPA as expected; it has also had
positive effects in enhancing aspects of participants’ performances, improving
their experience and increasing performance enjoyment. The evidence from
the exploratory study at the GSMD, and the rigorous replication of the pilot
MfS course described in this thesis clearly supports the recommendation that
mindfulness courses are made available throughout the music departments
and music conservatoires in the UK. Mindfulness skills enhance the whole
musician and should be made easily available for the benefits of all music
students as skillful, healthy support during their student studies, and in
preparation for their future professional lives.

374
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List of Abbreviations
ACT Acceptance and Commitment Therapy

ASD Autism Spectrum Disorder
AT Alexander Technique
BCE Before Common/Current Era
BMX Bicycle Motorcross
BOS Bristol Online Survey
C College/Conservatoire (Leeds College of Music
participant)
C Diaries College/conservatoire anonymous diary entry (LCOM)
CAMS Cognitive and Affective Mindfulness Scale
CBT Cognitive Behavioural Therapy
CD Compact Disk
CEP College/conservatoire experimental participant/s (LCOM)
CfMRP Centre for Mindfulness Research and Practice (Bangor
University)
CRDI Continuous Response Digital Interface
DBT Dialectic Behaviour Therapy
EEG Electroencephalogram
EP Experimental participant/s (UoL or LCOM)
FFMQ Five Facet Mindfulness Questionnaire
FMI Freiburg Mindfulness Inventory
fMRI Functional Magnetic Resonance Imaging
FV Fitzmaurice Voicework
GCE General Certificate of Education
GSMD Guildhall School of Music and Drama
HE Higher education
KIMS Kentucky Inventory of Mindfulness Skills
KMPAI Kenny Music Performance Anxiety Inventory
LCOM Leeds College of Music
MAAS Mindfulness Attention Awareness Scale
MAC Mindfulness-Acceptance-Commitment
MAPPG Mindfulness All-Party Parliamentary Group
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MBCT Mindfulness Based Cognitive Therapy

MBI Mindfulness Based Intervention
MBPM Mindfulness Based Pain and Illness Management
MBSR Mindfulness Based Stress Reduction
MfM Mindfulness for Musicians Questionnaire
MfPAS Mindfulness for Performing Arts Students course
MfS Mindfulness for Singers
MIND Music Instruction Non-Deficit
MPA Music Performance Anxiety
mPEAK Mindful Performance Enhancement, Awareness, and
Knowledge
MSPE Mindful Sport Performance Enhancement
NATS National Association of Teachers of Singing
NHS National Health Service (UK)
NICE National Institute for Clinical Excellence
NIH National Center for Complementary and Integrative Health
NLP Neuro-Linguistic Programming
PHLMS Philadelphia Mindfulness Scale
PTSD Post-traumatic Stress Disorder
RCT Randomised Controlled Trial
SAD Social Anxiety Disorder
SMQ Southampton Mindfulness Questionnaire
SPSS Statistical Package for the Social Sciences
STAI-Y State-Trait Anxiety Inventory
U University (University of Leeds participant)
U Diaries University anonymous diary entry (UoL)
UEP University experimental participant/s (UoL)
UoL University of Leeds
WLC Wait-list control participant/s (LCOM)
WLE Wait-list experimental participant/s (LCOM)
Appendix
Appendix A - Five Facet Mindfulness Questionnaire (FFMQ)
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427
Appendix B - Mindfulness for Musicians Questionnaire (MfM)
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429
Appendix C - Scoring the FFMQ and the MfM Questionnaires
Questions 1-39
Ruth Baer, University of Kentucky
October 2005
Observe items:
1, 6, 11, 15, 20, 26, 31, 36
Describe items:
2, 7, 12R, 16R, 22R, 27, 32, 37
Act with Awareness items:

5R, 8R, 13R, 18R, 23R, 28R, 34R, 38R
Nonjudge items:
3R, 10R, 14R, 17R, 25R, 30R, 35R, 39R
Nonreact items:
4, 9, 19, 21, 24, 29, 33
Scoring the Mindfulness for Musicians added questions 1-15.

Anne-Marie Czajkowski, University of Leeds
June 2015
Observe items:
1, 6, 12R
Describe items:
2R, 7R, 13
Act with Awareness items:

3, 8R, 14R
Nonjudge items:
4R, 9R, 15R
Nonreact items:
5, 10R, 11
R= Reverse scored
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Appendix D - MfS Study: Student Participant Interview Questions
General Question.
1. Please tell me about your experience doing this mindfulness course.
(Prompt - Session length, course length/duration, anything
particularly useful/not useful. Have they discovered the choice
of wider awareness or narrower concentration as desired in each
moment?)
2. How did you find the home practice and diary part of the course?
(Prompt – Guided practice (CD) – what did they think of voice
used and length of meditations?
Prompt – Use of mindfulness in daily life – did they manage it?
Any revelations?)
Singing lessons
3. Did you manage to do the mindfulness techniques to prepare before
lessons?
And before practice sessions? (Prompt- length, type)
4. Do you feel that doing this mindfulness course has affected your
experience of learning to sing in lessons and/or practice sessions?
(Prompt – learning technique, teacher?)
5. What would you say about the mindfulness techniques in regards to
learning singing?
Performance.
6. Have you had chance to perform this term?
(If Yes….)
7. Do you feel that the mindfulness course has had any impact on your
experience as a performer?
(If No….)
7a. Have you had any situations this term where you have felt anxious or
nervous?
(If Yes…. Return to question 7 – if No then abandon)
Final question.
8. Has doing the course had any impact in your daily life? Recommend?
Continue?
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Appendix E – GSMD Study: Participant Interview Questions
General Questions.
1. Please tell me about the practical experience of doing the mindfulness
course.
(Prompt - Session length, course length/duration, venue, other
people on the course)
2. Tell me about your experience of the home practice part of the course?
(Prompt – length of home practice achieved, easiness of doing
home practice, opinions on the guided practices (CDs/mp3s)
3. Informal/Formal practice?
(Prompt – Use of mindfulness in daily life – did they manage it?
Any revelations?)
Why did you choose to do a mindfulness course?
Instrumental Lessons
4. Are you having one-to-one instrumental/voice lessons?

Any effects of the mindfulness course/exercises in lessons? (Prompt –
teacher?)
5. Are you learning voice/instrumental technique?
Any effects of the mindfulness exercises on learning technique?
6. How often do you practice your instruments/voice privately on your
own? College or home usually?
Any effects of the mindfulness exercises or the course on this aspect?
7. I assume you do group/ensembles in rehearsals/classes?
Any effects of the mindfulness exercises or course on this aspect?
8. Conclusion: Has learning to be more mindful had any effect (bad or
good) on your life as an instrumental/voice learner that hasn’t been
covered above?
Performance
9. Have you had chance to perform this term?
(If Yes….)
10. Do you feel that the mindfulness course has had any impact on your
experience as a performer?
(If No….)
10a. Have you had any situations this term where you have felt anxious or
nervous?
(If Yes….)
Do you feel that the mindfulness course had any impact in those
situations?
(If No…then abandon)
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Final questions.
11. Has doing the course had any impact in your daily life?
(Prompt – relationships with others, eating, sleeping etc)
12. Anything discovered from doing the M course that was particularly
useful/not useful to them as a person?
13. Would you recommend the course to other music students?
Why?/Why not?
14 . What were your fave mindfulness exercises and why?
15. Will you continue?
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Appendix F - MfS Study: Teacher Participant Interview Questions
The effects of a targeted mindfulness course on student singers:

A longitudinal study.
Teacher Interview Questions.
Introduction
Thank you for meeting today. I’m a singing teacher of 20 years experience so
feel free to talk technically.
Over the last 8 weeks I’ve been teaching (insert number) of your
students mindfulness techniques which includes exercises in focused
awareness or concentration, open awareness and open monitoring techniques
as well as encouraging them to be more self-compassionate. So the sort of
things you may or may not have noticed are changes in behaviour or learning
in singing lessons, or people who demonstrated a different attitude to you or
the lesson over the last few weeks.
Questions:
Bearing the above in mind, did you notice any of your students that you may
suspect were doing the mindfulness course?
If no. Tell them who was.
Do they have anything to add now they know who was doing the course? Are
they surprised that person had been learning attention training techniques?
Any other thoughts?
If yes….
1. What did you notice that was different?
2. Did they approach or start to learn singing technique differently in

lessons?
3. Did student’s behaviour to yourself change at all?
4. Did they mention anything about performance that might be useful to

note?
5. Were there any daily life experiences noted or noticed by you?
6. Were there any disadvantages to the course noted by the teacher?

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Appendix G - MfS Study: MfS Blank Journal

435
Appendix H - GSMD Study: Ethics Approval Letter (UoL)

436
437
Appendix I - MfS Study: Ethics Approval Letter (UoL)

438
439
440
Appendix J - GSMD Study: Ethics Approval Letter (GSMD)

441
442
Appendix K - MfS Study: Ethics Approval Letter (LCOM)

443
Appendix L – GSMD Study: Participant Information Form
Exploring the effects of a mindfulness course on

students from a music conservatoire.
10/12/15
You are being invited to take part in a research project. Before you decide it is
important for you to understand why the research is being done and what it will
involve. Please take time to read the following information carefully and discuss it
with others if you wish. Please ask if anything is not clear or if you would like more
information. My details are at the bottom of this sheet. Take time to decide whether or
not you wish to take part.
What is the purpose of the project?

Pilot research has shown that there could be many beneficial effects of doing a
mindfulness course for student singers. The purpose of this research is to investigate
the effects of a course in mindfulness on student singers and instrumentalists as
learners, performers and in their daily lives.
The duration for the whole project is 2 years but your participation is minimal and is
detailed below.
Why have I been chosen?

You have been chosen because you are about to embark on a mindfulness course and
you are a music student studying at an advanced level. Hopefully between 80 and 100
participants will be recruited for the questionnaire element of the project and 20-24
students recruited for the additional paid interview.
What do I have to do?

There are two levels of involvement.
1. Fill out a questionnaire before and after the Mindfulness for Performing Arts
Students course. It should only take you about 10 minutes to fill out the tick box
question sheet. (£5 as compensation for time taken).
2. As above and also after the course partake in a private and confidential 20-
30min interview (£10 to cover travel/expenses).
As the questionnaire tends to cover more general life experience, the interview will be
asking questions specifically about your experience of learning mindfulness on your
life as a music student (lessons/practice/learning instrument technique etc.) and as a
performer. This is in order to get a deeper picture of the effects of the course on you as
a musician.
Do I have to do it?
It is up to you to decide whether or not to take part. If you do decide to take part you
will be given this information sheet to keep (and be asked to sign a consent form) and
you can withdraw at any time before analysis (tbc) without it affecting you in any
way. You do not have to give a reason, just let me know via my email below so I can
take your data out before analysis.
What are the possible disadvantages of taking part?
There are no anticipated disadvantages.
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What are the possible benefits of taking part?

Research has indicated that a mindfulness course should be beneficial in the many
areas of a musician’s life. There is no particular benefit for you personally in taking
part in this project but you will be helping us to understand what, if any, effects are to
be gained from doing a mindfulness course for musicians. This project could have an
impact on the availability of such courses and their funding in the future.
Will my taking part in this project be kept confidential and what will happen to
the results of the research project?
All the information that we collect about you during the course of the research will be
kept strictly confidential. Interviewees’ names are anonymised and you will not be
able to be identified by others in any reports or publications. In the event of this
research being published, you will be notified when, where and how to obtain a copy.
Data will be kept for 10 years after publication after which it will be securely and
safely destroyed. This research is for completion of the PhD in Applied Psychology
of Music at Leeds University.
The audio recordings of interviews made during this research will be anonymised and
will be used only for analysis and for illustration in conference presentations and
lectures. No other use will be made of them without your written permission, and no
one outside the project will be allowed access to the original recordings.
If any data arises in the interview that is contrary to laws of the country or
demonstrating significant emotional or personal risk, appropriate advice will be taken
from Guildhall School of Music staff as to their protocols in these matters.
The University of Leeds is the data controller and Adrian Slater
a.j.slater@adm.leeds.ac.uk is currently the representative to whom you can take any
complaints or concerns.
Who is organizing/funding the research?
All organization and any funding is provided by the researcher. £10 is offered each
interview participant at the end of the interview in thanks for their participation to
help cover travel and expenses.
Contact for Further Information

Researcher: Anne-Marie Czajkowski : mc11amlc@leeds.ac.uk
Supervisor: Dr Alinka Greasley A.E.Greasley@leeds.ac.uk
Finally:
You will be given a copy of this information sheet and a consent form to keep
identical to one you have signed to agree to participating in this research.
Thank you very much for taking the time to read through this information.
Ethics Approval Reference and date: University of Leeds PVAR 14-101

(Approval Amendment due to poor participant uptake 10.12.15)
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Appendix M - MfS Study: Participant Information Form
(Experimental)
The effects of a targeted mindfulness course on student singers: A longitudinal

study
Student Information Sheet 7.9.15
with others if you wish. Ask if there is anything that is not clear or if you would like
more information. Take time to decide whether or not you wish to take part.
Mindfulness – the background
“Mindfulness means paying attention in a particular way: on purpose, in the present
moment, and nonjudgmentally” (Kabat-Zinn, 2004, p.4). Judgmentally, in this
definition means without emotional self-criticism.
Mindfulness is currently available on the NHS for those with chronic depression.
However, research has also indicated its usefulness in the areas of education, sport,
business and, recently, music education.
Project Aim
The aim of this project is to investigate the usefulness of a course in Mindfulness for
student singers. You have been chosen because you are a student studying advanced
voice with a teacher at university and because you will be utilising your singing
skills in performance.
Do I have to do it?
It is up to you to decide whether or not to take part. You have anytime up to a week
to decide. If you do take part you can still withdraw from the course at any time and
have any data destroyed until the start of analysis (30.6.16). You do not have to give
a reason.
1. Fill in registration form and consent administration.
2. Fill in a short questionnaire both before and after the course.
3. Attend a mindfulness course from January to February. The course offered is
an adapted version of the MBSR (Mindfulness Based Stress Reduction) course
developed for singers. It is of 8 weeks x 1 hours duration.
4. 15 minutes of home practice with a provided CD/MP3 tracks for 6/7 days per
week for the duration of the course preferably just before singing lessons/practice or
performance situations.
5. A recorded interview of 15-20 mins duration immediately after the course to
find out your thoughts and another one 3 months later to find out any long term
effects.
6. A course length anonymous ongoing diary to record your thoughts or insights
gained from the course.
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What are the possible benefits or disadvantages of taking part?

There are no anticipated disadvantages and research has indicated that a Mindfulness
course should be beneficial in the following areas of a singer’s life:
Learning:
Learning singing technique and micro-muscular movement awareness.
Dealing with criticism and lesson stress and anxiety. Teacher/pupil relations.
Changing/enhancing practice behaviours.
Performance:
Dealing with nerves, stress, anxiety, fear and panic. Encourage ‘flow’ experience.
Wide and narrow concentration and attention focus control. Orchestra/cast/audience
awareness. Stage movement and acting. Moment by moment creativity. Memory.
Life skills:
Career stress, criticism and networking skills. Sleep and relaxation.
Health awareness. Worry and anxiety.
Not all of the above possible effects are being investigated but to avoid bias, the
precise area of investigation will be revealed after the interviews.
What type of information will be sought from me?

Your name, age and gender, your singing teacher’s name and your email/phone
contact details will be needed for demographic and contact purposes.
All the information that we collect about you during the course of the research will
be kept strictly confidential. You will not be able to be identified in any reports of
publications. In the event of this research being published, you will be notified
when, where and how to obtain a copy. This research is for completion of the PhD in
Applied Psychology at Leeds University. Data will be archived at the Research Data
Leeds repository.
The anonymised audio recordings of your interviews made during this research will
be used only for analysis and for illustration in conference presentations and lectures.
No other use will be made of them without your written permission, and no one
outside the project will be allowed access to the original recordings.
Funding is provided by University of Leeds 110 Anniversary Scholarship. £20 is
offered to each student at the final interview in thanks for their participation.
Contact: Anne-Marie Czajkowski: mc11amlc@leeds.ac.uk 0113 286 2513
Finally:
identical to one you have signed to agree to participate in this research.
Ethics Approval Reference: PVAR 15-008

447
Appendix N - MfS Study: Teacher Information Sheet
The effects of a targeted mindfulness course on student singers: A longitudinal

study
Participant Information Sheet (Teachers)
with others if you wish. Ask us if there is anything that is not clear or if you would
like more information. Take time to decide whether or not you wish to take part.
Mindfulness – the background
“Mindfulness means paying attention in a particular way: on purpose, in the present

moment, and nonjudgmentally” (Kabat-Zinn, 2004, p.4). Judgmentally, in this
definition means without emotional self-criticism.
Mindfulness is currently available on the NHS for those with chronic depression.
However, research has also indicated its usefulness in the areas of education, sport and
business and recently in music education.
“Parents and teachers tell kids 100 times a day to pay attention, but we never teach
them how.” (Goldin, 2007)
Project Aim
The aim of this project is to investigate the effects of a course in Mindfulness for
student singers in more depth and over a longer time period. You have been chosen
because you are experienced in teaching vocal technique and performance skills at a
high level and because you are teaching the students who are participating in the study
from both before, during and after the course intervention.
Do I have to do it?
It is up to you to decide whether or not to take part. You have up to a week to decide.
If you do take part you will be given this information sheet to keep (and be asked to
sign a consent/registration form) and you can still withdraw at any time and withdraw
any data up to the start of analysis (30.6.15). You do not have to give a reason.

1. Reflect on any observed behaviour, learning, practice or performance changes
in your students over the second Semester.
2. Take part in a short 15-20 minute one-to-one confidential interview after the
intervention course in March and a second one 3 months later in June to find
out any long term effects.
What are the possible benefits/disadvantages of taking part?

A previous pilot study on Mindfulness for Singers a wide variety of the benefits of
daily mindfulness exercises on learning singing technique such as improved aural and
physical sensory awareness which led to better memory, application, and transferal of
448
new technique into practice and performance. Participants experienced greater

awareness and improvement of their vocal sound, tone colour and text
communication. Problem solving, such as dealing with extraneous vocal tension, was
easier, quicker, and effective. Mindfulness exercises also positively affected other
aspects of singing such as teacher/pupil relationships, concentration and focus in
lessons, practice, performance anxiety, performance creativity, taking criticism and
daily life. There are no anticipated disadvantages.

Your name, gender and your email contact details will be needed for demographic and
contact purposes.
All the information that we collect about you during the course of the research will be
kept strictly confidential. You will not be able to be identified in any reports of
publications. In the event of this research being published, you will be notified when,
where and how to obtain a copy. This research is for completion of the PhD in
Applied Psychology at Leeds University. Data will be archived at the Research Data
Leeds repository
The anonymised audio recordings of your interviews made during this research will
be used only for analysis and for illustration in conference presentations and lectures.
No other use will be made of them without your written permission, and no one
outside the project will be allowed access to the original recordings.

Funding is provided by University of Leeds 110 Anniversary Scholarship. You will
be paid at University pro-rata fees in thanks for your participation.
Finally:
identical to one you have signed to agree to participating in this research.

449
Appendix O - MfS Study: Information Sheet and Consent Form
(Control)
Mindfulness for Singers Information Email and Consent Form
Thank you for agreeing to participate in my project. It’s called “The effects of a
targeted mindfulness course on student singers: A longitudinal study.”
Please take time to read the following information carefully and ask if there is
anything that is not clear or if you would like more information.
Project Aim - is to investigate the usefulness of a course in Mindfulness for student

singers. You have been asked to participate because you are a student studying voice
at University

Fill in a short questionnaire in January and another in March.
Do I have to do it? - It is up to you to decide whether or not to take part. You have
anytime up to a week to decide. If you do take part you can still withdraw at any time
and have any data destroyed until the start of analysis. You do not have to give a
reason.
What do I get and when?

You will be sent £4 via Paypal on receipt of the second survey response as a thanks
for taking time to fill out the questionnaires. There are no other anticipated
disadvantages or benefits for participating.

An anonymised identifier, your age, gender and email address (for contact and
payment purposes only)
All the information collected about you during the course of the research will be kept
strictly confidential. You will not be able to be identified in any reports of
publications. In the event of this research being published, you will be notified when,
where and how to obtain a copy. This research is for completion of the PhD in
Applied Psychology at Leeds University.

Funding is provided by University of Leeds 110 Anniversary Scholarship.
VERY IMPORTANT: Consent

Please read through the statements below.
1. I confirm that I have read and understand the information in the email above
explaining the research project and I have had the opportunity to ask questions about
the project.
450
2. I agree for the data collected from me to be stored and used in relevant future
research in an anonymised form and kept in archive at the University of Leeds.
3. I understand that relevant sections of the data collected during the study, may
be looked at by individuals from the University of Leeds or from regulatory
authorities where it is relevant to my taking part in this research. I give permission for
these individuals to have access to my records.
4. I agree to take part in the above research project and will inform the lead
researcher should my contact details change.
If you are happy with these 4 statements and the information in this email, please now
fill in the Questionnaire.
LINK TO ONLINE SURVEY

451
Appendix P – GSMD Study: Consent form

Consent Form
Add your
initials next to
the
statements
you agree
with
I confirm that I have read and understand the information sheet

dated 15 July 2015 explaining the above research project and I
have had the opportunity to ask questions about the project.
I agree for the data collected from me to be stored and used in
relevant future research in an anonymised form and kept in
archive at the University of Leeds.
I understand that relevant sections of the data collected during
the study, may be looked at by individuals from the University of
Leeds or from regulatory authorities where it is relevant to my
taking part in this research. I give permission for these individuals
to have access to my records.
I agree to take part in the above research project and will inform
the lead researcher should my contact details change.
Name of participant
Participant’s
signature
Date
Name of lead
researcher /person Anne-Marie Czajkowski/Eliza McCarthy
taking consent
Signature
Date*
*To be signed and dated in the presence of the participant.
Once this has been signed by all parties the participant should receive a copy
of the signed and dated participant consent form, the letter/ pre-written script/
information sheet and any other written information provided to the
participants. A copy of the signed and dated consent form should be kept with
the project’s main documents which must be kept in a secure location.
452
Appendix Q - MfS Study: Consent Form (Experimental)

453
Appendix R - MfS Study: Teacher Consent Form

454
Appendix S – GSMD Study: Participant Personal Details

Participant Personal Details
Name……………………………………………………………
Please print your email address clearly so you can be informed about results
from this study.
EMAIL:…………………………………………………………………………..
Would you like to be interviewed at the end of the course for 20-30mins and
earn £10 in thanks to help cover travel/expenses?
Y / N Phone Number if Y
………………………………………
Today’s Date…………………………
455
Appendix T – GSMD Study: Participant Questionnaire Data

Participant Questionnaire Data
Anonymous Identifier…………………………………………………..
(Your Initials and first 4 digits of your Date of Birth please.
For example, Annie Czajkowski, 5 August 1991 = AC0508)
Identified Gender…………………………………….
Age…………………………………………………………………………..
Are you a… Music Drama Research student (please circle)?
Principle Instrument………………………………………………………….
Secondary Instruments………………………………………………………
Today’s Date………………………………………………………………
456
Appendix U - GSMD Study: Ethics Amendment Approval (UoL)

457
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Appendix V - GSMD Study: Ethics Amendment Approval (GSMD)

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Appendix W - Mindfulness exercises explained
Thought Buses or Clouds
In this exercise, participants notice thoughts arising and imagine these

thoughts as a mental bus ride. If the thoughts are negative, they can imagine
that the bus is taking them where they do not want to go and mentally “get off”
the thought bus.
For thought clouds, participants imagine that their mind is a skyscape

and their thoughts are clouds passing by. Clouds can be both small and fluffy
or large and threatening. Participants are encouraged to categorise their
thoughts in a similar way and observe them pass by. They come and they go.
They never stay forever.
Breathing Awareness Exercise
This exercise is usually the first exploration into breath awareness.

Participants are asked to come into an attentive sitting posture with both feet
flat on the floor and hands comfortably placed and, if they feel comfortable, to
close their eyes or gaze gently at the floor before them. They are then asked
to become aware of the most obvious sensation of breathing and, once that is
established, to put their right hand on that place. After a short while, they are
asked to put their left hand on the next most obvious breathing sensation.
After another short time, participants are asked to open their eyes and look
where everyone has place their hands in order to explore the concept that we
all experience something as simple as breathing in different ways.
3-Minute Breathing Space
The 3-minute breathing space is a quick exercise that is particularly

useful in stressful times. One starts by becoming aware of what there is in the
moment for one minute: emotions, thoughts, feelings, sensations, situation.
Then in the second minute, one focuses wholeheartedly on the sensation of
breathing. Then in the third minute, one “breathes into” the
emotions/thoughts/feelings/sensations/situation and chooses to take the next
action mindfully.
Breathing Journey Exercise
This exercise is a mixture between mindful breathing exercises and the

Body Scan. It was specifically designed for singers by the researcher but
could be used by anyone wanting to gain an in-depth mindful awareness of
their breathing mechanism.
Participants start by coming into an attentive sitting posture and become
aware of their normal breathing. They are then guided to place their mind in
turn on different parts of the breathing anatomy. The mind is focused at first
on the sensation of breath at the tip of the nose, then in the sinus, then the
throat, then the lungs expanding and contracting, then the diaphragm rising
and falling, the abdominal muscles moving in sympathy below, the lower back,
460
the middle back (behind the diaphragm), the upper back and maybe shoulders
and upper arms moving in sympathy with the ribcage movement, they are
asked to imagine the breath in the back of the neck and then take attention
finally back to the tip of the nose. If the mind is distracted, participants are
encouraged to acknowledge where the mind went and then bring it back to the
focus of attention without negative self-judgment.
Mindful Movement
This is a yoga type exercise that is done standing up. Participants are
asked to stand in an attentive manner with their feet slightly apart and firmly
on the ground and head “in the clouds” (Mountain Pose) becoming aware of
their breathing and then transferring attention to the sensations they feel in the
body posture at that moment. Each subsequent movement is then
experienced sensationally in the moment that it is happening and once
movement has stopped, a quick “body scan” is done to assess changes, and
then the mind is brought back to the breath. Bringing the mind to the breath
whilst in a pose can enable that pose to become stable, relaxed, and can last
for far longer than the participant expected. A variety of yoga type poses and
movements can be used for this exercise.
Movements used in the MfS Course are detailed in Appendix AJ and were
ones that would be specifically of use to singers focus on posture and
sensations in the back, neck, and shoulders.
Body Scan
Participants are usually supine for this exercise and after coming into
the present moment, breathing, and settling in to the practice, will mentally
“place” their mind on and in each part of the body in turn thus developing
focused awareness and enhanced proprioception. This practice can take a
few seconds for a quick body scan, but is more likely to take about 30-40
minutes. Participants can work from the bottom of the body to the head, from
the head to the feet, or from the central breathing mechanism outwards.
The Body Scan for the MfS was modified and extended for singers to include
specific prompts to be aware of the jaw, the tongue, the lips, the soft palate,
and the larynx, which are particular vocal principles used in singing technique.
Breathing Counting
This is a ten-minute breathing exercise usually done in a sitting

position. After settling into a seated but attentive posture, the participant is
encouraged to be aware of the sensations of normal breathing and drop a
count of 1 at the end of the first breath, a count of 2 at the end of the second
and so on. Once the tenth breath has been counted, the participant returns to
1 and repeats the process. At any time that the mind slips away and is noticed
by the participant, they are asked to simply return the mind to the breath and
start again from 1 with no judgmental thoughts of failure for losing
concentration. For variety, participants can choose to drop the counts at the
beginning, middle or end of breaths.
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Mindful Eating
This is an exercise to work on being judgmental, being critical, being in

the moment, avoid “cataloguing” and improve sensation
awareness. Participants in the MfS were guided through the following points
with a raisin, and then chocolate. Most MBSR or MBCT courses only use a
raisin.
“Take the raisin, explore it as though you had never seen one before.”
1. See it (explore with eyes).
2. Hold it (weight/shadow).
3. Touch it (swap hands, explore with fingers).
4. Smell it (maybe no smell…).
5. MINDFULLY Place it in your mouth – no chewing. Notice what your arm
does, mouth does, tongue does to receive it. Start to explore it with your
tongue.
6. Chew it. Consciously bite into it. Taste, texture, notice what happens in
the mouth. Hear the sound of chewing.
7. Swallow it. Feel the “wanting to swallow it” feeling. What does the tongue
do to prepare for a swallow? Follow the sensation of swallowing all
down.
8. After effects. Aftertaste, note the absence of it, is there an automatic
tendency to have another?”
The participants in the MfS course were introduced to the idea that this
exercise is using the same muscles and body parts as those used for
pronunciation (correct production of sounds of words), and enunciation
(singing words clearly).
Mindful Listening
This informal type of practice can be done in a variety of ways using

music, or listening to others, or listening to naturally occurring sounds around.
Music Mindful Listening: This exercise encouraged the listening of one piece
of music every day, being in the moment for every note and breathing
into the physical/emotional or mental sensations brought about by the
music. Participants encouraged to listen to disliked music as well as
music they like.
Mindful Sounds practice: Participants were asked to be aware of their
breathing and then to be aware of sounds around them. In a music
practice block, this meant a lot of different sounds could to be heard,
including the air conditioning.
Mindfully listening to others: We rarely truly listen to others talk, either socially
or educationally. We often listen to the first part of the information and
are already formulating a verbal response, or “cataloguing” the content
before the speaker is finished. In this exercise, pairs of participants
listened to each other talk for a specified length of time with the
instruction to attempt to listen closely, attentively, and mindfully without
462
pre-forming a response. In the case of the MfS course, participants

were asked to talk about a singing related event.
Sounds and Thoughts
This is a formal listening exercise and an introduction to open

monitoring awareness. Participants are encouraged to listen to sounds coming
and going around them, which then leads to listening to thoughts coming and
going in the mind. The connection being that sounds arise, linger and go
without bidding just like thoughts.
The instruction is to open to sounds as they arise and notice a tendency to
name and judge those sounds. Notice how easily distractions can come or
how easy it is to make them into a story but is it possible to hear the raw
sensations of sound and sounds within sounds? This has a direct correlation
with music aural lessons where sounds are analysed as long, short, staccato,
high, low, intermittent or continuing, for example. Then participants attempt to
shift their focus of attention to thoughts, just letting them come and go without
trying to get involved deeply in them. This is likened to seeing pictures and
sounds arise on a cinema screen but staying in the audience without getting
up and taking part. If one finds oneself getting up and taking part, the
instruction is to bring yourself back to your seat and ground the self in some
mindful breathing as an anchor or stabiliser without criticism or negative self-
judgment.
Mindful Walking
Mindful walking is a focused attention practice and usually involves

walking very slowly and mindfully around a room. Participants are encouraged
to become very aware of balance, foot and leg movement, posture, boredom,
and breathing or whatever they chose to focus on.
The MfS Course, being geared towards singers, took this concept further into
becoming aware of normal walking in comparison to walking on stage to
perform. Participants observed and experienced walking and discussed what
they saw and felt in comparison to what was trying to be projected.
Mindful walking can also develop open monitoring. Participants on the MfS
Course also did a pre-prepared 10-15 minute mindful walk around their
institution with the main instruction to only talk about things they experienced
in the present moment and to avoid chatting. The mindful walk involved
walking at normal speed through indoor and outdoor spaces, different
acoustics (which the participants were encouraged to explore vocally), and
different underfoot terrain (i.e., grass/concrete/steps/carpet). They were
encouraged to use every sense to explore the space through which they
travelled and observe how different spaces affected their thoughts and mood.
463
Exploring Difficulties
In this exercise, participants meditate on past or present problems that

arise in the mind using a mindful and self-compassion-based mindset. In the
MfS course, participants were encouraged to practice this by first working on a
memory that was not too stressful, a mild example of music performance
anxiety, for example. Then, if they wished, to use this technique to explore
other difficulties in their lives always remembering that the breath is there as
an anchor and to treat themselves with kindness and self-compassion (Loving
Kindness exercise).
Loving Kindness
The Loving Kindness exercise is an exercise where one offers good

thoughts firstly to oneself, then to close friends, then to acquaintances, to
strangers in the wider world and finally, if required, to difficult people. It is often
part of other exercises, such as the Exploring Difficulties exercise and can
teach self-acceptance, self-care, and empathy.
Nourishing and Depleting exercise
In this exercise, one notes down nourishing and depleting activity

patterns during the day and meditates on the outcome. Maybe in future, one
might chose to break up depleting activities with nourishing moments (i.e.
mindfulness or a walk) to develop resilience.
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Appendix X - MfS Study: Ethics Amendment Approval (UoL)

465
466
Appendix Y - MfS Study: Information Poster

467
Appendix Z - MfS Study: Invitation Poster

468
Appendix AA - MfS Study: Invitation Email (Experimental)
Free Mindfulness for Singers Course.

AND £20 to cover time and travel!
Learn to be more aware and change your focus of attention at will in the
present moment for a variety of singing, education and life changing benefits.
Calling all singers currently having singing lessons at the University (10 places
only)
PhD research: Anne-Marie Czajkowski (reply to my email to sign up -

mc11amlc@leeds.ac.uk )
Hi everyone,
I’m going to be giving a free Mindfulness for Singers course for Uni singers
starting in January. Normally this course would cost you about £250 but it, and
the course materials, are free to you in exchange for your time to do the
course, fill out a questionnaire, do a homework diary and have 2 short
interviews. You’ll also get £20 as a thank you for participating. Join music
performance students at the Guildhall who do a Mindfulness for Performing
Arts course where research has found that it helped controlling performance
anxiety and stress.
However, other Mindfulness research indicates that there are many other
possible benefits for singers in taking a course. Here are a few.
1. Enhanced immunity – avoid those colds and flu!

2. Moment by moment attention skills learnt on the course will help you
concentrate better in lectures, singing lessons, singing practice and interpersonal
relationships.
3. Deepen your awareness of your breathing/posture and physical sensations of
singing. Learn technique more intensely and quickly.
4. Deal with criticism better.
5. Deal with performance nerves and anxiety
6. Encourage a ‘flow’ experience and enable more creativity when performing.
7. Sleeping problems? Relaxation problems? Learn to turn off your brain at
night.
8. Are you a worrier? Choose the present and put those worries in the proper
place.
9. Stage awareness - narrow or wide present moment focus? It’s your choice
with mindfulness.
10. Enhance physical awareness for better acting and performance skills.
Sign up now by contacting me on this email (mc11amlc@leeds.ac.uk) to get a

place and be part in unique, exciting research especially for singers.
Thanks for your time and attention.

Anne-Marie Czajkowski (Annie)
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Appendix AB - MfS Study: Invitation Email (Control)
CALLING ALL SINGERS.

A couple of weeks ago I sent out a call for people interested in participating in
a research project investigating the effects of Mindfulness on Singers.
I’m also looking for singers who do not necessarily want to take part in the
larger study.
Do you have singing lessons at the Uni and are not currently pursuing a
mindfulness course?
Would you like £4 for filling in 2 anonymous surveys online?
Then contact me on the email below please. (10 places only)
Mc11amlc@leeds.ac.uk
Annie’s Big PhD Project.

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Appendix AC - MfS Study: Yoga Consent Form

A longitudinal study
Informed Consent Agreement
I understand that I about to embark on a set of gentle mindful movements led

by Anne-Marie Czajkowski.
I have been advised to seek confirmation from my doctor or other health

professional regarding the appropriateness of this course of movements for
myself, or I have decided that it is not necessary to seek medical confirmation.
I understand that it is up to me to take responsibility for not going beyond my

physical limits, either in the class or at home. If for any reason I think it unwise
to engage in any particular movements, then I am under no obligation to do
so. I will not hold anyone from the University of Leeds liable for any injury
incurred from these movements.
Date………………………………………
Sign Name…………………………….
Print Name……………………………

471
Appendix AD - MfS Study: Registration Form

Student Registration Form

Name………………………………………………………………..
Age………………………….Gender……………..
Contact number……………………………………………………..
Uni Email address………………………………………………….
Singing teacher’s name……………………………………………
Singing teacher’s contact details (if not University of Leeds based)
…………………………………………………………………….
Consent for interview recording and immediate anonymisation? Y / N
FREE TIMES in Semester 2
Monday………………………………………………………………..
Tuesday………………………………………………………………..
Wednesday………………………………………………………………..
Thursday………………………………………………………………..
Friday………………………………………………………………..
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Appendix AE - MfS Study: Teacher Recruitment Letter
“Parents and teachers tell kids 100 times a day to pay attention,
but we never teach them how”
Dr Philippe Goldin, Stanford University, New York Times, 16 June 2007
Dear (Singing Teacher)
My name is Annie and I’m doing my PhD in Applied Psychology of Music at

Leeds University.
The reason I’m contacting you is because one or more of your singing
students have agreed to participate in my research project. They will be
learning some attention training techniques starting in Semester 2. This is the
same type of course that students at the Guildhall have been enjoying called
“Mindfulness for Performing Arts Students”. There it has been shown to help
with performance stress and anxiety. My own Masters on this subject two
years ago showed significant improvements in a variety of singing areas such
as learning technique, changing the relationship between the teacher and
pupil and positive singing practice behaviour changes and the research has
recently been accepted for publication in the British Journal of Music
Education.
I would be extremely grateful if you would agree to be part of a new project

which investigates the effects discovered in the Masters to more depth.
The project would involve 2 short 15-20 minute interviews, one immediately
after the course end and one 3 months later to see if there are any longitudinal
effects. I am, of course, happy to pay you pro-rata for this and to arrange
things to your convenience as to place and time.
To participate in my research, all you need to do is what you always do in

lessons and then as the new Semester starts, to reflect on whether any of
your student’s behaviour or learning are changing or become different in any
way that you weren’t expecting. You won’t personally know which, if any, of
your students have elected to take the course and it doesn’t matter if you see
nothing as that result is as valid as seeing changes.
All interviews are confidential and neither you, nor the students, would be
referred to by name in any document. If you would like more information about
what the students will be learning and how it will be taught, please don’t
hesitate to contact me on mc11amlc@leeds.ac.uk
I really hope that you will agree to be a part of this project as your input would
be invaluable. I will contact you by email in the next few days as a follow up to
this letter to see if you are willing to participate.
Many thanks for your support
Anne-Marie Czajkowski 0113 286 2513

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Appendix AF - MfS Study: Teacher Reminder Email
Dear (singing teacher)
I sent you a letter a couple of days ago about my research called Mindfulness
for Singers and I wondered if you’d had time to read it. I do hope you’ll be
able to take part as your input will be very useful indeed.
Please respond to this email either way because I’d like to know that you’ve
had chance to read it.
I’m very happy to pop into the university, email you more details or phone and
have a chat if you wish to know more before agreeing to take part.
Yours very thankfully
Annie (Anne-Marie Czajkowski)

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Appendix AG - MfS Study: Teacher Registration Form

Teacher Registration Form
Name………………………………………..
Gender…………….
Contact number……………………………………………………
Email contact………………………………………………………
Consent for interview recording and immediate

anonymisation?...................
Date:
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Appendix AH - MfS Study: Further information on topics covered in
the MfS Course
Week 1
Definition of Mindfulness: Mindfulness is a term that is used by a variety of

people in a variety of ways. The operational definition used for the MfS
Course is that used for most 8-week MBSR and MBCT courses, that
“Mindfulness means paying attention in a particular way: on purpose, in
the present moment, and nonjudgmentally” (Kabat-Zinn, 1994, p.4).
Each part of this statement is explored, especially the term
“nonjudgmentally” so that participants have a clear idea about being
self-compassionate during the learning, practicing, and experiencing
process.
Autopilot: Living on autopilot is useful in some cases and not useful in others.
It usually develops during childhood to help the mind to deal with
excessive cognitive input combined with the need to do things quickly.
It is useful for doing repetitive mundane tasks leaving the mind space to
think about other things. It is not useful when learning a skill such as
singing. Participants were encouraged to suggest their own
experiences of autopilot.
Habit Awareness: Participants were asked to be aware of one task a day,

such as brushing their hair or having a shower. They were encouraged
to sensually experience the task in as many ways that their senses
would allow, such as being aware of each muscle movement when
brushing or watching the steam curl as the shower came up to heat.
Week 2
Stress: Different types of stress experienced by music students and music

professionals, such as physical, mental, emotional and job related
stress were discussed in the group. Stress is possibly a modern day
evolution of the flight/fight syndrome so helpful for early man warning of
life threatening situations but now exhibiting itself in, generally, non-
threatening circumstances. Body/mind feedback in stress and non-
stress circumstances was discussed and, as an illustration, the
experiment investigating the effect of head movements on persuasion
by Wells & Petty (1980) was introduced to the group.
Expectation and reality: People expect to become relaxed and this is often
seen as the goal of doing mindfulness exercises. However, it was
pointed out that the only goal is to develop present moment non-
judgmental awareness. Relaxation might be an extra effect.
Being and Doing Mode: We are human beings, not human doings. The
concept of “being” compared to “doing’” was discussed. Someone in
476
the “being” mode is aware in the present moment of doing something or

choosing not to. Someone in the “doing” mode is often on autopilot and
often thinks they must always be doing something or they are not
achieving.
Mindfulness and Illness: Research correlating mindfulness with the

development of a stronger immune system (Davidson et al., 2003) and
new research positively correlating mindfulness with the prevention of
ARI (acute respiratory infections) (Barrett et al., 2012) were discussed
in class. Singers can lose work through contracting colds or flu.
Week 3
Performance Nerves: Experience of performance anxiety was used to

introduce the concept of Primary and Secondary suffering (see below).
A short research-based talk was delivered using examples such as the
Yerkes Dodson Law (Yerkes & Dodson, 1908) explaining the necessity
of a certain level of nerves for good performance and it’s role in our
successful evolution. Information from The Psychology of Music
Performance Anxiety (Kenny, 2011) was introduced as a stimulus for
discussion on participants’ own MPA and the strategies they used to
cope. Yoga and breathing exercises (both explored in the class), the
concept of mindful acceptance of the situation and its accompanying
physical and mental symptoms, and the effectiveness of various other
strategies (e.g., imagery, visualisation, and comforting habits) were
discussed.
Primary and Secondary suffering: Primary suffering occurs when an

unavoidable situation, such as an audition or doing a performance,
creates physical responses. The mind, unable to tell if the situation is
life threatening or not, tells the body to prepare for fight or flight.
Secondary suffering is a compounded reaction created by mental
resistance to the progenitor of the primary suffering. Usually occurring
when the mind interacts from a past or future perspective, the response
is additional to primary suffering. It can cause a variety of issues such
as losing perspective, unnecessary worry, ruminative thoughts or
symptoms of anxiety or depression. Primary suffering may have to be
accepted but secondary suffering can be alleviated by mindfulness.
An example would be getting marks back from a piece of work handed

in three weeks earlier. One might feel nervous, twitchy or even
nauseous as the mind perceives an attack even though getting marks
back is rarely life threatening. This is primary suffering. Thoughts and
emotions often accompany these physical sensations, such as worrying
about not having worked or researched hard enough in the past or fear
of what a bad mark might mean for the future even though one does
not know the result as yet. This is secondary suffering. Sometimes a
feedback loop occurs increasing the physical, emotional and mental
symptoms. If one also had a lecture that morning, the secondary
suffering might be so pronounced that one might not be listening to the
477
lecturer and jeopardise future work. This secondary mental suffering

might make the sufferer, who can at this point do nothing about the
mark, experience unnecessary suffering. Mindfulness at this point can
help bring the sufferer into the present moment in the lecture thus
aiding learning, taking the mind off the impending mark and relieving
the mental and physical sensations until the moment of receipt of the
mark.
Awareness of the pleasant, unpleasant, and neutral: Participants were asked

to pick a neutral time and place each day and come into present
moment awareness to notice whether they felt pleasant, unpleasant or
neutral at that time.
Week 4
Being judgmental: The introduction example, “John was on his way to school,
he was worried about the maths lesson, he was not sure if he could
control the class again today, he’d not taught very much since
becoming headmaster” was used to illustrate the suggestion that we
tend to see the world as we are, not as it is. Participants were
encouraged to offer their experiences.
Perception: ABC Model of Emotions: Very basic introduction to Albert Ellis'

development of REBT/CBT (David, 2014). The way we interpret the
world makes a difference to how we react.
A: This is the situation itself. The stimuli.
B: Our interpretation or personal subtext (which we often take as fact).
C: Our reaction (emotional/mental/body sensation response/impulsion

to act)
Being more mindful and in the moment can help interrupt point A from
leading inexorably into point B. This can then affect our response to the
experience, point C, changing our view point from the pre-expected to
the raw experience or, to use mindful terminology, from reaction to
reflection on the unpleasant/pleasant or neutral stimuli.
This was then connected with more recent research on Event Related
Potentials using EEG scanning by Dr Jay Gunkelman, EEG Specialist
and Chief Science Officer at Brain Science International, California
(Brian Milstead, 2009).
Dealing with criticism: A discussion of when criticism (from within and without)
and being judgmental is constructive and helpful to learning and when it
is not. Being self-aware, critical and judgmental in one respect when
singing can aid us to learn and change in the moment. Berating
ourselves and thinking ourselves worthless for doing something wrong
478
can be damaging to learning. The discussion was extended to include

criticism from others in a singing context.
Cataloguing: A discussion about using mindful awareness to avoid

“cataloguing” behaviour, for example, hearing the start of a sentence
and assuming (by drawing the answer from your mind’s catalogue) that
you already know the end of the sentence. Another example is in
dealing with criticism in lessons so that one is hearing what is actually
said rather than letting your internal monologue drown out the reality
and embellish on it.
Week 6
Orientation and choices: A recapitulation on how being in the moment can re-
orientate us to experiences in life and give us choices on how to react.
Mindfulness gives us choices when difficulties in life arise.
• Something primary is there in the moment (say a performance or

performance nerves or a life event).
• Accept that it is happening.
• Take a moment….
• Assess the body.
• Breathe mindfully
• Breathe into the body sensations
• Then choose to act … or not.
• In all things be kind to yourself!
Pre-performance nerves: An imaginary exercise was run to allow participants

to feel some imaginary pre-performance anxiety. “Imagine Jane Doe
from the International Artists Agency has rung you up to offer you an
audition next week because she’s heard you are a superb singer. How
do you feel?” The group had a discussion about the experience.
Performing nerves occur when the mind tells the body it is under attack
and it prepares itself to run or hide. Performing is rarely a life or death
situation but our bodies act as though it is and can impair performance
or enhance it.
A recapitulation of the Primary and Secondary suffering teaching was

offered. It was suggested that physical sensations were normal and
natural for nervous people (Primary suffering) and that some nerves
were important to perform in an exciting way. However, negative
thoughts that could accompany the physical sensations were not
necessarily helpful (Secondary suffering) and that mindfulness
breathing techniques could help bring back reality to the situation and
sometime reduce physical symptoms.
479
Participants were then told they were to prepare an unaccompanied

song to perform for the group the next week. Another discussion about
performance nerves ensued.
Present moment performance creativity: Using mindfulness on stage could

have effects on performance, such as time distortion or creativity.
Participants were encouraged to try practicing to be mindful in
performance to find out what the effects were for them.
Weeks 7 and 8 involved no new teaching elements.

480
Appendix AI - MfS Study: Week 1 Visual Timetable

481
Appendix AJ - MfS Study: MfS Course and Practice Overview

482
483
484
Appendix AK - MfS Study: 3-Minute Breathing Space Hand-out

485
Appendix AL - MfS Study: Mindful Movement Hand-out

486
Appendix AM - MfS Study: Week 2 Visual Timetable

487
Appendix AN - MfS Study: Body Scan Hand-out

488
Appendix AO - MfS Study: Week 3 Visual Timetable

489
Appendix AP - MfS Study: Mindful Breathing Hand-out

490
491
Appendix AQ - MfS Study: Week 4 Visual Timetable

492
Appendix AR - MfS Study: Sounds and Thoughts/Mindful Listening
Hand-out
493
Appendix AS - MfS Study: Week 5 Visual Timetable

494
Appendix AT - MfS Study: Mindful Walking Hand-out

495
Appendix AU - MfS Study: Week 6 Visual Timetable

496
Appendix AV - MfS Study: Exploring Difficulties and Performance
Preparation
497
Appendix AW - MfS Study: Week 7 Visual Timetable

498
Appendix AX - MfS Study: Final Hand-out

499
Appendix AY - MfS Study: Week 8 Visual Timetable

Appendix AZ – MfS Study – Changes between Conservatoire participants’ pre- and post-scores for the FFMQ
and MfM using facet graphic plots.
500
WLC = Wait-list controls
EP = Experimental participants
WLE = Wait-list experimental participants
MfS Study – Changes between Conservatoire participants’ pre- and post-scores for the FFMQ and MfM using facet
graphic plots.
501
graphic plots.
502
graphic plots.
503
graphic plots.
504
graphic plots.
505
506
Appendix BA - Glossary of Singing Terms
Belting
Belting is a technique of contemporary singing based on chest voice

vibration with strong pressed air support.
Dial-a-Vowel
This is an exercise where the student sings one pitch and slowly
shapes the lips and tongue through the main Italian vowels. The
exercise is designed so that students can concentrate the harmonics
and overtones that accompany each vowel on each pitch in the
vocalists range and modify the vocal principles carefully to produce an
optimum tone and vowel quality on each note.
Vocal Principles
The “vocal principles” is the collective name for the parts of the body
directly involved with singing, such as the jaw, tongue, pharynx, larynx
etc.
Onset and offset
The way a singer starts and releases a note is called the onset and
offset. In popular and jazz music, this is a key area for communication
and emotion portrayal and there are many types of onsets and offsets
that can be used. In classical music, the onset and offset are usually
cleanly and carefully managed in order to maintain a consistent legato
vocal tone.
507
Appendix BB - Higher Education Module Sample for the
Mindfulness for Singers Course.
TITLE: Mindfulness for Singers/Musicians

SCHOOL: Music
LEVEL: UG and PG
MODULE CREDITS: 10
MIN/MAX CLASS SIZE: 2-10
TEACHING PERIODS: Multiple
TYPE OF MODULE: Discovery
READING LIST: Required
STAFF INVOLVEMENT: 100%
OPTIONAL FOR PROGRAMMES: BA Hons in Music or equivalent.
PRE-REQUISITES: English to GCSE standard
MODULE OBJECTIVE: The key feature of this module is the theoretical and
practical teaching of mindfulness to musicians. The goal is for them to be able
to understand the theoretical and empirical field of mindfulness research and
practically apply mindfulness skills to their musical activities such as lessons,
private practice, ensemble rehearsals, and performances in order to improve
outcomes. They should also find a benefit in daily life and relationships with
others.
LEARNING OUTCOMES: After completing this module you should be better

able to:
• Locate, summarise and review existing primary source material
about mindfulness research in peer-review journals
• Summarise the development of mindfulness from Buddhist roots
to modern cognitive applications
• Describe the key exercises used to develop mindfulness
• Develop focused attention and concentration skills, present
moment open monitoring skills, introspective personal reflection,
communication skills, and self-compassion.
• Demonstrate a practical, insightful, and reflective understanding
of the effects of doing mindfulness on themselves and others as
musicians and in daily life
OUTLINE OF SYLLABUS: The lectures will aim to provide students with basic
knowledge about mindfulness in its historical and research-based context
whilst also providing them with the practical tools, exercises, and incentive to
develop mindfulness in their activities as musicians and in daily life.
The ten lessons will cover history and contextual research, practical
experience of the key mindfulness practices, opportunities to give and receive
personal feedback on development of mindfulness skills, a mindful
performance workshop, and opportunities to develop communication and
compassion based skills within a close group setting.
508
MODULE SUMMARY: This module seeks to introduce singing students to the

core practices, theory, and experience of mindfulness. It aims to help singing
students develop key cognitive, physical, and mental health and well being
skills for their present and future lives as musicians, teachers, and performers.
SKILLS TAUGHT BY THE MODULE:

Analytical skills, communication skills, creative problem solving, flexibility,
independent working. Cognitive skills, personal development, mindfulness.
TYPE OF DISCOVERY MODULE: Mind and body.

RATIONALE: Mindfulness is a key skill in personal development, through
intensive, insightful mental and physical inquiry.
TEACHING
SESSIONS: 10 x 1 hour weekly contact hours of teaching, 90 hours private
study = 100 hours total engagement.
INDEPENDENT LEARNING and PRIVATE STUDY DETAILS: Mindfulness
exercises are provided on line for use by the students and they are expected
to listen to them before attempting to replicate them for themselves. Towards
the end of the course, they are to develop their own personal mindfulness
program based on experience.
Private study is on going, formally applied before all singing activities and
informally, participants are encouraged to develop mindfulness skills through
out their entire waking experience. Realistically this is expected to be less.
Students will also be required to locate, read, understand, and summarise key
theoretical and empirical studies in the field of mindfulness research.
ASSESSMENT
Essay – 1500 words. Set in week 5 of the course. 80% of formal assessment.
Reflective log – 750-1000 words. Set in week 1 of the course. 20% of formal
assessment.
FEEDBACK
Formative feedback is provided during each session (diary checking, taking
questions).
RATIONALE FOR TEACHING AND LEARNING METHODS: Formal
information presentation helps students to learn about the current field of
mindfulness research and its contextual history, and facilitates their research
endeavours into the field. It also helps in disseminating practical information
about the mindfulness exercises.
Practical, first-hand experience of mindfulness exercises both within the
sessions and in private study facilitates an intimate understanding of exercises
used to develop mindfulness and helps develop transferrable focused
attention, open monitoring, and self-compassion skills.
Insightful and reflective group feedback work helps develop personal reflection
and communication by improving observation and description skills.
Independent working during private study gives the students chance to
approach problems as musicians and in daily life using mindfulness to
encourage, develop, and improve creative problem solving and mental
flexibility.
509
RATIONALE FOR ASSESSMENT METHODS: The essay assignment

provides students with an opportunity to analyse a field of personal interest
within the mindfulness canon through a detailed and focused essay. Topics
could include the effect of mindfulness in the arts, in business, in sports, or in
the clinical field, or discussing the difficulty in defining mindfulness for
research purposes.
The reflective log will give students the incentive to apply mindfulness skills
practically as musicians and in daily life for the duration of the course, and the
opportunity to personally explore the effects in a reflective and insightful way
while demonstrating their development of a personal practice that they will be
able to continue to apply in future life.
RESOURCES: Yoga mats, blankets and pillows for supine exercises, food
items (raisins and chocolate).
510
Appendix BC - Photo Album
Meeting the “Father of Mindfulness”
Jon Kabat-Zinn, 2013
Meeting Ruth Baer, developer
of the FFMQ, 2018
Presenting at the International Conference on Mindfulness, 2018

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Mindfulness for musicians: The effects of teaching 8-week

mindfulness courses to student musicians in higher

Anne-Marie Louise Czajkowski

Submitted in accordance with the requirements for the degree of Doctor of

The University of Leeds

The right of Anne-Marie Louise Czajkowski to be identified as author of this

Patents Act 1988.

© 2018 The University of Leeds and Anne-Marie Louise Czajkowski

Students are arriving in higher education more stressed and anxious

than previously, so there is a clear benefit for institutions to provide evidence-

based health and well-being interventions. Mindfulness is a widely available

of teaching mindfulness to music students have not yet been explored

This thesis reports the effects of teaching targeted 8-week mindfulness

two conservatoires and a university. Both studies used a predominantly

qualitative mixed methods approach. Levels of mindfulness were measured

using the Five Facet Mindfulness Questionnaire (FFMQ: Baer, Smith,

Hopkins, Krietemeyer, & Toney, 2006), and a specially designed Mindfulness

for Musicians questionnaire. The instrumentalists’ quantitative study was

quasi-experimental; the singers’ study utilised controls and randomised

controls. Qualitative methods comprised of semi-structured interviews for both

studies, and the singers’ study included longitudinal interviews, an anonymous

diary, and a teachers’ blind study.

Quantitative results showed increased levels of mindfulness among

vocal and instrumentalist participants over the interventions. Participants

reported a greater ability to learn instrumental technique, improved

teacher/pupil relationships, more efficient and effective music practice, and

enhanced communication skills in rehearsal and ensembles. Mindfulness-

nineteen of the 31 experimental participants in the blind study. Results

demonstrated predicted positive impacts on performance anxiety, but a key

finding was that mindfulness was also beneficial in enhancing aspects of

participants’ performances, improving their experience and increasing

performance enjoyment. The evidence presented in this thesis demonstrates

the clear benefit of targeted mindfulness interventions in the field of higher

music education. Mindfulness training enhances the whole musician both in

student learning and as a preparation for professional life.

Acknowledgements ...................................................................................... iii

Chapter Two - Methodology ........................................................................ 61

2.3.5 Replication .............................................................................................................82

STUDY ONE: MINDFULNESS FOR INSTRUMENTALISTS ........................ 89

STUDY TWO: MINDFULNESS FOR SINGERS:......................................... 152

Chapter Five – Mindfulness for Singers: Quantitative results ............... 185

Chapter Six – Mindfulness for Singers qualitative results: General

6.3.4 Developing awareness ........................................................................................229

Chapter Seven – Mindfulness for Singers qualitative results: Singing

Chapter Eight – Mindfulness for Singers qualitative results: Private, and

8.2.3 Improved musicianship skills............................................................................... 292

Chapter Nine – Mindfulness for Singers qualitative results: Performance

Chapter Ten – Mindfulness for Singers qualitative results ................... 336

Chapter 11: General discussion ............................................................... 341

Body awareness .................................................................................................... 350

References ................................................................................................. 374

Appendix Z - MfS Study: Invitation Poster ................................................................... 467

verified with different populations ............................................................ 75

Table 2.2 MfM measure design and item allocation ....................................... 79

Table 3.1 GSMD interview participants’ details .............................................. 91

Mindfulness Questionnaire ...................................................................... 97

Questionnaire using paired t-tests and Wilcoxon tests ............................ 97

Cronbach alpha results. ........................................................................... 97

Table 3.5 MfPAS participants who did mindfulness practice before