117

Artificial Reefs: A Review

Lokesha1, V.Sundar2 and S.A.Sannasiraj3
1Research Scholar, Department of Ocean Engineering, Indian Institute of Technology
Madras, Chennai, Tamil Nadu, 600036, INDIA, E-mail: lokesha.iitm@gmail.com
2Professor, Department of Ocean Engineering, Indian Institute of Technology Madras,

Chennai, Tamil Nadu, 600036, INDIA, E-mail: vsundar@iitm.ac.in

3Professor, Department of Ocean Engineering, Indian Institute of Technology Madras,

Chennai, Tamil Nadu, 600036, INDIA, E-mail: sasraj@iitm.ac.in

Received: Feb. 11, 2013; accepted: April 30, 2013

Abstract
A comprehensive literature review on the material characteristics, design of size and
shape, application and management of artificial reef has been carried out. Multipurpose
Artificial Surfing Reefs (MPASR) are increasingly being adopted for coastal protection
because of several advantages associated with them such as coastal protection by
reducing the wave energy, recreation of beaches (surfing, fishing, and diving), habitat for
marine organisms and increase in socioeconomic prosperity. The most important
characteristic is that they are soft barriers. It is concluded that although artificial reefs do
have the ability to fulfill many objectives, for which they are meant, their success will
depend mainly on the quality of planning and management prior to their implementation.

Keywords: MPASR, coastal protection, breakwaters, soft barriers, soft measures.

1. INTRODUCTION
The natural processes due to the action of waves, tides, currents, sediment deficit due to natural hazards
and human impact such as, sand mining and coastal engineering works are all the possible causes for
erosion. All over the world, the coastal community faces the problem of coastal erosion, either short
term or perennial that often affects their livelihood. The Coastal Engineers and Scientists have been
continuously working on the measures to control/combat this problem through hard and soft measures.
Of these, the later has become a topic of great interest. The conventional methods (hard measures) such
as seawalls, breakwaters, groins and gabions are short lived, expensive, non eco-friendly and often are
an eyesore. The trend in the coastal zone management including coastal erosion mitigation and
protection has been shifting towards soft and novel eco-friendly solutions.
In general, there is a growing interest in low cost methods of shoreline protection. As there is a
shortage of natural rock in certain geographical regions, there is a need of alternative materials and
systems for shore protection. Further, for certain locations, the lead distance may be longer which
increases the cost of the project significantly. Geo-systems such as geo-bags, geo-tubes, geo-containers,
geo-curtains, geo-grids, etc and other systems such as Reef Balls, Aqua-reef, prefabricated units, and
beach drainage have gained popularity in the recent years because of their simplicity in placement, cost
effectiveness and less environmental adverse effects.

2. ARTIFICIAL REEFS
2.1 General
Artificial reefs are man-made underwater obstructions that are submerged below the sea surface. These
obstructions are like any natural ones acting as buffers in diffracting the incident wave energy, offer
friction, thus leading to attenuation. The degree of attenuation of incident wave energy depends on the
shape, size and material of the artificial reefs. The artificial reefs are also expected to enhance

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118 Artificial Reefs: A Review

recreational benefits like diving, fishing and surfing. The geometry and design of the artificial reefs
varies as it depends on the main functions of the structure and materials used.
All kinds of materials such as steel, reinforced or pre-stressed concrete, fiber glass or a variety of
composite materials have been used in construction of artificial reefs. Old wrecked cars, airplanes,
military tanks, used truck or car tires, junked appliances, docks, old boats, ballistic missiles,
decommissioned ships and obsolete oil rigs have been sunk and designated as artificial reefs. At a few
locations, they serve as tourist attractions. For instance, the submarine ride in Honolulu, USA provides
such views.

2.2 Geo-systems
Coastal erosion can be controlled in several ways. Pilarczyk (2005) reported that geo-systems such as
geo-bags, geo-tubes, geo-containers, geo-grids and geo-curtains have been adopted for controlling the
beach erosion due to their simplicity in placement and construction, cost effectiveness and for being
eco-friendly. Hard measures such as seawalls, dikes, revetments provide direct protection to the
beaches where as groins and offshore breakwaters provide indirect method of shore protection.

2.3 Reef units

Reef units with different shapes and constructive characteristics can be used to produce artificial reefs.
Reef units are usually fabricated on land according to particular design specifications. The strength,
stability and method of construction of reefs are the physical principles involving factors such as
material science, civil engineering and physical oceanography. There have been various variations in
the shape, size and complexity of reef units used in artificial reefs throughout the world. Several shapes
that promote interlocking between the individual units as well as serve as a good habitat for marine life
are being considered for implementation in the marine environment by several researchers.

3. REVIEW OF THE LITERATURE

Harris (2009) introduced Reef Ball units that have been used to construct submerged breakwaters along
the southern Caribbean shore of the Dominican Republic. Reef Ball units were designed to invite and
provide environment for marine life. The construction of submerged breakwater with Reef Ball units
helped in beach equilibrium, environment growth and eco-tourism. The Reef Ball units installed were
of heights 1.2m and 1.3m, having base diameters of 1.5m and 1.6m respectively.
Koerner (2000) reported that geo-tubes a growing technology can be used for protection of beach
erosion. Geo-tubes made up of woven or knitted high strength fabric of diameter up to 3m have been
effectively used to control beach erosion. Based on ease in handling/placing and filling, the length of
geo-tubes is decided. The main tube is attached by the smaller diameter subsidiary tube on the upstream
side which anchors in resisting lateral pressures. Also, a thin layer of soil is used to cover geo-tubes
which protect them from degradation/damage.
Shin et al. (2002) studied the performance of geo-tubes filled by hydraulically pumping dredged
silty clay mineral into it by conducting pilot scale tests. The changes in geo-tube shape, dry unit weight,
moisture content and vane shear strength of the soil at different places in the geo-tube with time were
synopsized. It was concluded that the use of geo-tubes is a feasible alternative for coastal engineering
works. Shin and Oh (2007) conducted 2-D limit equilibrium analysis and hydraulic model study tests
of geo-tubes for Young-Jin beach along the east coast of Korea. A double-lined geo-textile tube was
installed based on the results of stability analysis and hydraulic model tests. It was stated that sand
gradually accumulates around areas covered by the geo-tubes as water depth in the near-shore area
decreases with elapsed time. It was reported that compared to the extension of shoreline, the magnitude
of re-erosion is relatively smaller. It was also concluded that use of geo-tubes with zero-water depth
above crest was found to be most stable and effective for wave absorption than any other design plans.
Alvarez et al. (2007) designed low-crested structures using geo-tubes to reduce the incident wave
energy on the beaches of the Northern coast of Yucatan in Mexico. The geo-textile tubes were installed
for a stretch of 4km along the beach. The geo-textile tubes were found to be an effective alternative for

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shoreline stabilization. The dynamic balance on the shoreline was maintained by controlling the wave
breaking process to the required level.
Ranasinghe et al. (2006) have reported a comprehensive review of literature on the shoreline
response to submerged breakwater. The numerical modeling was conducted for both one-line models
and two-dimensional, depth averaged (2DH) coastal area models to find the shoreline response to
submerged breakwater. The shoreline response to an artificial surfing reef was studied using 2DH
numerical and 3D physical modeling tests. Depending on the offshore distance to the artificial reef,
mode of shoreline response can vary between erosion and deposition of sand on beaches. The crest
levels of the structure and predominant wave incident angle also have significant implications only on
the magnitude but not on the mode of shoreline response. Based on the results, a predictive empirical
relationship was proposed as a primary tool to determine shoreline response to submerged structures.
The Narrow-neck Artificial Reef is located on the Gold Coast of Queensland, Australia (Jackson,
2004, 2007), and approximately 2 km north of Surfers Paradise. The design dimensions are 400m long
(cross-shore), B=175m wide (alongshore), with the base of the reef positioned about S=150m offshore
(B/S ratio = 1.16). The variable gradients of 1:18 for the focus, 1:2 for the reef face, and 1:8 for the fast
sections were considered for reef design. At 1m below Australian Height Datum (AHD), the maximum
crest elevation was set which equates to 1m below sea level which was chosen to insure that the mean
wave (Hs=1.0m) would break at high tide. The crest width was about 300m (measured shore normal)
and design reef volume is 128,000m3. The geo-textile containers of about 20 m long and upto 3-5 m
diameter were filled in the hull of a dredge and then dropped to the seabed to form the Narrow-neck
Reef. A distinct salient of about 30m wider than the adjacent beaches has formed in the leeside of the
reef. The actual salient formations were found to be less than 78m predicted by the designers.
Blenkinsopp and Chaplin (2008) conducted experiments over a submerged reef with an offshore
gradient of 1:10 to measure the intensity, transmission and reflection of waves in a wave flume. The
most important factor affecting the breaking characteristics is the relative water depth over the reef
crest, hc/Ho (where, hc is the water depth above the crest and Ho is the deepwater wave height). In
particular, a noticeable increase in the intensity of wave breaking over the reef with a reduction in the
relative crest submergence was noticed. It was stated that as the submergence is reduced, resulted in a
comparative decrease in wave transmission and reflection. It was suggested that a submerged reef with
a relatively low seaward gradient is more significant in dissipating wave energy through wave breaking
compared to sloping breakwaters.
Bicudo et al. (2008) conducted a study of an artificial reef meant to enhance the surfing quality in
the Sao Pedro do Estoril Beach, Caseais, Portugal. The hydrodynamics of the various geometry of the
reef was determined by carrying numerical and physical model studies. The environmental impact of
reef on surrounding region was also assessed.
Lee et al. (2008) carried out studies to increase the immigration of marine underwater communities
on artificial reef structures. The five chemoattractants such as ferrous sulphate, zinc oxide, ammonium
nitrate, sodium phosphate and ferrous lactate were screened against spores of a fouling alga to increase
the algal immigration. The performances of coating formulations using chemoattractants at East coast
and South coast of Korea were investigated and the maximum fouling coverage has been estimated
from ferrous lactate coating. The different composition of coating formulations and their
chemoattractive properties were also evaluated.
Strusinska and Oumeraci (2008) examined the feasibility of an artificial reef as coastal protection
against tsunami impact. The reef workability and its hydraulic efficiency for different obstacle
arrangements and changing incident wave conditions were investigated through numerical studies.
Comparing the evidences of coastline in the presence and absence of reef, discussed the consequences
of the reef on tsunami damping.
Recio and Oumeraci (2009) developed analytical stability formula that account for the effect of the
deformation of the individual Geo-textile Sand Containers (GSCs) for sliding and overturning stability.
For each type of coastal structure made up of GSCs, stability formulae have been proposed. The
recommendations were given with respect to the practical application of the proposed hydraulic
stability formulae, including their limitations.

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120 Artificial Reefs: A Review

Fig.1a. Coastal Protection Systems using Geo-tubes (Sundar et al 2009).

Sundar et al (2009) considered sand filled geo-tubes to construct a seawall at Shankarpur of West
Bengal, India as a coastal protection measure to withstand the wave climate. The geo-tubes of 20m length
and 3m diameter, two at bottom and one at top were installed with a proper toe arrangement. It was the
first time along the Indian Coast, that a geo-tube structure of two layers in exposed condition was being
tried. The geo-tubes installed were successful in arresting waves till day of occurrence of highest high
water level (HHWL) in September 2008. The severe climate scooped out the sand filling between the cliff
and geo-tubes resulting in the damages of a few geo-tubes. The reason behind the damage of geo-tube
was, the HHWL considered for design of geo-tube was only 3.84m and the HHWL recorded during tide
was 4.89m which was under estimated. The pilot study with the exposed toe (Fig.1a) was found to be
ineffective and hence the excavated toe (Fig.1b) was implemented which yielded satisfactory results.

Fig.1b. Cross-section of improved toe protection system with Geo-tubes (Sundar et al 2009).

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Lokesha, V.Sundar and S.A.Sannasiraj 121

Duzbastilar and Senturk (2009) investigated the interaction between waves and artificial reefs made up
of hollow cube and water pipe weighing 8.24kN (0.84t) and 1.27kN (0.13t) respectively. The study was
limited to shallow waters upto 20m depth varying design weight, orientation of cube and pipe, and
bottom slope of 10-1, 30-1, and 50-1. The resisting and mobilizing forces, and drag coefficients were
estimated using physics equations and FLUENT software. Drag coefficients of 0.76 at 45o and 0.85 at
90o angle to the currents for the hollow cube, and 0.97 at 0o, 0.38 at 90o and 1.42 at 180o angle to the
currents for the water pipe were estimated. The blocks with angles 45o and 90o were safely deployed at
the water depth larger than 12 and 16m respectively. It was estimated that out of 720 cases at all stations
365 were unstable for the water pipes laid at angles of 90o and 180o to the currents and also found that
water pipes laid at 0o angle were found to be stable in all 360 cases. It was concluded that study on
interaction between waves and artificial reefs provides an important reference for engineers to increase
the performance and life of artificial reefs.
Mead et al. (2010) designed multipurpose artificial reef structure mainly for the enrichment of
surfing at Boscombe, Poole Bay, England. Fifty four sand filled geo-textile containers of diameter 1 to
5m and length of 15 to 70m with a total volume of about 13,000 m3 adopted for the reef construction.
The formation of inshore salient indicates the benefits of artificial reef in protecting the shore though
it was not designed as a coastal protection structure.
Boc and Burg. (2010) described an innovative shore protection method via an offshore reef that
could be constructed at the Sacred Fall on the island of Oahu, Hawaii utilizing the shelf material. A
physical model study with a scale 1:16 for the various artificial shapes and materials such as vertical
lengths of high-density polyethylene (HDPE) 0.6m pipe, traffic barriers, and large storage units were
conducted. It was stated that this technology was found to be effective in erosion reduction which has
applicability in emergency and short term situations in shallow water island environments to protect
infrastructure.
Qin et al. (2011) studied the effects of artificial reefs construction in Yangmeikeng region of Shenzen
on the marine ecosystem services. It was claimed that compared to other coastal areas, the tourism
service value decreased from 87% to 42% and food supply service value increased from 7% to 27%.
They effectively promote the development of artificial reefs and improvement in management of
ecosystem which benefits the ecosystem service value.
Autunes et al. (2011) described the influences of main relevant parameters such as height,
submergence, length, and slope of the reef which protects the local coastline of Leirosa, Portugal by
using COBRAS-UC numerical model. The initial values of height, length, seaward slope and
submergence of the reef were demonstrated from the numerical modeling.
Mendonca et al. (2012) conducted numerical investigation on multifunctional artificial reefs, a new
alternative measure to protect coastal zone and to increase the surfing possibilities in the Leirosa area
of Portugal. The Boussinesq-type COULWAVE model was used to investigate the hydrodynamics in
the vicinity of artificial reefs. The breaker type, peel angle, wave height at breaking, and currents
around the artificial reefs were the primary surfing parameters considered for analysis and design.
Considering the design wave conditions (common and storm), medium and low tide levels, the reef
geometries with different reef angles of 45o and 66o were tested. Based on the simulation done, it was
concluded that both reef geometries were acceptable for surfing. But, the reef geometry with an angle
of 45o was more acceptable for advanced/professional surfers.
Dhinakaran et al. (2012) have reported a comprehensive review of literature on the hydrodynamic
characteristics of emerged and submerged composite semi circular reefs. Considerable experiments
were carried out to study the hydrodynamic characteristics of a semicircular breakwater and to optimize
the parameters such as the height of rubble mound, the water depth and the size of perforations of
breakwater. The experiments were conducted for both the emerged and submerged condition subjected
to regular and random waves with various wave heights and periods to find the suitability of a
semicircular breakwater in the field.
Dassanayake et al. (2009, 2012 a &b) carried out studies on stability of GSCs through detailed
experimental investigations and also identified important properties of GSCs such as type of material

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122 Artificial Reefs: A Review

used for geo-textile and fill, sand fill ratio, friction between GSCs, seaward slope and sand
displacement within the container influencing its stability. Pullout tests were conducted to study the
properties of GSCs. Out of five different sand fill ratios such as 80%, 90%, 100%, 110%, and 120%
used, the ratio between 90-100% were found to be optimal in terms of pullout resistance of GSCs. For
all the sand fill ratios considered, 30-50% pullout resistance was observed compared to absence of sand
fill. The nonwoven GSC structures of -0.2m freeboard were tested for sand fill ratios increased from 80
to 100% , which showed an increased stability numbers from 32% to 16% for the surf similarity
parameter of 5-25. Comparing the inclined and horizontally placed GSCs with a freeboard -0.2m, an
average value of 5% increase in hydraulic stability was seen in case of inclined GSCs. Damage was
classified for single GSC based on the 3 stages such as detachment, with and without incipient motion
as shown in Table1. For GSC structure, damage was classified as no damage, beginning of motion,
minor, medium, severe and failure Table 2.

Table 1.Damage classification for Single GSC

Table 2.Damage classification for GSC

Note: GSC Structure was tested for regular waves of 100, and subjected to min of 80 waves.

The stability formula mentioned below was derived based on analysis of wave data and damage
classification.
c1
Relationship between Ns = + c2 ξ o
ξ o0.9
Stability Number and Surf Similarity

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Lokesha, V.Sundar and S.A.Sannasiraj 123

Hm
Where, Stability Number, Ns =
∆lc sin α

Hm
Surf Similarity Parameter, ξo =
H m L0

Hm = Mean wave height,

∆ = Relative density of submergence of GSCs,
lc = Length of the critical container,
α = Slope of the structure,
L0 = Deepwater wave length,
c1 and c2 are coefficients for adjusting the freeboard, sand fill ratio, material and inclination of GSC.

4. SUMMARY
A good design and construction of artificial reef provides considerable coastal protection, surfing and
ecological enrichment. An understanding of the existing coastal processes at the site during design is
important for artificial reef to produce the desired results. The comprehensive review of literature
reveals that while significant work on the hydrodynamic characteristics of hard reefs have been
reported, the literature on the said aspects for geo-synthetic materials is rather limited. This includes the
behavior of the materials as well its performance characteristics.
The materials and method of construction of artificial reefs plays a crucial role towards its benefits.
The artificial reefs were built to its design specification using accurate methods which were good
enough. The success of artificial reefs depends on the correlation between the designers and
contractors.

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International Journal of Ocean and Climate Systems