Mass Transfer Theory and Practice

MASS TRANSFER
Theory and Practice
N. ANANTHARAMAN
Professor
Department of Chemical Engineering
National Institute of Technology
Tiruchirappalli
K.M. MEERA SHERIFFA BEGUM

Associate Professor
Department of Chemical Engineering
National Institute of Technology
Tiruchirappalli
Delhi - 110 092

2013
MASS TRANSFER: Theory and Practice
N. Anantharaman and K.M. Meera Sheriffa Begum
© 2011 by PHI Learning Private Limited, Delhi. All rights reserved. No part of this book may
be reproduced in any form, by mimeograph or any other means, without permission in writing
from the publisher.
ISBN-978-81-203-4169-2
The export rights of this book are vested solely with the publisher.
Second Printing ... ... ... July, 2013
Published by Asoke K. Ghosh, PHI Learning Private Limited, Rimjhim House, 111, Patparganj
Industrial Estate, Delhi-110092 and Printed by V.K. Batra at Pearl Offset Press Private
Limited, New Delhi-110015.
Dedicated to my Mother
N. Anantharaman
Dedicated to my Parents
K.M. Meera Sheriffa Begum
CONTENTS
Preface .................................................................................................................... xv
Acknowledgements ............................................................................................... xix
1. INTRODUCTION TO MASS TRANSFER ................................. 12

1.1 Introduction 1
1.2 Classification of Mass Transfer Operations 1
1.2.1 Gas–Liquid 1
1.2.2 Liquid–Liquid 2
1.2.3 Solid–Liquid/Gas 2
2. DIFFUSION ................................................................................... 341

2.1 Introduction 3
2.2 Molecular Diffusion and Eddy Diffusion 3
2.3 Diffusivity or Diffusion Coefficient 3
2.4 Steady State Molecular Diffusion in Fluids 4
2.4.1 Molecular Diffusion in Gases 5
2.4.2 Diffusivity Prediction in Gases 7
2.4.3 Molecular Diffusion in Liquids 10
2.4.4 Diffusivity Prediction in Liquids 10
2.4.5 Pseudo Steady State Diffusion 12
2.5 Diffusion in Solids 13
2.5.1 Types of Solid Diffusion 14
2.5.2 Unsteady State Diffusion 16
Worked Examples 16
Exercises 38
3. MASS TRANSFER COEFFICIENT AND INTERPHASE

MASS TRANSFER ......................................................................4271
3.1 Introduction 42
v
vi Contents
3.2 Mass Transfer Coefficient 42

3.3 Mass Transfer Coefficients in Laminar Flow 44
3.3.1 Mass Transfer from a Gas into a
Falling Liquid Film 44
3.4 Mass Transfer Theories 47
3.4.1 Film Theory 47
3.4.2 Penetration Theory 47
3.4.3 Surface Renewal Theory 48
3.4.4 Combination of Film–Surface Renewal Theory 49
3.4.5 Surface–Stretch Theory 49
3.5 Analogies 50
3.5.1 Reynolds Analogy 51
3.5.2 Chilton–Colburn Analogy 52
3.5.3 Taylor–Prandtl Analogy 52
3.5.4 Von–Karman Analogy 53
3.6 Interphase Mass Transfer 53
3.6.1 Equilibrium 53
3.6.2 Two-phase Mass Transfer 54
3.6.3 Overall Mass Transfer Coefficient 55
3.7 Types of Operations 56
3.7.1 Co-current Process 57
3.7.2 Counter-current Process 57
3.7.3 Stages 59
3.7.4 Stage Efficiency 59
3.7.5 Cascade 59
Worked Examples 60
Exercises 71
4. EQUIPMENT FOR GASLIQUID OPERATIONS ...............7281

4.1 Introduction 72
4.2 Tray Towers 72
4.2.1 General Features 73
4.3 Type of Trays 74
4.3.1 Bubble Cap Trays 74
4.3.2 Sieve Trays 74
4.3.3 Linde Trays 74
4.3.4 Valve Trays 75
4.3.5 Counter-flow Trays 75
4.4 Tray Efficiency 75
4.5 Venturi Scrubber 75
4.6 Wetted-wall Towers 75
4.7 Spray Towers and Spray Chambers 76
4.8 Packed Towers 76
4.8.1 Characteristics of Packings 76
4.9 Types of Packings 77
4.9.1 Random Packing 77
Contents vii
4.9.2 Regular Packing 78

4.9.3 Shell 79
4.9.4 Packing Supports 79
4.9.5 Packing Restrainer 79
4.9.6 Liquid Distributors 79
4.9.7 Entrainment Eliminators 79
4.9.8 Channeling 79
4.9.9 Loading 80
4.9.10 Flooding 80
4.10 Comparison of Packed Towers with Plate Towers 81
5. HUMIDIFICATION ................................................................... 82115

5.1 Introduction 82
5.2 Definitions 82
5.2.1 Molal Absolute Humidity (Y) 82
5.2.2 Saturated Absolute Humidity (Ys) 82
5.2.3 Dry Bulb Temperature (DBT) 83
5.2.4 Relative Humidity or Relative Saturation (% RH) 83
5.2.5 Percentage Saturation or Percentage
Humidity (Hp) 83
5.2.6 Dew Point 83
5.2.7 Humid Heat 83
5.2.8 Enthalpy 83
5.2.9 Humid Volume 84
5.3 Adiabatic Saturation Curves 86
5.4 Wet Bulb Temperature (WBT) 87
5.4.1 Theory of Wet Bulb Thermometry 87
5.5 Gas–Liquid Operations 90
5.5.1 Adiabatic Operations 90
5.5.2 Non-adiabatic Operations 90
5.6 Design of Cooling Tower 90
5.7 Re-circulating Liquid–Gas Humidification–Cooling 94
5.8 Equipments 96
5.8.1 Packed Cooling Towers 96
5.8.2 Spray Chambers 97
5.8.3 Spray Ponds 98
Worked Examples 98
Exercises 112
6. DRYING .................................................................................... 116158

6.1 Introduction 116
6.2 Definitions of Moisture and Other Terms on Drying 116
6.2.1 Moisture Content (Wet Basis), X 117
6.2.2 Moisture Content (Dry Basis), X 117
6.2.3 Equilibrium Moisture, X* 117
viii Contents
6.2.4 Bound Moisture 117

6.2.5 Unbound Moisture 117
6.2.6 Free Moisture (X–X*) 117
6.2.7 Critical Moisture Content 117
6.2.8 Fibre–Saturation Point 117
6.2.9 Constant Rate Drying Period 117
6.2.10 Falling Rate Drying Period 118
6.2.11 Funicular State 118
6.2.12 Pendular State 118
6.3 Hysteresis 118
6.4 Drying of Soluble Solids 118
6.5 Classification of Drying Operations 119
6.5.1 Batch Drying 119
6.6 Parameters Affecting Drying Rate During Constant
Rate Drying Period 122
6.6.1 Effect of Gas Velocity (G) 122
6.6.2 Effect of Gas Temperature 122
6.6.3 Effect of Gas Humidity 122
6.6.4 Effect of Thickness of Drying Solid 122
6.7 Moisture Movement in Solids 122
6.7.1 Liquid Diffusion 123
6.7.2 Capillary Movement 123
6.7.3 Vapour Diffusion 123
6.7.4 Pressure Diffusion 123
6.8 Some More Aspects on Falling Rate Drying 124
6.8.1 Unsaturated Surface Drying 124
6.8.2 Internal Diffusion Controlling 124
6.9 Through Circulation Drying 124
6.9.1 The Rate of Drying of Unbound Moisture 125
6.9.2 Drying of Bound Moisture 125
6.10 Continuous Direct Heat Drier 126
6.10.1 Material and Energy Balance 126
6.10.2 Rate of Drying for Continuous Direct
Heat Driers 126
6.11 Drying Equipments 130
6.11.1 Based on Contact between Drying Substance
and Drying Material 130
6.11.2 Based on the Type of Operation 131
6.11.3 Based on the Nature of Substance being Dried 131
6.11.4 Atmospheric Compartment Dryers 131
6.11.5 Vacuum Compartment Dryer 132
6.11.6 Tunnel Dryers 132
6.11.7 Rotary Dryers 132
6.11.8 Roto–Louvre Dryer 133
6.11.9 Turbo Dryer 133
6.11.10 Conveyor Dryers 134
Contents ix
6.11.11 Filter Dryer Combination 134

6.11.12 Cylinder Dryers 135
6.11.13 Festoon Dryers 135
6.11.14 Mechanically Agitated Dryer 135
6.11.15 Drum Dryer 136
6.11.16 Vacuum Drum Dryers 137
6.11.17 Spray Dryers 137
6.11.18 Freeze Drying 138
6.10.19 Infrared Drying 138
6.10.20 Dielectric Drying 138
Worked Examples 138
Exercises 155
7. CRYSTALLIZATION ............................................................... 159185

7.2 Crystal Geometry 159
7.2.1 Classification of Crystals 159
7.3 Invariant Crystal 160
7.4 Principles of Crystallization 161
7.4.1 Purity of Product 161
7.4.2 Equilibria and Yield 161
7.4.3 Yield 162
7.4.4 Enthalpy Balance 162
7.5 Super-saturation 163
7.6 Nucleation 163
7.6.1 Theory of Homogeneous Nucleation 164
7.6.2 Heterogeneous Nucleation 166
7.7 Crystal Growth 167
7.7.1 DL—Law of Crystal Growth 167
7.7.2 Growth Coefficients 167
7.8 Application to Design 168
7.8.1 Population Density Function 168
7.8.2 Number of Crystals per Unit Mass 170
7.9 Crystallizers 170
7.9.1 Super-saturation by Cooling 170
7.9.2 Super-saturation by Evaporation 172
7.9.3 Super-saturation by Evaporation and Cooling 173
Worked Examples 175
Exercises 184
8. ABSORPTION .......................................................................... 186236

8.2 Gas Solubility in Liquids at Equilibrium 186
8.3 Ideal and Non-ideal Liquid Solutions 186
8.4 Choice of Solvent for Absorption 187
x Contents
8.5 Design of Isothermal Absorption Towers 188

8.5.1 Single Stage—One Component Transferred
Countercurrent and Isothermal Operation 188
8.5.2 Determination of Minimum (LS/GS) Ratio 190
8.5.3 Steps Involved in Determining (LS/GS)min 191
8.5.4 Multistage Countercurrent Isothermal
Absorption 192
8.5.5 Analytical Method to Determine the
Number of Trays 192
8.5.6 Significance of Absorption Factor 194
8.6 Design of Multistage Non-isothermal Absorber 194
8.7 Design of Cocurrent Absorber 196
8.8 Design of Continuous Contact Equipment for
Absorption 197
8.8.1 Overall Transfer Units 200
8.8.2 Dilute Solutions 200
8.8.3 Dilute Solutions Using Henry’s Law 201
8.9 Stripping or Desorption 201
8.9.1 Operating Line for Stripper 202
8.9.2 Analytical Relation to Determine
Number of Plates 202
Worked Examples 203
Exercises 233
9. DISTILLATION ....................................................................... 237315

9.2 Vapour Liquid Equilibria (VLE) 237
9.2.1 Constant Pressure Equilibria 237
9.2.2 Effect of Pressure 238
9.2.3 Constant Temperature Equilibria 239
9.3 Relative Volatility (a) 240
9.4 Computation of VLE Data (Equilibrium Data) 240
9.5 Deviation from Ideality 241
9.5.1 Positive Deviation from Ideality 241
9.5.2 Negative Deviations from Ideality 242
9.6 Types of Distillation Columns 242
9.6.1 Batch Columns 242
9.6.2 Continuous Columns 244
9.7 Steam Distillation 244
9.8 Differential or Simple Distillation 245
9.9 Equilibrium or Flash Distillation 248
9.9.1 Steps 250
9.10 Multicomponent Simple Distillation 251
9.11 Multicomponent Flash Distillation 252
9.11.1 Steps Involved 253
Contents xi
9.12 Continuous Rectification 253

9.12.1 Ponchon–Savarit Method 253
9.12.2 McCabe–Thiele Method 261
9.13 Location of Feed Tray 268
9.14 Reflux Ratio 270
9.14.1 Determination of Minimum Reflux Ratio 270
9.14.2 Total Reflux 271
9.14.3 Optimum Reflux Ratio 272
9.15 Reboilers 273
9.16 Condensers 275
9.17 Use of Open Steam 276
9.17.1 Determination of Number of Trays 278
9.18 Continuous Differential Contact–Packed
Tower Distillation 278
9.18.1 Steps Involved in the Determination of
the Height of Tower 281
9.19 Azeotropic Distillation 281
9.19.1 Desired Properties of an Entrainer for
Azeotropic Distillation 283
9.20 Extractive Distillation 283
9.20.1 Desired Properties of Solvent for
Extractive Distillation 284
9.21 Comparison of Azeotropic and Extractive Distillation 284
9.22 Low Pressure Distillation 284
9.22.1 Molecular Distillation 285
Worked Examples 286
Exercises 310
10. EXTRACTION .......................................................................... 316354

10.2 Equilibria 316
10.2.1 Equilateral–Triangular Coordinates 317
10.3 Systems of Three Liquids—One Pair Partially Soluble 318
10.3.1 Effect of Temperature 319
10.3.2 Effect of Pressure 319
10.4 Systems of Three Liquids—Two Pairs Partially Soluble 320
10.5 Two Partially Soluble Liquids and One Solid 320
10.6 Other Coordinates 321
10.7 Factors Influencing Choice of Solvent 321
10.8 Operations 322
10.8.1 Single Stage Operation 322
10.8.2 Multistage Cross-current Operation 324
10.8.3 Multistage Countercurrent Extraction 326
10.9 Insoluble Systems (Immiscible Systems) 329
10.9.1 Cross-current Operation 329
10.9.2 Countercurrent Operation 330
xii Contents
10.10 Continuous Countercurrent Extraction with Reflux 332

10.10.1 Steps 333
10.11 Fractional Extraction 334
10.12 Multicomponent Extraction 334
10.13 Continuous Contact Extractors 335
10.14 Dilute Solutions 336
10.15 Equipment 336
10.15.1 Mixer-settler 336
10.15.2 Mechanically Agitated Tower 337
10.15.3 Oldshue-Rhuston Extractor 337
10.15.4 Rotating Disc Contactor (RDC) 337
10.15.5 York-Scheibel Column 338
10.15.6 Pulsed Column Extractor 338
10.15.7 Other Extractors 340
Worked Examples 340
Exercises 352
11. LEACHING .............................................................................. 355386

11.2 Unsteady State Operation 356
11.2.1 In Place (in-situ) Leaching 356
11.2.2 Heap Leaching 356
11.2.3 Percolation Tank 357
11.2.4 Countercurrent Contact 357
11.2.5 Percolations in Closed Vessels 358
11.2.6 Filter–Press Leaching 359
11.2.7 Agitated Vessels 359
11.2.8 Features of Percolation and Agitation
Techniques 359
11.3 Steady State Operations 360
11.3.1 Agitated Vessels 360
11.3.2 Thickeners 360
11.3.3 Continuous Countercurrent Decantation 361
11.3.4 Leaching of Vegetable Seeds 362
11.4 Definitions 365
11.5 Different Types of Equilibrium Diagrams 365
11.5.1 Type 1 365
11.5.2 Type II 366
11.5.3 Type III 366
11.6 Single Stage Operation 367
11.7 Multistage Cross-current Leaching 369
11.8 Multistage Countercurrent Operation 371
11.8.1 Analysis of Variable Underflow System 371
11.8.2 Number of Stages for a Constant
Underflow System 373
Worked Examples 373
Exercises 386
Contents xiii
12. ADSORPTION.......................................................................... 387414

12.2 Types of Adsorption 387
12.3 Nature of Adsorbents 388
12.4 Adsorption Equilibria 389
12.5 Adsorption Hysteresis 390
12.6 Heat of Adsorption 390
12.7 Effect of Temperature 391
12.8 Effect of Pressure 391
12.9 Liquids 391
12.9.1 Adsorption of Solute from Dilute Solutions 391
12.9.2 Adsorption from Concentrated Solution 392
12.9.3 Other Adsorption Isotherms 392
12.10 Types of Operation 394
12.10.1 Single Stage Operation 394
12.10.2 Multistage Cross-current Operation 395
12.10.3 Multistage Countercurrent Adsorption 399
12.11 Continuous Adsorption 402
12.11.1 Steady State Adsorption 403
12.11.2 Unsteady State Adsorbers 404
12.12 Equipment for Adsorption 404
12.12.1 Contact Filtration Equipment 404
12.12.2 Fluidised Beds 405
12.12.3 Steady-state Moving Bed Adsorbers 405
Worked Examples 406
Exercises 414
Appendix I Important Conversion Factors ................................. 415–416

Appendix II Atomic Weights and Atomic Numbers of
Elements ..................................................................... 417–419
Index .................................................................................................. 421–424
PREFACE
A chemical engineer is involved in the design and operation of a process plant.

He has to handle the operations involving changes in composition of solutions,
solids and gases. A thorough knowledge on the phase separation techniques
will be very useful in handling operations involving separation of components
from a reaction product mixture. They have to deal with gas–liquid, gas–solid,
liquid–liquid and liquid–solid operations depending on the nature of the
components to be separated. In this regard a chemical engineer has to equip
himself/herself with the application of various mass transfer operations.
These operations are of great importance in the process industry as it has
a direct impact on the cost of final product. An industrial operation always
aims to produce a product at minimum cost of operations. Hence, it is
imperative that a chemical engineer or a process engineer should have sound
knowledge about the basics of mass transfer and its application. This book will
certainly enable one to acquire sufficient knowledge about mass transfer
operations and face the challenges ahead. The book contains twelve chapters
and each one deals with the concepts/theories of mass transfer and its
applications.
The objective of this book is to teach a budding chemical engineer, the
principles involved in analyzing a process and apply desired mass transfer
operations to separate the components involved. This book deals with
operations involving diffusion, interphase mass transfer, humidification,
drying, crystallization, absorption, distillation, extraction, leaching and
adsorption.
Chapter 1 is an introductory chapter which deals with the different mass
transfer operations and the field of applications.
Chapter 2 is devoted to diffusional mass transfer operations. The topics
discussed indicate the phenomenon of gas diffusion, liquid diffusion and solid
diffusion. Use of empirical equations to estimate the diffusivity has also been
discussed. Numerical examples have been given at the end of the chapter,
xv
xvi Preface
which will help the reader apply the concept of the theory discussed. Exercise
problems will enable one to work independently and gain confidence.
Chapter 3 is more on the theoretical side and deals with mass transfer
coefficients and interphase mass transfer. A chemical engineer has to handle
flow systems. The rate of transfer depends on the nature of fluid motion. This
chapter gives definitions on various forms of mass transfer co-efficient and
their interrelations. A quantitative presentation has been made on the
estimation of mass transfer coefficient in laminar flow condition. As far as the
flow under turbulent conditions are concerned, empirical methods and the
application of various theories of mass transfer to determine the mass transfer
coefficient have also been discussed. A section on the analogies between the
transfer operations of heat, mass and momentum has been included. This will
enable the reader to understand the significance and determine the
characteristics of one with the known characteristics of the other two transfer
operations. A brief presentation has been made on the analysis of different
types of operations. Numerical examples have been added at the end, applying
the concepts discussed earlier in this chapter.
Chapter 4 gives glimpses of the commonly used various pieces of
equipment for mass transfer operations.
Chapter 5 is on humidification. A good knowledge about humidification is
essential to obtain conditioned air with specified temperature and humidity for
applications like drying, conditioning of space, etc. Definitions of various
terms associated with humidification operation and the use of psychometric
chart have been discussed. A lucid presentation has been made on the
principle of wet bulb thermometry and adiabatic saturation curves. Principles
and steps involved in the design of a cooling tower along with the description
of different types of cooling towers are also discussed. This chapter is
concluded with a series of numerical examples using the concepts discussed.
Exercise problems will enable one to apply the concepts of humidification and
solve them independently.
Drying, one of the final operations in a product formation, is discussed in
Chapter 6. This chapter begins with a presentation on the phenomena of
drying, factors affecting drying operations and theories of moisture movement.
A detailed analysis of continuous dryers has also been presented. The
classification of equipment used for drying is made and commonly used dryers
and their applications have also been discussed. Numerical examples
involving the analysis of drying data, the effect of operating parameters and
also on the estimation of drying time are presented. Exercise problems
included at the end of the chapter will enable one to apply their knowledge
gained.
Chapter 7 deals with crystallization. This chapter commences with
classification of crystals, principle of crystallization and moves over to
methods of achieving supersaturation. Theory of nucleation and crystal growth
have been discussed in detail. Principles involved in the design of crystallizers
are also included. Different industrial crystallizers have been discussed along
with their application. Examples on the estimation of yield and design of
Preface xvii
crystallizers have been included. Exercise problems given at the end will
enable the reader to apply the knowledge gained in this chapter.
Chapter 8 deals with absorption operation. The topics discussed include
the principle of absorption, estimation of solvent requirement for a specific
operation, design of isothermal and adiabatic absorbers and design of packed
towers. Numerical examples given at the end of the chapter will enable one to
apply these concepts and get thorough with the theory discussed. The
problems given in exercises will enable the reader to work themselves and get
familiarized with the theory.
Chapter 9 is devoted to distillation operations. In most of the chemical
industries this forms an essential operation. The topics discussed include the
computation of VLE data, characteristics of VLE data, types of distillation,
design of packed and plate distillation columns. The features of accessories
like reboilers and condensers are also discussed. Numerical examples have
been given at the end of the chapter, which will help the reader to apply the
concepts of the theory discussed. Exercise problems will enable one to work
independently and gain confidence.
Chapter 10 deals with liquid–liquid extraction operations. A chemical
engineer, depending on the industry or the type of system, comes across a
partially miscible or immiscible systems. This chapter includes the equilibria
of ternary systems, the effect of temperature and pressure on the equilibrium.
Principles involved in the crosscurrent and countercurrent operations have
been discussed. The determination of the number of stages needed for a
specific operation in both partially miscible and immiscible systems have been
discussed. A brief presentation has been made on some of the commonly used
equipment. Numerical examples have been added at the end using the concepts
discussed earlier in this chapter.
Chapter 11 deals with leaching operations. This operation also comes
under the basic classification of extraction but deals more precisely with
solid–liquid operations. As a process engineer, one has to be very clear with
the concepts of solid–liquid extraction as he/she comes across ore processing
and solvent extraction of oil from oil seeds. This chapter deals with the various
types of leaching operations and principles involved in leaching. Various
types of equilibria and types of operations are also discussed. This chapter is
concluded with a series of numerical examples using the concepts discussed
earlier. Exercise problems will enable one to apply the concepts of leaching
and solve them independently.
Adsorption is one of the most important unit operations in the process
industry, especially when we have to remove colour, odour and other
impurities present in a very small quantity. This is discussed in Chapter 12
which is the last chapter in this book. Details on preparation of adsorbents,
adsorption isotherms and different types of adsorption have been discussed.
Numerical examples involving the analysis of basic data, and estimation of
number of stages or the amount of adsorbent needed for a specific operation
for different types of operations have been discussed. Exercise problems
included at the end of the chapter will enable one to apply the knowledge
gained.
xviii Preface
We strongly feel that once the student becomes well conversant with the
various topics discussed in this book, he/she will gain sufficient knowledge to
face the problems that he/she is likely to encounter in the academic
environment and industry.
The book is designed for a two-semester programme as a four-credit
course and written as per the syllabus on Mass Transfer of most of the
universities in India.
N. Anantharaman
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
At the outset, we wish to thank the almighty for his blessings.

Dr. N. Anantharaman wishes to thank his mother, wife Dr. Usha
Anantharaman, and sons Master A. Srinivas and A. Varun for all their patience,
cooperation and support shown during the preparation of this book. The
encouragement received from his brothers and sisters and their family
members is gratefully acknowledged. He also wishes to place on record the
support received from his brothers-in-law and sisters-in-law and their family
members.
Dr. (Mrs.) K.M. Meera Sheriffa Begum wishes to acknowledge her mother,
husband, Mr. S. Malik Raj, and daughter M. Rakshana Roshan for all their
encouragement, constant support and cooperation while preparing this book.
She also wishes to place on record the support received from her brothers,
sisters, in-laws and their families is gratefully acknowledged.
We also thank the Director, NIT, Tiruchirappalli for extending all the
facilities and his words of appreciation. We wish to acknowledge the support
and encouragement received from Head of Chemical Engineering Department
and all the colleagues during the course of preparation of this book.
We also wish to thank Dr. S.H. Ibrahim, for reviewing the material and his
Foreword.
The untiring efforts of Mr. A. Pugalendi and Mr. S. Pandiyaraja, Chemical
Engineering Department, National Institute of Technology, Trichy in preparing
the manuscript are very much appreciated. We gratefully acknowledge all the
well wishers.
Finally we wish to thank the publishers for having come forward to
publish this book.
N. Anantharaman
xix
x
1
INTRODUCTION TO
MASS TRANSFER
1.1 INTRODUCTION
A number of unit operations are carried out in Chemical Engineering applications
which do not involve chemical reactions. These operations are carried out for
separating either a component by mechanical means like screening, filtration and
salting or increasing its concentration in a mixture. The latter is called mass
transfer operation.
Frequently, these mass transfer operations are used for the separation of a
product from the by-products formed and also from the unreacted raw materials.
The separation technique plays a vital role in fixing the cost of final product.
1.2 CLASSIFICATION OF MASS TRANSFER

OPERATIONS
It is classified as gas-liquid, liquid-liquid and fluid-solid operations.
1.2.1 Gas–Liquid
Absorption: Transfer of a solute from a gas mixture to a solvent is known as
absorption. For example, (i) removal of ammonia gas from by-product coke ovens
using water, (ii) removal of H2S from naturally occurring hydrocarbon gases by
alkali solutions.
Desorption: This is reverse of absorption, i.e. removal of a solute in a solution
using a gas. For example, removal of NH3 from NH3-water solution using air.
Humidification: Transfer of a liquid to a gas phase containing one or more
components by contacting dry gas with pure liquid is known as humidification.
1
2 Mass TransferTheory and Practice
Dehumidification: Transfer of a vapour component from a gas-vapour mixture to

a liquid phase by contacting them is known as dehumidification. For example,
transferring water vapour from air-water vapour mixture to liquid water.
Distillation: Method of separating the components in a liquid mixture by the
distribution of substances between a gas and a liquid phase is known as
distillation. The method of separation depends on their relative volatility and
applied to cases where all the components are present in both the phases. Here a
new phase is created from the original solution itself. For example, separation of
petroleum fractions by the application of heat, separation of high boiling water
insoluble mixtures using steam.
1.2.2 Liquid–Liquid
Extraction: Separation of a component (solute) from a liquid mixture using
another insoluble or partially miscible solvent is known as extraction. The
separation depends on the distribution of solute between the two phases based on
its physico-chemical characteristics. The two phases are solvent rich phase
(extract) and residual liquid phase (raffinate). For example, (i) separation of acetic
acid from acetic acid-water mixture using isopropyl ether as solvent,
(ii) separation of dioxane from waterdioxane solution using benzene as solvent.
1.2.3 Solid–Liquid/Gas
Leaching: Separating a soluble solute from a solid mixture by contacting it with
a solvent is known as leaching. For example, (i) separation of oil from oil seeds
using hexane, (ii) separation of sugar from sugar beets using hot water,
(iii) removal of copper from its ore using sulphuric acid.
Adsorption: Adsorption involves contact of solid with either a liquid or
a gaseous mixture in which a specific substance from the mixture concentrates on
the solid surface. For example, (i) removal of colour from solutions using activated
carbon, (ii) removal of moisture from air by silica gel.
Desorption: It is the reverse of adsorption operation.
Drying: Drying refers to the removal of moisture from a substance. For example,
(i) removal of water from a cloth, wood or paper, (ii) removal of water from solution
(manufacture of spray dried milk).
Crystallization: The process of forming solid particles within a homogeneous
phase is called crystallization. For example, (i) the homogenous phase could be
a vapour as in the formation of snow, (ii) the formation of crystals of sugar from
a concentrated sugar solution.
2
DIFFUSION
2.1 INTRODUCTION
Separation of components in a mixture is achieved by contacting it with another
insoluble phase. When transfer of the component from one phase to the other
occurs due to concentration gradient, the phenomenon is called diffusion. The
diffusion stops once equilibrium is attained. There are two types of diffusion,
1. Molecular diffusion
2. Eddy diffusion or Turbulent diffusion
2.2 MOLECULAR DIFFUSION AND EDDY

DIFFUSION
Molecular diffusion can be defined as the movement of individual molecules in a
highly zigzag manner through another fluid. The movement of molecules is
imagined to be in a straight line at uniform velocity. However, the velocity and
direction change when they are bombarded with other molecules. Molecular
diffusion can also be called as Random-Walk process since the molecular
movement is in a random path.
The phenomenon of molecular diffusion can be explained by a simple
illustration, i.e. if a coloured solution is introduced in a pool of water, it begins
slowly to diffuse into the entire liquid which is termed as molecular diffusion. To
enhance its rate of mixing, a mechanical agitation is provided and this will cause
a turbulent motion. This method of mass transfer is known as eddy or turbulent or
convective diffusion.
2.3 DIFFUSIVITY OR DIFFUSION COEFFICIENT

Diffusion mainly depends upon the concentration gradient. In other words, the
driving force for diffusion to occur is concentration gradient. This mass transfer
3
phenomenon is defined by Fick’s first law of diffusion, which states that molar flux
is directly proportional to the concentration gradient. Mathematically,
È C Ø È x Ø
JA DAB É A Ù C DAB É A Ù (2.1)
Ê Z Ú Ê Z Ú
where JA is molar flux in moles/(area)(time), DAB is diffusion coefficient or
diffusivity in area/time, ¶CA/¶Z is concentration gradient, C is molar concentration
of constituents A and B in moles/vol. and xA is mole fraction of A in the mixture.
The –ve sign indicates the drop in concentration with respect to distance
(the movement from high concentration to low concentration).
Consider two gases A and B of equal volume placed in two boxes connected
by a tube and maintained at a constant total pressure. Now molecular diffusion of
both gases occurs. Since the total pressure P remains constant throughout the
process, the net moles of A diffused in one direction must be equal to the net moles
of B diffused in opposite direction. So,
JA = –JB (2.2)
Since the pressure is constant,
P = pA + pB = constant (2.3)
and
C = CA + CB = constant (2.4)
Differentiating Eq. (2.4) on both the sides,
dCA = –dCB (2.5)
Writing Fick’s law for component B,
CB
JB DBA (2.6)
Z
Substituting for flux in Eq. (2.2) gives
È C Ø CB
DAB É A Ù ( ) DBA (2.7)
Ê Z Ú Z
Substituting Eq. (2.5) in Eq. (2.7) and on simplification

DAB = DBA (2.8)
This shows that the diffusivity is same for diffusion of A in B or B in A.
2.4 STEADY STATE MOLECULAR DIFFUSION

IN FLUIDS
In the above discussion, we considered Fick’s law for diffusion in a stationary
fluid, i.e. there is no convective flow or bulk flow of the mixture. A general
expression for flux NA will consider the whole fluid moving in bulk with its
Diffusion 5
average molar velocity and its diffusional flux. Hence, the molar flux NA can be
expressed as the sum of molar average velocity and diffusional flux (JA)
È C Ø
NA = (NA + NB) xA – DAB É A Ù (2.9)
Ê Z Ú
For steady state molecular diffusion between two gases A and B, the net flux is
given by
N = NA + NB (2.10)
Applying Eq. (2.9) to the case of diffusion in Z direction between the
diffusional path Z1 and Z2, where the concentrations are CA1 and CA2 respectively.
Equation (2.9) can be also written as,
CA È CA Ø C
– DAB É , since xA = A
Ê Z ÙÚ
NA = (NA + NB) (2.11)
C C
Rearranging the above Eq. (2.11) and integrating we get
CA2 Z2
dCA 1
Ô N A C CA ( N A N B ) CDAB ÔdZ (2.12)
CA1 Z1
ÎË È NA Ø Û Þ
ÑÌ CÉ Ù Ü Ñ
È CDAB Ø Ñ Ì Ê NA N B Ú Ü È NA Ø Ñ
ÉÊ N N ÙÚ ln Ï ÌCA2 CA1 Ü
CÉ ß = Z2 – Z1 = Z (2.13)
Ê N A N B ÙÚ Ñ
A B ÑÌ Ü
ÑÌ Ñ
ÐÍ ÝÜ à
or
Ë È N A Ø CA2 Û
Ì Ü
È N A Ø È CDAB Ø Ì ÉÊ N A N B ÙÚ C Ü
NA (2.14)
ÉÊ N N ÙÚ ÊÉ Z ÚÙ ln Ì È N Ø CA1 Ü
A B
ÌÉ A
Ü
ÌÍ Ê N A N B ÙÚ C ÜÝ
2.4.1 Molecular Diffusion in Gases

It is more convenient to use ideal gas law for gaseous mixtures. Hence,
CA pA
yA (2.15)
C Pt
where pA is the partial pressure of component A, Pt is the total pressure and yA is
mole fraction of component A. Further,
n Pt
C (2.16)
V RT
Now substituting Eq. (2.16) in Eq. (2.14) gives
Ë ÑÎÈ N Ø ÑÞ Û
Ì ÏÉ A
P p ßÜ
Pt Û Ì ÑÐÊ N A N B ÙÚ
t A2
Ë NA Û Ë Ñà Ü
NA = Ì Ü Ì DAB ln
RTZ ÜÝ Ì ÑÎÈ N Ü (2.17)
Í NA NB Ý Í ÌÏ Ø ÑÞ Ü
A
P p ß
Ì ÑÉÊ N A N B ÙÚ t A1
Ñà ÜÝ
ÍÐ
or
Ë NA Û
Ë NA Û Ë Pt Û Ì N N yA2 Ü
ln Ì N Ü
A B
NA = Ì Ü Ì DAB
RTZ ÜÝ
(2.18)
Í NA NB Ý Í Ì Ü
Ì N N yA1 Ü
A
Í A B Ý
2.4.1.1 Case 1—Steady state diffusion of gas A through a

stagnant gas B
In this case,
NA = constant and NB = 0,
NA
Hence, 1 (2.19)
NA NB
Substituting Eq. (2.19) in Eq. (2.17) gives
È DAB Pt Ø Ë Pt pA2 Û
NA ÉÊ RTZ ÙÚ ln Ì P p Ü (2.20)
Í t A1 Ý
Since Pt – pA2 = pB2, Pt – pA1 = pB1, pB2 – pB1 = pA1 – pA2.

Equation (2.20) becomes
È DAB Pt Ø Ë pA1 pA2 Û È pB2 Ø

NA ÉÊ RTZ ÚÙ Ì p p Ü ln É p Ù (2.21)
Í B2 B1 Ý Ê B1 Ú
Let,
pB2 pB1 (2.22)
pB,M
Èp Ø
ln É B2 Ù
Êp ÚB1
Then
Ë DAB Pt Û
NA Ì Ü (pA1 – pA2) (2.23)
ÍÌ RTZ pB,M ÝÜ
or
Ë DAB Pt Û Ë1 yA2 Û
NA = Ì Ü ln Ì Ü (2.24)
Í RTZ Ý Í 1 yA1 Ý
Diffusion 7
2.4.1.2 Case 2—Equimolar counter diffusion

In this case, NA = –NB. Then Eq. (2.17) becomes indeterminate. Hence, we can
consider the general expression for flux as given in Eq. (2.9)
È C Ø
NA = (NA + NB) xA – DAB É A Ù
Ê Z Ú
or
È C Ø
NA = – DAB É A Ù (2.25)
Ê Z Ú
Integrating Eq. (2.25) between the respective limits
Z2 CA2
NA Ô dZ
Z1
= – DAB
Ô dC A (2.26)
CA1
È DAB Ø
NA = É (C – CA1) where Z = Z2 – Z1 (2.27)
Ê Z ÙÚ A2
or
ÈD Ø
NA = É AB Ù ( pA1 – pA2) (2.28)
Ê RTZ Ú
2.4.1.3 Case 3—Steady state diffusion in multicomponent mixtures

For multicomponent mixtures, effective diffusivity (DA,M)can be determined by
using
n
N A − yA ∑ N i
i= A
DA,M = n 1 (2.29)
∑ ( yi N A − y A N i )
D
i = A Ai
where DAi are the binary diffusivities. Here DA,M may vary considerably from one
end of the diffusion path to the other, but a linear variation with distance can be
assumed. For this situation, assume all but one component is stagnant, then
Eq. (2.29) becomes,
1 yA 1
DA,M n n
Ç y /D
i B
i Ai Ç y /D
i B
i Ai
(2.30)
where yi is the mole fraction of component i on an A-free basis.

Substituting DA,M instead of DA,B in Eqs. (2.23) and (2.28), the mass transfer
rate for multicomponent mixtures can be determined.
2.4.2 Diffusivity Prediction in Gases

Diffusion coefficient is a significant parameter which depends upon temperature,
pressure and composition of the components. Diffusivity can be determined
experimentally. For some of the systems it is given in Table 2.1 (more data is
Table 2.1 Diffusivities of gases at standard atmospheric pressure, 101.3 kN/m2

System Temperature, °C Diffusivity, m2/s ´ 105
H2 – CH4 0 6.25
O2 – N2 0 1.81
CO – O2 0 1.85
CO2 – O2 0 1.39
Air – NH3 0 1.98
Air – H2O 25.9 2.58
59.0 3.05
Air – ethanol 0 1.02
Air – n-Butanol 25.9 0.87
59.0 1.04
Air – ethyl acetate 25.9 0.87
59.0 1.06
Air – aniline 25.9 0.74
59.0 0.90
Air – chlorobenzene 25.9 0.74
59.0 0.90
Air– toluene 25.9 0.86
59.0 0.92
available in literature). In some cases, it is very difficult to determine

experimentally. Hirschfelder-Bird-Spotz developed an empirical relation to
determine the diffusivity for mixtures of non-polar or a polar with non-polar gas.
⎡ −4 ⎛ 1 1 ⎞ 3/2 1 1 ⎤
⎢10 ⎜ 1.084 − 0.249 + ⎟T + ⎥
⎢⎣ ⎝ MA MB ⎠ MA MB ⎥⎦
DAB = (2.31)
⎡ 2 ⎛ KT ⎞ ⎤
⎢ Pt ( rAB ) f ⎜ ⎟⎥
⎣ ⎝ F AB ⎠ ⎦
where
DAB is the diffusivity, m2/s
T is the absolute temperature, K
MA, MB is the molecular weight of A and B respectively, kg/kmol
Pt is the absolute pressure, N/m2
r +r
rAB is the molecular separation at collision = A B , nm
2
eAB is the energy of molecular attraction = F A F B
K is the Boltzmann’s constant
⎛ KT ⎞
f ⎜ ⎟ is the collision function given by Fig. 2.1
⎝ F AB ⎠
The values of r and e such as those listed in Table 2.2 can be calculated from other
properties of gases such as viscosity. They can also be estimated empirically by
r = 1.18 v1/3 (2.32)
e /K = 1.21 Tb (2.33)
3
where v is the molal volume of liquid at normal boiling point, m /kmol and Tb is
the normal boiling point, K.
Diffusion 9
0.1 1 10 100 1000
1.4 0.5
1.2
1.0 0.4
0.8
⎛ kT ⎞
⎟
⎝ F ⎠
f⎜
0.6 0.3
0.4
0.2 0.2
0 0.15
0.4 0.8 4 8 40 80 400 800
kT
F
Fig. 2.1 Collision function.
Table 2.2 Force constants of gases as determined from viscosity data
Gas e/K, K r, nm
Air 78.6 0.3711
CCl4 322.7 0.5947
CH3OH 481.8 0.3626
CH4 148.6 0.3758
CO 91.7 0.3690
CO2 195.2 0.3941
CS2 467 0.4483
C2H6 215.7 0.4443
C3H8 237.1 0.5118
C6H6 412.3 0.5349
Cl2 316 0.4217
HCl 344.7 0.3339
He 10.22 0.2551
H2 59.7 0.2827
H2O 809.1 0.2641
H2S 301.1 0.3623
NH3 558.3 0.2900
NO 116.7 0.3492
N2 71.6 0.3798
N2O 232.4 0.3828
O2 106.7 0.3467
SO2 335.4 0.4112
2.4.3 Molecular Diffusion in Liquids

In the case of diffusion in liquids, C and DAB may vary considerably with respect
to process conditions. Hence, Eq. (2.14) can be modified to,
Ë NA Û
Ì xA2 Ü
È N A Ø È DAB Ø È S Ø N NB
NA ÉÊ N N ÙÚ ÉÊ Z ÙÚ ÉÊ M ÙÚ ln Ì A Ü
(2.34)
ÌÈ N Ø Ü
A B av
ÌÉ A
Ù xA1 Ü
ÍÌ Ê N A N B Ú ÝÜ
where r is solution density and M is solution molecular weight.
2.4.3.1 Case 1—Diffusion of liquid A through a stagnant liquid B

In this case,
NB = 0 and NA = constant. Hence,
È D ØÈ SØ
NA = É AB Ù É Ù (xA1 – xA2) (2.35)
Ê ZxB,M Ú Ê M Ú av
Ë Û
Ì Ü
Ì xB2 xB1 Ü
where xB,M = Ì (2.36)
Èx ØÜ
Ì ln É B2 Ù Ü
ÍÌ Ê xB1 Ú ÝÜ
or
È DAB Ø È S Ø Ë 1 xA2 Û
NA ÉÊ Z ÙÚ ÉÊ M ÙÚ ln Ì 1 x Ü (2.37)
av Í A1 Ý
2.4.3.2 Case 2—Equimolar counter-diffusion

In this case,
NA = –NB
Hence,
ÈD Ø È DAB Ø È S Ø
NA = É AB Ù (CA1 – CA2) = É
Ê Z ÙÚ ÉÊ M ÙÚ av A1
(x – xA2) (2.38)
Ê Z Ú
2.4.4 Diffusivity Prediction in Liquids

Diffusivity has the dimension of area/time similar to that of gases. A few typical
data are listed in Table 2.3 and more are available in literature. For some cases such
as dilute solution of non-electrolytes, the diffusivity can be estimated by using
Wilke and Chang empirical correlation.
Diffusion 11
(117.3 1018 )(K M B )0.5 T

DAB (2.39)
NvA0.6
where
DAB is the diffusivity of A in very dilute solution in solvent B, m2/s
MB is the molecular weight of solvent, kg/kmol.
T is the absolute temperature, K
m is the solution viscosity, kg/m-s
vA is the solute molal volume at normal boiling point, m3/kmol.
= 0.0756 for water as solute.
K is the association factor for solvent.
= 2.26 for water as solvent
= 1.90 for methanol as solvent
= 1.50 for ethanol as solvent
= 1.00 for unassociated solvents, e.g. benzene and ethyl ether.
Table 2.3 Liquid diffusivities

Solute Solvent Temperature, K Solute concentration, Diffusivity,
kmol/m3 m2/s ´ 109
Cl2 Water 289 0.12 1.26
HCl Water 273 9 2.7
2 1.8
283 9 3.3
2.5 2.5
289 0.5 2.44
NH3 Water 278 3.5 1.24
288 1.0 1.77
CO2 Water 283 0 1.46
293 0 1.77
NaCl Water 291 0.05 1.26
0.2 1.21
1.0 1.24
3.0 1.36
5.4 1.54
Methanol Water 288 0 1.28
Acetic acid Water 285.5 1.0 0.82
0.01 0.91
291 1.0 0.96
Ethanol Water 283 3.75 0.50
0.05 0.83
289 2.0 0.90
n-Butanol Water 288 0 0.77
CO2 Ethanol 290 0 3.2
Chloroform Ethanol 293 2.0
The value of vA can be estimated from the data of atomic volumes added
together. Typical data on atomic and molecular volume is available in Table 2.4.
Table 2.4 Atomic and molecular volumes

Gas Atomic volume, Gas Molecular volume,
m3/katom ´ 103 m3/kmol ´ 103
Carbon 14.8 H2 14.3
Hydrogen 3.7 O2 25.6
Chlorine 24.6 N2 31.2
Bromine 27.0 Air 29.9
Iodine 37.0 CO 30.7
Sulphur 25.6 CO2 34.0
Nitrogen 15.6 SO2 44.8
In primary amines 10.5 NO 23.6
In secondary amines 12.0 N2O 36.4
Oxygen 7.4 NH3 25.8
In methyl esters 9.1 H2O 18.9
In higher esters 11.0 H2S 32.9
In acids 12.0 COS 51.5
In methyl ethers 9.9 Cl2 48.4
In higher ethers 11.0 Br2 53.2
Benzene ring subtract 15 I2 71.5
Naphthalene ring subtract 30
2.4.5 Pseudo Steady State Diffusion

In many mass transfer operations, one of the boundaries between the fluids may
move with time. If the length of the diffusion path changes over a period of time,
a pseudo steady state develops. Here, the molar flux is related to the amount of A
leaving the liquid by,
Flux = rate of change of liquid level ´ molar concentration of A in liquid phase
dZ
N AZ CA,L (2.40)
dt
È C DAB Ø È dZ Ø
N AZ É Ù ( xB2 xB1 ) ÉÊ dt ÙÚ CA,L (2.41)
Ê ZxB,M Ú
Integrating Eq. (2.41) between t = 0, Z = Zt0 and t = t, Z = Zt
Zt t
Ë C DAB ( xB2 xB1 ) Û
Ô
Zt 0
zdz Ì
ÍÌ xB,M CA,L
Ü
ÝÜ
Ô dt
0
(2.42)
After integration and simplification,

t xB,M CA,L ( Zt Z t 0 )
Zt Zt 0 2 C DAB ( xA1 xA2 ) (2.43)
i.e.
t xB,M CA,L ( Z t Z t 0 Z t 0 Z t 0 )
(2.44)
Zt Zt 0 2 C DAB ( xA1 xA2 )
Diffusion 13
i.e.
t xB,M CA,L ( Z t Z t 0 ) 2 Z t 0 xB,M CA,L
(2.45)
Z t Zt 0 2 C DAB ( xA1 xA2 ) 2 C DAB ( xA1 xA2 )
Equation (2.45) is of the form,

y = mx + C (2.46)
t
where y = and x = (Zt – Zt0)
Z t Zt 0
xB,M CA,L
Slope, m =
2 C DAB ( xA1 xA2 )
and
Z t 0 xB,M CA,L
Constant C =
C DAB ( xA1 xA2 )
Since Eq. (2.45) is linear, by plotting t/(Zt – Zt0) against (Zt – Zt0), from the slope
of line, DAB can be calculated, as the other parameters of Eq. (2.45) are all known.
This equation is called as Winkelmann’s relation.
2.5 DIFFUSION IN SOLIDS

Fick’s law of diffusion can be applied to the system which is under steady state
condition. It is applicable when diffusivity is independent of concentration and
when there is no bulk flow. So, the rate of diffusion of substance A per unit cross
section of solid is proportional to the concentration gradient in the direction of
diffusion.
È dCA Ø
NA = – DA É
Ê dZ ÙÚ
(2.47)
where DA is the diffusivity of A through the solid. When the diffusion is taking
place through a flat slab of thickness Z, then Eq. (2.47) becomes
DA (CA1 CA2 )
NA (2.48)
Z
Here CA1 and CA2 are concentrations at opposite sides of the slab. For solids of
varying transfer area, the diffusional rate is given by,
DA Sav (CA1 CA2 )

W N A Sav (2.49)
Z
Sav is average mass transfer area of respective solid surfaces. Hence, for radial
diffusion through a solid cylinder of inner and outer radii r1 and r2 respectively and
its length l,
Sav = 2prl (2.50)
È dC Ø
W = –DA 2prl É (2.51)
Ê dr ÙÚ
On integrating
r2 CA2
dr
W Ô
r1
r
DA 2Q l Ô dC
CA1
(2.52)
or
Èr Ø
W ln É 2 Ù = – DA2pl(CA2 – CA1) (2.53)
Ê r1 Ú
or
[ DA 2Q l (CA1 CA2 ) È r2 r1 Ø
W ÉÊ r r ÙÚ (2.54)
Èr Ø 2 1
ln É 2 Ù
Êr Ú1
or
DA Sav (CA1 CA2 )
W (2.55)
Z
2Q l (r2 r1 )
where Sav = and Z = (r2 – r1).
È r2 Ø
ln É Ù
Ê r1 Ú
Similarly for radial diffusion through a spherical shell of inner and outer radii r1
and r2, the surface is
Sav = 4p r1r2 and Z = (r2 – r1) (2.56)
2.5.1 Types of Solid Diffusion

The nature of solids and its interaction with the diffusing substance influence the
rate of mass transfer. Different types of solid diffusion are discussed below.
2.5.1.1 Diffusion through polymers

Diffusion through polymeric membranes, e.g. gaseous separation through a
membrane, mainly depends on the pressure gradient as the driving force. Diffusion
takes place from high pressure region to low pressure region. A particular
activation energy is needed for diffusion to take place and the temperature
dependency of diffusivity is given by Arrhenius type relation,
Ë H Û
DA = Do exp Ì D Ü (2.57)
Í RT Ý
where HD is the energy of activation and Do is a constant. For simple gases, DA
is independent of concentration but for permanent gases, diffusivity is strongly
Diffusion 15
dependent on solute concentration in the solid. The diffusional flux is

given by
DA SA ( pA1 pA2 )
VA (2.58)
Z
where
VA is the diffusional flux, cm3 . gas (STP)/cm2s
DA is the diffusivity of A, cm2/s
pA is the partial pressure of diffusing gas, cm Hg
SA is the solubility coefficient, cm3 . gas (STP)/cm3 solid . cm Hg
Z is the thickness of polymeric membrane, cm
Permeability can be defined as
P = DA SA (2.59)
3 . 2.
where P is the permeability, cm gas (STP)/cm s (cm Hg/cm)
The solubility is related to concentration in SI units as,
cA (kmol/m3 solid) = SpA = 22.414 (2.60)
3
and in CGS system as cA (g mol/cm solid) = SpA = 22414 (2.61)
2.5.1.2 Diffusion through crystalline solids
Solute nature and crystalline structure are the important parameters in this type of
diffusion. Some of the mechanisms followed for diffusion through crystal
geometry are given below:
1. Interstitial mechanism—Solute atoms diffuse from one interstitial site to
the next in the crystal lattice.
2. Vacancy mechanism—If lattice sites are vacant, an atom in an adjacent site
may jump into the vacant site.
3. Interstitialcy mechanism—A large atom occupying in an interstitial site
pushes the neighbouring lattice into an interstitial position and moves into
the vacancy produced.
4. Crowded-ion mechanism—An extra atom in a chain of close-packed atoms
can displace several atoms in the line from their equilibrium position.
5. Diffusion along grain boundaries—Diffusion takes place in crystal
interfaces and dislocations.
2.5.1.3 Diffusion in porous solids
The solid may be porous in nature such as adsorbents or membrane and the
diffusion takes place either by virtue of concentration gradient or by hydrodynamic
flow behaviour because of pressure difference. In steady state diffusion of gases,
there are two types of diffusive movement, depending on the ratio of pore diameter
d, to the mean free path of the gas molecules, l.
If the ratio d/l > 20, molecular diffusion predominates
Ë NA Û
Ì yA2 Ü
È NA Ø È AB,eff t Ø
D P N NB
NA Ì A Ü
ÉÊ N N ÙÚ ÉÊ RTZ ÙÚ ln Ì NA Ü
(2.62)
Ì N N yA1 Ü
A B
Í A B Ý
If d/l < 0.2, the rate of diffusion is governed by the collisions of the gas molecules
within the pore walls and follows Knudsen’s law.
DK,A ( pA1 pA2 )
NA (2.63)
RTl
where
DK,A is the Knudsen diffusivity, cm2/s
l is the length of the pore, cm
pA is the partial pressure of diffusing substance, cmHg
Knudsen diffusivity can be determined by using an empirical relation,
1/2
È d Ø È 8 gc RT Ø
DK,A ÉÊ 3 ÙÚ É Q M Ù (2.64)
Ê A Ú
The mean free path l can be estimated by

1/2
È 3.2N Ø È RT Ø
M=É
Ê Pt ÙÚ ÉÊ 2Q gc M A ÙÚ
(2.65)
If 0.2 < d/l < 20, both molecular and Knudsen diffusion take place
Ë È NA Ø È DAB,eff Ø Û
Ì ÉÊ N N ÙÚ É1 D Ù yA2 Ü
È N A Ø È DAB,eff Pt Ø Ì A B Ê KA,eff Ú Ü
NA ln Ì Ü (2.66)
ÊÉ N A N B ÚÙ ÊÉ ZRT ÚÙ Ì È NA Ø È DAB,eff Ø Ü
É 1 Ù y
Ì ÊÉ N A N B ÚÙ Ê
A1 Ü
ÍÌ DKA,eff Ú ÝÜ
2.5.2 Unsteady State Diffusion

Since solids are not readily transported, as fluids, unsteady state diffusional
conditions arise more frequently in solids than in fluids. For unsteady state
diffusion, Fick’s second law is applied,
C Ë 2C 2 CA 2 CA Û
DAB Ì 2A Ü (2.67)
t ÍÌ x y 2 z 2 ÝÜ
WORKED EXAMPLES
1. Estimate the diffusivities of the following gas mixtures:
(a) Nitrogen—carbon dioxide, 1 Standard atm., 25ºC.
(b) Hydrogen chloride—air, 200 kN/m2, 25ºC.
Solution.
(a) System: N2 and CO2 at 1 Standard atm., 25°C
Diffusion 17
Let A denote nitrogen and B denote carbon dioxide

rA = 0.3798 nm, rB = 0.3941 nm
rAB = (0.3798 + 0.3941)/2 = 0.38695 nm
ÎF Þ ÎF Þ
Ï ß = 71.4, Ï ß = 195.2
Ð K àA Ð K àB
ÎF Þ
Ï ß = [71.4 195.2] = 118.056
Ð K àAB
KT 298
F AB = 2.52
118.056
È KT Ø
fÉ = 0.5 (from Fig. 2.1)
Ê F AB ÙÚ
ËÈ 1 Ø È 1 Ø Û ËÈ 1 Ø È 1 ØÛ
Ì ÉÊ M ÙÚ + ÉÊ M ÙÚ Ü =ÿ Ì ÉÊ 28 ÙÚ + ÉÊ 44 ÙÚ Ü = 0.242
Í A B Ý Í Ý
⎧⎪ ⎡⎛ 1 ⎞ ⎛ 1 ⎞ ⎤ ⎫⎪ 3/2 ⎡⎛ 1 ⎞ ⎛ 1 ⎞ ⎤
10− 4 ⎨1.084 − 0.249 ⎢⎜ ⎟+⎜ ⎟⎥ ⎬ T ⎢⎜ ⎟+⎜ ⎟⎥
⎪⎩ ⎣⎝ M A ⎠ ⎝ M B ⎠ ⎦ ⎪⎭ ⎣⎝ M A ⎠ ⎝ M B ⎠ ⎦
DAB =
⎛ KT ⎞
Pt ( rAB )2 f ⎜ ⎟
⎝ F AB ⎠
⎧⎪ ⎡⎛ 1 ⎞ ⎛ 1 ⎞ ⎤ ⎫⎪ 3/2 ⎡⎛ 1 ⎞ ⎛ 1 ⎞ ⎤
10− 4 ⎨1.084 − 0.249 ⎢⎜ ⎟+⎜ ⎟⎥ ⎬ T ⎢⎜ ⎟+⎜ ⎟⎥
⎪⎩ ⎣⎝ M A ⎠ ⎝ M B ⎠ ⎦ ⎪⎭ ⎣⎝ M A ⎠ ⎝ M B ⎠ ⎦
DAB =
⎛ KT ⎞
Pt ( rAB )2 f ⎜ ⎟
⎝ F AB ⎠
−4
= 10 {1.084 − (0.249 × 0.242)} × (298) × (0.242)
3/2
1.013 × 10 × (0.38695) × 0.5

5 2
DAB = 1.6805 × 10–5 m2/s Ans.

(b) System: HCl and Air at 200 kN/m2, 25°C
Let A denote HCl and B denote air
rA = 0.3339 nm, rB = 0.3711 nm
0.3339 + 0.3711
rAB = = 0.3525 nm
2
ÎF Þ ÎF Þ
Ï ß = 344.7, Ï ß = 78.6
Ð K àA Ð K àB
ÎF Þ
ÏK ß [344.7 78.6] 164.6
Ð àAB
È KT Ø 298
ÉÊ F ÙÚ = = 1.81
AB 164.6
È KT Ø
fÉ
Ê F AB ÙÚ = 0.62 (from Chart of Fig. 2.1)
ËÈ 1 Ø È 1 ØÛ ËÈ 1 Ø È 1 Ø Û
Ì ÉÊ M ÙÚ ÉÊ M ÙÚ Ü Ì ÉÊ 36.5 ÙÚ ÉÊ 29 ÙÚ Ü 0.249
Í A B Ý Í Ý
⎧⎪ ⎡ ⎛ 1 ⎞ ⎛ 1 ⎞ ⎤ ⎫⎪ 3/2 ⎡⎛ 1 ⎞ ⎛ 1 ⎞ ⎤
10− 4 ⎨1.084 − 0.249 ⎢ ⎜ ⎟+⎜ ⎟⎥ ⎬ T ⎢⎜ ⎟+⎜ ⎟⎥
⎪⎩ ⎣ ⎝ M A ⎠ ⎝ M B ⎠ ⎦ ⎪⎭ ⎣⎝ M A ⎠ ⎝ M B ⎠ ⎦
DAB =
⎛ KT ⎞
Pt ( rAB )2 f ⎜ ⎟
⎝ F AB ⎠
10− 4 {1.084 − (0.249 × 0.249)} × (298) 3/ 2 × (0.249)

DAB =
200 × 103 × (0.3525)2 × 0.62
DAB = 8.496 ´ 10–6 m2/s Ans.
2. Estimate the diffusivity of isoamyl alcohol (C5H12O) at infinite dilution in

water at 288 K.
Solution.
Viscosity of water = 1.145 cp,
VA (by Kopp’s law) = 5 ´ 0.0148 + 12 ´ 0.0037 + 1 ´ 0.0074
= 0.1258 m3/kmol
f (Association parameter for solvent-water) = 2.26
(117.3 × 10−18 )(K M B )0.5 T

DAB =
NVA0.6
(117.3 × 10 −18 )(2.26 × 18)0.5 × 288

=
(0.001145) × (0.1258)0.6
= 0.653 ´ 10–9 m2/s Ans.

Diffusion 19
3. The diffusivity of carbon tetrachloride, CCl4 through oxygen O2, was

determined in a steady state Arnold evaporating cell. The cell, having a cross
sectional area of 0.82 cm2, was operated at 273 K and 755 mmHg pressure.
The average length of the diffusion path was 17.1 cm. If 0.0208 cc of CCl4
was evaporated in 10 hours of steady state operation, what should be the value
of the diffusivity of CCl4 through oxygen?
Solution.
Vapour pressure of CCl4 at 273 K = 33 mm Hg
Density of liquid CCl4 = 1.59 g/cm3
Considering O2 to be non-diffusing and with T = 273 K, Pt = 755 mm Hg,
Z = 17.1 cm
0.0208 cc of CCl4 is evaporating in 10 hours.
0.0208 × 1.59
i.e. = 2.147 ´ 10–5 g mol/h
154 × 10
2.147 × 10 −5 × 10 −3
Flux NA = = 7.27 ´ 10–8 kmol/m2 s
3600 × 0.82 × 10−4
DAB Pt ⎡ ( P − pA2 ) ⎤
NA = ln ⎢ t ⎥
ZRT ⎣ ( Pt − pA1 ) ⎦
N A Z RT
DAB =
Ë P pA2 Û
Pt ln Ì t Ü
Í Pt pA1 Ý
7.27 108 17.1 102 8314 273

=
Ë 755 Û
Ì 1.013 105 0 Ü
Ë 755 5Û 760
Ì 760 1.013 10 Ü ln Ì 755 Ü
Í Ý Ì 1.013 105
33
1.013 105 Ü
ÌÍ 760 760 ÜÝ
DAB = 6.355 ´ 10–6 m2/s Ans.
4. A crystal of copper sulphate CuSO4.5H2O falls through a large tank of pure

water at 20ºC. Estimate the rate at which the crystal dissolves by calculating
the flux of CuSO4 from the crystal surface to the bulk solution. Molecular
diffusion occurs through a film of water uniformly 0.0305 mm thick
surrounding the crystal. At the inner side of the film, adjacent to the crystal
surface, the concentration of CuSO4 is 0.0229 mole fraction CuSO4 (solution
density = 1193 kg/m3). The outer surface of the film is pure water. The
diffusivity of CuSO4 is 7.29 ´ 10–10 m2/s. Temperature = 293 K. Molecular
weight of CuSO4= 160.
Solution.
Z = 0.0305 ´ 10–3 m
(0.0229 × 160) + (0.9771 × 18)
Mav = = 21.2518
1
È SØ 1193
ÉÊ M ÙÚ = = 58.136
21.2518
For pure water,
⎛ S ⎞ 1000
⎜ ⎟ = 18 55.56
⎝ M ⎠2
⎛ S ⎞ 58.136 + 55.56
⎜ ⎟ = = 56.848
⎝ M ⎠av 2
DAB = 7.29 ´ 10–10 m2/s
Assuming water to be non-diffusing
È SØ Ë1 xA2 Û
DAB É Ù ln Ì
Ê M Ú av Í 1 xA1 ÜÝ
NA =
Z
Ë 7.29 10 10 Û Ë 1 0 Û
NA = Ì 3 Ü
56.848 ln Ì Ü
ÍÌ 0.0305 10 ÝÜ Í 1 0.0229 Ý
NA = 3.15 ´ 10–5 kmol/m2 s. Ans.
5. Alcohol vapour is diffusing through a layer of water vapour under equimolar

counter diffusion at 35ºC and 1 atm. pressure. The molal concentration of
alcohol on the two sides of the gas film (water vapour) 0.3 mm thick are 80%
and 10% respectively. Assuming the diffusivity of alcohol–water vapour to be
0.18 cm2/s, (i) calculate the rate of diffusion of alcohol and water vapour in
kg/hr through an area of 100 cm2 (ii) if the water vapour layer is stagnant,
estimate the rate of diffusion of alcohol vapour.
Solution.
(i) Equimolar counter diffusion
T = (273 + 35) = 308 K, Pt = 1 atm
Z = 0.3 mm, DAB = 0.18 ´ 10–4 m2/s
(Position 1) moles mol fraction
Air 80 0.8
Water 20 0.2
(Position 2) moles mol fraction
Air 10 0.1
Water 90 0.9
Diffusion 21
DAB
NA = × [ pA1 − pA2 ]
ZRT
DAB × Pt
NA = [ yA1 − yA2 ]
ZRT
Ë 0.18 10 4 1.013 10 5 Û
NA = Ì 3 Ü [0.8 0.1]
ÍÌ 0.3 10 8314 308 ÜÝ
NA = 1.66 ´ 10–3 kmol/m2 s
Rate = NA ´ 100 ´ 10–4 ´ 3600 ´ 46 kg/h
= 1.66 ´ 10–3 ´ 100 ´ 10–4 ´ 3600 ´ 46
= 2.749 kg/h Ans.
(ii) Diffusion through a stagnant film
DAB × Pt Ë1 yA2 Û
NA = ln Ì Ü
ZRT Í 1 yA1 Ý
Ë 0.18 10 4 1.013 10 5 Û Ë 1 0.1 Û

NA = Ì 3 Ü ln Ì Ü
ÍÌ 0.3 10 8314 304 ÝÜ Í 1 0.8 Ý
NA = 3.5706 ´ 10–3 kmol/m2 s
Rate = NA ´ 100 ´ 10–4 ´ 3600 ´ 46 kg/h
= 3.5706 ´ 10–3 ´ 100 ´ 10–4 ´ 3600 ´ 46
= 5.9129 kg/h
= 1.6425 ´ 10–3 kg/s. Ans.
6. Hydrogen gas at 1 standard atm. and 25ºC flows through a pipe made
of unvulcanised neoprene rubber with ID and OD of 25 and 50 mm
respectively. If the concentration of hydrogen at the inner surface of the pipe is
2.37 ´ 10–3 kmol hydrogen/m3 and the diffusivity of hydrogen gas through the
rubber is 1.8 ´ 10–6 cm2/s, estimate the rate of loss of hydrogen by diffusion
through a pipe of 2 m length. The outside air may be assumed to be free from
hydrogen.
Solution.
Given: T = 298 K, Pt = 1 atm, ID = 25 mm, OD = 50 mm,
C1 = 2.37 ´ 10–3 kmol/m3, DAB = 1.8 ´ 10–6 cm2/s, L = 2 m
This is the case of diffusion through polymers, so
DA S A [ pA1 − pA2 ]
VA =
Z
50 25
Z= = 12.5 mm
2
As per Eq. (2.60), we have

D A (CA1 CA2 )
VA =
Z
= 1.8 ´ 10–10 (2.37 ´ 10–3 – 0)/12.5 ´ 10–3
= 0.3413 ´ 10–10 kmol/m2 s
Sav = 2Q L (OD − ID)

⎡ OD ⎤
2 ln ⎢
⎣ ID ⎥⎦
2Q × 2 × 25 × 10−3
= = 0.2266 m2
⎛ 50 ⎞
2 ln ⎜ ⎟
⎝ 25 ⎠
Rate = VA ´ Sav
= 0.3413 ´ 10–10 ´ 0.2266
= 7.734 ´ 10–12 kmol/s Ans.
7. Ammonia diffuses through nitrogen gas under equimolal counter diffusion at
a total pressure of 1.013 ´ 105 Pa and at a temperature of 298 K. The diffusion
path is 0.15 m. The partial pressure of ammonia at one point is 1.5 ´ 104 Pa
and at the other point is 5 ´ 103 Pa. Diffusivity under the given condition is
2.3 ´ 10–5 m2/s. Calculate the flux of ammonia.
Solution.
Equimolal counter diffusion
Pt = 1.013 ´ 105 Pa, T = 298 K, Z = 0.15 m, pA1 = 1.5 ´ 104 Pa,
pA2 = 5 ´ 103 Pa, DAB = 2.3 ´ 10–5 m2/s
DAB
NA = ´ [pA1 – pA2]
ZRT
2.3 × 10 −5 × [1.5 − 0.5] × 104

NA =
0.15 × 8314 × 298
NA = 6.19 ´ 10–7 kmol/m2 s Ans.
8. An ethanol–water solution is in contact at 20ºC with an organic liquid of film

thickness 0.4 cm in which water is insoluble. The concentration of ethanol at
the interface is 6.8 wt% and at the other side of film it is 10.8 wt%. The
densities are 0.9881 g/cc and 0.9728 g/cc respectively for 6.8 wt% and 10.8
wt% ethanol solutions. Diffusivity of ethanol is 0.74 ´ 10–5 cm2/s. Calculate the
steady state flux in kmol/m2 s.
Diffusion 23
Solution.
(Position 1) weight moles mol fraction
Ethanol 6.80 0.1478 0.02775
Water 93.20 5.18 0.9722
Ethanol 10.8 0.235 0.0453
Water 89.20 4.96 0.9547
(0.02775 46) (0.9722 18)
Mav (position 1) = = 18.776
1
(0.0453 46) (0.9547 18)
Mav (position 2) = = 19.268
1
È SØ 0.9881 103
ÉÊ ÙÚ = = 52.626
M 1 18.776
È SØ 972.8
ÉÊ M ÙÚ = 19.268 50.488
2
È SØ 52.626 + 50.488
ÉÊ M ÙÚ = = 51.557
av 2
Assuming the organic liquids is stagnant
È SØ Ë1 xA2 Û
DAB É Ù ln Ì
Ê M Ú av Í 1 xA1 ÜÝ
NA =
Z
0.74 105 104 Ë1 0.02775 Û

= 2
51.557 ´ ln Ì Ü
0.4 10 Í 1 0.0453 Ý
NA = 1.737 ´ 10–5 kmol/m2 s. Ans.
9. Calculate the rate of diffusion of acetic acid (A) across a film of non-
diffusing water (B) solution 2 mm thick at 17ºC, when the concentrations (by
weight) on opposite sides of the film are 10% and 4% acid. The diffusivity of
acetic acid in the solution is 0.95 ´ 10–9 m2/s. Density of 10% and 4% acid
(by weight) are 1013 kg/m3 and 1004 kg/m3 respectively.
Solution.
Z = 2 mm, T = 290 K, Basis: 100 kg of mixture
(Position 1) weight, kg kmol mole fraction
CH3COOH 10 0.167 0.0323
H2O 90 5 0.9677
(Position 2) weight, kg kmol mole fraction

CH3COOH 4 0.067 0.0124
H2O 96 5.33 0.9876
(0.0323 60) (0.9677 18)

Mav (position 1) = = 19.3566
1
(0.0124 60) (0.9876 18)
Mav (position 2) = = 18.5208
1
È SØ 1013
ÉÊ M ÙÚ = 52.3335
1 19.3566
È SØ 1004
ÉÊ M ÙÚ = 54.209
2 18.5208
È SØ 52.3335 54.209
ÉÊ M ÙÚ = 53.2714
av 2
Assuming water to be non-diffusing
DAB È S Ø Ë 1 xA2 Û
NA = ÉÊ M ÙÚ ln Ì 1 x Ü
Z av Í A1 Ý
0.95 10 9 Ë1 0.0124 Û
= 3
´ 53.2714 ´ ln Ì Ü
2 10 Í1 0.0323 Ý
NA = 0.515 ´ 10–6 kmol/m2 s Ans.

10. Carbon dioxide and oxygen experience equimolal counter diffusion in a
circular tube whose length and diameter are 1 m and 50 mm respectively. The
system is at a total pressure of 10 atm. and a temperature of 25ºC. The ends
of the tube are connected to large chambers in which the species
concentrations are maintained at fixed values. The partial pressure of CO2 at
one end is 190 mm Hg while at the other end is 95 mm Hg. (i) Estimate the
rate of mass transfer. (ii) Find the partial pressure of CO2 at 0.75 m from the
end where the partial pressure is 190 mm Hg. Diffusivity under given
condition is 2.1 ´ 10–5 m2/s.
Solution.
Diffusivity of CO2 – O2 = 2.1 ´ 10–5 m2/s.
L = 1 m, diameter = 50 mm, Pt = 10 atm, T = 298 K,
pA1 = 190 mm Hg, pA2 = 95 mm Hg, DAB = 2.1 ´ 10–5 m2/s
Diffusion 25
DAB [ pA1 pA2 ]

(i) NA =
ZRT
PoVo 760 22.414

R = 62.4 (mm Hg)(m3)/(K)(kmol)
To 273
2.1 105
NA = (190 95)
1 62.4 298
NA = 1.073 ´ 10–7 kmol/m2 s.

Rate of mass transfer = 1.073 ´ 10–7 ´ p r2
2
Ë 50 103 Û
= 1.073 ´ 10–7 ´ p Ì Ü
ÍÌ 2 ÝÜ
= 2.107 ´ 10–10 kmol/s. Ans.
yA yA1 Z Z1
(ii) yA2 yA1 Z 2 Z1
pA pA1 Z Z1 Ë pA Û
pA2 pA1 Z 2 Z1 Ì' y Ü
Í pt Ý
pA 190 0.75 0
pA 118.75 mm Hg Ans.
95 190 1 0
11. In an oxygen–nitrogen gas mixture at 1 atm. 25ºC, the concentrations
of oxygen at two planes 0.2 cm apart are 10% and 20% (by volume)
respectively. Calculate the flux of oxygen when (i) nitrogen is non-diffusing
and (ii) there is equimolar counter diffusion. Diffusivity of oxygen in nitrogen
is 0.215 cm2/s.
Solution.
Pt = 1 atm., T = 298 K, Z = 0.2 cm, yA1 = 0.2, yA2 = 0.1, DAB = 0.215 cm2/s
(i) When N2 is non-diffusing,
DAB Pt Ë1 yA2 Û
NA = ln Ì Ü
ZRT Í 1 yA1 Ý
0.215 10 4 1.013 105 Ë 1 0.1 Û

NA = ln Ì Ü
0.2 10 2 8314 298 Í1 0.2 Ý
NA = 5.18 ´ 10–5 kmol/m2 s Ans.
(ii) For equimolar counter diffusion

DAB Pt
NA = [yA1 – yA2]
ZRT
0.215 10 4 1.013 105

NA = [0.2 – 0.1]
0.2 10 2 8314 298
NA = 4.395 ´ 10–5 kmol/m2 s Ans.
12. Ammonia is diffusing through an inert air film 2 mm thick at a temperature
of 20ºC and a pressure of 1 atm. The concentration of ammonia is 10% by
volume on one side of the film and zero on the other side. Determine the mass
flux. Estimate the effect on the rate of diffusion if the pressure is increased to
10 atm. The diffusivity of NH3 in air at 20°C and 1 atm. is 0.185 cm2/s.
Solution.
Pt = 1 atm, T = 293 K, Z = 2 mm, yA1 = 0.1, yA2 = 0, DAB = 0.185 cm2/s
Assuming air to be stagnant and non-diffusing,
DAB Pt Ë1 yA2 Û
NA = ln Ì Ü
ZRT Í 1 yA1 Ý
0.185 10 4 1.013 10 5 Ë 10 Û

NA = 3
ln Ì Ü
2 10 8314 293 Í 1 0.1 Ý
NA = 4.05 ´ 10 –5
kmol/m2 s
Mass flux = NA ´ Molecular weight
= 4.05 ´ 10–5 ´ 17 = 6.89 ´ 10–4 kg/m2 s
When pressure is increased to 10 atm.,
1
For gases, DAB µ
Pt
( DAB )1 ( Pt )2
=
( DAB )2 ( Pt )1
0.185 È 10 Ø
= É Ù (DAB)2 = 0.0185 cm2/s
( DAB )2 Ê 1 Ú
DAB Pt Ë1 yA2 Û
NA = ln Ì Ü
ZRT Í 1 yA1 Ý
0.0185 10 4 105 10 1.013 Ë 1 0 Û

NA = ln Ì Ü
3
2 10 8314 293 Í1 0.1 Ý
NA = 4.05 ´ 10–5 kmol/m2 s.
So, rate of diffusion remains same on increasing the pressure. Ans.
Diffusion 27
13. Calculate the rate of diffusion of acetic acid (A) across a film of non-diffusing
water (B) solution 2 mm thick at 17ºC, when the concentrations on the
opposite sides of the film are 9% and 3% acid (by weight). The diffusivity of
acetic acid in the solution is 0.95 ´ 10–9 m2/s. Density of 9% and 3% by weight
acid are 1012 kg/m3 and 1003 kg/m3 respectively.
Z = 2 mm, T = 290°C, DAB = 0.95 ´ 10–9 m2/s
Solution.
CH3COOH 9 0.15 0.0288
H2O 91 5.056 0.9712
CH3COOH 3 0.05 0.0092
H2O 97 5.389 0.9908
(0.0288 60) (0.9712 18)

Mav (Position 1) = = 19.2096
1
(0.0092 60) (0.9908 18)
Mav (Position 2) = = 18.3864
1
È SØ 1012
ÉÊ M ÙÚ = 52.682
1 19.2096
È SØ 1003
ÉÊ M ÙÚ = = 54.699
2 18.3364
È SØ 52.682 + 54.699
ÉÊ M ÙÚ = = 53.691
av 2
Assuming water to be stagnant

È SØ
DAB É Ù
Ê M Ú av Ë 1 xA2 Û
NA = ln Ì Ü
Z Í 1 xA1 Ý
0.95 10 9 Ë1 0.0092 Û
= × 53.691 ´ ln Ì Ü
2 10 3 Í 1 0.0288 Ý
NA = 5.0956 ´ 10–7 kmol/m2 s Ans.
14. In an oxygen-nitrogen gas mixture at 1 atm., 25°C, the concentrations of
oxygen at two planes 0.2 cm apart are 10% and 20% volume respectively.
Calculate the rate of diffusion of oxygen expressed as g mol/cm2 s for the case
where
(i) the nitrogen is non-diffusing.
(ii) there is equimolar counter diffusion of the two gases.
Diffusivity of oxygen in nitrogen at 25°C and 1 atm. is 0.206 cm2/s.
Solution.
The value of gas constant is 82.06 cm3 atm./(g mol) (K).
Pt = 1 atm., T = 293 K, Z = 2 cm, yA1 = 0.2, yA2 = 0.1, DAB = 0.206 cm2/s
(For ideal gases, volume fraction = mole fraction)
(i) N2 is non-diffusing
DAB Pt Ë1 yA2 Û
NA = ln Ì Ü
ZRT Í 1 yA1 Ý
0.206 10 4 1.013 105 Ë 1 0.1 Û

NA = ln Ì Ü
0.2 10 2 8314 293 Í1 0.2 Ý
NA = 4.96 ´ 10–5 kmol/m2 s.
(ii) In equimolar diffusion,
DAB Pt
NA = [yA1 – yA2]
ZRT
0.206 10 4 1.013 105

NA = [0.2 – 0.1]
0.2 10 2 8314 293
NA = 4.283 ´ 10–5 kmol/m2 s. Ans.
15. Benzene is stored in a tank of diameter 10 m and open at the top. A stagnant
air film 10 mm thick is covering the surface liquid beyond which benzene is
absent. If the atmospheric temperature is 25°C and the corresponding vapour
pressure is 150 mm Hg, estimate the rate of loss of benzene. Diffusivity of
benzene is 0.02 m2/h. Total pressure is 1.0 atm.
Solution.
Pt = 1 atm., T = 298 K, pA1 = 150 mm Hg = 0.2 ´ 105 N/m2, pA2 = 0, DAB = 0.02 m2/h
Assuming air layer to be stagnant
DAB Pt Ë Pt pA2 Û
NA = ln Ì Ü
ZRT Í Pt pA1 Ý
0.02 × 1.013 × 105 Ë 1.013 105 0 Û

= ln Ì Ü
3600 × 10 −3 × 10 × 8314 × 298 ÌÍ1.013 10 0.2 10 ÝÜ
5 5
= 4.996 ´ 10–6 kmol/m2 s.

Rate = 4.996 ´ 10–6 ´ p (10/2)2 = 3.925 ´ 10–4 kmol/s Ans.
16. Alcohol vapour is being absorbed from a mixture of alcohol vapour and water
vapour by means of a nonvolatile solvent in which alcohol is soluble but water
is not. The temperature is 97°C and the total pressure is 760 mm Hg. The
Diffusion 29
alcohol vapour can be considered to be diffusing through a film of alcohol–

water–vapour mixture 0.1 mm thick. The mole % of alcohol in the vapour at
the outside of the film is 80%, and that on the inside, next to the solvent is
10%. The diffusivity of alcohol–water vapour mixtures at 25°C and 1 atm. is
0.15 cm2/s. Calculate the rate of diffusion of alcohol vapour in kg per hour if
the area of the film is 10 m2.
Solution.
Pt = 760 mm Hg, T = 370 K, Z = 0.1 mm, yA1 = 0.8, yA2 = 0.1,
DAB = 0.15 ´ 10–4 m2/s at 25°C and 1 atm., area of film = 10 m2
For gases,
DAB µ T 3/2
3/2
È DAB1 Ø È T1 Ø
ÉÊ D ÙÚ = ÉÊ T ÙÚ
AB2 2
Ë 0.15 10 4 Û È 298 Ø
3/2
Ì Ü = É Ù
ÌÍ DAB2 ÜÝ Ê 370 Ú
DAB2 (at 97°C) = 2.075 ´ 10–5 m2/s

Water is insoluble in solvent and thus non-diffusing
DAB Pt Ë1 yA2 Û
NA = ln Ì Ü
ZRT Í 1 yA1 Ý
2.075 105 1.013 105 Ë 1 0.1 Û

NA = 3
ln Ì Ü
0.1 10 8314 370 Í1 0.8 Ý
NA = 1.0278 ´ 10–2 kmol/m2 s.
Rate = 1.0278 ´ 10–2 ´ 10 ´ 3600 ´ 46 = 1.70 ´ 10–4 kg/hr.
of 20°C and a pressure of 1 atm. The concentration of ammonia is 10% by
volume on one side of the film and zero on the other side. DAB at 0°C and 1
atm. 0.198 cm2/s. Estimate rate of diffusion if the temperature is 20°C and
pressure is raised to 5 atm.
Solution.
Pt = 1 atm., T = 293 K, Z = 2 mm, yA1 = 0.1, yA2 = 0,
DAB = 0.198 cm2/s at 0°C and 1 atm.
(Volume% = mole%, for ideal gases)
3/2
È DAB1 Ø È T1 Ø
ÉÊ D ÙÚ = ÉÊ T ÙÚ
AB2 2
Ë 0.198 10 4 Û È 273 Ø 3/2

Ì Ü = É
ÍÌ DAB2 ÝÜ Ê 293 ÙÚ
DAB2 = 2.2015 ´ 10–5 m2/s

Assuming air film to be stagnant
DAB Pt Ë1 yA2 Û
NA = ln Ì Ü
ZRT Í 1 yA1 Ý
2.2015 105 1.013 105 Ë 1 0 Û

NA =
2 10 3 8314 293 Ì Ü
Í1 0.1 Ý
NA = 4.823 ´ 10–5 kmol/m2 s.
Now pressure is increased to 5 atm.
È T 3/2 Ø
DAB É Ù
Ê Pt Ú
3/2
DAB1 È T1 Ø È P2 Ø
DAB2 = ÉÊ T2 ÙÚ ÉÊ P ÙÚ
1
0.198 104 È 273 Ø

3/2
È 1Ø
= É Ù É Ù
DAB2 Ê 293 Ú Ê 5Ú
3/2
4 È 293 Ø È 1Ø
DAB2 = 0.198 10 É É Ù
Ê 273 ÙÚ Ê 5Ú
DAB2 = 4.403 ´ 10–6 m2/s
DAB Pt Ë1 yA2 Û
NA = ln Ì Ü
ZRT Í 1 yA1 Ý
4.403 106 5 1.013 105 Ë 1 0 Û

NA = Ì Ü
2 103 8314 293 Í1 0.1 Ý
NA = 4.823 ´ 10–5 kmol/m2 s.
So, there is no change in flux when pressure is changed. Ans.
(NA)new = (NA)initial, where P gets cancelled with the Pt term in the equation in
numerator.
18. An open bowl 0.2 m in diameter contains water at 350 K evaporating into the
atmosphere. If the currents are sufficiently strong to remove the water vapour
as it is formed and if the resistances to its mass transfer in air is equivalent to
Diffusion 31
that of a 2 mm layer for condition of molecular diffusion, what will be the rate
of evaporation? Diffusivity is 0.2 cm2/s, vapour pressure is 41.8 kN/m2.
Solution.
Pt = 1 atm. T = 350 K, Z = 2 mm, PA1 = 0.1, PA2 = 0 (pure air), DAB = 0.2 cm2/s
Assuming air to be non-diffusing and a stagnant layer of air of 2 mm
DAB Pt Ë P pA2 Û
NA = ln Ì t Ü
ZRT Í Pt pA1 Ý
0.2 10 4 1.013 105 Ë 101.3 0 Û

= 3
ln Ì Ü
2 10 8314 350 Í101.3 41.8 Ý
= 1.852 ´ 10–4 kmol/m2 s.

Rate of evaporation = NA ´ area
= 1.852 ´ 10–4 ´ p ´ (0.2/2)2
= 5.82 ´ 10–6 kmol/s
= 5.82 ´ 10–6 ´ 18
= 1.048 ´ 10–4 kg/s Ans.
19. In an experimental determination of diffusivity of toluene in air, Stefan’s

method is being used. A vertical glass tube 3 mm in diameter is filled with
liquid toluene to a depth of 20 mm from the top open end. After 275 hrs at
39.4ºC and a total pressure of 1 atm., the level has dropped to 80 mm from
the top. Neglecting counter diffusion of air to replace the liquid, estimate the
diffusivity.
Solution.
Density of liquid toluene = 850 kg/m3
Vapour pressure of toluene at 39.4ºC = 7.64 kN/m2
Gas law constant, R = 8314 Nm/kmol. K
T = 312.4 K, t = 275 hrs, Pt = 1 atm., Zto = 20 ´ 10–3 m, Zt = 80 ´ 10–3 m
Air is assumed to be stagnant or non-diffusing
rL = 850 kg/m3, pA = 7.64 kN/m2
SA,L 850
CA,L = = 9.24 kmol/m3
ML 92
Ë 1.013 10 5 Û
CA = Pt /RT = Ì Ü = 0.039 kmol/m3
Ì 8314 312.4 Ü
Í Ý
pA 7.64
xA1 = 0.0754
Pt 101.3
xB1 = 1 – 0.0754 = 0.9246
xA2 = 0, xB2 = 1
xB2 xB1 (1 0.9246)

xB,M = = 0.9618
Èx Ø È 1 Ø
ln É B2 Ù ln É
Ê xB1 Ú Ê 0.9246 ÙÚ
t X B,M CA,L ( Z t Z t 0 )
=
( Zt Zt 0 ) 2CDAB ( x A1 xA2 )
xB,M CA,L ( Zt2 Zt20 )

DAB =
2 C ( xA1 x A2 ) t
0.9613 11.81 [(80 10 3 )2 (20 10 3 )2 ]

DAB =
275 3600 2 0.039 (0.0754 0)
DAB = 0.916 ´ 10–5 m2/s. Ans.
20. A mixture of benzene and toluene is distilled in distillation unit. At one plane
in the vertical tube where both benzene and toluene are condensing the vapour
contains 85.3 mole% benzene and the adjacent liquid film contains 70 mole %
benzene. The temperature is 360 K. Gas layer is 0.254 cm thick. The molal
latent heat of vaporisation of both benzene and toluene are very close to each
other. Vapour pressure of toluene is 368 mm Hg at 360 K. The system is
assumed to behave ideal in liquid phase. Calculate the rate of interchange of
benzene and toluene between vapour and liquid at atmospheric pressure. The
diffusion coefficient is 0.0506 ´ 10–4 m2/s.
Solution.
This is a case of equimolal counter diffusion as the latent heat of vaporisation
are very close to each other.
(2) (1)
0.853 B 0.7 B
0.147 T 0.3 T
Vapour Liquid
0.254 cm
DAB
NA = [pA1 – pA2]
ZRT
The partial pressure, pTol,1 = xTol ´ Vapour pressureTol
= 0.3 ´ 368/760 = 0.145 atm
The partial pressure of toluene in vapour phase, pTol,2
= Mole fraction of toluene ´ Total pressure
Diffusion 33
= 0.147 atm
DBA
NB = [ pB1 – pB2]
ZRT
0.0506 (0.145 0.147)
=
0.254 82.06 360
= –1.331 ´ 10–8 g mol/cm2 s Ans.
The negative sign indicates that the toluene is getting transferred from gas
phase to liquid phase. (Hence, the transfer of benzene is from liquid to gas
phase.)
21. A vertical glass tube 3 mm in diameter is filled with toluene to a depth of
2 cm from the top open end. After 275 hours of operation at 303 K and at a
total pressure of 1 atm., the level dropped to 7.75 cm from the top. The density
of the liquid is 820 kg/m3 and its vapour pressure is at 57 mm Hg under the
given operating conditions. Neglecting the counter diffusion of air to replace
the liquid, calculate the diffusivity of toluene in air.
Solution.
This is a case of pseudo steady state diffusion as there is a significant change
in the length of diffusion path.
Zt0 = 0.02 m
Zt = 0.0775 m
t = 275 hrs.
Vapour pressure = 57 mm Hg
Molal density of liquid,
CAL = 820/92 = 8.913 kmol/m3
xA1 = 57/760 = 0.075, xB1 = 1 – 0.075 = 0.925
xA2 = 0.0; xB2 = 1.0
[xB2 xB1 ] [1 0.925]
= (xB )lm = = = 0.962
Èx Ø È 1 Ø
ln É B2 Ù ln É
Ê xB1 Ú Ê 0.9250 ÙÚ
P 1.0132 105
= C= = = 0.04022 kmol/m 3
RT 8314 303
CAL ( xB )lm ( Z t2 Z t20 )

DAB =
C ( xA1 xA2 ) 2t
8.913 0.962 (0.07752 0.02 2 )

=
0.04022 (0.075 0.0) 2 (275 3600)
= 0.805 ´ 10–5 m2/s Ans.
22. The diffusivity of the vapour of CCl4 is determined by Winklemann method

in which the level of liquid contained in a narrow tube maintained at a constant
temperature of 321 K is continuously measured. At the top of the tube air is
flowing and the partial pressure of the vapour at the top of the tube may be
taken as zero at any instant. Assuming molecular mass transport, estimate the
diffusivity of CCl4 in air. Vapour pressure of CCl4 282 mm Hg and density of
CCl4 is 1540 kg/m3.
The variation in liquid level with respect to time is given below:
Time t ,
0 26 185 456 1336 1958 2810 3829 4822 6385
min
Liquid
level, 0 0.25 1.29 2.32 4.39 5.47 6.70 7.38 9.03 10.48
( Z –Z t 0 ) cm
Compute t/(Zt – Zt0) and plot it against time, t
Time t ,
0 26 185 456 1336 1958 2810 3829 4822 6385
min
Liquid
level, 0 0.25 1.29 2.32 4.39 5.47 6.70 7.38 9.03 10.48
( Z t Zt 0 ) cm
t/(Zt Zt 0 ) 104 143.5 190.5 304 357.5 418.5 514 533.5 610
Solution.
Slope = 51.4385 ´ 60 = 3086 s–1/cm2
CA,L (xB )lm

3086 =
2DABC (xA1 xA2 )
1540
CA, L = = 10 kmol/m 3
154
È P Ø 1
C= É = = 3.8 10 5 g mol/cm 3
Ê RT ÙÚ 82.06 321
[xB2 xB1 ] [1 0.629]

(xB)lm = = = 0.8
È x B2 Ø È 1 Ø
ln É ln É
Ê x B1 ÙÚ Ê 0.629 ÙÚ
10 0.8
DAB = ´ 104 ´ 2 ´ 3.8 ´ 10–2 ´ (0.371 – 0) = 9.2 ´ 10–6 m2/s
3086
Ans.
Diffusion 35
800.00
600.00
t/(Zt – Zt0), min/cm
400.00
200.00
0.00
0.00 4.00 8.00 12.00
(Zt – Zt0), cm
Fig. 2.2 Example 22.
23. There are two bulbs connected by a straight tube 0.001 m in diameter and
0.15 m in length. Initially the bulb at end ‘1’ contains nitrogen and the bulb
at end ‘2’ contains hydrogen. The pressure and temperature are maintained
constant at 25°C and 1 standard atm. At a certain time after allowing the
diffusion to occur between the two bulbs, the nitrogen content of the gas at end
‘1’ of the tube is 80 mole % and at the other end is 25 mole %. If the diffusion
coefficient is 0.784 cm2/s, determine the rates and direction of transfer of
hydrogen and nitrogen.
Solution.
It is a case of equimolal counter diffusion as the tube is perfectly sealed to two
bulbs at the end and the pressure throughout is constant.
Q 22 (0.001) 2
Cross-sectional area of tube = D2 = = 7.85 ´ 10–7 m2
4 74
P 1.013 10 5
C= 0.0409 kmol/m 3
RT (8314)(298)
xA1 = 0.8 and xA2 = 0.25

Area DAB C [ xA1 xA2 ]

Rate of transfer = Area ´ NA =
Z
7.85 107 0.78 10 4 0.0409 (0.8 0.25)

=
0.15
= 0.923 ´ 10 kmol/s
–11
Ans.
24. Estimate the diffusivity of methanol in carbon tetrachloride at 15°C.

Solution.
(117.3 10 18 )(K M B )0.5 T
DAB =
N vA0.6
MB = Molecular weight of methanol 32
K = 1.9
vA = solute volume at normal BP, m3/kmol
vA for CCl4 = [14.8 + (4 ´ 24.6)] ´ 10–3
= 0.1132 m3/kmol
µ = 0.6 cP = 0.006 P = 0.0006 kg/m s
(117.3 10 18 )(1.9 32)0.5 (288)
DAB =
(0.0006)(0.1132)0.6
= 1.623 ´ 10–9 m2/s Ans.
25. Estimate the diffusivity of methanol in water at 15°C.

Solution.
MB = 18,f = 2.26, T = 288, µ = 0.001 kg/m × s
vA for C2H5OH = [(2 ´ 14.8) + (6 ´ 3.7) + 7.4] ´ 10–3
= 0.0592 m3/kmol
(117.3 10 18 )(2.26 18)0.5 (288)
DAB =
(0.001)(0.0592)0.6
= 1.175 ´ 10–9 m2/s Ans.
26. An unglazed porcelain plate 5 mm thick has an average pore diameter of

0.2 mm. Pure oxygen gas at 20 mm Hg (abs) 373 K on one side of the plate
passes through at a rate of 0.093 cc (20 mm Hg, 373 K)/cm2 s. When the
pressure on the downstream side was so low as to be considered negligible.
Estimate the rate of passage of Hydrogen at 298 K and 10 mm Hg abs. with
negligible downstream pressure.
Diffusion 37
Solution.
Viscosity of oxygen = 0.02 cp = 20 ´ 10–6 Ns/m2
Total pressure = 20 mmHg = 20 ´ 133.3 = 2666 N/m2
Molecular weight of oxygen = 32
Then
0.5
3.2 N Ë RT Û
M Ì Ü
Pt Í 2Q gc M Ý
0.5
3.2 20 106 Ë 8314 373 Û
Ì Ü
2666 Í 2 Q 1 32 Ý
2.98 106 m
Pore diameter d = 0.2 mm = 0.2 ´ 10–6 m

Therefore,
d 0.2 10 6
0.067
M 2.98 10 6
Hence, Knudsen diffusion occurs.
Now,
NA = 0.093 cc (20 mm Hg, 373 K)/cm2 s
0.093 20 273
1.79 10 3 cm 3 /cm 2 s
760 373
1.79 10 3
7.99 10 8 g mol/cm 2 s 7.99 107 kmol/m 2 s
22414
0.5
Ë d Û Ë 8 gc RT Û
DKA Ì3Ü Ì QM Ü
Í ÝÍ A Ý
Ë 0.2 106 Û Ë 8 1 8314 373 Û

0.5
Ì ÜÌ Ü
ÌÍ 3 ÜÝ Í Q 32 Ý
33.11 106 m 2 /s
DK,A Ë pA1 pA2 Û

NA
RTl ÌÍ RTl Ü
Ý
Ë 2666 0 Û
7.99 107 33.11 10 6 Ì Ü
Í 8314 373 l Ý
Therefore,
l = 0.0356 m
For the diffusion with Hydrogen, viscosity is 0.0085 cp, pressure is

1333 N/m2, molecular weight is 2 and temperature is 298 K.
Then
0.5
3.2 N Ë RT Û
M Ì Ü
Pt Í 2Q g c M Ý
3.2 8.5 106 Ë 8314 298 Û

0.5
Ì Ü
1333 Í2 Q 1 2Ý
9.06 106 m
Proe diameter d = 0.2 mm = 0.2 ´ 10–6 m
Therefore,
d 0.2 106
0.022
M 9.06 106
Hence, Knudsen diffusion occurs.
Now,
Ë 0.2 10 6 Û Ë 8 1 8314 298 Û 0.5

[ DK,A ]new (Hydrogen) Ì ÜÌ Ü
ÍÌ 3 ÝÜ Í Q 2 Ý
1.184 10 4 m 2 /s
DK,A
NA ( pA1 pA2 )
RTl
1.184 10 4
(1333 0)
8314 298 0.0356
1.789 10 6 kmol/m 2 s Ans.
EXERCISES
Note: Any missing data may be taken from literature.
1. Estimate the diffusivities of the following gas mixtures:

(i) Acetone–air at STP
(ii) Toluene–air, 1 Standard atm., 30ºC.
(iii) Aniline–air, STP.
(Ans: (i) 9.2838 ´ 10–6 m2/s (ii) 8.3186 ´ 10–6 m2/s (iii) 6.8596 ´ 10–6 m2/s)
2. Estimate the diffusivity of ethanol in water at 10ºC.
(Ans: 1.008 ´ 10–9 m2/s)
Diffusion 39
3. Ethanol is diffusing through a layer of water of thickness 3 mm at 20°C.

Diffusivity of alcohol in water is 0.52 ´ 10–9 m2/s. The concentrations on
opposite sides of water film are 4% and 10% (by weight) of alcohol
respectively are 0.99 and 0.98 g/cm3. Assuming that water film is stagnant,
estimate (i) the flux of alcohol and (ii) concentration of alcohol in the middle
of water film.
(Ans: (i) 2.432 ´ 10–7 kmol/m2 s (ii) 0.029 (mole fraction))
4. Through the accidental opening of a valve, water has been spilled on the
floor of an industrial plant in a remote, difficult to reach area. It is desired
to estimate the time required to evaporate the water into the surrounding
quiescent air. The water layer is 1 mm thick and may be assumed to remain
at a constant temperature of 24°C. The air is also at 24°C and 1 atm pressure
with an absolute humidity of 0.002 kg water vapour/kg of dry air.
The evaporation is assumed to take place by molecular diffusion through a
gas film 0.5 cm thick. Diffusion coefficient for water vapour in air is
0.259 cm2/s.
(Ans: 13.67 hours)
5. Calculate the rate of diffusion of NaCl at 18°C through a stagnant film of
NaCl-water mixture 1 mm thick when the concentrations are 20% and 10%
(by weight) respectively on either side of the film. Diffusivity of NaCl in
water is 1.26 ´ 10–9 m2/s. The densities of 20% and 10% NaCl solutions are
1149 and 1067 kg/m3 respectively.
(Ans: 2.81 ´ 10–6 kmol/m2 s)
6. In an O2–N2 gas mixture at 1.01325 bar and 20°C, the concentration of O2
at two planes 0.002 m apart are 20% and 10% volume respectively. (i)
Calculate the rate of diffusion of O2 expressed as kg moles of oxygen/m2 s
for the case where N2 is non diffusing DO2–N2 = 0.181 ´ 10–4 m2/s. (ii)
Calculate the rate of diffusion of oxygen in kmol/m2 s assuming equimolal
counter diffusion.
(Ans: (i) 4.4326 ´ 10–5 kmol/m2 s (ii) 3.763 ´ 10–5 kmol/m2 s)
7. A vertical glass tube of diameter 0.3 cm is filled with benzene at 30°C to
a depth of 2 cm from top end. After 24 hours, the liquid level in the tube
had fallen to 2.5 cm from the top end. Estimate the diffusivity of benzene
into air if the air above the liquid surface in the tube is stagnant. The vapour
pressure and density of benzene at 30°C are 60 mm Hg and 800 kg/m3
respectively.
(Ans: 0.4 ´ 10–5 m2/s)
8. A vertical glass tube 1 cm in diameter is filled with liquid acetone to a depth
of 5 cm from the top open end. After 4 hours of operation at 303 K and at
a total pressure of 1 atm., the level dropped by 2 mm. The density of the
liquid is 790 kg/m3 and its vapour pressure is at 288 mm Hg under the given
operating conditions. Neglecting the counter diffusion of air to replace the
liquid, calculate the diffusivity of acetone in air.
(Ans: 0.49 ´ 10–5 m2/s)
9. A gas mixture containing 1/5 hydrogen and 4/5 methane by volume is

prepared through which oxygen is allowed to diffuse. The total pressure is
1 ´ 105 N/m2 and temperature is 2°C. Estimate the rate of diffusion of O2
through the gas film of thickness 3 mm when concentration change across
the film is 12 to 7% by volume. Diffusivity data at 1 atm., 0°C is
i(i) DO2–H2 = 7.1 ´ 10–5 m2/sec.
(ii) DO2–CH4 = 1.88 ´ 10–5 m2/sec.
(Ans: 1.82 ´ 10–5 kmol/m2 s)
10. A volatile organic compound costing Rs. 6.50 per kg is stirred in a tank
8 m in diameter and open to the atmosphere. A stagnant air film of thickness
10 mm is covering the surface of the compound, beyond which the
compound is absent. If the atmospheric temperature is 27°C, vapour
pressure of the compound is 160 mmHg and its diffusivity is 0.02 m2/h,
calculate the loss in rupees per day. Molecular weight of the organic
compound is 78.
(Ans: Rs. 11,745/day)
11. Estimate the rate of diffusion of chloropicrin (CCl3 NO2) into air, which is
stagnant at 25°C and 1 atm. pressure. Diffusivity = 0.088 cm2/s, vapour
pressure at 25°C of CCl3 NO2 is 23.81 mm Hg, Density of chloropicrin =
1.65 g/cm3. Surface area of liquid exposed for evaporation = 2.29 cm2.
Distance from liquid level to top of tube is 11.14 cm.
(Ans: 0.28 ´ 10–11 kmol/s)
12. A mixture of alcohol and water vapour is rectified by contact with alcohol–
water liquid solution. Alcohol is transferred from gas phase to liquid phase
and water from liquid to gas phase. The model flow rates are maintained
equal but in opposite directions. The temperature 80°C and pressure of 1
atmosphere are maintained constant. Both components diffuse through a gas
film of 0.15 mm thick. The molal concentration of alcohol on outer and
inner sides of the film is 85% and 10% respectively. Calculate (i) the rate
of diffusion of alcohol, (ii) rate of diffusion of water in kg per hour through
a film area of one cm2. The diffusivity is 0.184 cm2/s.
(Ans: (i) 3.17 ´ 10–3 kmol/s (ii) 11.435 kg/h)
of 20°C and a pressure of 1 atmosphere. The concentration of NH3 is 10%
by volume on one side of the film and zero on the other side. Estimate the
effect on the rate of diffusion of raising the total pressure to 5 atmospheres.
The diffusivity of NH3 in air at 0°C and 1 atm. is 0.198 cm2/s.
(Ans: 48.18 ´ 10–6 kmol/m2 s)
14. Alcohol is diffusing from gas to liquid and water from liquid to gas under
conditions of equimolal counter diffusion at 35°C and 1 atmosphere
pressure. The molal concentrations of alcohol on the two sides of a gas film
0.3 mm thick are 80% and 10% respectively. Assuming the diffusivity of
alcohol–water vapour to be 0.18 cm2/s, calculate the rate of diffusion of
Diffusion 41
alcohol and water in kilograms per hour through an area of 100 cm2.
Molecular weight of alcohol = 74.1; R = 82.06 cm3 × atm g mol K.
(Ans: 4.43 kg/h)
15. Oxygen is diffusing through a stagnant layer of methane 5 mm thick. The
temperature is 0°C and the pressure of 1 atmosphere. Calculate the rate of
diffusion of oxygen in kilograms per hour through 1 m2 of methane
film when the concentration change across the film is 15% to 5% oxygen by
volume. The value of diffusivity may be taken as 0.184 cm2/s.
R = 82.06 cm3 atm./g mol K.
(Ans: 1.05 kg/hr)
3
MASS TRANSFER
COEFFICIENT AND
INTERPHASE MASS TRANSFER
3.1 INTRODUCTION
In the previous chapter, we have emphasised molecular diffusion in stagnant fluids
or fluids at laminar flow. It is well known that the rate of diffusion under molecular
diffusion is very slow. In order to increase the fluid velocity for introducing
turbulence, the fluid has to flow past a solid surface. When a fluid flows past a
solid surface, three regions for mass transfer can be visualized.
There is a region of laminar or thin viscous sub layer very adjacent to the
surface where most of the mass transfer occurs by molecular diffusion due to
which a sudden concentration drop is seen. Next, a gradual change in concentration
of the diffusing substance is obtained in transition region. In the third region called
turbulent region, a very small variation in the concentration is observed since the
eddies present, which tend to make the fluid in more uniform concentration. The
above trend of concentration distribution with distance from the solid surface is
shown in Fig. 3.1.
3.2 MASS TRANSFER COEFFICIENT

As the turbulent flow mechanism is yet to be understood, it is better to express the
turbulent diffusion in a similar manner as that of molecular diffusion. Molecular
diffusion is characterised by the term DAB C/Z as in Eq. (2.14) which is modified
by ‘F’, a mass transfer coefficient for binary system. Here the flux depends upon
the cross sectional surface area which may vary, the diffusional path which is not
specifically known and the bulk average concentration difference. Hence, flux can
be written using a convective mass transfer coefficient.
Flux = (coefficient) (concentration difference)
42
Mass Transfer Coefficient and Interphase Mass Transfer 43
CA0 Laminar
Concentration units
Transition
Turbulent
CA1
CA2
0
Distance from the surface, mm
Fig. 3.1 Concentration distribution flow past a solid surface.
Since concentration can be expressed in many ways, different types of equations

are possible as mentioned below.
1. For transfer of A through stagnant B [NB = 0]
For gases: NA = kG (pA1 – pA2) = ky (yA1 – yA2) = kC (CA1 – CA2) (3.1)
For liquids: NA = kx (xA1 – xA2) = kL (CA1 – CA2) (3.2)
where kG, ky, kC, kx and kL are individual mass transfer coefficients.
2. For equimolar counter transfer [NA = –NB]
For gases: NA= k¢G (pA1 – pA2) = k¢y(yA1 – yA2) = k¢C (CA1 – CA2) (3.3)
For liquids: NA= k¢x (xA1 – xA2) = k¢L (CA1 – CA2) (3.4)
Thus, kC is a replacement of DAB C/Z of Eq. (2.14) used for low mass transfer rates.
F can be used for high mass transfer rates and it can be related to k’s as
F = kG( p B)lm. The other relations of mass transfer coefficients and flux equations
are given in Table 3.1. The mass transfer coefficient can also be correlated as a
dimensionless factor JD by
È kc Ø 2/3
JD ÉÊ ÙÚ ( N SC ) (3.5)
V
where V is the mass average velocity of the fluid, and
È N Ø
NSC is Schmidt number i.e. ÉÊ S D ÙÚ
AB
where r and µ are the density and viscosity of the mixture respectively.
Table 3.1 Relations between mass transfer coefficient
Gases:
(p ) ( pB )lm kY Pt
F kG ¹ ( p B ) l m k y ¹ ¹ B lm kC kG Pt kC . kC C
Pt RT MB RT
= ky(yBM) = k¢y
Liquids:
È SØ
F k x ( xB )lm k L ( xB )lm C (k L ) C (k L ) É Ù k x
ÊMÚ
Units of Mass Transfer Coefficient:
Moles transferred
kG and kG =
(Area)(time)(pressure)
Moles transferred
k x , k y , k x and k y
(Area)(time)(mole fraction)
Mole transferred
kC , kC , k L and k L
(Area)(time)(mol/vol)
Mass transferred
kY
(Area)(time)(mass A/mass B)
3.3 MASS TRANSFER COEFFICIENTS IN

LAMINAR FLOW
When mass transfer occurs in a fluid flowing in laminar flow, it follows the same
phenomena of heat transfer by conduction in laminar flow. However, both heat and
mass transfer are not always analogous since mass transfer involves multi-
component transport. Thus, it needs some simplications to manipulate the
mathematical equations for conditions of laminar flow in many complex situations.
One simplified situation is illustrated in this section.
3.3.1 Mass Transfer from a Gas into a

Falling Liquid Film
Consider the absorption of solute from a gas into a falling liquid film as in wetted
wall column, shown in Fig. 3.2. Here the laminar flow of liquid and diffusion occur
in such conditions that the velocity field can be virtually unaffected by the
diffusion.
The component, A from gas is slightly soluble in liquid B, and hence the
viscosity of liquid is not changing appreciably. In addition to that diffusion takes
place very slowly in the liquid film and A will not penetrate more into B. Thus,
the penetration distance is very small when compared with film thickness.
x
y
z
w
Dz
Dx
L
NAx Gas
Vz(x)
CAs
CA0
d
Fig. 3.2 Falling liquid film.
Let the concentration of A in the inlet liquid be CA0, the concentration of A

at the surface of the liquid is in equilibrium with the concentration of A in the gas
phase which is constant throughout at CAi and the film thickness is d. First by
solving the momentum transfer equation we obtain the velocity profile Vz(x) for the
film as
Ë È xØ2Û
Vz(x) = Vmax Ì1 É Ù Ü (3.6)
ÌÍ Ê E Ú ÜÝ
Having seen the momentum transfer let us analyse the mass transfer. Let us make
a mass balance for component A in the elemental volume (W) (Dx) (Dz).
For steady state,
Rate of input = Rate of output
Hence,
NAz z W% x N Az z%z
W% x NA x x W% z N A x x %x
W% z 0 (3.7)
where W is width of the film
Let us divide Eq. (3.7) by W Dx Dz and let Dx and Dz ® 0, we get
È Ø È Ø
ÉÊ x ÙÚ N Ax + ÉÊ z ÙÚ N Az = 0 (3.8)
Now let us substitute in Eq. (3.8) the flux components in terms of diffusional and
convectional fluxes of A.
The one-directional molar fluxes are defined by,
È C Ø
N Ax = DAB É A Ù + xA (N Ax + N Bx ) (3.9)
Ê x Ú
È C Ø
N Az = DAB É A Ù + xA (N Az + N Bz ) (3.10)
Ê z Ú
In Eq. (3.9), A is transported in X-direction by diffusion and not by convective
transport because of very slight solubility of A in B. Similarly in Eq. (3.10), A
moves in the Z-direction because of the flow of the film, and thereby diffusive
contribution is negligible. Hence, Eqs. (3.9) and (3.10) become
È CA Ø
NAx = –DAB É
Ê x ÙÚ
(3.11)
NAz = xA(NA,z + NB,z) = CAVz(x) (3.12)

Substituting Eqs. (3.11) and (3.12) into Eq. (3.8) we get,
È C Ø È 2 CA Ø
Vz É A Ù = [Vz CA ] = DAB É Ù (3.13)
Ê z Ú z Ê x 2 Ú
In this case, solute has penetrated only a very short distance and it gives the
impression that it is carried along with the film with a velocity equal to Vmax.
Hence, at x = 0, Vz is replaced by Vmax in Eq. (3.13)
È C Ø È 2 CA Ø
Vmax É A Ù = DAB É Ù (3.14)
Ê z Ú Ê x 2 Ú
The Eq. (3.14) has been solved by Laplace transform using the boundary conditions,
B.C.1; at z = 0, CA = 0
B.C.2; at x = 0, CA = CA0
B.C.3; at x = ¥, CA = 0
Since A does not penetrate very far, the distance, d becomes infinite in view of A.
The solution of Eq. (3.14) is given as,
CA Ë 4 DAB Z Û Ë 4DAB Z Û
= erfc Ì x Ü = 1 erf Ìx Ü (3.15)
CA0 ÍÌ Vmax ÝÜ ÍÌ Vmax ÝÜ
where erf is the error function.
The flux at the surface, x = 0 as a function of position Z is given by
È C Ø DABVmax
(NAx)x=0 = –DAB É A Ù CA0 (3.16)
Ê x Ú x = 0 QZ
The rate of transfer of A to the fluid over the length Z = L is given by
L
NA [L . W] = W Ô (N
0
Ax) | x=0 dZ (3.17)
Ô
DABVmax
=W CA0 dZ (3.18)
0
QZ
4(DABVmax )
NA[L . W] = L . W CA0 (3.19)
QL
4(DABVmax )
NA = CA0 (3.20)
QL
0.5
This shows that the liquid mass transfer coefficient is proportional to DAB for
short contact times.
3.4 MASS TRANSFER THEORIES

Various theories have been used as models for explaining the turbulent mass
transfer. These models can be used for predicting the mass transfer coefficients and
they can be correlated with experimental data to obtain the design parameters of
process equipments.
3.4.1 Film Theory

Consider turbulent flow of liquid over a solid surface and a simultaneous mass
transfer is taking place. The film theory postulates that there is a stagnant film of
thickness, Zf adjacent to the interface, where the concentration difference is
attributed to molecular diffusion as shown in Fig. 3.3. As the molecular diffusion
is occurring only in Zf, the flux equation can be written as
ÈD Ø
NA = kC (CA1 – CA2) = É AB Ù (CA1 – CA2) (3.21)
Ê Zf Ú
where (CA1 – CA2) is the concentration difference. Hence, kC = (DAB/Zf), the mass
1.0
transfer coefficient is proportional to DAB . However, the JD factor is given by,
2/3
È kC Ø 2/3 È kC Ø È N Ø
JD ÉÊ ÙÚ ( N Sc ) ÉÊ ÙÚ É
V Ê S DAB ÙÚ
(3.22)
V
Hence, the film theory deviates from the actual turbulent mass transfer.
CA1
Concentration
CA2
Zf
Distance, Z
Fig. 3.3 Concentration distribution in film theory.
3.4.2 Penetration Theory

This theory explains the mass transfer at fluid surface and was proposed by Higbie.
In many situations, the time of exposure for mass transfer is too short and hence,
there may not be sufficient time for the steady state concentration gradient of film
theory to develop. This theory has been described in Fig. 3.4. An eddy b, rising
CAi (in liquid)

Gas
Time =ÿq Liquid

Zb CA0 CA0
b b
CA0
Fig. 3.4 Higbie’s theory.
from the turbulent liquid is exposed for a short time, q at the interface for
absorption. In this situation, the exposure time is assumed to be constant for all the
eddies or particles of liquid.
Initially the eddy concentration is CA0 and when it comes to the surface, the
interfacial concentration is CAi. Since the exposure time is less, molecules of solute
from gas never reach the depth Zb, which is nothing but the thickness of eddy. The
liquid particle is subjected to unsteady state diffusion and hence Fick’s second law
is applicable, i.e.
CA Ë 2CA Û
= DAB Ì 2 Ü (3.23)
R ÍÌ Z ÝÜ
From the solute point of view, the depth Zb is considered to be infinite.
The boundary conditions are as follows:
CA = CA0 at q = 0 for all Z
CA = CAi at Z = 0 q > 0
CA = CA0 at Z = for all q
By solving the above Eq. (3.23), the average flux can be obtained as described in
falling film
Hence,
DAB
NA,av = 2(CAi – CA0) (3.24)
QR
DAB
kL,av = (3.25)
QR
0.5
Thus, in penetration theory kL is proportional to DAB . However, the exponent on
DAB varies from zero to 0.8 or 0.9.
3.4.3 Surface Renewal Theory

In reality, the time of exposure of all eddies as proposed in penetration theory is
not constant. Hence, Danckwerts modified the penetration theory to account for
varying lengths of time of exposure.
If S is the fractional rate of replacement of elements,
Then, NA,av = (CAi – CA0) DAB S (3.26)
0.5
Hence, kL,av is proportional to DAB in this theory.
3.4.4 Combination of Film–Surface Renewal Theory

Film theory is meant for steady state diffusion where kL µ DAB and in surface
renewal theory, kL µ DAB
0.5
. So kL is proportional to DnAB with ‘n’ dependent upon
circumstances. In this theory Dobbins replaced the third boundary condition of
Eq. (3.23) by CA = CA0 at Z = Zb, where Zb is of finite depth. Finally he obtained
SZ b2
kL,av = DAB S coth (3.27)
DAB
3.4.5 Surface–Stretch Theory

Lightfoot and his coworkers explained this theory where they found that the mass
transfer at the interface varies with time periodically. When mass transfer is
proceeding for a particular system the central portion of the drop is thoroughly
turbulent and resistance to mass transfer resides in a surface layer with varying
thickness and the drop is elongated as shown in Fig. 3.5. According to this theory,
Ë DAB Û
Ì( A/Ar ) Ü
Í QR r Ý
k L,av (3.28)
R /R r
Ô ( A/Ar ) dR
2
where A is time dependent interfacial surface, Ar is reference value of A, defined for

every situation and qr is constant with dimensions of time or drop formation time.
Surface
layer
Fig. 3.5 Surface–stretch theory.

3.5 ANALOGIES
As flow past solid surface occurs, at a uniform velocity u0, the curve ABCD
separates the region of velocity u0 from a region of lower velocity. The curve
ABCD which separates these two regions is called boundary layer.
In the same way as mass transfer takes place, a similar concentration boundary
layer also occurs. In understanding the analogies between momentum and mass
transfer it is worth having a review of universal velocity distribution which is
shown in Fig. 3.6.
25
Viscous Buffer
sublayer layer Turbulent core
20 u+ = 2.5 ln y+ + 5.5
15
u+ = 5 ln y+ – 3.05
10
u+
5
u+ = y+
0
1 3 5 10 30 50 100 300 500 1000
y+
Fig. 3.6(a) Universal velocity profile.
Laminar flow in Turbulent flow in

Boundary-layer thickness
boundary layer boundary layer
Buffer Viscous
B C
layer sub-layer
A
Distance from leading edge, x
Fig. 3.6(b) Turbulent boundary layer.
The similarity between the transfer processes of momentum, heat and mass
lead to the possibility of determining mass transfer characteristics for different
situations from the knowledge of other two processes. Let us now deal with the
various analogies and the assumptions involved in each analogy.
3.5.1 Reynolds Analogy

In this analogy, the assumptions considered are:
(i) Only turbulent core is present.
(ii) Velocity, temperature and concentration profiles are perfectly matching.
(iii) All diffusivities are same.
È NØ
Hence, (a) = (DAB) = (3.29)
ÉÊ S ÙÚ
When all the three diffusivities are equal, then

Prandtl Number (NPr) = Schmidt number (NSc) = 1.
The basic flux equations of heat, mass and momentum can be written as follows:

q = h(ti – t0) = –a (rCPt) (3.30)
z
C A
NA = kc (CAi – CA0) = –DAB (3.31)
z
È µ Ø u
Ui ÉÊ g ÙÚ z (3.32)
c
Let us consider heat and momentum transfer and from Eq. (3.30)
È K Ø dt È K Ø
h(ti – t0) = –a (rCPt) = É Ù (rCP) since a = É (3.33)
z Ê SCP Ú dz Ê SCP ÙÚ
ÈdØ
h (ti – t0) = –K É Ù (t – ti) (3.34)
Ê dz Ú
h È d Ø Ë t ti Û
\ = É Ù Ì
Ê dz Ú Í t0 ti ÜÝ
(3.35)
K
As per assumption (ii), velocity and temperature profiles match and hence,
Ë d Û Ë u x Û È d Ø Ë (t ti ) Û
ÌÍ dz ÝÜ Ì u Ü = ÊÉ dz ÚÙ Ì (t t ) Ü (3.36)
Í 0Ý Í 0 i Ý
Multiplying by CP µ on both sides of Eq. (3.36), we get

È CP µ Ø È du x Ø È d Ø Ë (t ti ) Û
ÉÊ u ÙÚ ÊÉ dz ÚÙ KÉ ÙÌ
Ê dz Ú Í (t0 ti ) ÜÝ (3.37)
0
Since K = CP µ by assumption (iii), and rearranging gives

È CP µ Ø È du x Ø È d Ø Ë t ti Û
ÉÊ Ku ÙÚ ÊÉ dz ÚÙ ÊÉ dz ÚÙ ÌÍ t0 ti ÜÝ (3.38)
0
Combining Eqs. (3.35) and (3.38), we get
È CP µ Ø È dux Ø h
ÉÊ Ku ÙÚ ÉÊ dz ÙÚ K (3.39)
0
È du Ø È h u0 Ø È fØ 2
Therefore, µÉ x Ù
Ê dz Ú ÉÊ C ÙÚ ÉÊ 2 ÙÚ Su0 (3.40)
P
È fØ h
i.e. ÉÊ 2 ÙÚ S C P u0 (3.41)
Similarly, by considering mass and momentum transfer, we get
È fØ È kc Ø
ÉÊ 2 ÙÚ ÉÊ u ÙÚ (3.42)
0
Hence, Reynolds analogy equation is

È fØ h kc
ÉÊ 2 ÙÚ SCP u0 u0 (3.43)
3.5.2 Chilton–Colburn Analogy

In this analogy, the assumptions considered are,
(i) only turbulent core is present.
(ii) Velocity, temperature and concentration profiles are same.
(iii) NPr and NSc are not equal to unity.
In this analogy, the equation obtained is
È fØ È kc Ø 2/3 h
ÉÊ 2 ÙÚ ÉÊ u ÙÚ (Sc) (Pr)2/3 (3.44)
0 ( S CP u0 )
3.5.3 Taylor–Prandtl Analogy

(i) assumes the presence of turbulent core and laminar sublayer.
(ii) NPr and NSc are not equal to unity.
In this Analogy, the equation obtained is
È fØ È fØ
kc h ÉÊ 2 ÙÚ ÉÊ 2 ÙÚ
(3.45)
u0 S C P u0 Ë f Û Ë f Û
Ì1 5 (Sc 1) Ü Ì1 5 (Pr 1) Ü
ÌÍ 2 ÜÝ ÌÍ 2 ÜÝ
3.5.4 Von–Karman Analogy

(i) assumes the presence of turbulent core, laminar sublayer and buffer
layers.
(ii) universal velocity profile equations are applicable.
(iii) NPr and NSc are not equal to unity.
In this Analogy, the equation obtained is
f
kc 2
u0 Ëf È 5Sc 1 Ø Û
1 5 Ì (Sc 1) ln ÉÊ Ü
Í2 6 ÙÚ Ý
f
2
f Ë È 5Pr 1 Ø Û (3.46)
1 5 Ì (Pr 1) ln ÉÊ Ü
2 Í 6 ÙÚ Ý
Equations (3.44), (3.45) and (3.46) lead to Reynolds analogy when Sc = Pr = 1.
3.6 INTERPHASE MASS TRANSFER
3.6.1 Equilibrium
To generalise the equilibrium characteristics, consider that an amount of solute
from a gaseous mixture is dissolved in solvent. After sufficient time, the system
will attain equilibrium with respect to a particular temperature and pressure. The
concentration of solute in both gas and liquid phase may not be equal but the
chemical potential of solute will be equal at equilibrium. At the same temperature
and pressure, if some more amount of solute is introduced, then once again a new
equilibrium will be attained in the same system. The equilibrium curve can be
represented for any system as shown in Fig. 3.7. The net rate of diffusion is zero
y
Fig. 3.7 Equilibrium curve.

at equilibrium. Conventionally, the concentration of solute in liquid phase is

expressed by mole fraction, x and the concentration of solute in gas phase by mole
fraction, y.
3.6.2 Two-phase Mass Transfer

Generally the two-phase systems occur in most of the mass transfer operations.
Suppose the two phases are immiscible with each other, then an interface is seen
between the two phases. Consider a solute A which is in bulk gas phase G and
diffusing into the liquid phase L. There should be a concentration gradient within
each phase to cause diffusion through the resistances and is shown in Fig. 3.8.
Concentration of diffusing solute A
Gas Interface
yAG
xAi Liquid
yAi
xAL
Distance from interface
Fig. 3.8 Two-phase mass transfer.
In Fig. 3.8, yAG is the concentration of A in bulk gas phase, yAi is the
concentration at interface, xAL is the concentration of A in bulk liquid phase and
xAi is the concentration at interface. The bulk phase concentrations, yAG and xAL are
certainly not at equilibrium. This enables diffusion to occur. At the interface, there
is no resistance to transfer of solute and the concentrations yAi and xAi are in
equilibrium and they are related by the equilibrium distribution relation as
yAi = f (xAi) (3.47)
The concentration driving forces can be shown graphically as in Fig. 3.9. If
we consider a steady state mass transfer, the rate at which molecules reach the
interface will be the same rate at which the molecules are transferred to the liquid
phase. Since interface has no resistance, the flux for each phase can be expressed
in terms of mass transfer coefficient.
NA = ky (yAG – yAi) = kx (xAi – xAL) (3.48)
where ky and kx are local gas and liquid mass transfer coefficients.
yAG yAi Èk Ø
i.e. É x Ù (3.49)
xAL xAi Ê ky Ú
Hence, the interface compositions can be determined if kx, ky, yAG and xAL values
are known.
yAG Slope = (–kx/ky)
yAi
y
xAL xAi
x
Fig. 3.9 Concentration driving force.
3.6.3 Overall Mass Transfer Coefficient

Experimentally determining the rate of mass transfer is very difficult since it is not
possible to evaluate the interface compositions. However, bulk concentrations are
easily measured and measuring xAL is as good as measuring yA* because both have
the same chemical potential. Similarly yAG is as good as measuring xA*.The
concentration driving forces can be shown as in Fig. 3.10.
yyAG PP
AG DD
’’
Slope
Slopemm¢¢
(-kxx/kyy)
(–k
yyAiAi
M
M
y
y
Slope
Slopem’
m¢
*
yy*
AA
C
C
xAL
xAL xxAiAi xxAA*
xx
Fig. 3.10 Concentration driving force.
The flux can be written in terms of overall mass transfer coefficient for each
phase.
*
NA = Ky (yAG – yA ) (3.50)
where Ky is overall mass transfer coefficient.
From the geometry of Fig. 3.10
* *
(yAG – yA ) = (yAG – yAi) + (yAi – yA ) = (yAG – yAi) + m¢ (xAi – xAL) (3.51)
where m¢ is the slope of the chord CM in Fig. 3.10. Substituting for the
concentration differences as given by Eqs. (3.48) and (3.50)
È NA Ø ËÈ N Ø È m N Ø Û
É Ù ÌÉ A Ù É A
ÙÜ (3.52)
Ê Ky Ú ÌÍÊ k y Ú Ê k x Ú ÜÝ
1 1 m
i.e. (3.53)
Ky k y kx
Similarly, for the liquid side
*
NA = Kx ( xA – xAL) (3.54)
On simplification, we get
1 1 1
(3.55)
Kx m k y k x
where m¢¢ is the slope of the chord MD in Fig. 3.10. The two Eqs. (3.53) and (3.55)
show the relationship between the individual and overall mass transfer coefficients.
These equations also lead to the following relationships between the mass transfer
resistances.
Resistance in gas phase 1/k y
(3.56)
Total resistance 1/K y
Resistance in liquid phase 1/k x

(3.57)
Total resistance 1/K x
Assuming that kx and ky are same and if m¢ is small so that solute A is highly
soluble in liquid (i.e. equilibrium curve will be flat), the term m¢/kx will be
negligible when compares to 1/ky.
1 1
Hence, (3.58)
Ky ky
This condition says that overall resistance lies only in the gas phase,
conversely when m" is very large, then solute A is relatively insoluble in liquid.
Under this condition, the term (1/m"ky) will be negligible compared to 1/kx. Then
1 1
(3.59)
Kx kx
In this case the entire rate of mass transfer is controlled by liquid phase. For
cases where kx and ky are not nearly equal, then it will be the relative size of the
ratio (kx/ky) and of m' or m" which will determine the location of the controlling
mass transfer resistance.
3.7 TYPES OF OPERATIONS

The mass transfer operations take place both on batch and continuous basis.
However, due to various demands in an industry most of the operations are carried
out on continuous basis. Such continuous operations are carried out on co-current
and countercurrent basis. In these operations the concentration of each phase
changes with position whereas in batch process the concentration changes with
time.
3.7.1 Co-current Process

Schematic diagram for a co-current process is shown in Fig. 3.11.
E1, ES, Y1, y1 E, ES, Y, y E2, ES, Y2, y2
2
R1, RS, X1, x1 1 R2, RS, X2, x2
R, RS, X, x
Fig. 3.11 Co-current process.
where E1, E2 are mass or molar flow rates of E stream at and position
respectively, R1, R2 are mass or molar flow rates of R stream at and position
respectively, ES, RS are solute free flow rates of streams, x1, x2, y1, y2 are
concentration of solute in mass or mole fraction of streams at and position
respectively and X1, X2, Y1, Y2 are mass or mole ratio of solute in streams at and
position respectively.
Making a component balance for solute, we get
R1x1 + E1y1 = R2x2 + E2y2 (3.60)
RSX1 + ESY1 = RSX2 + ESY2 (3.61)
i.e. RS (X1 – X2) = ES (Y2 – Y1) (3.62)

È RS Ø Y2 Y1
ÉÊ E ÙÚ X 2 X1 (3.63)
S
This indicates a line passing through the points (X1, Y1) and (X2, Y2) which is called
as operating line in the X vs. Y plot. The operating line also indicates the material
balance in the operation.
Also,
RS X1 + ESY1 = RSX + ESY (3.64)
RS (X1 – X) = ES (Y – Y1) (3.65)
This represents the general equation of operating line in a co-current process.
Graphically the operation can be represented for transfer from R to E as shown in
Fig. 3.12.
3.7.2 Counter-current Process

Schematic diagram for a counter-current process is shown in Fig. 3.13.
Equilibrium curve
Y2*
Y2
(Transfer from R to E)
Y1
y
X2* X2 X1
X
Fig. 3.12 Equilibrium curve and operating line for a co-current process.
E1, ES, Y1, y1 E, ES, Y, y E2, ES, Y2, y2
2
R1, RS, X1, x1 1 R, RS, X, x R2, RS, X2, x2
Fig. 3.13 Counter-current process.
Making a component balance for solute yields

E2y2 + R1x1 = E1y1 + R2x2 (3.66)
ESY2 + RSX1 = ESY1 + RSX2 (3.67)
RS (X1 – X2) = ES (Y1 – Y2) (3.68)
RS Y1 Y2
i.e. ES X1 X 2 (3.69)
This represents the equation of a line passing through the coordinates (X1, Y1)
and (X2, Y2) with a slope of RS/ES in a plot of X vs Y.
Similarly another balance gives,
ESY + RS X1 = ESY1 + RS X (3.70)
RS Y1 Y
i.e. ES X1 X (3.71)
This equation is a generalized equation representing the operating line in a counter-

current process. The following Fig. 3.14 curve graphically shows the operating line
and equilibrium for a counter-current process.
The advantage of the counter-current process over the co-current is the higher
driving force, which results in reduced size of equipment for a specified transfer
condition or lesser flow rates for a given equipment.
(Operating line transfer from E to R )
Equilibrium curve
(Operating line transfer from R to E )

Y
X
Fig. 3.14 Equilibrium curve and operating line for a counter-current process.
3.7.3 Stages
A stage is defined as any device or combination of devices in which two insoluble
phases are brought into intimate contact, where mass transfer occurs between
phases leading them to equilibrium and subsequently the phases are separated. A
process carried out in this manner is a single stage process. An ideal theoretical or
equilibrium stage is one in which the leaving streams are in equilibrium. However,
in reality there is a shortfall in reaching the equilibrium and more number of actual
stages are needed to effect a desired separation.
3.7.4 Stage Efficiency

It is defined as the fractional approach to equilibrium, which a real stage produces.
Murphree stage efficiency: It is defined as the fractional approach of one leaving
stream to equilibrium with the actual concentration in the other leaving stream
(Y2 Y1 ) ( X1 X 2 )
i.e. EME = and EMR = (3.72)
(Y 2* Y1 ) ( X1 X *2 )
3.7.5 Cascade
It is one which has a group of interconnected stages, in which the streams from one
stage flows to the other. Cascades are of cross-flow and counter-flow types. A
typical cross-current cascade is shown in Fig. 3.15.
E1 Y1 E2 Y2 E3 Y3 E4 Y4
R0, X0 1 2 3 4 R4, X4
R1, X1 R 2, X 2 R 3, X 3
ES1 Y0 ES2 Y0 ES3 Y0 ES4 Y0

Fig. 3.15 Cross-current cascade.
60 Mass Transfer—Theory and Practice
A typical countercurrent cascade is shown in Fig. 3.16.

E 2, Y 2 E 3, Y 3 E4, Y4
E1, Y1 E5, Y5
1 2 3 4
R0, X0 R4, X4
R1, X1 R2, X2 R3, X3
Fig. 3.16 Countercurrent cascade.
The number of stages N, required for a countercurrent cascade can be

estimated analytically for cases where both the equilibrium relationship and
operating line are linear.
If m is the slope of the equilibrium curve and A = RS/mES, the absorption
factor then for absorption, (transfer from E to R)
For, A π 1
(YN +1 - Y1 ) ( A N +1 - A)
= (3.73)
(YN +1 - mX 0 ) ( A N +1 - 1)
For, A = 1
(YN +1 - Y1 ) (Yin - Yout )
N = = (3.74)
(Y1 - mX 0 ) (Yout - mX in )
For desorption, (transfer from R to E)

For A π 1
È Ê 1 ˆ N +1 Ê 1 ˆ˘
ÍÁ ˜ - Á ˜˙
(X0 - X N ) ÍË A ¯ Ë A¯ ˙
= Î ˚
(3.75)
È Ê YN +1 ˆ ˘ ÈÊ 1 ˆ N +1 ˘
Í X 0 - ÁË ˜¯ ˙ ÍÁ ˜ - 1˙
Î m ˚ ÍÎ Ë A ¯ ˙˚
For A = 1
(X0 - X N ) ( X in - X out )
N= = (3.76)
È Ê YN +1 ˆ ˘ È Ê Yin ˆ ˘
Í X N - ÁË ˙ Í X out - ËÁ ¯˜ ˙
Î m ˜¯ ˚ Î m ˚
The above four equations are called Kremser–Brown–Souders equation.
WORKED EXAMPLES
1. Calculate the rate of sublimation from a cylinder of naphthalene 0.075 m ID.
by 0.6 m long into a stream of pure CO2 flowing at a velocity of 6 m/s at 1
atm. and 100ºC. The vapour pressure of naphthalene at 100ºC and 1 atm.
maybe taken as 10 mm Hg and the diffusivity of naphthalene in CO2 as
8.3 ¥ 10–6 m2/s. Density and viscosity of CO2 are: 0.946 kg/m3 and 0.021 cp
respectively at operating condition. Cf = 0.023 (Re)–0.2. Use analogy.
Solution.
u0 = 6 m/s, P = 1 atm, T = 373 K, pA = 10 mm Hg, Dnapth-CO2 = 8.3 ¥ 10–6 m2/s,
rCO2 = 0.946 kg/m3, μCO2 = 0.021 cp, Cf /2 = 0.023(Re)–0.2
DV r 0.075 ¥ 6 ¥ 0.946
NRe = = = 20271.43
m 0.021 ¥ 10 -3
f
= 3.1648 ¥ 10–3
2
m 0.012 ¥ 10 -3
NSc = = = 1.528
rDAB 0.946 ¥ 8.3 ¥ 10 -6
f ¥ uo ( u0  V and C f  f )
kc =
2( N Sc ) 2/3
3.1648 ¥ 10-3 ¥ 6
kc = = 0.0143 m/s
1.3266
kc
NA = kc (CA1 – CA2) = (pA1 – pA2)
RT
0.0143 ¥ 105 ÈÊ 10 ˆ ˘
= ÍÁË ˜ - 0˙
8314 ¥ 373 Î 760 ¯ ˚
NA = 6.073 ¥ 10–6 kmol/m2 s
Rate of sublimation = NA ¥ 2prl
= 6.073 ¥ 10–6 ¥ 2 ¥ p ¥ (0.075/2) ¥ 6
= 8.59 ¥ 10–6 kmol/s Ans.
2. A 1 m2 thin plate of solid naphthalene is oriented parallel to a stream of air
flowing at 30 cm/s. The air is at 300 K and 1 atm pressure. The plate is also
at 300 K. Determine the rate of sublimation from the plate. The diffusivity of
naphthalene in air at 300 K and 1 atm is 5.9 ¥ 10–4 m2/s. Vapour pressure of
naphthalene at 300 K is 0.2 mm Hg.
Solution.
u0 = 30 cm/s, T = 300 K, Pt = 1 atm, DAB = 5.9 ¥ 10–4 m2/s,
pA = 0.2 mm Hg
rair = 1.15 ¥ 10–3 g/cc, μair = 0.0185 cp, D = 1 m (Length)
m 0.0185 ¥ 10-3
NSc = = = 0.0273 π 1
rDAB 1.15 ¥ 10 -3 ¥ 103 ¥ 5.9 ¥ 10-4
So we will use Chilton analogy,
DV S 1.15 10 3 103 1 0.3

NRe = = = 18648.65
N 0.0185 103
So flow is turbulent, so Chilton–Colburn analogy can be used.
f k
= c ( NSc )2/3
2 u0
f = 0.072 ´ (NRe)–0.25
f = 6.161 ´ 10–3
f u0
kc =
2( N Sc ) 2/3
6.161 10 3 0.3
kc = = 0.0102 m/s
2(0.0273)2/3
( pA1 pA2 )
NA = kc (CA1 – CA2) = kc
RT
0.0102 1.0133 105 ËÈ 0.2 Ø Û

= ÌÉÊ Ù 0Ü
8314 300 Í 760 Ú Ý
NA = 1.09 ´ 10–7 kmol/m2 s. Ans.
3. In a wetted wall column carbon dioxide is being absorbed from air by water
flowing at 2 atm. pressure and 25°C. The mass transfer coefficient k¢y has been
estimated to be 6.78 ´ 10–5 kmol/m2 s (mole fraction). Calculate the rate of
absorption if the partial pressure of carbon dioxide at the interface is 0.2 atm.
and the air is pure. Also determine ky and kG.
Solution.
pA1 = 0.2 atm, yA1 = 0.1, yB1 = 0.9
pA2 = 0, yA2 = 0.0 and yB2 = 0.0
(yB2 yB1 )
(yB)lm = = 0.95
Èy Ø
ln É B2 Ù
Êy ÚB1
Also,
ky (yB)lm = ky¢ = kG(yB)lm P
Hence,
ky = ky¢/(yB)lm = 6.78 ´ 10–5/0.95
= 7.138 ´ 10–5 kmol/m2 s (mole fraction)
ky
kG = = 3.569 ´ 10–5 kmol/m2 s atm
P
NA = ky (yA1 – yA2) = 7.138 ´ 10–5 (0.1 – 0.0)

= 7.138 ´ 10–6 kmol/m2 s Ans.
NA = kG (pA1 – pA2) = 3.569 ´ 10 –5
´ (0.2 – 0.0)
= 7.138 ´ 10–6 kmol/m2 s Ans.
4. Sulphur dioxide is absorbed from air into water in a packed absorption tower.
At a certain location in the tower, the mass transfer flux is 0.027 kmol SO2/m2h
and the liquid phase concentrations in mole fraction are 0.0025 and 0.0003
respectively at the two-phase interface and in the bulk liquid. If the diffusivity
of SO2 in water is 1.7 ´ 10–9 m2/s, determine the mass transfer coefficient, kc
and film thickness.
Solution.
0.027 1000
Mass flux of SO2 = = 7.5 ´ 10–7 g mol/cm2 s
3600 100 100
Density 1 2
C = Molecular weight = 18.02 = 5.55 10 g mol/cm
3
(CA1 CA2 )
NA = kc(CA1 – CA2) = DAB ´
E
DAB NA
Therefore, kc =
E C ( xA1 xA2 )
7.5 107
= 2
(5.55 10 ) (0.0025 0.0003)
= 0.00614 cm/s
DAB 1.7 10 5
d= = = 0.0028 cm Ans.
kc 0.00614
5. In an experimental study of absorption of ammonia by water in a wetted wall

column the overall gas phase mass transfer coefficient, KG was estimated as
2.72 ´ 10–4 kmol/m2 s atm. At one point in the column the gas contained
10 mol % ammonia and the liquid phase concentration was 6.42 ´
10–2 kmol NH3/m3 of solution. Temperature is 293 K and the total pressure is
1 atm. 85% of the resistance to mass transfer lies in gas phase. If Henry’s law
constant is 9.35 ´ 10–3 atm. m3/kmol, calculate the individual film coefficient
and the interfacial composition.
Solution.
KG = 2.72 ´ 10–4 kmol/m2 s atm.
Resistance 1/KG = 1/2.72 ´ 10–4 = 3676.47 m2 s atm./kmol

1 1
0.85
kG KG
= 3125 m2 s atm./kmol
We know that,
1 1 m

KG kG kL
m = 9.35 ´ 10–3 atm.m3 /kmol

Hence kL = 1.695 ´ 10–5 m/s
We shall now calculate the interfacial concentration from the following
relation:
NA = KG(pAg – p*A)
= kG(pAg – pAi)
= kL(CAi – CAL)
yAG = 0.1
CAL = 6.42 ´ 10–2 kmol NH3/m3 of solution.
pAg = yAg ´ Pt
= 0.1 ´ 1.0 = 0.1 atm.
CAL = 6.42 ´ 10–2 kmol NH3/m3 of solution.
pAi = m CAi
NA = kG(pAg – pAi) = kL (CAi – CAL)
kG (CAi CAL )
=
kL ( pAg pAi )
kG (CAi CAL )
=
kL ( pAg mCAi )
(CAi 6.42 102 )

18.88 =
(0.1 9.35 103 CAi )
On solving,
CAi = 1.6593 kmol/m3
pAi = 0.0155 atm. Ans.
6. At 293 K the solubility of ammonia in water is given by Henry’s law

p = 0.3672 C, where p is in atmosphere and C is in kmol/m3. A mixture of
15% ammonia and 85% air by volume at 1 atm is in contact with an aqueous
solution containing 0.147 g mol/lit. The air velocity is such that kG/kL = 0.9.
Find the concentration of ammonia and partial pressure at interface.
Solution.
We have, p = 0.3672 C, where p is in atmosphere and C is in kmol/m3.
NA = kG (pAG – pAi)
= kL (CAi – CAL)
where pAi and CAi indicate the interfacial pressure and composition and pAG
and CAL indicate the bulk phase compositions.
pAG = 1 ´ 0.15 = 0.15 atm.
CAL = 0.147 g mol/lit = 0.147 kmol/m3
kG (C Ai C AL )
=
kL ( pAG pAi )
CAi 0.147
0.9 =
0.15 0.3672 CAi
Solving for CAi we get
CAi = 0.212 kmol/m3
pAi = 0.078 atm. Ans.
7. Pure gas is absorbed in a laminar liquid jet. The volumetric flow rate of
the liquid was 4 cc/s and the diameter and length of the jet were 1 mm
and 3 mm respectively. The rate of absorption of A at atmospheric pressure was
0.12 cc/s at 303 K. The solubility of gas at 303 K is 0.0001 g mol/cc. atm.
Estimate the diffusivity of gas. If the diameter of the jet is reduced to 0.9 mm,
under otherwise the same conditions how would it affect the rate of
evaporation. Assume the validity of Higbie's penetration theory.
Solution.
We know,
NA = kL A (C*A – CA)
(kL)av = 2 (DAB/pt)0.5
Molar rate of absorption = 0.12 ´ 1 ´ 273/(22414 ´ 303)
= 0.482 ´ 10–5 g mol/s
A= p DL = p (0.1)(3) = 0.942 cm2
C*A = 0.0001 g mol/cc . atm
CA = 0
kL = NA/[A(C*A – CA)]
= 0.482 ´ 10–5/[0.942 ´ (0.0001 – 0)]
= 0.051 cm/s
Bubble length
Time of contact t =
Linear velocity
Q 4
Linear velocity =
A Ë Q 0.1 0.1 Û
Ì Ü
Í 4 Ý
= 509 cm/s
3
t= = 0.006 s
509
È D Ø 0.5
(kL)av = 2 É AB Ù
Ê Qt Ú
ÈD Ø 0.5
0.051 = 2 É AB 0.006Ù
Ê Q Ú
DAB = 1.23 ´ 10–5 cm2/s

Revised diameter = 0.09 cm
Area = p DL = p (0.09) (3) = 0.848 cm2
Q 4 0.09
Velocity =
A Q 0.09 4
= 628.8 cm/s
Bubble length
Time of contact t =
Linear velocity
= 3/628.8
= 0.00477 cm/s
È D Ø 0.5
(kL)av = 2 É AB Ù
Ê Qt Ú
È 1.23 10 5 Ø 0.5
= 2É Ù
Ê Q 0.00477 Ú
= 0.0573 cm/s.
NA = kLA (C*A – CA)
= 0.0573 ´ 0.848 ´ (0.0001 – 0)
= 4.86 ´ 10–6 g mol/s Ans.
8. In an apparatus for the absorption of SO2 in water at one point in the column
the concentration of SO2 in gas phase was 10% SO2 by volume and was in
contact with a liquid containing 0.4% SO2 by weight. Pressure and temperature
are 1 atm. and 323 K respectively. The overall gas phase mass transfer
coefficient is 7.36 ´ 10–10 kmol/m2 s. (N/m2). Of the total resistance 45% lies
in gas phase and 55% in the liquid phase.
Equilibrium data:
kg SO 2 /100 kg water 0.2 0.3 0.5 0.7
Partial pressure of SO 2 , mm Hg 29 46 83 119
(i) Estimate the film coefficients and overall mass transfer coefficient based
on liquid phase.
(ii) Estimate the molar flux based on film coefficients and overall transfer
coefficients.
Solution.
kg SO2 /100 kg water 0.2 0.3 0.5 0.7

Partial pressure SO2 mm Hg 29 46 83 119
x (mole fraction of SO2 in liquid phase) 10 4
5.63 8.46 14.11 19.79
y (mole fraction of SO2 in gas phase) 102 3.82 6.05 10.92 15.66
KG = 7.36 ´ 10–10 kmole/m2 s (N/m2).

Ky = KG P (based on Eq. 3.3)
= 7.36 ´ 10–10 ´ 1.013 ´ 105 = 7.456 ´ 10–5 kmol/m2 s. (mole fraction).
Resistance in gas phase (1/ky) is 0.45 of total resistance
Resistance in liquid phase is 0.55 of total resistance
We know that,
1 1 m

Ky k y kx
È 1 Ø
Resistance in gas phase = 0.45 ´ É 105 Ù
Ê 7.456 Ú
= 6035.4 m2 s (mole fraction)/kmol

Therefore,
ky = 1.657 ´ 10–4 kmol/m2 s (mole fraction).
È 1 Ø
Resistance in liquid phase (m¢/kx) = 0.55 ´ É 105 Ù
Ê 7.456 Ú
= 7376.6 m2 s (mole fraction)/kmol

The equilibrium relationship indicates a linear behaviour in the range of x from
0.0008 to 0.0012 and the value of slope of the equilibrium curve line (m¢) is 86.45.
Therefore,
kx = 0.0117 kmol/m2 s (mole fraction)
yA,G = 0.1
The liquid phase composition is 0.4 wt% of SO2
È 0.4 Ø
ÉÊ 64 ÙÚ
xA,L = = 0.001128
È 99.6 Ø È 0.4 Ø
+
ÉÊ 18 ÙÚ ÉÊ 64 ÙÚ
È k Ø
Slope of the line (to determine the interfacial compositions) É x Ù = –70.61
Ê ky Ú
It is also clear from the graph that the slope, m¢¢ is same as m¢ in the range
under consideration.
Hence,
m¢ = m¢¢ = 86.45
1 1 1
=
Kx kx m k y
1 1
= +
0.0117 86.45 1.657 10 4
Kx = 6.44 ´ 10–3 kmol/m2 s (mole fraction).
y*A = 0.083, x*A = 0.00132, yA,i = 0.0925 and xA,i = 0.00123
Flux based on overall coefficient:
Flux based on gas phase = Ky(yA,G – y*A)
= 7.456 ´ 10–5 (0.1 – 0.083)
= 1.268 ´ 10–6 kmol/m2 s.
Flux based on liquid phase = Kx(x*A – xA,L)
= 6.44 ´ 10–3 (0.00132 – 0.001128)
= 1.236 ´ 10–6 kmol/m2 s.
Flux based on film coefficient:
Flux based on gas phase = ky(yA,G – yA,i)
= 1.657 ´ 10–4 (0.1 – 0.0925)
= 1.243 ´ 10–6 kmol/m2 s.
Flux based on liquid phase = kx(xA,i – xA,L)
= 0.0117 (0.00123 – 0.001128)
= 1.193 ´ 10–6 kmol/m2 s.
0.16
0.14
Concentration of SO2 in gas phase (mole fraction)
0.12
y
(0.001128,0.1)
y¢A,G = 0.10 È M Ø
Z
É Ù
Ê M[ Ú
yA,i = 0.0925
y*A = 0.083
0.06
0.04
0.02 xA,i = 0.00123
X*A = 0.00132
xAL
0 4 8 12 16 20
x
Concentration of SO2 in liquid phase, X (104) (mole fraction)
9. Air at 27°C is flowing at a velocity of 1525 cm/s through a tube coated with
an acid of 25.4 mm in diameter. The length of the tube is 183 cm. Calculate
the concentration of acid at the outlet. Take
m = 1.786 ´ 10–4 P, r = 1.25 g/lit
DAB = 0.0516 cm2/s, CAs = 1.521 ´ 10–7 g mol/cc
Solution.
DVS 2.54 1525 1.25 103
Reynold’s number = 27110
N 1.786 10 4
N 1.786 10 4
Schmidt number = 2.77
S DAB 1.25 10 3 0.0516
Cf
0.036 (27110) 0.25
2
2.806 10 3
X
dx
Cf kc
(Sc) 2/3
2 u0
kc 2.806 10 3 (2.77) 2 / 3 1525 2.17 cm/s

Consider an elemental section of length dx at a distance of x from the point
of entry of air. Let the concentration of diffusing component be C in this
section and let it leave with a concentration of C + dC from this section. A
mass balance across this elemental section gives,
Rate of mass transfer = (Cross sectional area) (Air flow velocity) (dC)
È Q D2 Ø
= É Ù (V ) ( dC )
Ê 4 Ú
Flux for mass transfer from the surface = kc [CAs – C]
Therefore,
Rate of mass transfer = (Flux) (Mass transfer area)
= kc [CAs – C] p dx D
Equating the above two expressions for rate of mass tansfer, we get
(p D2/4) (V) (dC) = kc [CAs – C] p dx D
Rearranging,
(dC ) Ë kc Q D Û
Ì (V ) Ü dx
[CAs C ] Í (Q D /4)
2
Ý
(dC ) Ë 4 kc Û
[CAs C ] Ì DV Ü dx
Í Ý
On integrating between x = 0, C = Cin = 0

and
x = 183, C = Cfinal
On solving
Ë C Cfinal Û 4 kc
In Ì As Ü x
Í CAs Cin Ý DV
We get
Cfinal 5.117 10 8 g mol/cc
Then Rate of mass transfer = (Cross sectional area) (Air flow velocity)
(Cfinal – Cin)
È Q D2 Ø
É 4 Ù (V ) (Cfinal Cin )
Ê Ú
Ë Q (2.54)2 Û 8
Ì Ü [1525][5.117 10 ]
Í 4 Ý
3.95 104 g mol/s Ans.
EXERCISES
1. Air at 25°C and 50% relative humidity flows over water surface measuring
12 m ´ 6 m at a velocity of 2 m/s. Determine the water loss per day
considering flow direction is along the 12 m side. Diffusivity of water in air is
0.26 ´ 10–4 m2/s. Sc = 0.6 and Kinematic viscosity is 15.7 ´ 10–6 m2/s.
(Ans: 361.84 kg/day)
2. The absorption of solute A from a mixture is done in a wetted wall column
by a solvent at 1 atm. and 25°C. The value of mass transfer coefficient is
9.0 ´ 10–4 m/s. At a point, the mole fraction of A in the liquid gas interface
is 2.0 ´ 10–5 in the liquid phase. Partial pressure of A in the gas phase is
0.08 atm. Henry’s law relation is
pA = (600) xA in atm.
Calculate the rate of absorption of A.
(Ans: 2.5 ´ 10–6 kmol/m2 s)
3. Pure water at 27°C is flowing at a velocity of 3.5 m/s through a tube coated
with benzoic acid of 6 mm in diameter. The length of the tube is 1.25 m.
Calculate the concentration of benzoic acid at the outlet. Take µ = 0.871 cp;
r = 1 g/cc, DAB = 1.3 ´ 10–5 cm2/s, CAs = 0.03 g mol/lit.
(Ans: 1.017 ´ 10-3 kmol/m3)
4
EQUIPMENT FOR
GAS–LIQUID OPERATIONS
4.1 INTRODUCTION
The equipment used for gas–liquid operations are classified under two types,
1. stage contactors (bubble cap, valve trays and sieve tray columns) and
2. continuous contactors (packed towers and spray towers).
4.2 TRAY TOWERS

A typical tray tower is shown in Fig. 4.1. These are cylindrical towers with trays
or plates with a downspout to facilitate the flow of liquid from one tray to the other
by gravity. The gas passes upward through the openings of one sort or another, in
the trays and then passes through the liquid to form froth and subsequently
discharges from it and then passes on to the next tray located above. Each tray of
the tower acts as a stage, since there is an intimate contact between the gas phase
and liquid phase in each tray. In order to provide a longer contact time, the liquid
pool on each tray should be deep so that the gas bubbles will require relatively a
longer time to rise through the column of the liquid. When the gas velocity is
relatively high, it is dispersed very thoroughly into the liquid, which in turn is
agitated into froth. This provides large interfacial areas.
However, these lead to certain operational difficulties like entrainment of
droplets of liquid in the rising gas stream and a high-pressure drop for the gas in
flowing through the trays. The higher pressure drop also results in high pumping
cost and hence a higher operating cost. Especially, in the case of distillation, one
may need to maintain a higher pressure in the reboiler, which also results in a
higher boiling point that may lead to decomposition of heat sensitive compounds.
Sometimes a higher pressure drop also leads to a condition of flooding in
which there will be a gradual build-up of liquid in each tray and may ultimately
fill the entire space between the trays. The tower is said to be flooded and the liquid
72
Equipment for GasLiquid Operations 73
2 4
3
7 8
1. Gas out
2. Shell
9
3. Sieve tray
4. Liquid in
5. Downspout
6. Sidestream
10 withdrawal
7. Froth
8. Weir
9. Intermediate feed
10. Gas in
11 11. Liquid out
Fig. 4.1 Schematic section of a sieve-tray tower.
may escape from the top position of the column through the gas exit, which results
in lowering the efficiency.
In the case of gas–liquid systems, which tend to foam excessively, high gas
velocities may lead to a condition of priming. In such case the foam is present in
the space between trays and there is a great deal of liquid getting entrained with
the gas. The liquid carried is recirculated between trays and the added liquid
handling load gives rise to an increase in pressure drop leading to flooding.
If the liquid rates are too low, the gas rising through the openings of the tray
may push the liquid away, a phenomenon called coning resulting in poor gas-
liquid contact. When the gas rate is too low, much of the liquid may rain down
through the opening of tray, called weeping, thus failing to obtain the benefit of
complete flow over the trays. At very low gas rates, none of the liquid reaches the
downspouts and this is known as dumping.
4.2.1 General Features

Generally the towers are made of metals depending on the nature of gas and liquid
being handled. Some of them are made of glass or at times glass lined or made of
plastics. To facilitate the maintenance work, smaller towers are fitted with hand
holes and larger towers with manways. Trays are also made of metals or alloys and
are fastened suitably to the shell to prevent their movement owing to surges of gas.
Tray spacing is chosen on the basis of expediency in construction,
maintenance cost, flooding and entrainment. It varies from 15 cm. Tower diameter
should be sufficiently large to handle the gas and liquid rates under satisfactory
operating conditions. It can also be decreased by the use of increased tray spacing.
Hence, the cost of tower, which depends also on the height, can be optimized with
suitable tray spacing.
The liquid is drawn to the next lower tray by means of downcomers or
downspouts. These may be circular pipes or portion of the tower cross section set
aside for liquid flow by vertical plates. Since the liquid is agitated into froth on the
tray, sufficient time must be provided in the downspout, so that the gas gets
detached from the liquid and the liquid also flows down to the next lower tray. The
legs of the downcomer will normally dip in the liquid in the next lower tray, which
prevents short-circuiting of gas.
The depth of liquid on the tray required for gas contacting is maintained by
overflow weir, which may or may not be a continuation of the downspout plate.
Though straight weirs are common, V-notch weirs and circular weirs are also used.
Weir length varies from 60 to 80% of tower diameter.
Having seen some of the constructional features of the towers let us now
discuss the constructional features of trays.
4.3 TYPE OF TRAYS
4.3.1 Bubble Cap Trays

In these trays, chimneys or risers lead the gas through the tray and underneath
caps surrounding the risers. The gas passes through a series of slots cut into the rim
or skirt of each cap. The liquid depth is such that the caps are fully covered by them.
4.3.2 Sieve Trays

These are trays with perforations and the gas flows through them. The gas
dispersed by the perforations, expands the liquid into a turbulent froth and
results in providing enormous interfacial area for mass transfer. These trays are
subject to flooding because of backup of liquid in the downspouts or excessive
entrainment. In comparison to bubble caps these are quite simple and are also cost
effective.
4.3.3 Linde Trays

These are slotted trays which show an alteration in the perforation pattern
to influence the flow of liquid. The slots distributed all over the tray, not only
reduce the hydraulic gradient in large trays but also influence the direction of
liquid flow and eliminate stagnant areas. Thus, the efficiency of these trays are very
high.
4.3.4 Valve Trays

These are sieve trays with large variable openings for gas flow. The perforations
are covered with movable caps, which rise as the gas flow rate increases. Though
the gas pressure drop is low, it is higher than sieve trays. Due to small openings
the tendency to weep is also reduced.
4.3.5 Counter-flow Trays

In this liquid and vapour flow counter-currently through the same openings.
Downspout is absent in these trays. They are more suited for vacuum distillation
as the pressure drop is low.
4.4 TRAY EFFICIENCY

It is the fractional approach to an equilibrium stage, which is attained by a real tray.
The conditions at various locations on the tray differ and are not the same. Hence,
the efficiency varies at various locations.
Ë (yn,local yn +1, local ) Û

Point efficiency = Ì * Ü
ÌÍ (yn,local yn +1, local ) ÜÝ
(This depends on the particular place in the tray.)

Murphree tray efficiency: This is based on the bulk average concentrations of all
Ë (y yn +1 ) Û
the local pencils of gas = Ì n* Ü
ÍÌ (yn yn +1 ) ÝÜ
(n is tray under consideration, n + 1 is tray below the nth tray)
Number of ideal trays required
Overall tray efficiency = .
Number of real trays required
4.5 VENTURI SCRUBBER

This is similar to ejectors. Here a stream of absorbing liquid sprayed in the
convergent duct suction draws the gas into the throat of a venturi. These devices
will be useful when the liquid contains suspended solids, which may plug the plate/
packed towers. The pressure drop is also low.
4.6 WETTED-WALL TOWERS

In these towers as shown in Fig. 4.2, a thin film of liquid flows down the inner wall
of the empty vertical tube with the gas flowing co-currently or counter-currently.
Generally the flow of gas is countercurrent to liquid flow. These are normally used
for the measurement of mass transfer coefficient.
Liquid in
Gas
Fig. 4.2 Wetted wall column.
4.7 SPRAY TOWERS AND SPRAY CHAMBERS

In these units the liquid is sprayed into a gas stream by means of a nozzle as fine
droplets. The flow may be counter-current as in vertical towers with the liquid
flowing downward and gas upward. It can also be co-current as in the case of
horizontal spray chambers. Their main feature is the low pressure drop for gas.
However, it suffers from the disadvantage of high pumping cost for liquids as it has
to flow out through fine nozzles and also a very high entrainment of liquids with
gas, which necessitates the use of mist eliminators.
4.8 PACKED TOWERS

These are towers filled with packings and are used for continuous contact of liquid
and gas either co-currently or countercurrently. The presence of packing gives
enormous gas–liquid contact area. The liquid is distributed over the packings and
trickles down through the packed bed. A typical tower is shown in Fig. 4.3.
4.8.1 Characteristics of Packings

1. Should provide large interfacial surface between liquid and gas.
2. Should possess desirable fluid flow characteristics like low pressure drop
for gas and good enough to give high value mass transfer coefficients.
3. Chemically inert to the fluids being processed.
4. Should have good structural strength to permit easy handling and
installation.
5. Cost effective.
2
3
4
7
1. Gas out
2. Liquid in
3. Liquid distributor
4. Packing restrainer
5. Shell
6. Random packing
8 7. Liquid re-distributor
9 8. Packing support
9. Gas in
10
10. Liquid out
Fig. 4.3 Packed tower.
4.9 TYPES OF PACKINGS

There are two types of packings,
1. Random or dumped packing
2. Regular or stacked packing
4.9.1 Random Packing

In this type, packings are simply allowed to fall randomly. Earlier these were
materials like broken stone, gravel or coke. However, due to their poor surface
characteristics, they are now replaced by regular materials like Raschig rings, Berl
saddles, Pall rings etc. These are made of ceramics, metals or plastics. The material
of construction for these depends on the nature of fluid being handled. Ceramics
are good except when alkalis and hydrofluoric acid are being used. Metals are good
except in oxidising and corrosive atmospheres. Plastics deteriorate in presence of
organic solvents and also at high temperatures. Advantages with thin walled metal
and plastic packings over ceramics are the lightness in weight. With smaller size,
random packings offer large specific surface and hence large pressure drop.
However, with larger packing sizes the cost per unit volume is less. Packings in the
range of 25 mm to 50 mm are used for gas rates of 0.25 m3/s and 50 mm or larger
are used for gas rates of 1 m3/s. During installation, the tower is filled with water
and the packings are allowed to fall randomly. This prevents the disintegration of
packing materials during their fall. However, when the packings are made of
metals or plastics, one can drop them randomly. Some of the commonly used
packings are shown in Figs. 4.4(a–d).
(a) Raschig rings (b) Partition rings
(c) Berl saddle (d) Pall ring

Fig. 4.4 Random tower packing.
4.9.2 Regular Packing

In these packings there is an organised manner in which the packings are arranged
in the tower. The main feature of this is the low pressure for gas and higher fluid
flow rates compared to random packings. Stacked packings like stacked Raschig
rings, wood grids and woven wire screens are some of the examples for regular
packings. Some of the commonly used regular packings are shown in Fig. 4.5.
Wood grids
Fig. 4.5 Regular packing.
4.9.3 Shell
Tower shell is made of wood, metal, stoneware, acid proof brick, glass, plastic and
metals lined with glass or plastic used as material of construction depending on the
corrosive nature of the liquid or gas. They are generally circular in cross-section.
In most of the instances it is made of metal because of their strength and ease of
operation.
4.9.4 Packing Supports

The packing material is normally supported in the tower by means of supports. The
objective of these supports is not only that they should carry the weight of packings
but also ensure a proper flow of gas and liquid with minimum restriction. They are
also made of different materials like metals, ceramics and plastics.
4.9.5 Packing Restrainer

In order to prevent the lifting of packings, restrainers are provided at the top of the
packings. Heavy screens or bars can be used for this purpose. In the case of heavy
packing materials especially of ceramics, heavy bar plates resting freely on top of
the packing may be used. For plastics and other light weight packings, restrainer
is attached to the tower.
4.9.6 Liquid Distributors

The liquid distribution at the top of the tower must be uniform so that the wetting
of packing is uniform. A uniformly wetted packing is essential to have
effectiveness in mass transfer. With non-uniform distribution of liquid one has dry
packing which is ineffective for mass transfer. A ring of perforated pipe can be
used in small towers. For larger diameters it is necessary to provide a number of
liquid introduction points so that distribution is uniform.
4.9.7 Entrainment Eliminators

At high gas velocities the gas leaving the column may carry droplets of liquid as
a mist. The mist can be removed by passing the gas through a layer of mesh made
of wire or polymeric materials with about 99% voids or cyclones.
4.9.8 Channeling
As liquid flows down over the packings as thin film, the films tend to grow thicker
in some places and thinner in others and liquid collects into small rivulets and
flows along some localised paths. At low liquid rates much of the packing surface
may be dry or, at the most, covered by a stagnant film of liquid. This effect is
known as channeling. Channeling is more severe in stacked packings than in
dumped packings.
4.9.9 Loading
Pressure drop in a packed bed is basically due to fluid friction. As the gas flow rate
is increased, the pressure drop per unit length of packing increases. Pressure drop
is low when the packing is dry. With increase in liquid flow rate, pressure drop
increases as it reduces the space available for gas flow. When the packing is
gradually wetted with a constant flow of liquid, initially there is a linear
relationship between pressure drop and gas flow rate and is parallel to that of dry
packing as shown in Fig. 4.6. The linear line becomes steeper at moderate gas
velocities since the gas flow retards the down flowing liquid resulting in an
increase in liquid hold up. The point at which the liquid holdup starts to increase,
as indicated by a change in slope of the pressure drop–gas flow rate relationship
is called the loading point.
Flooding
B
log DP/Z, Pressure drop/height
Loading
A
0
L=
0
00
18
g,
kin
=
L
pac
800
Dry
L=
Log G, Superficial gas mass velocity

Fig. 4.6 Loading and flooding.
4.9.10 Flooding
With further increase in velocity of gas (beyond loading point) the pressure drop
increases rapidly and pressure drop–gas flow rate relationship becomes almost
vertical. At some portions of the column, the liquid becomes the continuous phase
and the flooding point is said to be reached, and the accumulation of liquid is rapid
and the entire column may be filled with liquid. Hence, while a bed is being
operated, the gas velocity must be lesser than the flooding velocity and as flooding
is approached, most or the entire packing surface is wetted, maximising the gas–
liquid contact area.
As we design a column, we must choose a velocity lower than the flooding
velocity. This will lead to a larger column diameter. The flooding velocity depends
on the type and size of packing, liquid velocity and properties of liquid and gas.
Several correlations are available in literature relating the pressure drop with
flooding velocity for the design of packed columns.
4.10 COMPARISON OF PACKED TOWERS WITH

PLATE TOWERS
Sl. No. Criterion Packed towers Plate towers
1. Gas pressure drop Low–very useful in High
vacuum distillation
2. Holdup Low and hence very High
useful in handling heat
sensitive materials
(especially in distillation)
3. Liquid/gas ratios High values are preferred Low values are
preferred
4. Liquid cooling Not so easy Heat evolved can
easily be removed.
5. Foaming systems Can easily handle Not so easy
6. Removal as side Not so easy More easy
streams
7. Handling of corrosive Not preferred More preferred as
systems trays can easily be
replaced.
8. Cleaning Not easy as plate trays Easier
9. Thermal strain Fragile packings tend to Trays are more
crush. However, metallic satisfactory under
packings withstand the these circumstances.
strain
10. Presence of solids in Not suitable Not suitable
gas or liquid stream
11. Floor loading Plastic packed towers are Intermediate (They
lighter than tray towers. are designed for the
Ceramic and metal packed complete filling of
towers are heavier than tower with liquid)
tray towers. (They are
designed for the complete
filling of tower with liquid)
12. Cost Not easy to predict Not easy to predict.
5
HUMIDIFICATION
5.1 INTRODUCTION
Humidification operation is a classical example for an interphase transfer of mass
and energy, when a gas and a pure liquid are brought into intimate contact. The
term humidification is used to designate a process where the liquid is transferred
to gas phase and dehumidification indicates a process where the transfer is from
gas phase to liquid phase. The matter transferred between phases in both the cases
is the substance which constitutes liquid phase and it either vapourises or
condenses indicating either humidification or dehumidification process.
5.2 DEFINITIONS
The substance that is transferred (vapour) is designated by A and the main gas
phase is designated by B.
5.2.1 Molal Absolute Humidity (Y)

It is defined as the moles of vapour carried by a unit mole of vapour free gas.
È yA Ø È pA Ø
Ë pA Û moles of A
Y Ì Ü=
ÊÉ yB ÚÙ ÊÉ pB ÙÚ
Í ( Pt pA ) Ý moles of B
(5.1)
where yA, yB are moles of A and B respectively, pA is the partial pressure of A and
Pt is total pressure.
When the quantities yA and yB are expressed in mass, then it is called mass
absolute humidity (Y ¢) or Grosvenor humidity.
ÈM Ø Ë pA Û È M A Ø mass of A
Y Y .É A Ù Ì ÜÉ Ù = (5.2)
Ê MB Ú Í ( Pt pA ) Ý Ê M B Ú mass of B
5.2.2 Saturated Absolute Humidity (YS)

When the vapour-gas mixture is saturated, then the partial pressure becomes equal
to the vapour pressure of that substance.
82
Humidification 83
PAË PA Û
YS Ì Ü (5.3)
PBÍ ( Pt PA ) Ý
When the quantities are expressed in mass,
ÈP ØÈM Ø Ë PA ÛÈ MA Ø
YS = É A Ù É A Ù = Ì Ü
Ê PB Ú Ê M B Ú Í (Pt PA ) Ý ÉÊ M B ÙÚ
(5.4)
5.2.3 Dry Bulb Temperature (DBT)

The temperature indicated by the thermometer by ordinary immersion in the
vapour–gas mixture is called dry bulb temperature.
5.2.4 Relative Humidity or Relative Saturation (% RH)

It is normally expressed as a percentage. If pA is the partial pressure under a given
condition and PA is the vapour pressure at any dry bulb temperature (DBT) of the
mixture then,
Èp Ø
% RH = É A Ù ´ 100 (5.5)
Ê PA Ú
5.2.5 Percentage Saturation or Percentage

Humidity (Hp)
It is defined as the percentage of humidity under given condition to the humidity
under the saturated condition.
ÈYØ
Hp = É Ù ´ 100 (5.6)
Ê Ys Ú
5.2.6 Dew Point
This is the temperature tDP at which a vapour–gas mixture becomes saturated when
cooled at constant total pressure out of contact with a liquid. Moment the
temperature is reduced below dew point, vapour will condense as a liquid dew.
5.2.7 Humid Heat

The humid heat CS is the heat required to raise the temperature of unit mass of gas
and its accompanying vapour by one degree at constant pressure.
CS = CAY¢ + CB (5.7)
where CA and CB are specific heats of vapour and gas respectively.
5.2.8 Enthalpy
The enthalpy of a vapour–gas mixture is the sum of the enthalpies of the gas and
of the vapour content. For a gas at a DBT of tG, with a humidity of Y¢, the enthalpy
relative to the reference state t0 is,
H ¢ = Enthalpy of gas + Enthalpy of vapour component
= CB (tG – t0) + Y¢[CA (tG – tDP) + lDP + CA,L (tDP – t0)] (5.8)
where lDP is latent heat of vaporisation at dew point and CA,L is specific heat of
component A (vapour) in liquid phase.
This expression can further be simplified as low pressures are normally
encountered in humidification operations. Let us consider the point P in Fig. 5.1,
which actually lies on a line of constant pressure corresponding to the partial
pressure of the vapour in the mixture and, for all practical purposes can be
considered as lying on the line whose pressure is the saturation pressure of the
vapour at the reference temperature or at P'.
Line of
s ure constant
p res pressure
w
Lo
t
cri
P¢
P
H1
Relative enthalpy
Saturated P vapour
vapour
Critical point
H2 T
s
H3 Saturated
liquid
t0 tG tcrit
Temperature
Fig. 5.1 Typical enthalpy—temperature diagram for a pure substance.
The vapour enthalpy can then be computed by the following path P¢TS and
becomes enthalpy per unit mass of vapour, CA (tG – t0) + l0, where l0 is the latent
heat of vaporisation at the reference temperature. The enthalpy of the mixture, per
unit mass of dry gas is then,
H ¢ = CB (tG – t0) + Y ¢ [CA(tG – t0) + l0]
= CS (tG – t0) + Y¢l0 (5.9)
5.2.9 Humid Volume

The humid volume, VH of a vapour gas mixture is the volume of unit mass of dry
gas and it is accompanying vapour at the prevailing temperature and pressure. The
expression for humid volume in m3/kg of dry gas is
Ë 1 Y Û Ë (tG 273) Û Ë 1.013 105 Û
VH Ì Ü 22.41 Ì ÜÌ Ü
Í MB MA Ý Í 273 Ý ÍÌ Pt ÜÝ
Ë 1 Y Û Ë tG 273 Û (5.10)
8315 Ì ÜÌ Ü
Í MB MA ÝÍ Pt Ý
2
where Pt is the total pressure in N/m .
A typical psychrometric chart is shown in Fig. 5.2 from which the various
properties of air–water system can be obtained. Alternatively, the equations given
above can be used.
vapour
0.06
Humidification
85
Fig. 5.2 Psychrometric chart at 1 atm. pressure.

5.3 ADIABATIC SATURATION CURVES

Consider a system as shown in Fig. 5.3. A feed stream of gas is contacted with a
liquid spray and as a result of diffusion and heat transfer between the gas and
liquid, the gas leaves the system humidified. Assuming the operation to be
adiabatic, we obtain the following.
L¢L’HHLL¢’ ttLL
GS’ Y1’ GS’ Y2’

HG1’s¢tG1
Y1¢ GHs2¢’ YtG2
2¢
H1¢ tG1¢ H2¢ tG2¢
Fig. 5.3 Adiabatic chamber.
A mass balance for vapour transferred yields,

L¢ = GS¢ (Y2¢ – Y1¢) (5.11)
Enthalpy balance yields
GS¢ H1¢ + L¢ HL = GS¢ H2¢ (5.12)
i.e. H1¢ + (Y2¢ – Y1¢) HL = H2¢ (5.13)
Using the definition for enthalpy, Eq. (5.13) is modified as
CS1(tG1 – t0) + Y1¢l0 + (Y2¢ – Y1¢)CA,L(tL – t0) = CS2(tG2 – t0) + Y2¢l0 (5.14)
If the gas mixture leaving the system is fully saturated and hence the various
quantities are denoted as tas, Yas , Has and if the liquid enters at tas, Eq. (5.14)
becomes
[CB (tG1 – t0) + Y1¢ CA (tG1 – t0)] + Y 1¢l0 + [ Yas – Y1¢] CA,L (tas – t0)
= [CB (tas – t0) + Yas CA (tas – t0)] + Yas l0 (5.15)
By subtracting Y1¢CA tas from both sides and further simplifying, we get
Eq. (5.15) as
(CB + Y1¢ CA) (tG1 – tas) = CS1 (tG1 – tas)
= ( Yas – Y 1¢) [CA(tas – t0) + l0 – CA,L(tas – t0)] (5.16)
i.e. CS1 (tG1 – tas) = ( Yas – Y 1¢ (las) (5.17)
È Mas Ø
or (tG1 – tas) = ( Yas – Y1¢) É (5.18)
Ê CS1 ÙÚ
Equation (5.18) is the adiabatic saturation curve on the psychromatic chart which
passes through ( Yas tas) and (Y'1 tG1) on the 100% curve. Since CS1 contains the
term Y¢1, in Eq. (5.18) represents a curve. Thus for any vapour–gas mixture, there
is an adiabatic saturation temperature tas, such that if contacted with liquid at tas,
the gas will get cooled and humidified. If the contact time is large enough, the gas
will become saturated at ( Yas tas) and if the contact time is insufficient, it will leave
at (Y2¢ tG2).
Humidification 87
5.4 WET BULB TEMPERATURE (WBT)

It is the steady state temperature attained by a small amount of liquid evaporating
into a large amount of unsaturated vapour–gas mixture. To measure the wet bulb
temperature, a thermometer or an equivalent temperature measuring device such as
a thermocouple is covered by a wick which is saturated with pure liquid and
immersed in a stream of moving gas having a definite temperature and humidity.
The ultimate temperature attained is called wet bulb temperature and will be less
than the dry bulb temperature (if the gas is unsaturated). If the wet bulb
temperature is to be measured accurately, the following precautions will have to be
followed.
(i) The wick must be completely wet.
(ii) The velocity of air should be fairly large.
(iii) The make up liquid, if supplied to the bulb should be at the wet bulb
temperature.
5.4.1 Theory of Wet Bulb Thermometry

Consider a drop of liquid immersed in a rapidly moving stream of unsaturated
vapour–gas mixture shown below in Fig. 5.4. If the liquid is initially at a
temperature higher than the dew point of vapour, the vapour pressure of the liquid
will be higher at the drop surface than the partial pressure of vapour in the gas and
hence the liquid will evaporate and diffuse into the gas. The latent heat required
for evaporation is supplied at the expense of sensible heat of liquid drop due to
which the temperature of the droplet will reduce. As the liquid temperature is
reduced below the dry bulb temperature of the gas, heat will flow from gas to the
liquid at an increasing rate due to large temperature difference. Ultimately, the rate
of heat transfer from the gas to the liquid will be equal to the rate of heat required
for evaporation and ultimately the temperature of the liquid will remain constant
at some low value, tw.
Liquid
Liquid drop
drop tGY¢
ttwW
Fig. 5.4 The wet bulb temperature.
Here both heat and mass transfer occur simultaneously. The heat lost by gas to the
liquid per hour, Q, is given by,
Q = h A (tG – tw) (5.19)
where h is the heat transfer coefficient in kJ/hr m2 K, A is the area of heat transfer in
m2, tG is the dry bulb temperature in K and tw is the wet bulb temperature in K.
The mass of liquid evaporated per hour,

W = kC A [CA1 – CA2) Mw] (5.20)
where kC is mass transfer coefficient, m2/hr, A is area of mass transfer, m2, CA1 and
CA2 are concentrations of water vapour at the liquid–gas film and surrounding air
respectively in kmole/m3 and Mw is molecular weight of water in kg/kmole.
Equation (5.20) can be modified in terms of pressure and temperature as,
[( M w )( pA1 pA2 )]
W kC A (5.21)
RT
where T is temperature, K, pA1 and pA2 are partial pressure of water vapour at the
interface and in the surrounding air respectively, N/m2 and R is gas constant
J/kmole K. Humidity at the interface is given by
Ë Pw Û Ë Mw Û
Y1 Ì ÜÌ Ü (5.22)
(
Í t P Pw Ý Í MA Ý
)
where Pw is vapour pressure of water N/m2, Pt is total pressure of water in

N/m2 and MA is molecular weight of air in kg/kmole.
Humidity in the surrounding air is given by,
Ë pw Û Ë Mw Û
Y2 = Ì Ü Ì Ü (5.23)
Í ( Pt pw ) Ý Í M A Ý
where pw is partial pressure of water in N/m2, Pt is total pressure of water in
N/m2 and MA is molecular weight of air in kg/kmole.
By substituting Eqs. (5.22) and (5.23) in Eq. (5.21) is modified as
Í
A Mw Ë È MA Ø ÈM Ø Ì
W = kC . Ì É Ù (Pt – Pw)Y1¢ – É A Ù Y2¢ (Pt – pw) Ë (5.24)
RT Í Ê M w Ú Ê Mw Ú
ÈM Ø
= kC . A É A Ù [(Pt – Pw)Y1¢ – Y2¢(Pt – pw)] (5.25)
Ê RT Ú
In humidification operations, especially when the temperatures are low, Pw and pw
are small in comparison to Pt and hence neglected. Now the Eq. (5.25) gets
simplified to
ÈM PØ
W = kC . A É A t Ù (Y1¢ – Y2¢) (5.26)
Ê RT Ú
If l is the latent heat of vaporisation in kJ/kg, then the heat required for
evaporation is given by,
ÈM PØ
QEvap = Wl = kC Al É A t Ù [Y1¢ – Y2¢] (5.27)
Ê RT Ú
Humidification 89
By the principle of wet bulb thermometry, we know

Heat lost by the gas = Heat required for evaporation (5.28)
Substituting in Eq. (5.28) from Eqs. (5.19) and (5.27), we get
ÈM PØ
h.A (tG – tw) = kC Al É A t Ù [Y1¢ – Y2¢] (5.29)
Ê RT Ú
Èk Ø ÈM PØ Èk Ø
(tG – tw) = É C Ù l É A t Ù [Y1¢ – Y2¢] = É C Ù lMAC [Y1¢ – Y2¢] (5.30)
Ê h Ú Ê RT Ú Ê h Ú
By the definition of mass transfer coefficient
ky = kC . C (5.31)
Ë M Û
\ (tG tw ) = Ì k y M ¹ A Ü [Y1 Y2] (5.32)
Í h Ý
From Chilton–Colburn analogy, we have
È h Ø 2/3 È kC Ø 2/3 È ky Ø 2/3
ÉÊ S C u ÙÚ (Pr) ÉÊ u ÙÚ (Sc) É Ù (Sc)
Ê Cu0 Ú
(5.33)
P 0 0
On simplification,
È Sc Ø
2/3 Ë h Û Ë hC Û
ÉÊ Pr ÙÚ [Le]2/3 Ì Ü Ì Ü (5.34)
ÍÌ S C p kc ÝÜ ÍÌ S C p k y ÝÜ
where Le is Lewis number. Substituting Eq. (5.34) in Eq. (5.32), gives
Ë (Y Y )M Û Ë C M Û
(tG tw ) = Ì 1 2/3 2 Ü Ì Ü ; since CMA = r
A
ÌÍ (Le) C p ÜÝ Í S Ý
Then,
(Y1 Y2)M
(tG t w ) (5.35)
(Le) 2/3 C p
The quantity (tG – tw) is called the wet bulb depression. For the system of
air–water at ordinary conditions, the humid heat CS is almost equal to the specific
heat Cp and the Lewis number is approximately unity.
Therefore,
(Y1 Y2)M
(tG – tw) = (5.36)
CS
Now it can be inferred on comparing Eq. (5.18) with Eq. (5.36), both the equations
are identical. The adiabatic saturation curve (line) and the wet bulb temperature
(line) merge in the case of air–water system only since Lewis number is unity for
that system. For the other systems, adiabatic saturation curve and wet bulb
temperature lines are different.
5.5 GAS–LIQUID OPERATIONS

Some of the following examples are under adiabatic operations and non-adiabatic
operations:
5.5.1 Adiabatic Operations

(i) Cooling a liquid: It occurs by transfer of sensible heat and also by
evaporation. Its main application is in cooling towers where the water is
cooled.
(ii) Cooling a hot gas: By providing a direct contact between hot gas and
liquid, cooling of gas is effected. Fouling in heat exchangers is avoided.
However, this is used only when vapours which come out from liquid are
not objectionable.
(iii) Humidifying a gas: For controlling the humidity in air, this is more
desirable—used in preparing air for drying.
(iv) Dehumidifying a gas: By direct contact with a cold liquid, vapours are
condensed and removed. This finds application in drying and recovery of
solvent vapours from gases.
5.5.2 Non-adiabatic Operations

(i) Evaporative cooling: A liquid or gas inside a pipe is cooled by water
flowing in a film over the outside of the pipe and the latter in turn is cooled
by direct contact with air.
(ii) Dehumidifying a gas: A gas–vapour mixture is brought into contact with
pipes through which a refrigerant flows and the vapour condenses on the
surface of pipes.
5.6 DESIGN OF COOLING TOWER

The operation of prime importance in industries is cooling hot water from heat
exchangers, condensers and the like by direct contact with air for re-use. As the
latent heat of vaporisation is so large, even a small amount of vaporisation will
produce a very large cooling effect. This principle is used in the design and
operation of a cooling tower. These are usually carried out in some sort of packed
tower and generally a countercurrent flow of gas and liquid will be adopted.
The schematic arrangement with various streams and their properties are shown
in Fig. 5.5.
Consider a differential section of height dZ from the bottom of the tower j
wherein the change in humidity of air is dY ¢.
The amount of moisture transferred to air = GS [dY ¢] (5.37)
Humidification 91
L2 G2, G s, tG2
tL2¢ H¢2, Y¢2 Film
HL2¢
Liquid tL Gas tG
2
Z YG
dY ¢
1 Yf¢
L1, tL1¢, tf
G1, Gs¢, tG1
HL1¢ H1¢, Y1¢
Fig. 5.5 Flow of streams in a counter-current cooling tower.
Making an enthalpy balance for the water and air stream we get,
Heat gained by gas = Heat lost by the liquid.
GS . dHG = L . dHL (5.38)
We know,
dHG = CS dtG + λ0 dY ¢
dHL = CL dtL
Integrating Eq. (5.38) between junctions (1) and (2), yield
GS [HG2 – HG1] = L[HL2 – HL1]
i.e. GS [HG2 – HG1] = LCL [tL2 – tL1] (5.39)
Heat transfer rate per unit cross-sectional area of the bed for the liquid side is
hL a dZ (tL – tf) = L CL dtL (5.40)
Heat flux for the air is
hG a dZ (tf – tG) = GS CS dtG (5.41)
Mass flux from the gas side is
ky a dZ (Yf¢ – YG¢) = Gs dY ¢ (5.42)
We know for air–water system, Lewis number is unity.
h h
i.e. = 1.0
SC p kc CS k y
i.e. hG = kyCS (5.43)

Substituting Eq. (5.43) in Eq. (5.41), we get
ky a CS dZ (tf – tG) = GS CS dtG (5.44)
Multiplying both sides of Eq. (5.42) by λ, gives

ky adZ [Yf¢ – Y ¢G] λ = GS λ dY ¢ (5.45)
Adding Eq. (5.44) and (5.45) gives and rearranging, we get
GS [CS dtG + λ dY¢] = ky a dZ [CS (tf – tG) + λ(Yf¢ – YG¢)]
= ky a dZ [(CS tf + λYf¢) – (CS tG + λYG¢)] (5.46)
Modifying Eq. (5.46) in terms of enthalpy gives,
GS dHG = ky a dZ [Hf – HG] (5.47)
Integrating Eq. (5.47) yields
2 Z
dH G È kya Ø È kya Ø
Ô
1
(H f HG )
= É
Ê GS Ú
Ù Ô0
dZ = É
Ê GS Ú
ÙZ (5.48)
or Z = NtG . HtG (5.49)

2
dH G È G Ø
where NtG =
Ô
1
(H f HG )
and HtG = É S Ù
Ê ky a Ú
Equation (5.48) can be used to estimate the height of cooling tower. Already, we
have deduced Eqs. (5.38) and (5.40)
GS dHG = L dHL = L CL dtL (by definition of dHL)
According to Eqs. (5.40) and (5.47), hL a dZ (tL – tf) = L CL dtL
GS dHG = ky a dZ (Hf – HG)

Combining Eqs. (5.38) and (5.40) and (5.47), we finally have
hL a dZ (tL – tf) = ky a dZ (Hf – HG) (5.50)
Ë ( H f HG ) Û hL È (H f HG ) Ø Èh Ø
i.e. Ì Ü or É Ù É L Ù (5.51)
ÌÍ (t L t f ) ÜÝ ky Ê (t f t L ) Ú Ê ky Ú
Equation (5.51) gives the interfacial conditions which can be used in L.H.S. of
Eq. (5.48) for estimating the height of the cooling tower. However, if the overall
driving force and the bulk fluid properties are used, the film conditions are
replaced by equilibrium properties and Eq. (5.49) takes the form
Z = NtOG . HtOG (5.52)
where 2
Number of overall gas transfer units, NtOG =
Ô dH /(H* – H )
1
G G
Humidification 93
and
Height of overall gas transfer units, HtOG = GS/Kya
Steps involved in the use of above procedure for the design of cooling tower.
Step 1: Construct equilibrium curve
Draw the temperature—Enthalpy diagram.
Step 2: Draw the operating line.
Heat lost by liquid = Heat gained by gas.
LCL (tL2 – tL1) = GS (HG2 – HG1)
Ë ( HG 2 HG1 ) Û È LCL Ø
Ì Ü ÉÊ G ÙÚ
Í (t L 2 t L1 ) Ý S
The minimum air flow requirement is obtained by drawing a tangent to

the temperature–enthalpy curve from (tL1, HG1) point.
Step 3: Interfacial conditions.
Determine the interfacial conditions using Eq. (5.51)
Ë H f HG Û Èh Ø
Ì Ü É L Ù
ÍÌ t f t L ÝÜ Ê ky Ú
by drawing lines with a slope of –(hL/ky) from operating line to
equilibrium curve
or
Ë ( H * HG ) Û Èh Ø
Ì Ü É L Ù
Í (t t L ) Ý Ê ky Ú
Step 4: Find interfacial properties or equilibrium properties as the case may be

and determine
(Hf – HG) or (H* – HG)
Step 5: Graphically determine
dH G
Ô (H f HG )
= NtG
or
dH G
Ô ( H * HG )
= NtOG
and find the height of the tower by NtG ´ HtG or NtOG ´ HtOG
The difference between the temperature of liquid at the exit and the wet bulb
temperature of entering air is called the wet bulb temperature approach. In the
design of cooling towers, this is ordinarily specified to be from 2.5°C to 5°C.
Make up fresh water in re-circulating water system must be added to replace

losses from entrainment (drift or windage), evaporation losses and blow down.
Windage losses can be estimated as 0.1 to 0.3 per cent of re-circulation rate for
induced draft towers. If the make up water also contains dissolved salts, a small
amount of water is discarded to keep the salt concentration at a specified level.
5.7 RE-CIRCULATING LIQUID–GAS

HUMIDIFICATION–COOLING
This is a case where the liquid enters the tower at the adiabatic saturation
temperature of the entering gas mixture. This is normally achieved by re-
circulating the exit liquid back to the tower. The gas not only gets cooled but also
humidified in the process along the adiabatic saturation curve which passes
through the entering gas conditions. Depending upon the degree of contact, the
gas will approach the equilibrium conditions. A typical arrangement is shown in
Fig. 5.6. Based on the temperature and humidity changes which lie in the gas
phase, the mass balance is
GsdY¢ = ky a(Yas¢ – Y ¢)dZ (5.53)
LL22’
ttas
as GSS,’,Y Y
¢2 2
tG2
GSS,’,YY11¢ ’
LL11,’,tastas tG1
G1
make up
Fig. 5.6 Schematic arrangement of re-circulation humidifier.
Z
dY k ya
i.e.
(Yas Y ) Gs Ô dZ
0
(5.54)
¢ is constant, integration yields,

and since Y as
⎡ (Y ′ − Y1′) ⎤ ⎛ k y a ⎞
ln ⎢ as ⎥ =⎜ ⎟Z (5.55)
⎣ (Yas′ − Y2′ ) ⎦ ⎝ GS ⎠
È Gs Ø ÑÎ Ë Yas Y1 Û ÑÞ
i.e. Z= É Ù Ïln Ì Üß (5.56)
Ê kya Ú ÑÐ Í Yas Y2 Ý Ñà
Z = (HtG) (NtG) (5.57)
Humidification 95
where
G
HtG =
kya
and
Ë (Yas Y1 ) Û
NtG = ln Ì Ü
Í (Yas Y2) Ý
[(Yas Y1) (Yas Y2 )]

Let (ΔY ¢)av = (5.58)
Ë (Y Y1) Û
ln Ì as Ü
Í (Yas Y2 ) Ý
(Y2 Y1)
(ΔY ¢)av = (5.59)
Ë (Y Y1) Û
ln Ì as Ü
Í (Yas Y2) Ý
Ë (Y Y1) Û Ë (Y2 Y1)Û

∴ ln Ì as Ü = Ì Ü (5.60)
Í (Yas Y2) Ý Í ('Y )av Ý
Substituting Eq. (5.60) in Eq. (5.56) gives

Ë G Û Ë (Y Y1)Û
Z = Ì S ÜÌ 2 Ü (5.61)
ÌÍ k y a ÜÝ Í ('Y )av Ý
Z = (HtG) (NtG)
where
ÈG Ø
HtG = É S Ù
Ê kya Ú
and
Ë (Y Y1) Û
NtG = Ì 2 Ü
Í ( 'Y )av Ý
Since the humidity of gas in equilibrium with liquid is Y¢as Murphree gas-phase
stage efficiency is
Ë (Y2 Y1) Û
Ì Ü
Í (Yas Y1) Ý
Ë (Y Y ) Û (Y Y )
h = Ì 2 1
Ü =1–
as 2
(5.62)
( Y
Í as Y1)Ý (Yas Y1)
From Eq. (5.57) h = 1 – exp(–NtG) (5.63)

5.8 EQUIPMENTS
There are various types of equipments available in industries for humidification
operations and they are discussed below.
5.8.1 Packed Cooling Towers

As with any other operations, the cost of installation and operation will have to
be minimum. As the operation involves almost a continuous contact with water,
the framework and packing materials should posses good durability in such
environment. Red wood is impregnated suitably with coal tar creosote.
Pentachlorophenols and the like is commonly used for framework. Nowadays,
towers made of plastic are also used. The internal packing, which is a staggered
arrangement of horizontal slats, could be made of wood or plastic materials.
Normally, more than 90% of the tower will have voids such that the pressure drop
is very low. Tray towers are not used for these operations.
Typical arrangements of cooling tower is shown in Fig. 5.7.
Water Air
Air Water
Air Air
Water
Air Air
Air
Water Water
Water
(a) Atmospheric (b) Natural draft (c) Forced draft
air
Water
Water Water
Air
Water Water
(d) Countercurrent draft (e) Crosscurrent draft
Fig. 5.7 Cooling tower arrangement.
Humidification 97
The types, shown in Fig. 5.7(a) and (b), are atmospheric towers depend on
air movement. In natural draft towers (b) depend upon displacement of warm
inside air by the cool air from outside. Chimney is needed in this type of towers.
These find application in places where the humidity and air temperatures are low.
In types (c), (d) and (e) due to the provision of air by fans more uniform
distribution of air can be expected. Chimneys are not needed in these
arrangements. Whenever fogging is common, finned type heat exchangers can be
used to evaporate the fog by heat from the hot water to be cooled.
5.8.2 Spray Chambers

A typical spray chamber is shown in Fig. 5.8. They are generally used for
humidification and cooling operations under adiabatic conditions. They can also
be used for dehumidification process. They are provided with heaters both at the
inlet and outlet points of air. Preheating of air is necessary when large humidity
changes are needed. Same thing can be achieved by using hot water in the spray
chamber. Similarly by using water at a low temperature, dehumidification can be
achieved. Operations of this nature is useful in providing conditioned air for
different applications.
1 2 3 4 2
Fresh air Humidified air
5
1. Filter 2. Heater 3. Nozzle manifold 4. Entrainment eliminators 5. Pump
Fig. 5.8 Schematic arrangement of a spray chamber.
The process is shown in a typical psychrometric chart of Fig. 5.9.
100% saturation
Humidity
Final heating
Leaving air
Humidification and
Entering air
adiabatic cooling
Preheating
T
Fig. 5.9 Process in a spray chamber.
5.8.3 Spray Ponds

They are also used for cooling water where close approach to the air-wet bulb
temperature is not required. Examples for this are the water fountains, where the
water is thrown up as a spray in air and the liquid falls back into the collection
basin. Generally, these operations show high windage losses of water.
WORKED EXAMPLES
1. An air (B) – water (A) sample has a dry bulb temperature of 50°C and a wet
bulb temperature of 35°C. Estimate its properties at a total pressure of 1 atm.
1 atm = 1.0133 ´ 105 N/m2
Average molecular weight of air = 28.84
Solution.
(i) Y ¢ (Chart) = 0.03 kg water vapour/kg dry air
= 0.0483 kmol/kmol
(ii) % Humidity (Chart) = 35%
(iii) % Relative saturation = Partial pressure/Vapour pressure
Partial pressure under the given condition is given by
pA
Molal humidity =
( Pt p A )
pA
0.0483 =
[1.0133 105 p A ]
Hence, partial pressure, pA = 0.04672 ´ 105 N/m2

Vapour pressure of water (steam tables) at 50°C = 92.55 mm = 0.1234 ´
105 N/m2
\ % R.H. = 37.86%
(iv) Dew point = 31.5°C
(v) Humid heat = CS = CB + CA Y ′
= 1.005 + 1.884 (0.03) = 1.062 kJ/kg dry air °C
(vi) Enthalpy (for a reference temperature of 0°C)
(a) H = CS (tG – t0) + Y ¢ λ0
λ0 = 2502 kJ/kg
= 1.062 (50 – 0) + (0.03) (2502) = 128.16 kJ/kg
(b) Enthalpy of saturated air = 274 kJ/kg
Enthalpy of dry air = 50 kJ/kg
\ Enthalpy of wet air = 50 + (274 – 50) (0.35) = 128.4 kJ/kg
Humidification 99
(vii) Humid volume (VH)

ËÈ 1 Ø È Y Ø Û Ë (tG 273) Û
(a) VH = 8315 ÌÉ Ù É ÙÜÌ Ü
ÌÍÊ M B Ú Ê M A Ú ÜÝ Í Pt Ý
ËÈ 1 Ø È Y ØÛË 325 Û
= 8315 Ì É Ù + ÉÊ 18 ÙÚ Ü Ì 5 Ü
Í Ê 28.84 Ú Ý Í (1.0133 10 ) Ý
= 0.969 m3 mixture/kg of dry air
(b) Specific volume of saturated air = 1.055 m3/ kg
Specific volume of dry air = 0.91 m3/kg
By interpolation vH = 0.91 + (1.055 – 0.91) (0.35)
= 0.961 m3/kg of dry air Ans.
2. Air is entering into a cooling tower with characteristics as follows:
Dry bulb temperature = 25°C, Wet bulb temperature = 22°C and Pressure =
1 atm. Find (i) humidity, (ii) % humidity, (iii) % relative humidity, (iv) dew
point and (v) enthalpy.
Solution.
From psychrometric chart,
(i) Humidity = 0.0145 kg water/kg dry air Ans.
(ii) % humidity = 61%. Ans.
(iii) YS′ (Saturation humidity) = 0.0255 kg water/kg dry air
Ë PA Û Ë 18 Û
YS′ = Ì Ü Ì Ü
(
Í t P P )
A Ý Í 28.84 Ý
Ë PA Û Ë 18 Û
0.0255 = Ì ÜÌ Ü
Í (1 PA ) Ý Í 28.84 Ý
Vapour pressure, PA = 0.0393 atm.
Ë pA Û Ë 18 Û
Y′ = Ì Ü Ì Ü
Í ( pt pA ) Ý Í 28.84 Ý
Ë pA Û Ë 18 Û
0.0145 = Ì ÜÌ Ü
Í (1 pA ) Ý Í 28.84 Ý
pA = 0.0227 atm.
Èp Ø
R.H. = É A Ù ´ 100
Ê PA Ú
R.H. = (0.0227/0.0393) ´ 100 = 57.77% Ans.
(iv) Dew point = 19.5°C Ans.

(v) Humid heat, CS = 1005 + 1884 Y ′
= 1005 + 1884 ´ 0.0145 = 1032.32 J/kg °C
Enthalpy, H = CS tG + 2502300 Y ′
= (1032.32 ´ 25) + (2502300 ´ 0.0145)
= 65188.25 J/kg dry air. Ans.
3. A mixture of nitrogen–acetone vapour at 800 mm Hg and 25°C has
percentage saturation of 80%. Calculate (i) absolute humidity (ii) partial
pressure of acetone (iii) absolute molal humidity and (iv) volume percent of
acetone. Assume vapour pressure of acetone at 25°C as 190 mm Hg.
Solution.
PA È 58 Ø
(i) Ys¢ = É Ù
( Pt PA ) Ê 28 Ú
Ë 190 Û È 58 Ø
= Ì Ü É Ù
Í (800 190) Ý Ê 28 Ú
= 0.645 kg acetone/kg nitrogen
Y
% Saturation = ´ 100
YS
È Y Ø
80 = É ´ 100
Ê 0.645 ÙÚ
Y ¢ = 0.516 kg acetone/kg N2 Ans.
pA È 58 Ø
(ii) Y ¢ = É Ù
( Pt pA ) Ê 28 Ú
pA = 159.54 mm Hg Ans.
pA
(iii) Y = = 0.249 kmol acetone/kmol N2 Ans.
( Pt pA )
(iv) Volume of 0.249 k mole acetone vapour at NTP = 0.249 ´ 22.414 = 5.581 m3
Volume of 1 kmol of N2 at NTP = 22.414 m3
Calculating volume of acetone and N2 at 25°C, using Ideal gas law,
PV
1 1 P2V2
T1 T2
(298 5.581 760)
Volume of acetone at 25°C = = 5.787 m3
(800 273)
(298 22.414 760)
Volume of N2 at 25°C = = 23.243 m3
(800 273)
Hence,
Total volume of mixture = 5.787 + 23.243 = 29.03 m3
Humidification 101
Thus,
È 5.787 Ø
% volume of acetone = É ´ 100 = 19.93%
Ê 29.03 ÙÚ
Ans.
4. Partial pressure of water vapour in a mixture of air–water vapour at a total

pressure of 106.6 kPa and a temperature of 60°C is 13.3 kPa. Express the
concentration of water vapour in (i) absolute humidity (ii) mole fraction
(iii) volume fraction (iv) relative humidity and (v) g water/m3 mixture.
Assume vapour pressure is 20.6 kPa at 60°C.
Solution.
pA 13.3
(i) Y =
( Pt pA ) (106.6 13.3)
= 0.14255 kmol water vapour/kmol dry air

È 18 Ø
Y ¢= Y ´ É
Ê 28.84 ÙÚ
= 0.08897 kg water vapour/kg dry air Ans.
pA
(ii) Mole fraction = = 0.1248 Ans.
Pt
(iii) Volume fraction = Mole fraction = 0.1248 Ans.
Èp Ø
(iv) Relative humidity = É A Ù ´ 100 = 64.6%
Ê PA Ú
È 1 Y Ø Ë (tG 273) Û
Humid volume, VH = 8315 É Ù Ì Ü
Ê B
M M AÚ Í Pt Ý
È 1 0.08897 Ø È 333 Ø
= 8315 É +
Ê 28.84 18 ÙÚ ÉÊ 106.6 103 ÙÚ
= 1.029 m3 mixture/kg dry air Ans.
Y 0.08897
(v) g water/m3 mixture =
VH 1.029
= 0.0865 kg water/m3 mixture

= 86.5 g water/m3 mixture Ans.
5. Air is available at a DBT and WBT of 30°C and 25°C respectively. Find its
humidity, percentage saturation, humid volume, enthalpy and dew point.
Solution.
From Psychrometric chart,
Y ¢ = 0.0183 kg water vapour/kg dry air
% Saturation = 67%
È 1 Y Ø Ë (tG 273) Û
Humid volume = 8315 É Ì Ü
Ê M B M A ÙÚ Í Pt Ý
= 0.883 m3 mixture/ kg dry air
Humid heat, Cs = 1005 + 1884 Y ¢
= 1039.48 J/kg dry air °C
Enthalpy = Cs tG + 2502300 Y ¢
= 76976.49 J/kg dry air
Dew point = 23.5°C Ans.
6. Air–water vapour mixture has a DBT of 55°C with humidity of 0.048 kmol
water vapour/kmol dry air and 1 standard atmospheric pressure. Find absolute
humidity, % humidity, humid volume, humid heat and total enthalpy.
Solution.
È 18 Ø
Y¢ = Y ´ É
Ê 28.84 ÙÚ
= 0.03 kg water vapour/kg dry air
% humidity = 25.5%
È 1 Y Ø Ë (tG 273) Û
Humid volume = 8315 É Ù Ì Ü
Ê B
M M AÚ Í Pt Ý
= 0.978 m3 mixture/kg dry air
Humid heat, Cs = 1005 + 1884 Y ¢
= 1061.52 J/kg air °C
Enthalpy = Cs tG + 2502300 Y ¢
= 133452.6 J/kg dry air Ans.
7. Air at 85°C and absolute humidity of 0.03 kg water vapour/kg dry air at 1
standard atmosphere is contacted with water at an adiabatic saturation
temperature and it is thereby humidified and cooled to 70% saturation. What
are the final temperature and humidity of air?
Solution.
From psychrometric chart,
Final temperature = 46°C Ans.
Y ¢ = 0.0475 kg water vapour/kg dry air. Ans.
Humidification 103
8. Air at a temperature of 30°C and a pressure of 100 kPa has a relative

humidity of 80%.
(i) Calculate the molal humidity of air.
(ii) Calculate the molal humidity of this air if its temperature is reduced to
15°C and its pressure increased to 200 kPa, condensing out some of the
water.
(iii) Calculate the weight of water condensed from 100 m3 of the original wet
air in cooling to 15°C and compressing to 200 kPa.
(iv) Calculate the final volume of the wet air of part (iii).
Solution.
Data:Vapour pressure of water at 30°C = 4.24 kPa
Vapour pressure of water at 15°C = 1.70 kPa
PA
(i) Saturated molal humidity of air, Y ¢S =
( Pt PA )
= 4.24/(100 – 4.24)
= 0.04428 kmol/kmol dry air.
pA
Relative humidity =
PA
pA
0.8 =
4.24
Hence,
pA = 3.392 kPa
pA 3.392
Molal humidity =
( Pt pA ) (100 3.392)
= 0.0351 kmol/kmol dry air.

= 0.0351 ´ 18/28.84 = 0.0219 kg/kg dry air Ans.
(ii) Under these conditions the air will be saturated at 15°C as some water is
condensed.
PA
Saturated molal humidity of air, Ys =
( Pt PA )
= 1.7/(200 – 1.7)
= 0.00857 k mol/kmol dry air
Y ¢s = 0.00857 ´ 18/28.84
= 0.00535 kg/kg dry air Ans.
È 1 Y Ø Ë (tG 273) Û
(iii) Humid volume: VH,Original = 8315 É Ì Ü
È 1 0.0219 Ø Ë (30 + 273) Û

= 8315 É +
Ê 28.84 18 ÙÚ ÌÍ 100000 ÜÝ
= 0.9042 m3/kg dry air
100
100 m3 of original mixture contains, = 110.6 kg dry air
0.9042
Therefore, water present in original air = 110.6 ´ 0.0219 = 2.422 kg
Water present finally = 110.6 ´ 0.00535 = 0.5918 kg
Water condensed from 100 m3 of original mixture = 2.422 – 0.5918
= 1.830 kg Ans.
Ë 1 0.00535 Û Ë (15 + 273) Û
(iv) VH,final = 8315 Ì +
Í 28.84 18 ÜÝ ÌÍ 200000 ÜÝ
= 0.4187 m3/kg dry air
Final volume of mixture = 110.6 ´ 0.4187 = 46.329 m3 Ans.
9. An air–water vapour sample has a dry bulb temperature of 55°C and an
absolute humidity 0.030 kg water/kg dry air at 1 standard atm pressure. Using
humidity chart, if vapour pressure of water at 55°C is 118 mm Hg, calculate
the relative humidity, the humid volume in m3/kg dry air, enthalpy in J/kg dry
air and the heat required if 100 m3 of this air is heated to 110°C.
Solution.
DBT = 55°C and Humidity = 0.030 kg water/kg dry air
Y Ë 0.03 Û È 1 Ø
Y = = Ì Ü É Ù
(18/28.84) Í 18 Ý Ê 28.84 Ú
= 0.04807 kmol of water vapour/kmol of dry air
Ë pA Û Ë pA Û
0.04807 = Ì Ü Ì Ü
Í Pt pA Ý Í 760 pAÝ
pA = 34.86 mm Hg
pA 34.86
(i) Relative humidity = = = 29.5%
PA 118
Ë 118 Û
Saturated humidity = Ì Ü
Í 760 118 Ý
= 0.184 kmol of water vapour/kmol of dry air
Ë Humidity at given condition Û
% Humidity = Ì Ü ´ 100
Í Humidity at saturated condition Ý
Humidification 105
Ë 0.04807 Û
= Ì Ü ´ 100 = 0.261 Ans.
Í 0.184 Ý
È 1 Y Ø Ë (tG 273) Û
(ii) VH = 8315 É Ì Ü
Ë 1 0.03 Û Ë 55 + 273 Û
= 8315 Ì + = 0.978 m3/kg dry air
Í 28.84 18 ÜÝ ÌÍ 101300 ÜÝ
VH = VH,Dry air + (VH,Sat. Air – VH,Dry air) ´ % saturation (from chart)
= 0.93 + (1.1 – 0.93) 0.261 = 0.974 m3/kg dry air Ans.
(iii) Humid heat, CS = 1005 + 1884 Y ¢
= 1005 + 1884 ´ 0.03
= 1061.52 J/kg dry air
Enthalpy, H = CS (tG – t0) + Y ¢λ0
= 1061.52 (55 – 0) + 0.03 ´ 2502300
= 133452 J/kg dry air = 133.452 kJ/kg dry air
From chart: H = Hdry + (Hsat – Hdry) ´ 0.261
= 56 + (350 – 56) × 0.261
= 132.7 kJ/kg dry air Ans.
3
(iv) Heat needed if volume of air = 100 m
Volume
Mass of dry air =
Humid volume
= 100/0.978 = 102.25 kg dry air
Enthalpy, Hfinal = CS (tG – t0) + Y ¢λ0
= 1061.52 (110 – 0) + 0.03 ´ 2502300
= 191836 J/kg dry air
=191.836 kJ/kg dry air
Heat added = (Hfinal – Hinitial) ´ Mass of dry air
= (191.836 – 133.452) ´ 102.25 = 5969.76 kJ Ans.
10. A plant requires 2,000 kg/min of cooling water to flow through its distillation
equipment condensers. The water will leave the condensers at 50°C. It is
planned to design a countercurrent cooling tower in order to cool this water
to 30°C from 50°C for reuse, by contact with air. Air is available at 30°C dry
bulb temperature and 24°C wet bulb temperature. 30% excess air will be used
and the make up water will enter at 15°C. For the packing to be used, the value
of the mass transfer coefficient is expected to be 2500 kg/(h)(m3)(DY¢),

provided the minimum liquid rate and gas rates are 12,000 and 10,000 kg/(h)(m2)
respectively. Determine the diameter of the cooling tower and makeup water
to be used.
50°C,
2000 HG2
kg/min
2
DBT: 30°C
WBT: 24°C
30°C
HG1: 71.09 kJ/kg
Fig. 5.10(a) Example 10.
Solution.
Flow rate of water to be cooled, L = 2000 kg/min.
Inlet temperature of water = 50°C
Outlet temperature of water = 30°C
Humidity of incoming air (DBT 30°C and WBT 24°C) = 0.016 kg/kg
Specific heat of water = 4.18 kJ/kg °C
Let us now compute the (Temperature – Enthalpy) data:
Temperature 20°C, Saturated humidity = 0.016 kg/kg (from chart)
Enthalpy = Cp,air (tG – t0) + [Cp,w.v.(tG – t0) + λ0] Y ¢
= 1.005 ´ 20 + [1.884 ´ 0.016 ´ 20] + 2502 ´ 0.016
= 60.735 kJ/kg
In the same manner the enthalpy for other temperatures are also estimated
and have been given below:
Temp, °C 20 30 40 50 55
Enthalpy, kJ/kg 60.735 101.79 166.49 278.72 354.92
Alternatively, these values can be obtained from the psychrometric chart also
corresponding to enthalpy at saturated conditions.
Enthalpy of incoming air,
HG1 = 1.005 ´ 30 + [1.884 ´ 0.016 ´ 30] + 2502 ´ 0.016
= 71.09 kJ/kg
Now draw the temperature vs. enthalpy curve from the above data.
Locate (tL1, HG1), i.e., (30, 71.09) the operating condition at the bottom of
the tower and draw the tangent to the curve.
Humidification 107
370
360
320
.
280
ate
ir r
Enthalpy, kJ/kg
. a
240
Min
e
rat
.
ir
200
la
tua
Ac
.
160
120
.
80 .
.
(30, 71.09)
40
0 10 20 30 40 50 60
Temperature, °C
Fig. 5.10(b) Example 10, temperature–enthalpy plot.
.
0.038
.
.
0.034

0.03 .
[1/Hf – Hg]
0.026
0.022
0.018 .
0.014
60 80 120 160 200 220
Hg
Fig. 5.10(c) Example 10, [1/(Hf – HG)] vs HG.
⎛ LC ⎞ ( H G 2 H G1 )
Slope of the tangent = ⎜ L ⎟ =
⎝ GS ⎠ min (t L 2 t L1 )
HG2 (from graph) = 253 kJ/kg
È LCL Ø (253 71.09)

ÉÊ G ÙÚ = = 9.1
S min
(50 30)
Therefore,
GS min = 2000 ´ 60 ´ 4.18/9.1 = 55120.88 kg/h.
Gactual = 1.3 ´ Gmin = 1.3 ´ 55120.88 kg/hr = 71657.14 kg/h.
È LCL Ø 2000 60 4.18

Slope of the operating line = É Ù = =7
Ê S Ú act
G 71657.14
(H G2 H G1 )
i.e =7
(t L 2 t L1 )
Therefore,
HG2, act = [7 ´ 20] + 71.09 = 211.09 kJ/kg
The minimum gas rate is to be 10000 kg/h . m2.
Therefore, the maximum area of tower (based on gas) is given by
Actual gas rate 71657.14
= = 7.1657 m2
Minimum gas rate 10000
The minimum liquid rate is to be = 12000 kg/h m2. Therefore, the maximum
area of tower (based on liquid) is given by,
Actual liquid rate 2000 60

= = 10 m 2 .
Minimum liquid rate 12000
The minimum area of the tower, among the ones estimated (from gas and
liquid flow rates) will be chosen, as this will alone meet the expected
minimum flow rates of gas and that of liquid to ensure the mass transfer
coefficient of 2500 kg/(h)(m3)(Dy¢). Hence, the area of tower is 7.1657 m2.
Therefore, the diameter is
0.5
Ë 7.1657 4 Û
Ì 3.14 Ü = 3.02 m
Í Ý
The line joining points (30, 71.09) and (50, 211.09) is the operating line.
Let us assume that the resistances to mass transfer lies basically in gas
phase. Hence, the interfacial conditions and the equilibrium conditions are
one and the same. From the vertical lines drawn between the operating line
and the equilibrium curve we get the conditions of gas and that of equilibrium
conditions. The values are tabulated as follows:
Humidification 109
Temperature, °C Enthalpy, kJ/kg 1/[H* – HG], kg/kJ

H* HG
30 101.79 71.09 0.0326
35 133.00 103.00 0.0333
40 166.49 140.00 0.0378
45 210.00 173.00 0.0270
50 278.72 211.09 0.0148
dH G
NOG = Ô [H * H G]
The above integral is evaluated graphically by plotting 1/[H* – HG] against
HG from the above table
Area under the curve = NOG = 4.26
The gas flow rate is 10000 kg/(h)(m2) based on an area of tower of 7.1657 m2
Gs 10000
H OG =4m
K ya 2500
Height of the tower is
= HOG ´ NOG = 4 ´ 4.26 = 17.04 m
Makeup water (M) is based on the evaporation loss (E), blow down loss (B)
and windage loss (W)
\ M=E+B+W
Windage loss = 0.2% of circulation rate
= 0.002 ´ 2000 = 4 kg/min = 240 kg/h
Blow down loss = Neglected
Evaporation loss is calculated assuming that the outlet air leaves fully
saturated (based on the enthalpy of leaving gas 211.09 kJ/kg) and is equal to
0.064 kg/kg
Evaporation loss = 71657.14 ´ (0.064 – 0.016) = 3439.5 kg/h
Total makeup water = 240 + 3439.5 = 3679.5 kg/h. Ans.
11. A cooling tower is used to cool 1,00,000 kg/h of water from 30°C to 17°C with
air entering at 8°C and a humidity of 0.004 kg/kg. Air leaves the tower at 19°C
at fully saturated condition. The cross-sectional area of the tower is 14.4 m2.
Calculate air velocity in kg/h . m2 and quantity of makeup water needed.
Solution.
Humidity of incoming air = 0.004 kg/kg dry air
Humidity of leaving air = 0.015 kg/kg dry air
Enthalpy of incoming air = 18.11 kJ/kg dry air
Enthalpy of leaving air = 57.16 kJ/kg dry air
Let W be the water evaporated
W = mdry air (0.015 – 0.004)
= 0.011 mdry air (1)
Making an energy balance,

Total heat in = Total heat out
Heat in entering water + Heat in entering air = Heat in leaving water +
Heat in leaving air
(100000)(4.18)(30 – 0) + (mdry air)(Hin air) = (100000 – W)(4.18)(17 – 0)
+ (mdry air)(Hout air)
Substituting for W from Eq. (1), we get
30 ´ 105 + 18.11mdry air = (100000 – 0.011mdry air ) (4.18)17 + 57.16 mdry air
(30 ´ 105 – 17 ´ 105) = mdry air [(57.16 – 18.11 – (17 ´ 0.011 ´ 4.18)]
mdry air = 141,997.3 kg/h
Air velocity = 9860.9 kg/h . m2 Ans.
Makeup water = 141997.3 ´ 0.011 = 1561.97 kg/h Ans.
12. A horizontal spray chamber with recirculated water is used for adiabatic
humidification and cooling of air. The chamber has a cross-section of 2 m2
with air rate of 3.5 m3/s at dry bulb temperature of 65°C and absolute
humidity of 0.017 kg water/kg dry air, the air is cooled and humidified to dry
bulb temperature of 34°C and leaves at 90% saturation. For the system the
volumetric mass transfer coefficient may be taken as 1.12 kg/m3 s (mole
fraction). The density of the air is 1.113 kg/m3. Determine the length of the
chamber for the requirements.
Y ¢ = 0.03 kg/kg
RH = 90%
Makeup
water
1
Y¢ = 0.017 kg/kg
DBT = 65°C
Solution.
Cross-sectional area of chamber 2 m2
Air flow rate: 3.5 m3/s
Humidity of incoming air: 0.017 kg/kg
Mass flow rate of air = 3.5 ´ 1.113 = 3.8955 kg/s
G ¢S = 3.8955/1.017 = 3.83 kg/s
Humidity of leaving air = 0.03 kg/kg
Y ¢as = 0.032 kg/kg
Humidification 111
For recirculation humidifier

Ë (Y Y1) Û K ya Z
ln Ì as Ü = G
Í (Yas Y2) Ý S
Ë (0.032 0.017) Û Z
ln Ì Ü 1.12
Í (0.032 0.030) Ý 3.83
Z = 6.89 m
13. Atmospheric air at 40°C with 90% saturation is cooled and separated out the
condensed water. Then it is reheated in a heat exchanger for conditioning at
25°C with 40% saturation using steam at 1 atm pressure. This conditioned air
is supplied to a conference room of size 5 ´ 25 ´ 6 m without any facility
for recirculation. Determine the temperature at which it is cooled and the
volume of outside air at entry conditions.
Solution.
Temperature = ?
Room
Inlet air Cooler Reheater
40°C, 90% 25°C 5 s 25 s 6 m
Y a1 = 0.045 40%
Y a2 = 0.008
Condensed
water
0.045 100% 90%
40%
Ya
0.008
10°C 25°C 40°C 45°C

Temperature
Temperature at cooler = 10°C.

Volume of the conditioned,
air = 5 ´ 25 ´ 6
= 750 m3.
Humid volume of entering air
Ë 1 È 1 ØÛ Ë 273 40 Û
VH 1 = Ì É 0.045Ù Ü 22.414 Ì Ü
Í 28.84 Ê 18 Ú Ý Í 273 Ý
= 0.9553 m3/kg dry air.

Humid volume of conditioned air
Ë 1 È 1 ØÛ Ë 273 25 Û
VH 2 = Ì É 0.008Ù Ü 22.414 Ì Ü
Í 28.84 Ê 18 Ú Ý Í 273 Ý
= 0.8592 m3/kg dry air.

1 kg dry air = 0.8592 m3
750
\ 750 m2 occupies =
0.8592
= 872.875 kg dry air
1 kg dry air = 0.9553 m3
then 872.875 kg dry air = 0.9553 ´ 872.875
= 833.86 m3
Volume of entering air = 833.86 m3.
EXERCISES
1. An air water system has DBT of 65°C with a humidity of 0.042 kg water
vapour/kg dry air. What is the WBT and % saturation?
(Ans: 41°C and 20%)
2. A horizontal spray chamber with recirculated water is used for adiabatic
humidification and cooling of air. The chamber has a cross-section of 3 m2
with an air rate of 5 m3/s at a dry bulb temperature of 60°C and absolute
humidity of 0.017 kg water/kg dry air, the air is cooled and humidified to
a dry bulb temperature of 34°C and leaves at 80% RH. For the system
volumetric mass transfer coefficient may be taken as 1.12 kg/m3 . s (DY¢).
The density of the air is 1.113 kg/m3. Determine the length of the chamber
for the requirements.
(Ans: 4.59 m)
3. A drier is used to remove 100 kg of water per hour from the material being
dried. The available air has a humidity of 0.010 kg per kg of bone dry air
and a temperature of 23.9°C and is heated to 68.3°C before entering the
drier. The air leaving the drier has a wet bulb temperature of 37.8°C and a
dry bulb temperature of 54.4°C. Calculate the (i) consumption rate of wet
air, (ii) humid volume of air before and after preheating, (iii) wet bulb
temperatures of air before and after preheating, and (iv) dew point of the air
leaving the drier.
(Ans: (i) 3.672 kg/h, (ii) 0.8586 m3/kg dry air and 0.987 m3/kg dry air,
(iii) 300 K and 303 K and (iv) 308.5 K)
4. A spray chamber of 2 metres length and 2.5 m2 area has been used for
adiabatic humidification and cooling of air. Water is sprayed into the
chamber through nozzles and the coefficient of heat transfer is found to be
Humidification 113
1360 kcal/h m3°C. Air is passed at a rate of 3,000 cubic metres per minute
at 70°C, containing water vapour 0.014 kg per every kg dry air.
i(i) What exit temperature and humidity can be expected for the air?
(ii) What is the amount of make–up water?
(Ans: (i) 32°C and 0.032 kg/kg, assuming fully saturated
(ii) 54.108 kg/min)
5. A tray drier contains 10 trays in a tier on racks at 10 cm apart. Each tray
is 3.5 cm deep and 90 cm wide and there are 16 m2 of drying surface. It is
desired that the material on trays is dried by blowing a part of recycled air
with fresh air, drawn through a heater kept in the drier itself. Atmospheric
air enters at 26.6°C having a humidity content of 0.01. Further, it is desired
that the air entering trays have a dry bulb temperature of 93.3°C and
humidity 0.05 kg water/kg dry air. The air velocity at the entrance of trays
is to be 3.3 m/s. The material looses water at a constant rate of 30 kg of
water per hour. Determine:
i(i) Percentage recirculation of air.
(ii) Heat load.
(Ans: (i) 63.5%, (ii) 82697.2 kJ/h)
6. Calculate the cross-sectional area and depth of packing required in
wooden slats packed water-cooling tower. The tower is required to cool
37,735 kg/h of water initially at 54.4°C to 32.2°C, by counter current
contact with air at atmospheric pressure having a dry bulb temperature of
25°C and a wet bulb temperature of 21.0°C. The air rate will be 30% more
than the minimum air flow rate, and the superficial velocity will be
6,970 kg/h (air). HtOG = 2.65 metres (enthalpy based).
Data:
Temperature, °C Enthalpy, kcal/kg
4.4 8.47
10 11.30
15.5 14.72
21 18.96
26.07 24.3
32.2 31.1
37.7 39.9
43.3 51.36
48.8 66.5
54.4 86.7
57.2 99.52
(Ans: Area = 2.2623 m2, Height = 10.878 m)

7. The air supply for a drier has dry bulb temperature of 26°C and a wet bulb
temperature of 17°C. It is heated to 85°C by heating coils and introduced into
the drier. In the drier, it cools along the adiabatic cooling line and leaves the
drier fully saturated.
(i) What is its humidity initially and after heating?
(ii) What is the dew point of the initial air?
(iii) How much water will be evaporated per 100 m3 of entering air?
(iv) How much heat is needed to heat 100 m3 air to 85°C?
(v) At what temperature does the air leave the drier?
(Ans: (i) 0.01 kg/kg and 0.033 kg/kg, (ii) 285 K, (iii) 2.659 kg,
(iv) 6984 2 kJ, and (v) 306.5 K)
8. 350 m3/min of air at 70°C and 1 atmosphere pressure having a wet bulb
temperature of 30°C is to be adiabatically humidified and cooled in a chamber
using recirculated water. The chamber is 1.5 m. wide, 1.5 m high and 2.0 m long.
The coefficient of heat transfer has been estimated to be 1200 kcal/(h)(m3)(°C).
The specific volume and specific heat of the entering air are 0.85 m3/kg and
0.248 kcal/(kg)(°C) respectively. Determine the (i) temperature, (ii) humidity
of the exit air, and (iii) Estimate the number of transfer units.
(Ans: (i) 46.6°C, (ii) 0.02 kg/kg, (iii) 0.754)
9. Fresh air at 25°C in which partial pressure of water vapour is 15 mm Hg is
blown at a rate of 215 m3/h first through a preheater and then adiabatically
saturated in a spray chamber to 100% saturation and again reheated. This
reheated air has a humidity of 0.024 kg water vapour/kg dry air. It is assumed
that the fresh air and the air leaving the reheaters have the same percentage
humidity. Determine (i) the temperature of air after preheater, spray chamber
and reheater and (ii) heat requirements for preheating and reheating.
(Ans: (i) 53.5°C, 28°C and 32.5°C (ii) 7287.5 kJ and 1174.65 kJ)
10. Air is to be cooled and dehumidified by counter-current contact with water in
a packed tower. The tower is to be designed for the following conditions,
DBT and WBT are 28°C and 25°C respectively. Flow rate of inlet air 700 kg/h
of dry air. Inlet and outlet temperatures of water are 10°C and 18°C
respectively. For the entering air estimate (i) humidity (ii) %R.H. (iii) dew
point and (iv) enthalpy.
(Ans: (i) 0.019 kg/kg, (ii) 88.08%, (iii) 23.5°C and
(iv) 79.22 kJ/kg dry air)
11. Air is available at a DBT of 30°C and a WBT of 25°C respectively.
Determine (i) humidity, (ii) percentage saturation, (iii) humid volume,
(iv) enthalpy, and (v) dew point.
(Ans: (i) 0.013 kg/kg, (ii) 59%, (iii) 0.874 m3/kg dry air,
(iv) 63.4 kJ/kg, and (v) 16°C)
12. Air–water sample mixture has a DBT of 50°C and a humidity of 0.03 kg
water vapour/kg dry air. If the pressure is 1 atmosphere, find (i) % humidity
(ii) humid volume (iii) dew point and (iv) enthalpy.
(Ans: (i) 36%, (ii) 138 m3/kg dry air, (iii) 31.75°C, and (iv) 42 kJ/kg)
13. 1.5 m3/s of air is required for a specific operation at 65°C and 20% humidity.
This is prepared from air available at a DBT of 27°C and a WBT of 18°C
by direct spray of water into the air stream followed by passage over steam
heated finned tube. Estimate the water and heat needed per second.
(Ans: 0.0496 kg/s and 128.07 kJ/kg dry air)
Humidification 115
14. Air at a DBT of 40°C and a WBT of 30°C is to be dried by first cooling to 16°C
to condense water vapour and then reheating to 25°C. Calculate (i) the initial
humidity and % humidity and (ii) the final humidity and % humidity of air.
(Ans: (i) 0.023 kg/kg, 48% (ii) 0.012 kg/kg, 50%)
15. Air at a temperature of 20°C and a pressure of 760 mm Hg has a relative
humidity of 80%.
i(i) Calculate the humidity of air.
(ii) Calculate the molal humidity of this air if its temperature is reduced to 10°C
and its pressure increased to 1900 mm Hg, condensing out some of the water.
Data: VP of water at 20°C = 17.5 mm Hg
VP of water at 10°C = 9 mm Hg
(Ans: (i) 0.01171 kg/kg, (ii) 4.759 ´ 10–3 kmol/kmol)
16. Air at a DBT of 35°C and WBT of 30°C and at 1 atm is passed into an
evaporator. The DBT and WBT of air at the outlet of evaporator are 45°C and
38°C respectively. Determine (i) humidity and relative humidity (ii) percent
saturation of air at the exit of evaporator and (iii) weight of water evaporated.
(Ans: (i) 0.0255 kg/kg, 70.7% (ii) 65% and (iii) 0.0155 kg)
6
DRYING
6.1 INTRODUCTION
Drying refers to the removal of relatively small amounts of moisture from a
substance which is generally a solid. However, in some specific cases, it includes
the removal of moisture from liquids and gases as well. Drying is generally a final
step in the production process and the product from the dryer is often sent for final
packaging.
6.2 DEFINITIONS OF MOISTURE AND OTHER TERMS ON

DRYING
When an insoluble solid is dried, the moisture is lost to the surrounding air and
the solid attains an equilibrium moisture content depending on the relative
saturation of air. The different moisture contents exhibited by a substance when
exposed to air of different saturation levels is shown in Fig. 6.1.
1.0
®
Bound moisture Unbound

Relative
humidity moisture
Given
condition
Equilibrium Free moisture
Moisture
0
Xcr X0
0 X*
Moisture content, X
Fig. 6.1 Moisture contents at different humidity conditions.
116
Drying 117
6.2.1 Moisture Content (Wet Basis), X

This is defined as the weight of moisture per unit weight of wet substance.
6.2.2 Moisture Content (Dry Basis), X

This is defined as the weight of moisture per unit weight of bone dry substance.
6.2.3 Equilibrium Moisture, X*

This is the moisture content of a substance when it is at equilibrium with a given
partial pressure of the vapour. It is the limiting moisture content to which a given
material can be dried under specific conditions of air temperature and humidity.
6.2.4 Bound Moisture

This refers to the moisture contained by a substance which exerts an equilibrium
vapour pressure less than that of the pure liquid at the same temperature. Liquid
may become bound by retention in small capillaries, by solution in cell or fibre
walls or by adsorption on solid surface.
6.2.5 Unbound Moisture

This refers to the moisture contained by a substance which exerts an equilibrium
vapour pressure equal to that of the pure liquid at the same temperature.
6.2.6 Free Moisture (X–X*)

This is the moisture contained by a substance in excess of equilibrium moisture.
Only free moisture can be removed with air of given temperature and humidity.
It may include both bound and unbound moisture.
6.2.7 Critical Moisture Content

It is the moisture content when the constant rate drying period ends and falling
rate drying period starts.
6.2.8 Fibre–Saturation Point

It is the moisture content of cellular materials (e.g. wood, fibre) at which the cell
walls are completely saturated while the cavities are liquid free. It may be defined
as the equilibrium moisture content, as the humidity of the surrounding
atmosphere approaches saturation.
6.2.9 Constant Rate Drying Period

Constant rate drying period is that drying period during which the rate of water
removed per unit area of drying surface is constant.
6.2.10 Falling Rate Drying Period

It is a drying period during which the instantaneous drying rate continually
decreases. Some of the substances show a linear behaviour and some show non-
linear behaviour during falling rate drying period. In certain instances we observe
both. The linear one is due to unsaturated surface drying wherein one sees certain
dry spots on the drying surface and the non-linear one is observed when the
moisture movement is controlled by diffusion mechanism.
6.2.11 Funicular State

It is a condition that occurs in drying a porous body when capillary suction results
in air being sucked into the pores. This generally indicates the first falling rate
drying period. The drying rate varies linearly with free moisture content in this period.
6.2.12 Pendular State

As the water is progressively removed from the solid, the fraction of the pore
volume that is occupied by air increases. When the fraction reaches a certain limit,
there is insufficient water left to maintain continuous film across the pores, the
interfacial tension in the capillaries breaks, and the pores filled with air, which
now becomes continuous phase. The left out water is relegated to small isolated
pores and interstices of the pores. This state is called the pendular state and it
generally refers to the second falling rate drying period. During this period, the
variation of drying rate with free moisture content is non-linear.
6.3 HYSTERESIS
Many substances exhibit different equilibrium moisture relationships during the
adsorption and desorption of moisture as shown in Fig. 6.2. This phenomenon of
following different paths is known as hysteresis in drying.
Relative saturation ®
Adsorption
Desorption
X, Moisture content ®
Fig. 6.2 Hysteresis in drying.
6.4 DRYING OF SOLUBLE SOLIDS

Soluble solids show insignificant equilibrium moisture content when exposed to
gases whose partial pressure of vapour is less than that of the saturated solution
of the solid. A typical trend is shown in Fig. 6.3.
Drying 119
Vapour pressure of water
®Partial pressure of water Unsaturated liquid

solution
For a hydrated salt
0 ®
X* Equilibrium moisture
Fig. 6.3 Equilibrium moisture content of soluble solids.
6.5 CLASSIFICATION OF DRYING OPERATIONS

Drying operations can be broadly classified as,
(i) Batch drying
(ii) Continuous drying
6.5.1 Batch Drying

Here the material to be dried is fed to a drier and exposed to drying media under
unsteady state conditions.
6.5.1.1 Drying test

In order to determine the drying schedule and also the size of drying equipments,
it is necessary to know the time required for drying a substance. The rate of drying
is determined by suspending a substance in a chamber in a stream of air and
measuring its weight periodically. The operation is carried out under constant
drying condition by maintaining the same temperature, humidity and air flow rate.
A typical drying curve is shown in Fig. 6.4. This is drawn by estimating weight
itself or determining moisture content on dry basis and plotting against time.
A¢
A
B
®
W or X
D
E
W * or X *
Time, t®
Fig. 6.4 Drying curve.
From the drying curve, the rate of drying, N is calculated as,

È LS Ø È dX Ø 1 dw
N = É Ù É ¹
Ê A Ú Ê dt ÙÚ
(6.1)
A dt
where LS is the mass of bone dry solid; A is the drying surface, from which drying
takes place.
However, in the case of through circulation drying, A is defined as the cross-
sectional area of the bed, perpendicular to the direction of air flow. When the
drying rate is plotted against moisture content (on dry basis), the rate curve is
obtained and a typical rate curve is shown in Fig. 6.5.
A¢
Drying rate, N, kg/m2 s
C B
D A
E
Moisture content, X, kg/kg
ED is internal movement of moisture controls (second falling rate period)
DC is unsaturated surface drying (first falling rate)
CB is constant rate drying period
A¢B and AB are unsteady drying (initial stage)
Fig. 6.5 Rate curve.
When the solid to be dried is fully wet, the surface will be covered with a thin
film of liquid and will have unbound moisture. If the air is unsaturated with a
humidity of Y and if the gas at the liquid surface is YS (saturated humidity), the
rate of drying at constant rate period is expressed as,
NC = ky(YS – Y), where ky is the mass transfer coefficient.
6.5.1.2 Time of drying

From Eq. (6.1) we have,
È LS Ø È dX Ø
Ê A ÙÚ ÉÊ dt ÙÚ
N= É
Rearranging and integrating Eq. (6.1) to determine the time needed to dry the
material from X1 to X2, we get,
t X2
È LS Ø dx
t Ô dt
0
ÉÊ
A Ú
Ù Ô
X1
N (6.2)
Drying 121
(a) The constant rate period: The drying period is said to be constant rate
period when both X1 and X2 are greater than critical moisture content Xc. Under
such conditions, drying rate remains constant and N = NC.
t X2
È LS Ø
The Eq. (6.2) can now be rearranged as Ô dt ÉÊ AN ÙÚ
C
Ô dX and on integration
0 X1
this yields,
( X1 X 2 )
t = LS (6.3)
AN C
(b) The falling rate period: If X1 and X2 are both less than XC, the drying rate
N decreases with decrease in moisture content. Equation (6.2) can be integrated
graphically by plotting (1/N) in y-axis against moisture content X in
x-axis or by using a numerical technique. However, when N varies linearly with
X in the region CE, the drying rate can be expressed mathematically as,
N = aX + b (6.4)
where a is the slope of the line and b is a constant. The Eq. (6.2) can be integrated
between the limits
t = 0, x = X1
t = t, x = X2 and we get
t X1
LS dX È LS Ø Ë (aX 1 b) Û
t Ô dt A Ô (aX b) ÉÊ aA ÙÚ ln Ì (aX b) Ü
Í 2 Ý
(6.5)
0 X2
Ë (N N2 ) Û
However, N1 = a X1 + b, N2 = a X2 + b and a = Ì 1 Ü
Í ( X1 X 2 ) Ý
Substituting these in Eq. (6.5) gives
Ë LS ( X 1 X 2 ) Û Ë N1 Û LS ( X1 X 2 )
t Ì Ü ln Ì Ü (6.6)
Í A( N1 N 2 ) Ý Í N 2 Ý A . Nm
where Nm is the logarithmic mean rate of drying.

In a specific case of drying from Xc to X*
NC = aXC + b (6.7)
N* = 0 = aX* + b (6.8)
Subtracting Eq. (6.8) from Eq. (6.7) gives,
NC = a (XC – X*) (6.9)
Also, subtracting Eq. (6.8) from Eq. (6.4), we get
N = a [X – X*] (6.10)
Eliminating a in Eq. (6.10), using Eq. (6.9)
( X X *)
N = NC (6.11)
( X C X *)
Replacing N1 and N2 in Eq. (6.6) in terms of NC and N* and also X1 and X2 in

terms of XC and X*, we get,
Ë L ( X X *) Û Î [ N C ( X 1 X *)( X C X *)] Þ
t= Ì S C Ü ln Ï ß
Í AN C Ý Ð [( X C X *) N C ( X 2 X *)] à
Ë L ( X X *) Û Ë ( X 1 X *) Û
t= Ì S C Ü ln Ì Ü (6.12)
Í AN C Ý Í ( X 2 X *) Ý
6.6 PARAMETERS AFFECTING DRYING RATE

DURING CONSTANT RATE DRYING PERIOD
Gas velocity, gas temperature, gas humidity and thickness of the drying solid are
the parameters which affect drying rate.
6.6.1 Effect of Gas Velocity (G)

When radiation and conduction effects are present, the effect of gas rate will be
less significant. However, when they are negligible, then drying rate NC is
proportional to G0.71 for parallel flow of gas and to G0.37 for perpendicular flow
of gas.
6.6.2 Effect of Gas Temperature

Increased air temperature, TG increases the driving force, (TG – TS) for heat
transfer and hence NC is directly proportional to (TG – TS). TS is the surface
temperature of drying solid and is assumed to be at the WBT condition during
constant rate drying.
6.6.3 Effect of Gas Humidity

As the humidity of air decreases, the driving force (YS – Y) available for mass
transfer increase, and hence NC is proportional to (YS – Y). YS is the saturation
humidity of air corresponding to TS.
6.6.4 Effect of Thickness of Drying Solid

When heat transfer occurs through the solid, NC increases with decrease in solid
thickness. However, if drying occurs from all surfaces, NC is independent of
thickness.
6.7 MOISTURE MOVEMENT IN SOLIDS

When drying takes place, moisture moves from the inner core to the external
surface and evaporates. The nature of movement influences the drying during the
Drying 123
falling rate period and the following theories have been proposed to explain the
moisture movement in solids.
6.7.1 Liquid Diffusion

Due to concentration gradients between the higher concentration in depths of the
solid and the low concentration at the surface, moisture movement takes place.
This type of phenomenon is exhibited by substances like soap, glue, gelatin,
textiles and paper.
During constant rate period, the rate of moisture movement from inner core
and the rate of removal of moisture from the surface balance each other. However,
after sometime, dry spots appear on the surface resulting in unsaturated surface
drying and then the moisture movement from the solid takes place which is
entirely controlled by the diffusion rates within the solid. Whenever, the constant
drying rates are very high, the drying substance may exhibit only diffusion
controlled falling rate drying.
6.7.2 Capillary Movement

In some of the porous solids, moisture moves through the capillaries in them
which is quite similar to the burning of lamp with wick. These capillaries extend
from water reservoir to the drying surface. As the drying process is initiated, the
moisture starts moving by capillarity to the drying surface and maintains a
uniformly wetted surface, which corresponds to constant rate drying period.
Subsequently air replaces the water and the wetted area at the surface also
decreases leading to unsaturated surface drying. After sometime, when the sub-
surface water also dries up, the liquid surface recedes into capillaries and water
evaporates from there setting in second falling rate period. This phenomenon is
exhibited by clays, paints and pigments.
6.7.3 Vapour Diffusion

When one surface of a wet solid is heated and the other surface allows the drying
to take place, the moisture gets vapourised from the hot surface and diffuses
outward as a vapour from the other surface.
6.7.4 Pressure Diffusion

When bound moisture is removed from a colloidal non-porous solid, it tends to
shrink when the substance is dried very rapidly. The moisture present on the
surface is removed very quickly and the moisture movement from the inner core
to the outer surface will not be equal to the rate of removal of moisture from the
surface. During this process, an impervious membrane forms and prevents the
movement of moisture under such circumstances from the inner core to the
surface. The outer surface will be fully dry whereas the inner core will be wet
under such conditions. This phenomenon is called case hardening.
However, under certain circumstances, the shrinkage of outside layers of solid
may also squeeze out moisture to the surface.
6.8 SOME MORE ASPECTS ON FALLING

RATE DRYING
The moisture movement during the falling rate period is governed by either
unsaturated surface drying or internal diffusion controlling mechanism.
6.8.1 Unsaturated Surface Drying

In this phase, the rate of drying will vary linearly with moisture content. The
moisture removal mechanism is same as that in the constant rate period and the
general effects of temperature, humidity, gas flow rate and thickness of the solid
are the same as for constant rate drying.
6.8.2 Internal Diffusion Controlling

In this period of drying, the moisture movement is controlled by the pores in the
drying substance. The drying rate decreases with decrease in moisture content.
6.9 THROUGH CIRCULATION DRYING

When a gas passes through a bed of solids, the drying zone varies as shown in
Fig. 6.6. At the point, where the gas enters, maximum drying occurs and a zone
of drying of bound moisture forms. In this zone there is a gradual rise in
temperature. This zone is followed by a zone of drying unbound moisture. The
temperature in this zone remains constant and the particles are at their wet bulb
temperature. The zone of drying unbound moisture is followed by a zone of initial
moisture concentration where the solids also remain at their initial temperature.
The gas leaves the system fully saturated.
Gas
Zone of drying of
bound moisture
Zone of drying
unbound moisture
Zone of initial
moisture
Gas
Fig. 6.6 Through circulation drying.

Drying 125
6.9.1 The Rate of Drying of Unbound Moisture

Let us consider that a gas of humidity Y1 enters the bed at a moisture free flow
rate of GS, kg/m2hr. The maximum drying rate Nmax will occur if the gas leaving
the bed is saturated at adiabatic saturation temperature and hence at the humidity
Yas,
Nmax = GS (Yas – Y1) (6.13)
However, if Y2 is the humidity of leaving air and N is the drying rate, then
N = GS (Y2 – Y1) (6.14)
For a differential section of the bed, where the change in humidity for incoming
air of humidity Y1 is dY and leaves at a humidity of “Y”, the rate of drying dN
is given by
dN = GS dY = ky dS (Yas – Y) (6.15)
where S is the interfacial surface per unit area of bed cross-section. If a is the
interfacial area per unit volume of bed and if ZS is the bed thickness, then
dS = a . dZs (6.16)
Substituting Eq. (6.16) in Eq. (6.15) and integrating it yields,
Y2 È
dY Ø Zs È k
y adZ S Ø
ÔÉ Ù ÔÉ ÙÚ (6.17)
Y1 Ê Yas Y Ú 0 Ê GS
Ë (Y Y1 ) Û È k y aZ S Ø
ln Ì as Ü = NtG = ÉÊ G ÙÚ (6.18)
Í (Yas Y2 ) Ý S
where NtG is the number of gas phase transfer units in the bed. From Eqs. (6.13),
(6.14) and (6.15), we get
N Ë (Y Y1 ) Û Ë (Yas Y2 ) Û
= Ì 2 Ü =1– Ì Ü
N max Í as
( Y Y1 Ý
) Í (Yas Y1 ) Ý
È k y aZ s Ø
É Ù
–NtG Ê Gs Ú
= 1 – exp = 1 – exp (6.19)
Using Eq. (6.19) we can predict drying rate when ky a is known.
6.9.2 Drying of Bound Moisture

In order to analyse the drying rate in this regime, it is preferable to make
experimental investigation as both particle and gas characteristics play a
significant role.
6.10 CONTINUOUS DIRECT HEAT DRIER

It is the one in which there is a continuous flow of solid and gas through the drier.
The drying takes place as the solid moves through the drier.
6.10.1 Material and Energy Balance

Consider a continuous drier with gas flowing countercurrent to the flow of solids
which is dried from a moisture content of X1 to X2. The flow rate of dry solids
is LS. The gas enters at a moisture free flow rate of GS and at a temperature of tG2
and a humidity of Y2. It leaves at a temperature of tG1 and at a humidity of Y1.
A schematic diagram shown in Fig. 6.7 indicates the flow of various streams
and their conditions.
Q; Heat loss
G S , Y 1, t G 1, H G 1 GS, Y2, tG2, HG2
Wet solid Dried solid

LS, tS1, HS1, X1 LS, tS2, HS2 , X2
Fig. 6.7 Schematic diagram of a continuous direct heat drier.
Balance for moisture gives,

LS X1 + GSY2 = LS X2 + GSY1 (6.20)
i.e. LS (X1 – X2) = GS (Y1 – Y2) (6.21)
Enthalpy of the wet solids, HS is given by
HS = CS (tS – t0) + X(CA) (tS – t0) + DH (6.22)
where CS is specific heat of solids, CA is the specific heat of moisture, X is the
moisture content and DH is the integral heat of wetting.
An energy balance gives,
Heat entering = Heat leaving + Heat loss
LSHS1 + GSHG2 = LSHS2 + GSHG1 + Q (6.23)
For an adiabatic operation, where there is no heat loss, Q = 0. Sometimes the
solids are conveyed through drier in some supports in which case the heat carried
in and out by these materials should also be accounted.
6.10.2 Rate of Drying for Continuous Direct Heat Driers

Direct heat driers fall under two categories, namely, whether the high temperature
or low temperature prevails in the drier.
6.10.2.1 Drying at high temperature

Figure 6.8 shown below indicates the temperature profile of both solid and gas.
Drying 127
R
Gas
I
III
Temperature S
II
P Solid Q
Distance
Fig. 6.8 Temperature profile of gas and solid in a continuous drier.
For analysis, let us divide the drier into three zones. The zone I is a preheating
zone, where the solid is heated and very little drying takes place. In zone II, the
temperature of solid remains fairly constant and the surface and unbound moisture
are evaporated. The point Q corresponds to the critical moisture content. In zone
III, unsaturated surface drying and removal of bound moisture takes place. There
is a sharp increase in the temperature of the solid. The zone II represents a major
portion of the drier and it will be interesting to see how the gas temperature and
humidity varies in this section.
The point R (see Fig. 6.9) denotes the condition of air entering zone II. When
the drying takes place adiabatically without any heat loss, the variation of gas
temperature and humidity is along the adiabatic saturation line RS1. The solid
temperature could be A (corresponding to point Q) or A¢ (corresponding to point P).
A4
S4
A
S3
A¢
S1
Humidity
S2
R
Gas temperature, tG
Fig. 6.9 Temperature–humidity variation in a continuous drier.
However, if heat losses are there, then the path could be RS2. In case the heat
is added within the drier then the path would be RS3. The path will be RS4 if the
gas temperature is kept constant and the solid temperature is likely to be A4.
Now, let us make an energy balance. The heat lost qG by the gas is transferred
partially to the solid q and partially lost as Q. For a drier of differential length, dz
dqG = dq + dQ (6.24)
i.e. dq = dqG – dQ = U . ds (tG – tS) (6.25)
= U . adz (tG – tS) (6.26)
where S is the interfacial surface/cross-sectional area, a is the interfacial surface/

drier volume, U is the overall heat transfer coefficient, tG is the gas temperature
and tS is the solid temperature.
dq = GS . CS . dtG (6.27)
where GS is the dry gas flow rate, CS is the humid heat of gas and dtG is drop in
gas temperature.
i.e. dq = GS . CS . dtG = Ua (tG – tS) dz (6.28)
dtG È Ua Ø
dNtoG = ÉÊ G C ÙÚ (6.29)
(tG tS ) S S
%tG
i.e. NtoG = (6.30)
%tm
GS C S
i.e. HtoG = (6.31)
Ua
Dtm is logarithm of average temperature difference from gas to solid.
6.10.2.2 Drying at low temperatures
Since the drying takes place at low temperature the preheating of solid is not a
major factor. The preheating zone merges with zone II (Refer Fig. 6.10). In zone
II unbound and surface moisture are removed and the moisture content of leaving
solid reaches critical moisture content, XC as in drying at high temperatures. The
unsaturated surface drying and evaporation of bound moisture occurs in zone III.
The humidity of incoming gas increases from Y2 to YC as it leaves zone III.
(1) (2)
GS, Y 1 YC GS, Y2
III
LS, X1 II XC LS, X 2
Fig. 6.10 Continuous countercurrent drier of low temperature operation.
The retention time can be calculated using Eq. (6.1)

t = tII + tIII (6.32)
LS ËÌ dX ÛÜ
X1 XC
dX
=
AÌ Ô N
Ô N Ü
(6.33)
Í XC X2 Ý
where (A/LS) is the specific exposed drying surface.
In zone II, X > XC, the rate of drying N = NC is given by Eq. (6.2)
X1
LS dX
tII =
A Ô [k y (Ys Y )]
(6.34)
XC
Drying 129
Also a material balance yields,

GS . dY = LS . dX (6.35)
Substituting for dX in Eq. (6.34) from Eq. (6.35), we get
Y1
tIII = LS ¹ GS dY
A LS Ô [k y (Ys Y )] (6.36)
YC
Assuming YS to be constant (which will correspond to saturation humidity at the

wet bulb temperature of incoming air and there is no heat loss).
L ÈG ØÈ 1 Ø Ë (Y YC ) Û
tII = ÈÉ S ØÙ É S Ù É Ù ¹ ln Ì S Ü (6.37)
Ê A Ú Ê LS Ú Ê k y Ú Í (YS Y1 ) Ý
In zone III, X < XC we have from Eq. (6.11)

[ N C ( X X *)]
N=
( X C X *)
Applying Eq. (6.2) to constant rate period, we get

NC = ky (YS – Y) (6.38)
Substituting for NC in Eq. (6.11) from Eq. (6.38), we get,
k y (YS Y )( X X *)
N (6.39)
( X C X *)
Substituting in Eq. (6.33) from Eq. (6.39), we get

XC
LS ( X C X *) dX
tIII =
A¹ ky Ô (Y
X2 S Y )( X X *) (6.40)
This cannot be integrated directly as Y also varies with X.

A simple material balance for moisture across any section yields
GS [Y Y2 ] LS [ X X 2 ]
ÈS Ø
Y = Y2 + (X – X2) É S Ù (6.41)
Ê GS Ú
The humidity YS can be determined from the humidity Y1 of inlet gas. X* can be
determined experimentally for the given humidity Y2. By substituting for Y in
Eq. (6.40) from Eq. (6.41) we can estimate tIII.
However, for the case where X* = 0, we shall analyse Eq. (6.40).
By differentiating Eq. (6.41), we get,
GS . dY = LS . dX (6.42)
From Eq. (6.40) using Eq. (6.42), we get
YC
È LS Ø È X C Ø È GS Ø dY
tIII = É ÙÉ
Ê A Ú Ê k y ÚÙ ÊÉ LS ÚÙ Ô Ë ÈG Ø Û
Y2 (YS Y ) Ì(Y Y2 ) É S Ù X 2 Ü
Í Ê LS Ú Ý
È LS Ø È X C Ø È GS Ø 1 Ë X (Y Y2 ) Û
ln Ì C S
ÊÉ A ÚÙ ÊÉ k y ÚÙ ÊÉ LS ÚÙ Ë GS Û
Ü
Í X 2 (YS YC ) Ý
(6.43)
Ì S
(Y Y2 ) X 2Ü
Í LS Ý
The above Eq. (6.43) cannot be applied when the internal diffusion controls
the drying process. Since we have assumed that in the falling rate period, drying
rate varies linearly with free moisture content. Whenever the drying is controlled
by internal diffusion, tIII can be determined experimentally. In the case of parallel
flow driers,
YC
È LS Ø È GS Ø È 1 Ø dY
tII ÉÊ ÙÚ É Ù É Ù
A Ê LS Ú Ê k y Ú Ô (Ys Y)
Y1
È GS Ø È LS Ø È 1 Ø Ë (YS Y1 ) Û
ÉÊ L ÚÙ ÉÊ A ÙÚ É k Ù ln Ì (Y Y ) Ü (6.44)
S Ê yÚ Í S C Ý
XC
( X C X *) dX
tIII LS
A . ky Ô [(YS Y )( X X *)]
X2
È GS Ø È LS Ø È X C Ø 1 Ë X (Y Y2 ) Û
ÉÊ L ÙÚ ÊÉ A ÚÙ É k Ù Ë ln Ì C S Ü (6.45)
S Ê y Ú

GS

Û Í X 2 (YS YC ) Ý
Ì S
(Y YC ) X 2Ü
Í LS Ý
6.11 DRYING EQUIPMENTS

Drying equipments are classified on different basis, as mentioned below.
6.11.1 Based on Contact between Drying

Substance and Drying Material
(a) Direct contact: In these dryers, there is a direct contact between hot gas and
the drying substance. For example, rotary dryer, spray dryer, etc.
(b) Indirect contact: There is no direct contact between gas and drying
substance. For example, drum dryer, mechanically agitated dryer, etc.
Drying 131
6.11.2 Based on the Type of Operation

(a) Batch dryer: Tray dryer, freeze dryer, etc.
(b) Continuous dryer: rotary dryer, mechanically agitated dryer and tunnel
dryer.
6.11.3 Based on the Nature of Substance

being Dried
(a) Materials in sheets or masses carried on conveyors or trays,
i(i) Batch dryers: Atmospheric tray and vacuum tray.
(ii) Continuous dryers: Tunnel.
(b) Materials which are granular or loose,
ii(i) Rotary dryers: rotary and roto–Louvre
i(ii) Turbo dryers
(iii) Conveyors
(iv) Filter–dryer combinations
(all these dryers operate on continuous basis)
(c) Materials in continuous sheets,
i(i) Cylinder dryer
(ii) Festoon dryers
(d) Materials in the form of pastes or sludges or caking crystals,
i(i) Atmospheric agitator dryers (mechanically agitated)
(ii) Vacuum dryers
(e) Materials in the form of solution,
i(i) Drum dryers: Atmospheric and vacuum
(ii) Spray dryers
(f) Special dryers,
ii(i) Freeze dryers
i(ii) Infrared dryers
(iii) Dielectric dryers
Some of the dryers used in industries have been described as follows.
6.11.4 Atmospheric Compartment Dryers

This dryer consists of a rectangular chamber with insulating walls and a door. The
chamber is partitioned to enable the loading of materials in these compartments.
In some of the designs, trucks or cars may run into the dryer with provisions for
closing doors. These dryers also have provisions for heating the air inside and also
circulating it over the trays/shelves. Dampers are also provided to regulate the
flow of air.
6.11.5 Vacuum Compartment Dryer

It consists of a rectangular chamber with a number of shelves. These shelves are
hollow and during operation they are filled with steam or hot water. Steam enters
through a steam inlet manifold and there is a provision to remove the condensate
and also non condensables. The material to be dried is loaded in trays and placed
on shelves. The door is closed after placing the material to be dried and vacuum
is created in the chamber by means of a vacuum pump. The water released from
the substance is condensed in a condenser placed between the dryer and the
vacuum pump. If the vapour from the drying substance has a value, these dryers
enable us in the recovery of these vapours.
These dryers are used for materials that cannot withstand high temperatures,
as in the case of atmospheric compartmental dryer, such as pharmaceuticals. They
are also suitable for systems where in the contact between air or other oxidizing
gases are to be avoided.
6.11.6 Tunnel Dryers

The compartmental dryers operate on batch basis. The dryer is in the form of a
long tunnel. However, if a continuous operation is desired the material to be dried
can be loaded in trucks or cars and sent through the tunnel. The air flow could be
either co-current or countercurrent at right angles to the path of travel of trucks.
Heaters are also provided in the dryer in different sections so that the air may be
sent through the trucks, taken to a re-heater and sent back again to the trucks in
the same section.
These are used for drying bricks, ceramic products and other material which
have to be dried rather slowly but in large quantities.
6.11.7 Rotary Dryers

It consists of a cylindrical shell slightly inclined to the horizontal and mounted so
that it can be rotated. The feed material enters at the elevated end of the dryer and
due to the rotation of the shell, the material slowly moves towards the lower end
and finally leaves the dryer. Inside the shell, flights are present which help in
lifting the solids and showering them over air stream. Heat can be supplied from
outside to the shell of the dryer or through the hot air which flows either co-
currently or countercurrently. The rotating shell carries forged tires which ride on
rolls. Thrust rolls prevent the endwise travel of the shell. The shell is driven by
a gear arrangement which is driven by a motor. The shell rotates at a peripheral
speed of 20 to 25 m/min.
This dryer is used for drying granular or crystalline substances which has to
be handled in bulk and cannot be used for sticky material. A typical drier is shown
in Fig. 6.11.
Drying 133
12
4
5
Air out 10 4 7 3 4 1
11
9 2 Air
5 8 5 6
1. Air Heater 2. Stationary hood 3. Dryer shell 4. Tires 5. Supporting rolls 6. Thrust rolls
7. Drive gear 8. Motor and speed reducer 9. Air discharge hood 10. Feed chute
11. Discharge 12. Flights
Fig. 6.11 Rotary dryer.
6.11.8 Roto–Louvre Dryer

This is a modified form of rotary dryer described in Section 6.11.7. The dryer
consists of an outer cylindrical shell and a tapered inner shell made of number of
overlapping plates. The space between the shell and the overlapping plates is
divided into longitudinal channels by ribs. These channels are open at the large
end to receive hot air and are closed at the smaller end. The louvres are inclined
against the flow of rotation so that they do not lift the solid but merely serve to
keep the solid from dropping down the channels. The air from these channels flow
through the bed of solids. As the material entering the dryer has a higher moisture
content, the tapering provides a thinner bed to start with and hence a lower
resistance for gas/air flow. As the air flows through a bed of solids, the air comes
more nearly in equilibrium with the material and drying rate is faster and hence
a shorter size of the shell. Further, as the material is not lifted and showered down,
the tendency for degradation of material is less. Here, the material rolls along the
bottom of inner surface, and reaches the product outlet region.
6.11.9 Turbo Dryer

This dryer, as shown in Fig. 6.12, is of vertical orientation with a cylindrical or
polygonal shell. At the bottom we have a base plate which is driven by a gear
coupled to a motor assembly. From this base plate vertical rods rise to the top,
which are suitably connected to a guide bearing. Around these rods are cylindrical
bands of sheet metal to which are attached wedge shaped trays. The whole
assembly rotates as a single unit. Feed enters through the feed opening, fills the
trays and as they rotate they pass under a fixed leveling scraper. After one
revolution they pass under another scraper that scrapes the charge on the tray
through the transfer slots to fall to the tray below. Every tray is provided with a
Air in
Air inlet
Dry discharge
1. Casing 2. Scraper 3. Leveler blade 4. Rods 5. Metal Bands 6. Fan shaft 7. Base casting
8. Drive gears 9. Feed opening 10. Re-heaters 11. Chute for dried product 12. Transfer slots 13. Trays
Fig. 6.12 Turbo dryer.
leveler scraper and a scraper to push the solids to next lower tray. The dried
material leaving the last tray is finally scraped into a hopper and discharged out
of the dryer by a screw conveyor. Air enters the drier at the bottom of the shell.
With the help of fans attached to the central shaft, air is circulated over the
material on trays. As it picks up moisture, its temperature drops and the saturation
level goes up. In order to maintain a fairly steady temperature, the circulating air
is continuously reheated with the finned tube heaters. The humidified air finally
leaves the top of the dryer. The major advantage of this dryer is, it occupies a
lesser floor space and low power consumption compared to rotary dryer and
Roto–Louvre dryers.
6.11.10 Conveyor Dryers

It is a type of tunnel dryer in which the granular solids to be dried is loaded in
a conveyor belt of wire screen of a suitable mesh. The belt screen retains the solid
but permits the flow of air through the conveyor and also the solid. In some cases
the flow of air could be downwards also.
6.11.11 Filter Dryer Combination

When the material to be dried is in suspension in a liquid, a rotary continuous
filter is used. It consists of a drum which is fed at the top surface of the drum.
After the filtration, hot air is blown through the filtered material, so that filtration
and drying take place at the same time.
Drying 135
6.11.12 Cylinder Dryers

A typical cylinder drier is shown in Fig. 6.13. This consists of steam heated rolls
with facilities to remove the condensate. The rolls are driven by motors. The
material to be dried in the form of continuous sheets of paper or textiles passes
over these rolls and gets spooled to the final product spool. The speed of the train
of rolls must suitably be adjusted, through it is complicated, to compensate the
shrinkage of drying material. A typical dryer assembly in a paper manufacturing
unit may have 50 to 75 rolls.
Fig. 6.13 Cylinder dryer.
6.11.13 Festoon Dryers

In this dryer, as shown in Fig. 6.14, wet sheet of material passes over a series
of rolls and drops down to form a series of loops. A continuous chain
conveyor carrying cross bars is so timed with respect to the speed of the sheet
that the loops drop down to a certain predetermined length pass as the next
roll comes along to catch the next loop. The proper loop formation is ensured
by the loop blower. The material as it leaves the dryer is fully dried and rolls
on to the product roll. Hot air needed for drying is obtained by passing air
through a bank of finned tube heaters. The moist air leaves through air
discharge port.
6.11.14 Mechanically Agitated Dryer

A mechanically agitated dryer, as shown in Fig. 6.15, consists of a horizontal
jacketed cylindrical shell. Inside is a central shaft carrying agitator blades
1. Entering sheet 2. Festoons 3. Cross bars 4. Loop blower

5. Air nozzle 6. Exit sheet 7. Product roll 8. Heaters.
Fig. 6.14 Festoon dryer.
1. Jacketed shell 2. Heads 3. Feed inlet 4. Discharge door 5. Agitator shaft

6. Agitator blades 7. Vapour outlets 8. Steam inlets 9. Condensate outlets
Fig. 6.15 Mechanically agitated dryer.
arranged in a way, that one set of blades moves the material in one direction and
the other set in the opposite direction. Heat needed for drying is sent through the
jacket. The central shaft is rotated by a motor. The feed enters through the feed
inlet point and leaves from the product outlet point.
6.11.15 Drum Dryer

A typical double roll drum dryer consists of two large steam heated cast iron
rolls with a smooth external surface. The rolls rotate toward each other and the
liquid to be dried is fed directly into the V-shaped space between the rolls.
In small units generally there is no special feeding device whereas in larger
dryers swinging pipe or a traveling discharge pipe is used to keep the feed
Drying 137
uniform. Thickness of the material deposited on the rolls is determined by the

space between them. Doctor knife placed near the top of the rolls on the outside,
removes the dried product which is taken away with a conveyor. In very small
capacity driers, only one roll will be present which will be dipping, in a feed
trough. The doctor knife at the lower part of the drum removes the dried solid.
6.11.16 Vacuum Drum Dryers

When the substance being dried is heat sensitive, the drying can be
accomplished under vacuum. A typical vacuum drum dryer consists of a single
drum made of cast iron. The drum is heated with steam with facility to remove
the condensate. The pool of feed liquid is maintained at the bottom of the unit and
is pumped up to the spreader trough which is very close to the bottom section of
the drum. The dried product is removed by a doctor knife and taken out
subsequently by a conveyor. The entire unit is maintained under vacuum.
6.11.17 Spray Dryers

Spray dryers are extensively used for drying solutions, pharmaceuticals,
detergent products, fruit juices and milk. Many designs are available. In a
typical design shown in Fig. 6.16, the liquid to be dried is atomised and
introduced into the large drying chamber with a conical bottom. The droplets
are dispersed into a stream of hot air. The particles of liquid evaporate
rapidly and dry before they can be carried to the sides of the chamber and the
bulk of the dried powder which results, falls to the bottom of the chamber
from where they are removed by a stream of air to the dust collector.
For atomisation, either spray nozzles or rapidly rotating disks are used. Nozzles
1. Burner 2. Primary air blower 3. Combustion chamber 4. Secondary air blower

5. Secondary air passage 6. Hot air pipe 7. Hot air value 8. Spray nozzle
9. Air discharge pipe 10. Dust collector 11. Main product discharge
12. Air discharge 13. Dust discharge
Fig. 6.16 Spray dryer.
are relatively inflexible in their operating characteristics and do not permit even
moderate variation in liquid flow rates with out large changes in droplet size. They
are also subjected to rapid erosion and wear. Rotating disks are about 30 cm in
diameter and rotate at speeds of 3000 to 12000 rpm. They also easily handle
variations in liquid flow rates.
6.11.18 Freeze Drying

Substances which cannot be heated even to moderate temperatures, are frozen by
exposure to very cold air and placed in a vacuum chamber, where the moisture
sublimes and is pumped off by steam jet ejectors or mechanical vacuum pumps.
This is used for drying fish, vegetables like peas, vitamins and other heat sensitive
materials.
6.11.19 Infrared Drying

It has been used in the drying of paint films on objects such as automobile bodies.
The radiation is usually supplied by infrared lamps and the material to be dried
travels in a tunnel lined with banks of such lamps. This process is suitable only
for the drying of thin films on the surface of the material to be dried and never
for cases where the water or solvent to be removed is deep inside the solid. It is
a very expensive drying operation.
6.11.20 Dielectric Drying

In this operation the object to be dried is passed through a very high frequency
(2 to 100 ´ 106 cycles) electrostatic field. This generates heat uniformly
throughout the object. Its only important field of application is in polymerising the
resin that forms the bond between layers of plywood which is a rare drying
operation. However, some people will disagree in calling it as a very expensive
drying operation.
WORKED EXAMPLES
1. Air containing 0.005 kg of water vapour per kg of dry air is preheated
to 52°C in a dryer and passed to the lower shelves. It leaves these
shelves at 60% relative humidity and is reheated to 52°C and passed over
another set of shelves, again leaving at 60% relative humidity. This is again
repeated for the third and fourth sets of shelves, after which the air leaves
the dryer. On the assumption that the material in each shelf has reached the
wet bulb temperature and heat loss is negligible, estimate: (i) the
temperature of the material on each tray; (ii) the amount of water removed,
in kg/hr, if 300 m3/min of moist air leaves the dryer.
Solution.
(i) Air leaves the pre-heater of the dryer at 325 K
Humidity of incoming air = 0.005 kg water/kg dry air
Drying 139
It enters the first shelf. So, the wet bulb temperature = 25°C
Moisture is removed along wet bulb temperature line till 60% R.H.
is reached. This gives the exit condition of air from first shelf.
From the chart, Humidity of air leaving first shelf = 0.016 kg water/
kg dry air. Dry bulb temperature of exit air is at 27°C and is at a
humidity of 0.016 kg water/kg dry air. This air is again heated to 52°C
dry bulb temperature in second heater. So, air leaves heater at 52°C and
at a humidity of 0.016 kg water/kg dry air. When it leaves the second
shelf, the corresponding dry bulb temperature is 34°C and the humidity
is 0.023 kg water/kg dry air. This air enters the third shelf after
preheating to 52°C. Similarly for third shelf, exit air has a humidity of
0.028 kg water/kg dry air and has a dry bulb temperature of 39°C. The
air leaving the fourth shelf has a humidity of 0.032 kg water/kg dry air
and a dry bulb temperature of 42°C. (The figure is only indicative and
does not correspond to actual one.)
The solid temperatures correspond to WBT and they are 23°C,
27°C, 32°C and 34°C respectively. Ans.
(ii) Final moist air conditions: (Y ¢) = 0.032 kg water/kg dry air
60%
100% Humidity
34°C
Y¢ (kg/kg)
32°C
0.032
27°C 0.028
0.023
23°C
0.016
0.005
25 27 34 39 42 52
Temperature, °C
Fig. 6.17 Example 1 Humidity vs temperature.
Dry bulb temperature = 42°C
È 1 Ø È Y Ø Ë (tG 273) Û
VH 8315 É Ì Ü
Ê M air ÙÚ ÉÊ M water ÙÚ Í Pt Ý
È 1 Ø È 0.032 Ø Ë (42 + 273) Û

VH = 8315 É +
Ê 28.84 ÙÚ ÉÊ 18 ÙÚ ÌÍ1.013 105 ÜÝ
VH = 0.945 m3/kg dry air.
(300 60)
Amount of dry air leaving/hr = = 1.905 ´ 104 kg
0.945
Water removed/hr = 1.905 ´ 104 (0.032 – 0.005) = 514.35 kg/hr. Ans.
2. A batch of the solid, for which the following table of data applies, is to
be dried from 25 to 6 percent moisture under conditions identical to
those for which the data were tabulated. The initial weight of the wet solid
is 350 kg, and the drying surface is 1 m2/8 kg dry weight. Determine the
time for drying.
kg moisture kg moisture evaporated

X 100, kg dry solid
N ×100, hr . m 2
35 30
25 30
20 30
18 26.6
16 23.9
14 20.8
12 18
10 15
9 9.7
8 7
7 4.3
6.4 2.5
16 .
15
.
14
13
.
12
11 .
1/N, hr,m2/kg
10 .
9
.
8
7 .
.
6 .
5
4
.
3
2
1
.06 .07 .09 .11 .13 .15 .17 .19 .2

Moisture content, X (kg/kg)
Fig. 6.18 Example 2 1/N vs X for falling rate period.
Drying 141
Solution.
0.25 0.06
X1 = = 0.333, X2 = = 0.0638,
(1 0.25) (1 0.06)
Initial weight of wet solid = 350 kg
Initial moisture content = 0.333 kg moisture/kg dry solid
So, total moisture present in wet solid (initially) = 350 ´ 0.25 = 87.5 kg moisture
Weight of dry solid, LS = 262.5 kg
262.5 LS
A= = 32.8125 m2, or = 8 kg/m2
8 A
XCr = 0.20, NC = 0.3 kg/m2hr
So for constant rate period, drying time is
LS Ë 262.5 Û
tI = [ X 1 X Cr ] = Ì Ü [0.333 – 0.2] = 3.55 hr.
ANC Í (32.8125 0.3) Ý
For falling rate period, we are finding drying time graphically,
X 0.2 0.180 0.16 0.14 0.120 0.100 0.090 0.080 0.07 0.064
1/N 3.33 5.56 6.25 7.14 8.32 10.00 11.11 12.5 14.29 15.625
Area = 1.116,
LS LS
∴ Time = Area under the curve ´ = 1.116 ´
A
= 1.116 ´ 8 = 8.928 hr.
A
∴ Total time = 8.928 + 3.55 = 12.478 hr. Ans.
3. A wet slab of material weighing 5 kg originally contains 50 percent moisture
on wet basis. The slab is 1 m ´ 0.6 m ´ 7.5 cm thick. The equilibrium
moisture is 5 per cent on wet basis. When in contact with air, the drying rate
is given in the table below. Drying takes place from one face only.
i(i) Plot the drying rate curve and find the critical moisture content.
Wet slab wt, kg 5.0 4.0 3.6 3.5 3.4 3.06 2.85
2
Drying rate, kg/(hr)(m ) 5.0 5.0 4.5 4.0 3.5 2.00 1.00
X , Dry basis 1.00 0.6 0.44 0.4 0.36 0.224 0.14
(ii) How long will it take to dry the wet slab to 15 percent moisture on wet basis?
Solution. Weight of wet solid = 5 kg
Moisture content = 0.50 moisture/kg wet solid
0.5 0.5
= =
[(0.5 moisture) + (0.5 dry solid)] (1 0.5)
\ X1 = 1 = moisture/dry solid
For 5 kg wet solid, moisture = 5 × 0.5 = 2.5 kg

Weight of dry solid = 5 – 2.5 = 2.5 kg

5 . .
Drying rate, N(kg/hr . m2) ¾®

.
4 .
.
2 .
1 .
0 .1 .2 .3 .4 .5 .6 .7 .8 .9 1

Moisture content, X(kg/kg) ¾®
Fig. 6.19(a) Example 3 Drying rate curve.
0.05
x* = 0.05, = 0.0526
X* =
(1 0.05)
weight of wet solid weight of dry solid
Moisture content in dry basis =
weight of dry solid
Ans.
(i) XCr = 0.6 kg moisture/kg dry solid.
(ii) From X = 0.6 to 0.44 the falling rate curve is non-linear and from
X = 0.44 to 0.14, falling rate period is linear.
0.15
X2 = = 0.1765.
(1 0.15)
0.4
0.3
1/N, (hr . mv2)/kg
. .
0.2 .
0.1
0 0.2 0.4 0.6 0.8

Moisture content, X
Fig. 6.19(b) Example 3 1/N vs X.
Drying 143
So, we can find time for drying from 0.6 to 0.44 graphically and then for
X = 0.44 to 0.1765, we can go in for analytical solution as the ‘N’ vs ‘X’
relation is linear.
Time taken for constant rate drying period (From X = 1 to X = 0.6)
Ë L Û Ë 2.5 Û
tI = Ì S Ü [X1– XCr] = Ì Ü [1 – 0.6] = 0.333 hr
Í ANC Ý Í (5 0.6) Ý
(from X = 0.44 to 0.1765)
LS ÎÑ Ë ( X 1 X *) Û ÞÑ
tII = ´ Ï( X Cr X *) ln Ì Üß
AN C ÑÐ Í ( X 2 X *) Ý àÑ
0.05
(X* = = 0.0526)
(1 0.05)
Ë 2.5 Û ÎÑ Ë (0.44 0.0526) Û ÞÑ

tII = Ì Ü ´ Ï(0.6 0.0526) ln Ì (0.176 0.0526) Ü ß
Í (5 0.6) Ý ÐÑ Í Ý àÑ
= 0.522 hr Ans.
(0.0336 2.5)
From graph, tIII (From X = 0.6 to X = 0.44) = = 0.14 hr.
0.6
Total time = tI + tII + tIII = 0.333 + 0.522 + 0.14 = 0.995 hr or 59.58 min. Ans.
4. Data on drying rate curve of a particular solid is given below. The weight of
the dry material in the solid is 48.0 kg/m2. Calculate the time required to dry
the material from 25% to 8% moisture (dry basis).
Data:
X 0.30 0.20 0.18 0.15 0.14 0.11 0.07 0.05

N 1.22 1.22 1.14 0.90 0.80 0.56 0.22 0.05
where X is the moisture content in kg water/kg dry solid and N is the drying
rate in kg/(hr) (m2).
Solution.
NC = 1.22 kg/m2hr, XCr = 0.2, X1 = 0.25, X2 = 0.08, LS/A = 48 kg/m2
Time taken for constant rate drying period,
Ë L Û
tI = Ì S Ü [X1 – XCr]
Í AN C Ý
[0.25 0.2]
tI = 48 = 1.967 hr.
1.22
X 0.18 0.15 0.14 0.11 0.07 0.05

1/N 0.8772 1.111 1.25 1.7857 4.545 20
20
15
I/N, hr . m2/kg
10
0.05 0.1 0.15 0.2

Moisture content, X
Fig. 6.20 Example 4 1/N vs X for falling rate.
Area under the curve = 14 ´ 0.025 ´ 1 = 0.35
tII = 0.35 ´ 48 = 16.8 hr
Total time taken = tI + tII = 1.967 + 16.8 = 18.767 hr Ans.
5. In a drying experiment, a tray drier, containing a single tray of 1 m2 area is

used, to dry crystalline solids. The following data have been collected:
Sl. No Time (hr) Weight of wet material, kg

1 0.0 5.314
2 0.4 5.238
3 0.8 5.162
4 1.0 5.124
5 1.4 5.048
6 1.8 4.972
7 2.2 4.895
8 2.6 4.819
9 3.0 4.743
10 3.4 4.667
11 4.2 4.524
12 4.6 4.468
13 5.0 4.426
14 6.0 4.340
15 Infinity 4.120
Drying 145
Sl. No. Time, hr Weight of Moisture Drying rate,

wet material, content kg/hr . m2
kg dry basis
1 0 5.314 0.29 —
2 0.4 5.238 0.271 0.19
3 0.8 5.162 0.253 0.19
4 1.0 5.124 0.244 0.19
5 1.4 5.048 0.225 0.19
6 1.8 4.972 0.206 0.19
7 2.2 4.895 0.188 0.1925
8 2.6 4.819 0.169 0.19
9 3.0 4.743 0.151 0.19
10 3.4 4.667 0.133 0.19
11 4.2 4.524 0.098 0.179
12 4.6 4.468 0.084 0.14
13 5 4.426 0.074 0.105
14 6 4.340 0.053 0.086
15 Infinity 4.120 0.0 —
(i) Calculate and plot drying rates. Find the critical moisture content.
(ii) If dry air is available at 40°C with an absolute humidity of 0.01 kg/kg dry
air and the drier is maintained at 90°C, calculate the amount of air
required in first 2 hours. Assume the air is heated up to 90°C and the dry
air leaves the drier at 90°C with 5% saturation.
(iii) Test the consistency of the falling rate period. (Choose critical moisture
content and any one point in falling rate period.)
Solution.
From the above data after getting the rate curve it is clear that XCr = 0.11. The
loss in weight is due to moisture evaporated. After two hours the weight is
(4.972 + 4.895)/2 = 4.934 kg
0.2 . . . . .
. . . . .
0.19 . .
0.16
Drying rate, N/kg hr . m2
0.12
.
0.08 .
0.04
0 .
0.1 Xcr = 0.11 0.2 0.3
Moisture content X (kg/kg)
Fig. 6.21 Example 5 Drying rate curve.
The water evaporated in 2 hours is

5.314 – 4.934 = 0.38 kg
Humidity of incoming air = 0.01 kg/kg
Humidity of leaving air = 0.03 kg/kg (for 90°C with 5% saturation)
Water carried away by air = Gs(Yout – Yin)
0.38 = Gs (0.03 – 0.01)
Therefore,
0.38
Gs is = = 19 kg of air for 2 hours.
0.02
LS ÎÑ Ë ( X X *) Û ÞÑ
tfalling = ´ Ï( X Cr X *) ln Ì 1 Üß
AN C ÑÐ Í ( X 2 X *) Ý àÑ
Let us choose readings (11) and (13) to check the consistency
Ë 4.12 Û Ë 0.098 Û
= Ì Ü ´ (0.11 – 0) ´ ln Ì Ü = 0.67 hours
Í (1) (0.19) Ý Í 0.074 Ý
Here, X* is taken as 0. Actual time is 0.8 hour. Ans.
6. A woolen cloth is dried in a hot air dryer from an initial moisture content of
100% to a final moisture content of 10%. If the critical moisture content is
55% and the equilibrium moisture content is 6% (at dryer condition),
calculate the saving in drying time if the material is dried to 16% instead of
10%. All other drying conditions remain the same.
All moisture contents are on the dry basis.
X1 = 100%, XCr = 55%, X2 = 10%, X* = 6% all are on dry basis.

Solution.
X2¢, = 16%
LS ÎÑ L Ë ( X X *) Û ÞÑ
tT1 = [X1 – XCr] + Ï S ( X Cr X *) ln Ì Cr Üß
AN C ÐÑ ANC Í ( X 2 X *) Ý àÑ
LS ÑÎ LS Ë ( X X *) Û ÑÞ
tT = [X1 – XCr] + Ï ( X Cr X *) ln Ì Cr Üß … (1)
AN C ÑÐ ANC Í ( X 2 X *) Ý Ñà
LS ÎÑ L Ë ( X X *) Û ÑÞ
t T¢ = [ X1 X Cr ] Ï S ( X Cr X *) ln Ì Cr Üß … (2)
ANC ÑÐ ANC Í ( X 2 X *) Ý Ñà
Drying 147
i.e. (1)/(2) is,

ÑÎ Ë X X * Û ÑÞ
[ X 1 X Cr ] Ï( X Cr X *) ln Ì Cr Üß
tT ÐÑ Í X 2 X * Ý àÑ
tT ÎÑ Ë X X * Û ÞÑ
[ X 1 X Cr ] Ï( X Cr X *) ln Ì Cr Üß
ÐÑ Í X 2 X * Ý àÑ
ÑÎ Ë (0.55 0.06) Û ÑÞ
[1 0.55] Ï(0.55 0.06) ln Ì Üß
tT ÑÐ Í (0.1 0.06) Ý Ñà
tT ÑÎ Ë (0.55 0.06) Û ÑÞ
[1 0.55] Ï(0.55 0.06) ln Ì

Üß
ÐÑ Í (0.16 0.06) Ý àÑ
tT 1.678
=
tT 1.2287
tT
= 1.3657
tT
tT
= 0.7322
tT
t¢T = 0.7322 tT
The reduction in drying time is,
(tT tT )
= 0.2678
tT
Thus, the time reduces by 26.78%. Ans.
7. A filter cake is dried for 5 hours from an initial moisture content of 30% to
10% (wet basis). Calculate the time required to dry the filter cake from 30%
to 6% (wet basis).
Equilibrium moisture content = 4% on dry basis
Critical moisture content = 14% on dry basis
Assume that the rate of drying in the falling rate period is directly
proportional to the free moisture content.
Solution.
0.3
x1 = 0.3, xf = 0.10, X1 = = 0.4286, XCr = 0.14
(1 0.3)
0.1
X f = X2 = = 0.111, X* = 0.04,
(1 0.1)
0.06
Then, X2 ¢ = = 0.064
(1 0.06)
Ë L Û ÎÑ Ë ( X X *) Û ÑÞ
tT = Ì S Ü [( X 1 X Cr ) Ï( X Cr X *) ln Ì Cr Üß
Í AN C Ý ÑÐ Í ( X 2 X *) Ý Ñà
Ë L Û Î Ë (0.14 0.04) Û Þ
5 = Ì S Ü (0.4286 0.14) + Ï(0.14 0.04) ln Ì (0.111 0.04) Ü ß
Í AN C Ý Ð Í Ýà
Thus, LS/ANC = 15.487 hrs
LS Ë ÎÑ Ë ( X X *) Û ÞÑÛ
t T¢ = Ì( X i X Cr ) Ï( X Cr X *) ln Ì Cr Ü ßÜ
AN C ÌÍ ÑÐ Í ( X 2 X *) Ý ÑàÜÝ
Ë ÎÑ Ë (0.14 0.04) Û ÞÑÛ

tT¢ = 15.487 Ì(0.4286 0.14) + Ï(0.14 0.04) ln Ì (0.064 0.04) Ü ßÜ
ÍÌ ÐÑ Í Ý àÑÝÜ
tT¢ = 6.68 hrs Ans.
8. 1000 kg dry weight of non-porous solid is dried under constant drying
conditions with an air velocity of 0.75 m/s, so that the surface area of drying
is 55 m2. The critical moisture content of the material may be taken as
0.125 kg water/kg dry solids?
(i) If the initial rate of drying is 0.3 g/m2 . s. How long will it take to dry
the material from 0.15 to 0.025 kg water/kg dry solid?
(ii) If the air velocity were increased to 4.0 m/s, what would be the
anticipated saving in time if surface evaporation is controlling.
Solution.
LS = 1000 kg, Air velocity = 0.75 m/s, A = 55 m2, XCr = 0.125,
X1 = 0.15, X2 = 0.025. Assume X* = 0, NC = 0.3 g/m2 . s or
0.3 ´ 10–3 kg/m2 s
È LS Ø Ë ÎÑ Ë ( X Cr X *) Û ÞÑÛ
tT = ÉÊ AN ÙÚ Ì( X 1 X Cr ) Ï( X Cr X *) ln Ì ( X X *) Ü ßÜ
C ÍÌ ÐÑ Í 2 Ý àÑÝÜ
Ë 1000 Û Ë ÑÎ Ë (0.125 0) Û ÑÞÛ

tT = Ì 3 Ü Ì (0.15 0.125) + Ï(0.125 0) ln Ì (0.025 0) Ü ß Ü
Í (55 0.3 10 ) Ý ÌÍ ÑÐ Í Ý ÑàÜÝ
= 13708 s
tT = 3.8077 hr
(ii) Assuming only surface evaporation, and assuming air moves parallel to
surface
' NC µ G0.71 and G = V ´ r
i.e. NC µ V 0.71
∴ N C1 (V1 )0.71
N C2 (V2 )0.71
(0.3 103 ) (0.75)0.71
=
N C2 (4)0.71
Drying 149
NC2 = 0.985 × 10–3 kg/m2 s.

Ë 1000 Û
tT = Ì 3 Ü ´
Í (55 0.985 10 Ý
Ë ÑÎ Ë (0.125 0) Û ÑÞÛ 1
Ì(0.15 0.125) + Ï(0.125 0) ln Ì Ü ßÜ
ÌÍ ÑÐ Í (0.025 0) Ý ÑàÜÝ 3600
= 1.1597 hrs.
So, time saved = 3.8077 – 1.1597 = 2.648 hr Ans.
9. A plant wishes to dry a certain type of fibreboard. To determine drying
characteristics, a sample of 0.3 ´ 0.3 m size with edges sealed was suspended
from a balance and exposed to a current of hot dry air. Initial moisture content
was 75%. The sheet lost weight at the rate of 1 ´ 10–4 kg/s until the moisture
content fell to 60%. It was established that the equilibrium moisture content
was 10%. The dry mass of the sample was 0.90 kg. All moisture contents
were on wet basis. Determine the time for drying the sheets from 75% to 20%
moisture under the same drying conditions.
Solution.
x1 = 0.75, x* = 0.1, xCr = 0.6 LS = 0.90 kg,
A = (0.3 ´ 0.3) ´ 2 (both upper and lower surfaces are exposed) = 0.18 m2.
A ´ NC = 10–4 kg/s,
0.6
x1 = 0.75, x2 = 0.2, XCr = =1.5,
0.4
0.1
X1 = 3, X2 = 0.25, X* = = 0.111
0.9
È LS Ø Ë ÑÎ Ë (X X *) Û ÑÞÛ
tT = É AN Ù ´ Ì(X 1 X Cr ) + Ï(X Cr X *) ln Ì Cr Ü ßÜ
Ê Ú
C ÌÍ ÑÐ Í (X 2 X *) Ý ÑàÜÝ
0.90 Ë ÑÎ Ë (1.5 0.111) Û ÑÞ Û
tT = 4
Ì (3 1.5) + Ï(1.5 0.111) ln Ì ÜßÜ
10 ÌÍ ÑÐ Í (0.25 0.111) Ý Ñà ÜÝ
= 11.74 hr Ans.
10. A commercial drier needed 7 hours to dry a moist material from 33%
moisture content to 9% on bone dry basis. The critical and equilibrium
moisture content were 16% and 5% on bone dry basis respectively. Determine
the time needed to dry the material from a moisture content of 37% to 7% on
bone dry basis if the drying conditions remain unchanged.
Solution.
X1 = 0.33, X* = 0.05, XCr = 0.16, X2 = 0.09, X1¢ = 0.37,
X2¢ = 0.07, tT = 7 hrs
È L Ø Ë ÑÎ Ë ( X X *) Û ÑÞÛ
tT = É S Ù ´ Ì( X 1 X Cr ) Ï( X Cr X *) ln Ì Cr Ü ßÜ
Ê AN C Ú ÍÌ ÐÑ Í ( X 2 X *) Ý àÑÝÜ
LS Ë ÎÑ Ë (0.16 0.05) Û ÑÞÛ

7= ´ Ì(0.33 0.16) + Ï(0.16 0.05) ln Ì Ü ßÜ
AN C ÌÍ ÐÑ Í (0.09 0.05) Ý àÑÜÝ
LS
= 24.8866 h
AN C
Now, X1 = 0.37, X2 = 0.07
Ë ÎÑ Ë (0.16 0.05) Û ÞÑÛ
tT = 24.8866 ´ Ì(0.37 0.16) + Ï(0.16 0.05) ln Ì (0.07 0.05) Ü ßÜ
ÍÌ ÑÐ Í Ý ÑàÝÜ
= 9.893 h Ans.
11. A slab of paper pulp 1.5 m ´ 1.5 m ´ 5 mm, is to be dried under constant
drying conditions from 65% to 30% moisture (wet basis) and the critical
moisture is 1.67 kg free water/kg dry pulp. The drying rate at the critical point
has been estimated to be 1.40 kg/(m2)(hr). The dry weight of each slab is 2.5
kg. Assuming drying to take place from the two large faces only, calculate the
drying time to be provided.
Solution.
x1 = 0.65, LS = 2.5 kg,
A = (1.5 ´ 1.5) ´ 2 (drying takes place from both the larger surface only)
= 4.5 m2.
NC = 1.4 kg/m2hr, x2 = 0.3, XCr = 1.67,
0.65 0.3
X1 = = 1.857, X2 = = 0.4286,
(1 0.65) (1 0.3)
Assuming X* = 0
tT = É S Ù Ì( X 1 X Cr ) Ï( X Cr X *) ln Ì Cr Ü ßÜ
Ê AN C Ú ÌÍ ÑÐ Í ( X 2 X *) Ý ÑàÜÝ
È 2.5 Ø ÎÑ Ë (1.67 0) Û ÞÑ
tT = ÉÊ 4.5 1.4 ÙÚ [1.857 1.67] Ï(1.67 0) ln Ì (0.4286 0) Ü ß
ÑÐ Í Ý Ñà
tT = 0.976 h Ans.
12. A slab of paper pulp 1.5 m ´ 1.5 m ´ 5 mm, thick is to be dried under constant
drying conditions from 15% to 8.5% moisture (dry basis). The equilibrium
moisture is 2.5% (dry basis) and the critical moisture is 0.46 kg free water kg
dry pulp. The drying rate at the critical point has been estimated to be 1.40 kg/
(m2)(hr). Density of dry pulp is 0.22 gm/cc. Assuming drying to take place
from the two large faces only, calculate the drying time to be provided.
Solution.
X* = 0.025, NC = 1.4 kg/m2hr, XCr = 0.46, X1 = 0.15, X2 = 0.085,
Density of dry pulp = 0.22 g/cc, A = (1.5 ´ 1.5) ´ 2 = 4.5 m2,
Drying 151
Volume of material = 1.5 ´ 1.5 ´ 0.5 = 1.125 ´ 10–2 m3,

∴ LS = 1.125 ´ 10–2 ´ 0.22 ´ 103 = 2.475 kg
È L Ø Ë ÎÑ Ë ( X X *) Û ÞÑÛ
tT = É S Ù Ì( X1 X Cr ) Ï( X Cr X *) ln Ì Cr Ü ßÜ
Ê AN C Ú ÌÍ ÐÑ Í ( X 2 X *) Ý àÑÜÝ
But here initial moisture is less than the XCr. So there is no constant rate
drying period and only falling rate period is observed.
LS Ë ( X1 X *) Û
∴ tT = [ X Cr X *] ln Ì Ü
ANC Í ( X 2 X *) Ý
ÎÑ Ë 2.475 Û Ë (0.15 0.025) Û ÞÑ
tT = Ï Ì Ü [0.46 0.025] ln Ì Üß
ÐÑ Í 4.5 1.4 Ý Í (0.085 0.025) Ý àÑ
= 0.125 hr or 7.526 min Ans.
13. Under constant drying conditions, a filter cake takes 5 hours to reduce its
moisture content from 30% to 10% on wet basis. The critical moisture is 14%
and the equilibrium moisture 4%, both on dry basis. Assuming the rate of
drying in the falling rate period to be directly proportional to the free
moisture content, estimate the time required to dry the cake from 30% to 6%
moisture on wet basis.
Solution.
x1 = 0.3, x2 = 0.1,
X1 = 0.3/0.7= 0.4286, X* = 0.04, XCr = 0.14,
X2 = 0.1/0.9 = 0.111, tT = 5 hrs,
x1¢ = 0.3 and hence, X1¢ = 0.4286. x2¢ = 0.06 and X2¢ = 0.0638,
È L Ø Ë ÎÑ Ë ( X X *) Û ÞÑÛ
5 = É S Ù Ì( X 1 X Cr ) Ï( X Cr X *) ln Ì Cr Ü ßÜ … (1)
Ê AN C Ú ÌÍ ÐÑ Í ( X 2 X *) Ý àÑÝÜ
È LS Ø Ë ÑÎ Ë ( X X *) Û ÑÞÛ
tT¢ = É Ù Ì( X1 X Cr ) Ï( X Cr X *) ln Ì Cr Ü ßÜ … (2)
Dividing (1)/(2)
ÎÑ Ë (0.14 0.04) Û ÞÑ
[0.4286 0.14] Ï0.14 0.04) ln Ì Üß
5 ÑÐ Í (0.111 0.04) Ý Ñà
tT ÑÎ Ë (0.14 0.04) Û ÑÞ
[0.4286 0.14] Ï(0.14 0.04) ln Ì Üß
ÐÑ Í (0.0638 0.04) Ý àÑ
5
= 0.3228/0.4321
tT
Hence,
tT¢ = 6.69 h. Ans.
14. Sheet material, measuring 1 m2 and 5 cm thick, is to be dried from 45% to
5% moisture under constant drying conditions. The dry density of the
material is 450 kg/m3 and its equilibrium moisture content is 2%.

The available drying surface is 1 m2. Experiments showed that the rate of
drying was constant at 4.8 kg/(hr)(m2) between moisture contents of 45% and
20% and thereafter the rate decreased linearly. Calculate the total time
required to dry the material from 45% to 5%. All moisture contents are on
wet basis.
Solution.
A = 1 m2 , 5 cm thick, xi = 0.45, x* = 0.02, xCr = 0.2, x2 = 0.05,
0.02
X* = = 0.02041, NC = 4.8 kg/m2hr, XCr = 0.25,
(1 0.02)
0.45
X1 = = 0.818, X2 = 0.0526.
(1 0.45)
Density of dry pulp = 450 kg/m3
Volume of material = 1 ´ 5 ´ 10–2 = 0.05 m3
LS = 450 ´ 0.05 = 22.5 kg
tT = É S Ù Ì( X 1 X Cr ) Ï( X Cr X *) ln Ì Cr Ü ßÜ
Ë 22.5 Û Ë ÑÎ Ë (0.25 0.02041) Û ÑÞÛ

tT = Ì Ü Ì(0.818 0.25) + Ï(0.25 0.02041) ln Ì Ü ßÜ
Í (1 4.8) Ý ÌÍ ÑÐ Í (0.0526 0.02041) Ý ÑàÜÝ
= 4.78 hr Ans.
15. Wet solids containing 120 kg/hour of dry stuff are dried continuously in a
specially designed drier, cross-circulated with 2,000 kg per hour of dry air
under the following conditions:
Ambient air temperature = 20°C
Exhaust air temperature = 70°C
Evaporation of water = 150 kg/hr
Outlet solids moisture content = 0.25 kg/hr
Inlet solids temperature = 15°C
Outlet solids temperature = 65°C
Power demand = 5 kW
Heat loss = 18 kW
Estimate heater load per unit mass of dry air and fraction of this heat used
in evaporation of moisture.
Data:
Mean specific heat of dry air = 1 kJ kg–1 K–1
Enthalpy of saturated water vapour = 2,626 kJ per kg
Mean specific heat of dry materials = 1.25 kJ kg–1 K–1
Mean specific heat of moisture = 4.18 kJ kg–1 K–1.
Drying 153
Solution.
Total quantity of solid 120 kg dry stuff
Air used is 2000 kg/hr dry air
Q = 18 kW
150 kg/hr
20°C
0.25 kg
moisture/hr
15°C
65°C
Basis: 1 hour
Heat required for heating 150 kg water from 15°C to 65°C
150 ´ 4.18 ´ (65 – 15) = 31350 kJ
Heat required for 150 kg water evaporation
150 ´ 2626 = 393900 kJ
Heat required for heating air from 20°C to 70°C
2000 ´ 1 ´ (70 – 20) = 100000 kJ
Heat required for heating moisture in solid from 15°C to 65°C
0.25 ´ 4.18 ´ (65 – 15) = 52.25 kJ
Heat required for heating dry solid from 15°C to 65°C
120 ´ 1.25 ´ (65 – 15) = 7500 kJ
Heat lost = 18 × 3600 = 64800 kJ
So, total heat required/hr
393900 + 100000 + 52.25 + 7500 + 64800 = 566252.25 kJ/hr. = 157.3 kW
i.e. 166 kW of heat is needed for 2000 kg/hr of dry air.
157.3
Heat required/mass of dry air = = 0.0787 kW
2000
(i) Heat needed for evaporation = [393900 + 31350]/3600 = 118.13
kW Ans.
118.13
(ii) Fraction of this heat needed for evapouration = 0.751 or
157.3
75.1%. Ans.
16. A drum drier is being designed for drying of a product from an initial total
moisture content of 12% to final moisture content of 4%. An overall heat
transfer coefficient (U) 1700 W/m2C is being estimated for the product. An
average temperature difference between the roller surface and the product of
85°C will be used for design purpose. Determine the surface area of the roller
required to provide a production rate of 20 kg product per hour.
Solution.
Initial moisture content = 12%
Final moisture content = 4%
Production rate = 20 kg final product/hour
4 kg moisture is present in 100 kg product
(4 20)
In 20 kg product, weight of moisture = = 0.8 kg
100
Dry solid weight = 20 – 0.8 = 19.2 kg
Ë 0.12 Û
Total initial moisture content = 19.2 ´ Ì Ü = 2.6182 kg
Í (1 0.12) Ý
Water evaporated = 2.6182 – 0.8 = 1.8182 kg/hour
lS at 85°C = 2296.1 kJ/kg
Heat required = W ´ lS (Assuming the solid mixture enters at 85°C and only
moisture removal by evaporation is alone considered)
= 1.8182 ´ 2296.1 = 4174.73 kJ/hour
U ´ A ´ DT = W ´ ls
1700 ´ A ´ 85 = 4174730/3600
\ A = 8.025 ´ 10–3 m2 or 80.25 cm2. Ans.
17. A sample of porous sheet material of mineral origin is dried from both sides
by cross circulation of air in a laboratory drier. The sample was 0.3 m ´ 0.3 m
and 6 mm thick and edges were sealed. The air velocity is 3 m/s. DBT and
WBT of air were 52°C and 21°C respectively. There was no radiation effect.
Constant rate drying was 7.5 ´ 10–5 kg/s until critical moisture content of
15% (on wet basis) was obtained. In the falling rate period, rate of drying fell
linearly with moisture content until the sample was dry. The dry weight of the
sheet was 1.8 kg. Estimate the time needed for drying similar sheets 1.2 m ´
1.2 m ´ 12 mm thick from both sides from 25% to 2% moisture on wet basis
using air at a DBT of 66°C but of the same absolute humidity and a linear
velocity of 5 m/s. Assume the critical moisture content remains the same.
Solution.
Constant drying rate 7.5 ´ 10–5 kg/s
Area of the specimen = 0.3 ´ 0.3 ´ 2 = 0.18 m2
7.5 105
Drying rate = NC1 = = 4.167 ´ 10–4 kg/m2 s
0.18
0.15
XC = = 0.1765
0.85
0.25
XO = = 0.3333
0.75
Drying 155
0.02
Xfinal = = 0.02041
0.98
Area of new solid = 1.2 ´ 0.6 ´ 2 = 1.44 m2
Bone dry Weight of new solid = 28.8 kg
(Based on total volume of old and new solid)
Volume of old solid = 0.3 ´ 0.3 ´ 0.006 = 54 ´ 10–5 m3
Volume of new solid = 0.6 ´ 1.2 ´ 0.012 = 864 ´ 10–5 m3
Weight of old solid = 1.8 kg
1.8
Weight of new Bone dry solid = (864 ´ 10–5) ´ ´ 10–5 = 28.8 kg
54
Nc µ (T – Ts)
µ (Ys – Y)
µ (G)0.71 where, G is the mass flow rate of air
Old velocity = 3 m/s
Old DBT = 52°C and WBT = 21°C Ts = 21°C, Hence TG–TS = 31°C
Humidity: 0.002 Saturated humidity: 0.015 kg/kg
New velocity = 5 cm/s
New DBT: 66°C but of same humidity as before, Ts = 24°C
Hence TG – Ts = 41°C
Humidity: 0.002 Saturated humidity: 0.018 kg/kg
Hence, Drying rate of air under new conditions is =
0.71
Ë È 5 Ø È 325 Ø Û Ë (0.018 0.002) Û Ë 4 Û
4.167 104 Ì É Ù É ÙÜ Ì ÜÌ Ü 0.933 103 kg/m 2 s
Í Ê 3 Ú Ê 339 Ú Ý Í (0.015 0.002) Ý Í 3 Ý
Ë LS Û Ë ( X Cr X *) Û
Drying time = Ì Ü [ X o X Cr ] ( X Cr X *) ln Ì Ü
Í ANC Ý ÍÌ ( X f X *) ÝÜ
Ë 28.8 Û
Ì 3 Ü
ÍÌ1.44 0.933 10 ÝÜ
Ë Î 0.1765 0 ÞÛ
Ì(0.3333 0.1765) (0.176 0.0) ln Ï ßÜ
ÌÍ Ð 0.0204 0.0 àÜÝ
= 11524 s
= 3.20 hrs
EXERCISES
1. Sheet material, measuring 1 m2 and 5 cm thick, is to be dried from 50% to
2% moisture under constant drying conditions. The dry density of the
material is 400 kg/m3 and its equilibrium moisture content is negligible. The
available drying surface is 1 m2. Experiments showed that the rate of drying
was constant at 4.8 kg/(hr)(m2) between moisture contents of 50% and 25%
and thereafter the rate decreased linearly. Calculate the total time required to
dry the material from 50% to 2%. All moisture contents are on wet basis.
(Ans: 6.653 hrs)
2. Calculate the critical moisture content and the drying rate during the constant
rate period for drying a wet slab of size 20 cm ´ 75 cm ´ 5 cm, whose dry
weight is 16 kg. Both the sides are used for drying. The steam used was at
3 atm. pressure and was consumed at the rate of 0.135 g/s cm2 of the contact
surface. The following drying data is available for the sample. Assume
equilibrium moisture content is negligible.
Drying
time, 0 0.25 1.0 1.5 2.0 2.5 3.0 4.0 6.0 8.0 10.0 12.0
hrs
Sample
weight, 19.9 19.7 19.2 18.9 18.6 18.3 18.1 17.65 16.92 16.4 16.15 16.05
kg
(Ans: 0.14375 kg/kg, 2 kg/hr m2)

3. The following data are available for drying a substance. Estimate the drying
time needed to dry a similar sample under similar drying conditions from
40% to 12% moisture content, on wet basis. The drying surface is 1 m2/4 kg
of dry weight and the initial weight of the wet sample is 80 kg.
X (dry basis) 0.35 0.25 0.2 0.18 0.16 0.14 0.10 0.08 0.065
2
N , kg/hr.m 0.3 0.3 0.3 0.266 0.24 0.21 0.15 0.07 0.05
(Ans: 7.281 hrs)
4. 175 kg of wet material with 25% moisture is to be dried to 10% moisture. Air
enters at 65ºC DBT and a WBT of 25ºC. The velocity of air is 150 cm/s.
Drying area equals 1 m2/40 kg dry weight.
X (dry basis) 0.26 0.22 0.20 0.18 0.16 0.14 0.12 0.1 0.08
2
N , kg/hr.m 1.5 1.5 1.5 1.3 1.2 1.04 0.9 0.75 0.6
(Ans: 6.687 hrs)
5. A wet solid is dried from 35% to 8% moisture in 5 hrs under constant drying
condition. The critical moisture content is 15% and equilibrium moisture
content is 5%. All the moisture contents are reported as percentage on wet
basis. Calculate how much longer it would take place under the similar drying
conditions to dry from 8% to 6% moisture on wet basis.
(Ans: 1.3115 hrs)
6. A certain material was dried under constant drying conditions and it was
found that 2 hours are required to reduce the free moisture from 20% to 10%.
How much longer would it require to reduce the free moisture to 4%? Assume
that no constant rate period is encountered.
(Ans: 4.643 hrs)
7. It is desired to dry sheets of material from 73% to 4% moisture content (wet
basis). The sheets are 2 m ´ 3 m ´ 5 mm. The drying rate during constant
rate period is estimated to be 0.1 kg/hr . m2. The bone-dry density of the
material is 30 kg/m3. The material is dried from both the sides. The critical
Drying 157
moisture content is 30% on wet basis and equilibrium moisture content is

negligible. The falling rate period is linear. Determine the time needed for
drying.
(Ans: 2.798 hrs)
8. A slab of paper pulp 1 m ´ 1 m ´ 5 mm is to be dried under constant drying
conditions from 60% to 20% moisture (wet basis) and the critical moisture is
1.5 kg water/kg dry pulp. The drying rate at the critical point has been
estimated to be 1.40 kg/(m2)(hr). The dry weight of each slab is 2.5 kg.
Assuming that drying rate is linear in falling rate period and drying takes
place from the two large faces only, calculate the drying time needed.
(Ans: 4.8 hrs)
9. 50 kg of batch of granular solids containing 25% moisture is to be dried in
a tray dryer to 12% moisture by passing a stream of air at 92°C tangentially
across its surface at a velocity of 1.8 m/s. If the constant rate of drying under
these conditions is 0.0008 kg moisture/m2s and critical moisture content is
10%. Calculate the drying time if the surface available is 1.0 m2 (all moisture
contents are on wet basis).
(Ans: 2.565 hrs)
10. A plant wishes to dry a certain type of fibre board in sheets 1.2 m ´ 2 m ´
12 mm. To determine the drying characteristics a 0.3 m ´ 0.3 m board with
the edge sealed, so that drying takes place only from two large faces only,
was suspended from a balance in a laboratory dryer and exposed to a current
of hot dry air. Initial moisture content is 75%, critical moisture content is 60%
and equilibrium moisture content is 10%. Dry mass of the sample weighs 0.9
kg. Constant drying rate 0.0001 kg/m2.s. Determine the time for drying large
sheets from 75% to 20% moisture under the same drying conditions (all
moisture contents are on wet basis).
(Ans: 65.24 hrs)
11. A batch of wet solid was dried on a tray drier using constant drying
conditions and the thickness of material on the tray was 25 mm. Only the top
surface was exposed for drying. The drying rate was 2.05 kg/m2 . hr during
constant rate period. The weight of dry solid was 24 kg/m2 exposed surface.
The initial free moisture content was 0.55 and the critical moisture content
was 0.22. Calculate the time needed to dry a batch of this material from a
moisture content of 0.45 to 0.30 using the same drying condition but the
thickness of 50 mm with drying from the top and bottom surfaces.
(Ans: 1.756 hrs)
12. A pigment material, which has been removed wet from a filter press, is to be
dried by extending it into small cylinders and subjecting them to through
circulation drying. The extrusions are 6 mm in diameter, 50 mm long and are
to be placed in screens to a depth of 65 mm. The surface of the particles is
estimated to be 295 m2/m3 of bed and the apparent density is 1040 kg dry
solid/m3. Air at a mass velocity of 0.95 kg dry air/m2 × s will flow through
the bed entering at 120°C and a humidity of 0.05 kg water/kg dry air, estimate
the constant drying rate to be expected.
(Ans: 0.002906 g/cm2 s)
13. It is necessary to dry a batch of 160 kg of wet solid from 30% to 5% moisture
content under constant rate and falling rate period. The falling rate is assumed
to be linear. Calculate the total drying time considering an available drying
surface of 1 m2/40 kg of dry solid. The flux during constant rate period is
0.0003 kg/m2 s. The critical and equilibrium moisture contents are 0.2 and
0.02 respectively. If the air flow rate is doubled, what is the drying time
needed? The critical and equilibrium moisture contents do not change with
velocity of air but NC varies as G0.71, where G is the mass flow rate of air.
(Ans: 23.33 hrs and 14.265 hrs)
14. A rotary dryer using counter-current flow is to be used to dry 12000 kg/hr of
wet salt containing 5% water (wet basis) to 0.1% water (wet basis). Heated air
at 147°C with a WBT of 50°C is available. The specific heat of the salt is 0.21
kcal/kg °C. The outlet temperatures of air and salt are 72°C and 93°C
respectively. Calculate the diameter of the dryer required.
(Ans: 2.55 m)
15. During the batch drying test of a wet slab of material 0.35 m2 and 7 mm thick,
the falling rate N was expressed as 0.95 (X – 0.01) where N, is the drying rate
in kg/m2 s and X is the moisture content in kg moisture/kg dry solid. The
constant drying rate was 0.38 kg/m2 s and slab was dried from one side only
with the edges sealed. Density of the dry material is 1200 kg/m3. It is desired
to reduce the moisture content from 35% to 5% on wet basis. What is the time
needed for drying?
(Ans: 22.63 s)
7
CRYSTALLIZATION
7.1 INTRODUCTION
Crystallization is a process in which the solid particles are formed from a
homogeneous phase. During the crystallization process, the crystals form from a
saturated solution. The mixture of crystals and the associated mother liquor is
known as magma. The advantages of crystals are given below:
(i) uniform size and shape
(ii) ease in filtering and washing
(iii) caking tendency is minimised
(iv) high purity
(v) they do not crumble easily
7.2 CRYSTAL GEOMETRY

A crystal is the most highly organised type of non-living matter. It is characterised
by the fact that its constituent particles like atoms or molecules or ions are
arranged in an orderly three-dimensional arrays called space lattices. The angles
made by corresponding faces of all crystals of the same material are equal and
characteristic of that material, although the size of the faces and edges may vary.
7.2.1 Classification of Crystals

The classification of crystals based on the interfacial angle and lengths of axes is
as follows
Cubic: Three equal rectangular axes.
Hexagonal: Three equal coplanar axes inclined to 60o to each other and a fourth
axis different in length from the other three and perpendicular to them.
Trigonal: Three equal and equally inclined axes.
159
Tetragonal: Three rectangular axes, two of which are equal and different in
length from the third.
Orthorhombic: Three unequal rectangular axes.
Monoclinic: Three unequal axes, two of which are inclined but perpendicular to
the third.
Triclinic: Three mutually inclined and unequal axes, all angles unequal and
other than 30o, 60o and 90o.
Crystals can also be classified based on the type of bond needed to hold the
particles in place in the crystal lattice. The crystals are classified as indicated
below.
Metals: These are electropositive elements bonded together by coulomb
electrostatic forces from positive ions. The mobility of electrons is responsible for
their excellent thermal and electrical conductivity in metals. Metal alloys do not
follow valence rules.
Ionic crystals: They are the combinations of highly electronegative and highly
electropositive ions, such as the ordinary inorganic salts. They are held together
by strong coulomb forces and obey valence rules. It can be thought of as a single
giant molecule.
Valence crystals: They are formed from the lighter elements in the right half of
the periodic table. The atomic particles are held together by sharing electrons. The
forces are strong and valence crystals are extremely hard with high melting points.
They follow valence rules. For example, diamond and silicon carbide.
Molecular crystals: They are bonded by weak Vander-waals forces. They are
soft, weak and have low melting points. They do not follow valence rules and
many organic crystals belong to this category.
Hydrogen bonded crystals: Substances such as ice and hydrogen are held
together by special bonds originating in the electron spins of the orbital electrons
of the hydrogen atom.
Semiconductors: Substances such as silicon and germanium, when they contain
very small amounts of impurities, have lattice deficiencies with ‘holes’ where
electrons are missing and positive charges are in excess or with extra electrons
present.
7.3 INVARIANT CRYSTAL

Under ideal conditions, a growing crystal maintains its geometric similarity during
growth and such a crystal is called invariant. A single dimension can be used as
the measure of the size of an invariant crystal of any definite shape. The ratio of
the total surface area of a crystal, SP to the crystal volume, VP is
SP 6
=
VP (K s d p ) (7.1)
Crystallization 161
where js is the sphericity and dp is particle size. If the characteristic length L of

the crystal is defined as equal to js dp then,
È VP Ø
L= js dp = 6 É (7.2)
Ê S ÙÚ
P
7.4 PRINCIPLES OF CRYSTALLIZATION

The following factors govern the principles of crystallization.
7.4.1 Purity of Product

Although a crystal is as such pure, it retains mother liquor when removed from
the final magma. If the crop contains crystalline aggregates, considerable amount
of mother liquor may be occluded within the solid mass. When the product dries
under such conditions, the impurity of the mother liquor is retained by the
crystals. Hence, in practice, the retained mother liquor is separated from the
crystals by filtration or centrifuging and the balance is removed by washing with
fresh solvent to improve the purity of product.
7.4.2 Equilibria and Yield

Equilibrium in crystallization process is reached when the solution is saturated
and it is normally indicated by the solubility curve. The solubility is normally
indicated as a function of temperature. The characteristics of the solubility curve
changes with the solute involved as indicated below in Fig. 7.1.
Concentration, mass fraction
C
B
Temperature, °C
Fig. 7.1 Solubility curve.
In Fig. 7.1, A—flat solubility curve (NaCl), B—Steep solubility curve

(KNO3), and C—inverted solubility curve (MnSO4 . H2O).
Substances like NaCl show a flat solubility curve (curve A) i.e. the increase
in solubility with temperature is very less. The curve B is exhibited by most of
the materials like KNO3. In such systems the solubility increases very rapidly with
temperature. Some of the substances like MnSO4 . H2O indicate an inverted
solubility curve (curve C) in which solubility decreases with increase in
temperature. Many important inorganic substances crystallise with water during
crystallization. In some systems, as in the case of MgSO4 + H2O, several hydrates
are formed depending on various levels of concentration and temperature. A
typical phase diagram is shown in Fig. 7.2.
4
Temperature, °C
3
2
1
Concentration, mass fraction

1: salt. a H2O, 2: salt. b H2O, 3: salt. c H2O, 4: salt. d H2O
Fig. 7.2 Phase diagram for hydrated salt.
7.4.3 Yield
The yield in the crystallization process is calculated by knowing the original
concentration of solution and the solubility of solute at the final temperature.
When the rate of crystal growth is slow, considerable time is required to reach
equilibrium. This generally occurs in viscous solutions and when the crystals have
a tendency to sink to the bottom. In such cases, there is little crystal surface
exposed to the super-saturated solution and hence the actual yield is less than that
calculated from solubility curve. Estimating the yield of anhydrous crystals is
simple as the solid phase is free from solvent. However, when the crop contains
water of crystallization, as in the case of hydrated salt, that must also be
considered in estimating the yield.
7.4.4 Enthalpy Balance

In heat balance calculations for crystallizers, the heat of crystallization is
important. This is the latent heat evolved when solid forms from solution. The
Crystallization 163
heat of crystallization varies with both temperature and concentration. This is also
equal to the heat absorbed by crystals dissolving in a saturated solution. This data
is available in literature. The enthalpy balance enables us to determine the
quantity of heat that should be removed from a solution during crystallization
process.
7.5 SUPER-SATURATION
Crystallization from a solution is an example of the creation of a new phase within
a homogeneous phase. It occurs in two stages, viz., nucleation and crystal growth.
The driving force for these is super-saturation and without this crystallization does
not occur. This is nothing but the concentration difference between that of the
super-saturated solution in which the crystal is growing and that of a solution in
equilibrium with the crystal. Super-saturation is generated by one or more of the
following methods,
(i) by evaporation of solvent
(ii) by cooling
(iii) by adding a third component which may combine with the original solvent
to form a mixed solvent, where the solubility of the solute is highly
reduced is called salting. A new solute may be created chemically by the
addition of third component by the reaction between the original solute
and the new third component added is called precipitation.
The super-saturation is defined as follows
Dy = y – ys
Dc = C – Cs
where
Dy = super-saturation, mole fraction of solute
y = mole fraction of solute in super-saturated solution
ys = mole fraction of solute in saturated solution
Dc = molar super-saturation, moles per unit volume
C = molar concentration of solute in super-saturated solution
Cs = molar concentration of solute in saturated solution
The super-saturation ratio, s is defined as y/ys.
Since the effect of super-saturation differs in nucleation process and crystal
growth process, separate treatment of both the processes is necessary.
7.6 NUCLEATION
Crystal nuclei may form from molecules, atoms or ions. Due to their rapid motion,
these particles are called kinetic units. These kinetic units join together and also
break frequently. When they are held together, they can also be joined by a third
particle. Combinations of this sort are called clusters. These clusters are also liable
for break in their formation. When the number of kinetic units in a cluster is very
large, it is called an embryo. However, they can also break into clusters or kinetic
units. Depending on the level of super-saturation, the embryo grows and forms
nucleus. The number of kinetic units in a nucleus is of the order of hundred and
when the nuclei gains kinetic units, it results in the formation of a crystal.
However, nuclei can also loose units and dissolve in solution. Hence, the stages
of crystal growth may be indicated as,
Kinetic units ® Cluster ® Embryo ® Nucleus ® Crystal units
The factors which influence nucleation are,
(i) super-saturation
(ii) it is stimulated by an input of mechanical energy—by the action of
agitators and pumps
(iii) the presence of solid particles—microscopic or macroscopic
(iv) the effect of particle size
7.6.1 Theory of Homogeneous Nucleation

The solubility data in literature applies only to large crystals. A small crystal can
be in equilibrium with a super-saturated solution. Such an equilibrium is unstable,
because if a large crystal is also present in the solution, the smaller crystal will
dissolve and the larger one will grow until the smaller one disappears. The surface
energy of a particle is given by
US = g . Ap (7.3)
where US is surface energy in ergs, Ap is area of particle in cm and g is interfacial
2
tension in ergs/cm2.
The interfacial tension g is the work required to increase the area of the
particle by 1 cm2 in the absence of other energy effects. Interfacial tension
depends on temperature but not on the shape or size of the particle.
Although the crystals are polyhedra nuclei, the embryos are assumed to be
spherical in shape. The particle diameter is taken as D cm. A nucleus has a
definite size and it depends on super-saturation (y – ys) and the diameter of the
nucleus is DC. The volume of a particle is VP in cm3 and the mass is NP in g-
moles. Nucleation is assumed to take place at constant temperature and volume.
The formation of embryo is due to two kinds of work, viz., the one to form
surface and the other to form volume. The surface work is given by Eq. (7.3). The
work required to form the volume is –(m – ma) NP, where m is the chemical
potential of the solute in the super-saturated solution and ma is the chemical
potential of the solid, based on a crystal sufficiently large to reach equilibrium
with a saturated solution. The unit of m is ergs/g-mole.
The total work is equated to increase of work function, DW, and is shown
below
DW = g Ap – (m - ma) Np (7.4)
If Vm is the molal volume of the solid phase in cc/g mole then,
VP
Np (7.5)
Vm
Crystallization 165
For spherical particles AP = p D2 (7.6)
ÈQ Ø
VP = É Ù D3 (7.7)
Ê 6Ú
Substituting Eqs. (7.5), (7.6) and (7.7) in (7.4), we get

È D Ø
DW = pD2 [gÿ - É . (m - ma)] (7.8)
Ê 6VM ÙÚ
d
Under equilibrium for a definite value of (m - ma), [DW] = 0
dD
On differentiating Eq. (7.8) and equating to zero, we get
d È Q Ø
(DW) = 0 = 2pg D – É (m - ma) (3D2) = 0
dD Ê 6Vm ÙÚ
4H Vm
i.e. D= (7.9)
[ N NB ]
The diameter under the above equilibrium condition is the critical diameter DC for
nucleus and the work function becomes (m - ma)C. Therefore,
4H Vm
DC = (7.10)
[ N NB ]C
The chemical potential difference is related to the concentrations of the saturated
and super-saturated solutions by
È yØ
(m – ma)C = nRoT ln É Ù = n RoT ln s (7.11)
Ê ys Ú
where n is the number of ions per molecule of solute and for molecular crystals,
n = 1.
Substituting (m – ma)C from Eq. (7.11) in Eq. (7.10), we get
È yØ 4H Vm
ln s = ln É Ù = (7.12)
Ê ys Ú n RoT ¹ DC
Equation (7.12) is the Kelvin equation which relates solubility of a substance to
its particle size.
The work required for nucleation DWC is found by substituting for DC from
Eq. (7.10) and for D from Eq. (7.9) and then (mÿ – ma)C from Eq. (7.11) into the
resulting equation.
Ë Q È D3 Ø Û
DWC = gp DC2 – (m – ma)C Ì ÈÉ ØÙ É C Ù Ü
ÌÍ Ê 6 Ú Ê Vm Ú ÜÝ
È 4H V Ø Ë È Q Ø È D3 Ø Û
= gp DC2 – É m
ÌÉ Ù É C Ù Ü
Ê DC ÙÚ ÌÍ Ê 6 Ú Ê Vm Ú ÜÝ
2
1 Ë 4H Vm Û
= gp DC2 = 1 gp Ì Ü
3 3 Í nRoT ln s Ý
16QH 3Vm2
= (7.13)
3(nRoT ln s )2
The work of nucleation represents an energy barrier which controls the

kinetics of embryo building. The rate of nucleation from the theory of chemical
kinetics is
Ë ':C Û Ë ':C ¹ N a Û
Ñ = C exp Ì Ü = C exp Ì Ü (7.14)
Í KT Ý Í RoT Ý
Substituting for DWC from Eq. (7.13) in Eq. (7.14)
Ë 16QH 3 Vm2 N a Û
N C exp Ì 2 3 2Ü (7.15)
Í 3n ( RoT ) (ln s) Ý
where Ñ is the nucleation rate, number/cm3 s

K is Boltzmann constant, 1.3805 ´ 10–16 erg/(g mol K)
Na is Avogadro number, 6.0225 ´ 1023 molecules/g mol
Ro is gas constant, 8.3143 ´ 107 ergs/g mol oC
C is frequency factor
The frequency factor represents the rate at which individual particle strikes
the surface of crystal. As far as the formation of water droplets from saturated
vapour is concerned, it is of the order of 1025. Its value from solutions is not
known and the nucleation rate is dominated by ln s term in the exponent.
Similarly, the numerical values for g also are uncertain. They can be calculated
from solid state theory and for ordinary salts, it is of the order of 80 to 100 ergs/
cm2. With these values of C and g for a nucleation rate of one nucleus per sec,
per cm3, the value of s can be calculated and it is found to be very high and it
is highly impossible for materials of usual solubility. Hence, homogeneous
nucleation in ordinary crystallization from solution never occurs and that all actual
nucleations in these situations are heterogeneous.
However, in precipitation reactions where ys is very small and where large
super-saturations can be generated rapidly, homogenous nucleation probably
occurs.
7.6.2 Heterogeneous Nucleation

The catalytic effect of solid particles on nucleation rate is the reduction of energy
barrier. Hence, the level of super-saturation needed is greatly reduced.
Crystallization 167
7.7 CRYSTAL GROWTH

Crystal growth is a diffusional process, modified by the effect of the solid surfaces
on which the growth occurs. Solute diffuses through the liquid phase and reach
the growing faces of a crystal and crystal starts growing.
7.7.1 DL —Law of Crystal Growth

If all crystals in magma grow in a uniform super-saturation field and at the same
temperature and if all crystals grow from birth at a rate governed by the super-
saturation, then all crystals are not only invariant but also have the same growth
rate that is independent of size. Hence, growth rate is not a function of crystal size
and it remains constant.
i.e. DL = G . Dt (7.16)
7.7.2 Growth Coefficients

By using the expression for overall coefficient K in terms of film coefficients, the
overall coefficient is expressed in terms of film coefficient.
The overall coefficient K is defined as,
m
K= (7.17)
[ S P ( y ys )]
where m¢ is the rate of mass transfer in moles/hr, SP is surface area of crystal
and (y – ys) is the driving force.
For an invariant crystal of volume VP, the volume is proportional to the cube
of its characteristic length L
i.e. VP = aL3, where a is a constant (7.18)
If rm is the molar density, the mass of the crystal m is then,
m = VP rm = aL3 rm (7.19)
Differentiating the above Eq. (7.19), we get
dm È dL Ø
m¢ = = 3aL2 rm É Ù
dt Ê dt Ú
= 3a L2 rmG (7.20)
SP 6
We have and Vp = aL3
VP L
\ SP = 6aL2 (7.21)
Substituting the above Eq. (7.20) and (7.21) in Eq. (7.17), we get
3aL2 S m G ( Sm G )
K= =
6aL ( y ys )
2
2( y ys )
( y ys ) K
\ G=2 (7.22)
Sm
7.8 APPLICATION TO DESIGN

Once the yield is estimated, then it is desirable to solve the problem of estimating
the crystal size distribution of the product. An idealised model, called the Mixed
Suspension–Mixed Product Removal (MSMPR) model has served well as a basis
for identifying the kinetic parameters and hence the evaluation of the performance
of such a crystallizer. The assumptions of the MSMPR model is as follows,
(i) steady state operation
(ii) no product classification
(iii) uniform super-saturation exists throughout the magma
(iv) DL—law of crystal growth applies
(v) no size classified withdrawal system is used
(vi) no crystals in feed
(vii) mother liquor in product magma is saturated
(viii) no disintegration of crystals
Due to the above assumptions, nucleation rate is constant at all points in the
magma. The particle size distribution is independent of location in the
crystallization and is identical to that of the distribution in the product.
7.8.1 Population Density Function

The crystal number density is defined as the number of crystals of size L and
smaller in the magma per unit volume of mother liquor. Hence, if N is the number
of crystal of size L and less in the magma, V is the volume of mother liquor in
the magma and L is the size of crystals, then N/V is the crystal number density.
A plot of crystal density vs crystal size is shown below in Fig. 7.3. At L = 0;
N = 0 and at L = LT, the largest of the crystal in the magma, then N = NT. The
population density n, is defined as the slope of the cumulative distribution curve
at size L or it can be expressed as
ÈNØ
dÉ Ù
ÊV Ú È 1 Ø È dN Ø
= É ÙÉ
Ê V Ú Ê dL ÙÚ
n= (7.23)
dL
Cumulative number density
Length
Fig. 7.3 Population density function.
Crystallization 169
At L = 0, the population density is the maximum, i.e. n = n0 and at L = LT, the

population density is zero. In MSMPR model, both n and N/V are invariant with
time and location.
Consider N dL crystals between sizes L and L + dL per unit volume of
magma in the crystallizer. In the MSMPR model, each crystal of length L has
same age tm.
\ L = G tm (7.24)
Let (Dn) dL be the amount of product withdrawn from the above magma
during a time interval of Dt. Since the operation is in steady state, withdrawal of
product does not affect size distribution in the product. If Q is the volumetric flow
rate of liquid in the product and VC is the total volume of liquid in the crystallizer,
then
'n dL È 'n Ø È Q 't Ø

= –É Ù = É (7.25)
n dL Ê n Ú Ê VC ÙÚ
where the negative sign indicates the withdrawn product. The growth of each
crystal is given by,
DL = GDt (7.26)
Combining Eqs. (7.25) and (7.26) for eliminating Dt,
n
–Dn = Q Dt .
VC
'n Qn
– = (7.26a)
'L VCG
'n dn
Letting DL ® 0; –
'L dL
DL ® 0
È dn Ø Qn
i.e. É Ù (7.27)
Ê dL Ú VC G
The retention time t of the magma in the crystallizer is defined by

t = VC/Q
Hence
dn È 1 Ø
n ÉÊ GU ÙÚ dL (7.28)
Integrating Eq. (7.28), we get

n
dn È 1 L Ø
Ô n
É dLÙ
Ê GU 0 Ú
Ô
n0
È no Ø È L Ø
ln É Ù ÉÊ GU ÙÚ (7.29)
Ê nÚ
i.e. n = noe–z (7.30)

The quantity L/Gt is the dimensionless length and is denoted as Z.
7.8.2 Number of Crystals per Unit Mass

The number of crystals nc in a unit volume of liquid in either magma or product
is,

nc n dL Ô
0
(7.31)

= Ô Gt n . e
0
o –z
dz = nc = no Gt (7.32)
The total mass of product crystals in a unit volume of liquid is,

mc Ô mn ¹ dL (7.33)
0

= arcno(Gt)3 ÔZe
0
3 –z .
dZ = 6arcno(Gt)4 (7.34)
where rc is the density of crystals.

\ The number of crystals per unit mass is
nc no GU 1
(7.35)
mc 6a Sc no (GU ) 4 6a Sc (GU )3
The predominant crystal size Lpr in the product occurs when Lpr = 3Gt
nc 1 9
\ (7.36)
mc Ë È L3 pr Ø Û 2a Sc L3pr
Ì 6 a Sc É ÙÜ
ÌÍ Ê 27 Ú ÜÝ
7.9 CRYSTALLIZERS
The classification of crystallizers is generally based on the method by which
super-saturation is achieved.
7.9.1 Super-saturation by Cooling

This is done on batch basis in a (i) tank crystallizer and in an (ii) agitated tank
crystallizer and on continuous basis in Swenson–Walker crystallizer.
Crystallization 171
7.9.1.1 Tank crystallizer

A simple tank crystallizer is an open tank containing the solution from which the
crystal grows without any agitation. In this crystallizer, the crystal growth is very
slow, irregular and interlocking of crystals occur. The mother liquor is also
occluded due to interlocking of crystals which leads to impurities in the crystals.
7.9.1.2 Agitated tank crystallizer
This is a modified form of tank crystallizer with provisions of cooling coil and
agitation. The agitation not only helps in a uniform transfer of heat but also
enables a uniform growth of crystals. However, the major disadvantage is the
build up of crystals on cooling coil which decreases the rate of heat transfer.
7.9.1.3 Swenson–Walker crystallizer
It is a continuous crystallizer which makes use of cooling to achieve super-
saturation. A sketch of the equipment is shown in Fig. 7.4. It generally consists
of an open trough, A which is approximately 0.6 m wide with a semi-cylindrical
bottom and an external water jacket, B. Through the water jacket, cooling water
is circulated. A slow speed, long pitch spiral agitator rotating at about 5–7 rpm,
and set as close to the bottom of the trough as possible is provided inside the
trough. The crystallizer comprises of several units for handling higher amount of
feed. Each unit will be generally 3 m in length. The maximum length that could
1. Trough 2. Jackets 3. Agitator

Fig. 7.4 Swenson–Walker crystalliser.
be driven by one shaft is around 12 m. If it is desired to have higher lengths, then

the units are arranged one above the other and the solution transferred from one
set of unit to the other in the cascade.
The hot concentrated solution is fed into the trough and cooling water flows
through jackets in countercurrent direction. If necessary to control crystal size, an
extra amount of water can also be let into certain sections. The objective of
providing the spiral stirrer is primarily to prevent the accumulation of crystals on
the cooling surface and subsequently to lift the formed crystals and shower them
down through the solution. This enables a uniform size of crystals which is free
from inclusions or aggregations. The rotation of stirrer also helps to transfer the
crystals towards the crystal discharge point for subsequent processing.
7.9.2 Super-saturation by Evaporation

Super-saturation occurs by evaporation in a Krystal crystallizer.
7.9.2.1 Krystal crystallizer
The schematic diagram of Krystal crystallizer is shown in Fig. 7.5. This consists
of a vapour head, ‘1’ and crystal growth chamber, ‘2’. Solution is pumped from
chamber ‘2’ by using a pump, ‘6’ to chamber ‘1’ through a heater ‘3’. Vapour
1. Vapour head
2. Crystal growth chamber
3. Heater
4. Tube
5. Crystal outlet
6. Pump
7. Exit for Solution
Fig. 7.5 Krystal crystallizer.
from ‘1’ discharges into a condenser and vacuum pump. The operation is so
effectively controlled that crystals do not form in ‘1’. The section ‘1’ is connected
to almost the bottom of chamber ‘2’ through a tube ‘4’. The lower part of ‘2’
contains a bed of crystals suspended in an upward flowing stream of liquid caused
by the discharge from ‘4’. The super-saturated liquid formed in ‘1’ flows over the
surface of the crystals in ‘2’. The liquid from ‘2’ after contributing to
crystallization process leaves through ‘7’ and recirculated. Periodically the coarse
crystals are drawn out from the bottom of the vessel through ‘5’. There is a
gradual variation in size of crystals in ‘2’ with the coarser ones at the bottom and
the finer ones at the top. Feed is usually introduced into the suction of pump ‘6’.
Crystallization 173
7.9.3 Super-saturation by Evaporation and Cooling

Most of the modern crystallizers achieve super-saturation by adiabatic evaporative
cooling. In such crystallizers vacuum is maintained and a warm saturated solution
at a temperature well above the boiling point of solution (corresponding to the
pressure in crystallizer and concentration of solute) is fed in. The feed solution
cools spontaneously to the equilibrium temperature, since both the enthalpy of
cooling and the enthalpy of crystallization appear as enthalpy of vapourisation, a
portion of the solvent evaporates. The super-saturation thus generated by both
cooling and evaporation causes nucleation and crystal growth. The yield of
crystals is proportional to the difference between the concentration of the feed and
the solubility of the solute at equilibrium temperature.
7.9.3.1 Vacuum crystallizer
A typical continuous vacuum crystallizer using the above principle is shown in
Fig. 7.6. The crystallizer consists of a body maintained under vacuum and is
similar to that of single effect evaporator. From the conical bottom of the body,
magma flows down through a down-pipe. It is mixed with the fresh feed from the
1
3
9
7
5 8
6
10
11 12
1. Body 2. Barometric condenser 3. Centrifuge 4. Steam 5. Down-pipe

6. Feed 7. Mother liquor recycle 8. Heater 9. Product 10. Bleed
11. Circulating pump 12. Slurry pump
Fig. 7.6 Continuous vacuum crystallizer.
feed inlet point located before the suction of the circulating pump. The mixture
is sent up through a vertical tubular heater by the pump. The heated mixture enters
the crystallizer body through a tangential inlet just below the level of magma
surface. The swirling motion to the magma facilitates flash evaporation and
cooling. The super-saturation thus generated provides the driving potential for
nucleation and crystal growth.
Mother liquor is separated from the crystals in a centrifuge. Crystals are taken
off as a product for further processing and the mother liquor is recycled back to
the down-pipe. Some portion of the mother liquor bleeds from the system to
prevent accumulation of impurities.
The drawbacks of vacuum crystallizer are as follows:
(i) The crystals tend to settle at the bottom of the crystallizer where there may
be little or no super saturation.
(ii) The crystallizer will not be effective in the absence of agitation to magma.
7.9.3.2 Draft tube baffle (DTB) crystallizer
A more versatile and effective crystallizer shown in Fig. 7.7 is draft tube baffle
crystallizer. In this the crystallizer body is equipped with a draft tube which also
acts as a baffle to control the circulation of magma and a downward directed
propeller agitator to provide a controllable circulation within the crystallizer. The
DTB crystallizer is provided with an elutriation leg below the body to classify the
1. Barometric Condenser
2. Clear liquor recycle
3. Heater
4. Circulation pump
5. Propeller drive
6. Boiling surface
7. Draff tube
8. Baffle
9. Settling zone
10. Elutriation leg
11. Product discharge
12. Elutriation pump
Fig. 7.7 Draft tube baffle crystalliser.
crystals by size and may also be equipped with a baffled settling zone for fines
removal. There is an additional circulating pump outside the crystallizer body
which circulates the recycle liquid and fresh feed through a heater. Part of the
circulating liquid is pumped to the bottom of the leg and used as a hydraulic
sorting fluid to carry small crystals back into crystallising zone for further growth.
Crystallization 175
Discharge slurry is withdrawn from the lower part of the elutriation leg and sent
to a filter or centrifuge, and the mother liquor is returned to the crystallizer.
Unwanted nuclei is removed by providing an annular space or jacket by enlarging
the conical bottom and using the lower wall of the crystallizer body as a baffle.
In the annular space, fines are separated from the larger ones and they float due
to upward flowing stream of mother liquor. This stream of liquor along with fines
of size 60 mesh and smaller, also called clean liquor, is mixed with fresh feed and
sent through a heater. In the heater these tiny crystals get dissolved. The liquor is
now clear and mixes with the slurry in the main body of the crystallizer.
WORKED EXAMPLES
1. Mother liquor after crystallization has a solute content of 49.8 kg of CaCl2
per 100 kg of water. Find out the weight of this solution needed to dissolve
100 kg of CaCl2 . 6H2O at 25°C. Solubility at 25°C is 81.9 kg of CaCl2/100
kg of water.
Solution.
Let x be the weight of water in the quantity of solution needed.
Molecular weight of CaCl2 = 111,
Molecular weight of CaCl2 . 6H2O = 219
È 108 Ø
Water present in 100 kg of CaCl2 . 6H2O = É ´ 100 = 49.3 kg
Ê 219 ÙÚ
È 111 Ø
CaCl2 present in 100 kg of CaCl2 . 6H2O = É ´ 100 = 50.68
Ê 219 ÙÚ
Total CaCl2 entering for solubility = 50.68 + 0.498x
Total water used for solubility = x + 49.3
[81.9 ( x 49.3)]
Total CaCl2 after solubility =
100
È 81.9 Ø
Making material balance for CaCl2 = 50.68 + 0.498x = É
Ê 100 ÙÚ
(x + 49.3)
50.68 + 0.498x = 0.819x + 40.37

0.819x – 0.498x = 50.68 – 40.37
0.321x = 10.30
\ x = 32.09
Weight of CaCl2 in mother liquor corresponding to the weight water is
32.09 kg
È 49.8 Ø
= É ´ 32.09
Ê 100 ÙÚ
= 15.98 kg
Total weight of solution needed = 15.98 + 32.09

= 48.07 kg. Ans.
2. Sodium nitrate solution at 50°C contains 45% by weight of sodium nitrate.
(i) Find out the percentage saturation of this solution
(ii) Find out the weight of sodium nitrate crystal formed if 1000 kg of this
solution is cooled to 10°C
(iii) Find out the percentage yield of this process.
Data: Solubility at 50°C = 104.1 kg of NaNO3/100 kg of water
Solubility at 10°C = 78 kg of NaNO3/100 kg of water
Solution.
(i) NaNO3 weight percentage of saturated solution at 50°C
È 104.1 Ø
= É ´ 100 = 51%
Ê 204.1ÙÚ
Ë (45/55) Û
Percentage saturation at 50°C = Ì Ü
Í (51/49) Ý
Ë (45 49) Û
= Ì Ü ´ 100 = 78.6% Ans.
Í (55 51) Ý
(ii) Let x be the weight of NaNO3 crystal formed after crystallization

By writing material balance for NaNO3
1000 ´ 0.45 = x + (1000 – x) ´ (78/178)
450 = x + 438.2 – 0.438x
x = 20.99 kg. Ans.
(iii) Yield = weight of NaNO3 crystal formed/weight of NaNO3 in original
solution
20.99
= = 0.0466
450
% Yield = 4.66% Ans.
3. A saturated solution, of potassium sulphate is available at a temperature of

70°C. Calculate the temperature to which this should be cooled to crystallise
50% of potassium sulphate.
Data: Solubility at 70°C = 19.75/100 g of water
Solubility at 50°C = 16.5/100 g of water
Basis: 1000 kg of saturated solution
Crystallization 177
Solution.
È 19.75 Ø
Weight of K2SO4 in original solution = 1000 ´ É
Ê 119.75 ÙÚ
= 164.92 kg
Weight of water = 1000 – 164.92 = 835.08 kg

After crystallisation, the weight of K2SO4 in solution is = 164.92 ´ 0.5
= 82.46 kg
Weight percentage of K2SO4 in solution after crystallization
Ë 82.46 Û
= Ì Ü ´ 100 = 8.98%
Í (835.08 + 82.46) Ý
From the solubility data, it is found that temperature corresponding to 8.98%
of K2SO4 is 15°C (by linear interpolation between 10 to 30°C). Ans.
4. Sodium acetate solution is available at a temperature of 70°C with a solute
content of 58%. Find out (i) percentage saturation (ii) yield of crystal if
2000 kg of this solution is cooled to 10°C (iii) percentage yield.
Data: Solubility at 70°C = 146 gms of sodium acetate/100 gms of water
Solubility at 10°C = 121 gms of sodium acetate/100 gms of water
Solution.
(i) Weight percentage of solute at 70°C at saturation condition
È 146 Ø
= É ´ 100 = 59.34%
Ê 246 ÙÚ
Ë (58/42) Û
Percentage saturation = Ì Ü
Í (59.34/40.66) Ý
Ë (58 40.66) Û
= Ì Ü ´ 100 = 94.62% Ans.
Í (42 59.34) Ý
(ii) Weight of solute in 2000 kg of solution = 2000 ´ 0.58 = 1160 kg

Let x be the weight of crystal formed making solute balance
121
1160 = x + (2000 – x)
221
1160 = x + 1055.02 – 0.547x
x = 231.74 kg Ans.
È 231.74 Ø
(iii) % Yield = É ´ 100 = 19.97% Ans.
Ê 1160 ÙÚ
5. A saturated solution of sodium sulphate solution is available at a temperature

of 30°C. Find out the weight of Na2SO4 . 10H2O formed, if 1000 kg of this
solution cooled to 10°C.
Data: Solubility at 30°C = 40.8 g of Na2SO4/100 g of water
Solubility at 10°C = 9.0 g of Na2SO4/100 g of water
Solution.
142
Weight percent of solute in Na2SO4 . 10H2O = = 44.2%
322
Let x be the quantity of crystal formed, by making material balance for solute
È 40.8 Ø 9
1000 ´ É = 0.442x + (1000 – x) ´
Ê 140.8 ÙÚ 109
x = 576.07 kg
Weight of crystals formed = 576.07 kg Ans.
6. A solution of sodium carbonate available at a temperature of 40°C with a
solute content of 30%. Find out the weight of Na2CO3 . 10H2O crystal
formed if 2000 kg of this solution is cooled to 10oC. Also find out the yield.
Data: Solubility at 10°C = 12.5 gms of Na2CO3/100 gms of water
Solution.
Molecular weight of Na2CO3 . 10H2O = 286
106
Weight percent of solute in Na2CO3 . 10H2O = 0.3706
286
Let x be the quantity of Na2CO3 . 10H2O crystal formed
12.5
2000 ´ 0.3 = 0.3706x + (2000 – x) ´
112.5
x = 1455.86 kg Ans.
Weight of crystals present in the original solution
È 286 Ø
= É ´ 2000 ´ 0.3 = 1618.87
Ê 106 ÙÚ
È 1455.87 Ø
% Yield = É 100 89.93%
Ê 1618.87 ÙÚ
Ans.
7. A saturated solution of K2CO3 is available at a temperature of 80°C. If it is

cooled to 20°C, find the weight of crystal (K2CO3 × 2H2O) formed and yield
for 500 kg of solution.
Data: Solubility of K2CO3 at 80°C = 139.8 g of K2CO3/100 g of water
Solubility of K2CO3 at 20°C = 110.5 g of K2CO3/100 g of water
Solution.
Molecular weight of K2CO3 . 2H2O = 174.2
È 138 Ø
Percentage solute in K2CO3 . 2H2O = É ´ 100 = 79.21%
Ê 174.2 ÙÚ
Let x be the quantity of crystal formed, making material balance for solute
È 139.8 Ø Ë 110.5 Û
500 ´ É = (0.7921x) + (500 – x) ´ Ì
Ê 239.8 ÙÚ Ü
Í 210.5 Ý
x = 108.62 kg
Crystallization 179
Weight of crystals formed = 108.62 kg Ans.

Weight of K2CO3 present in the original solution
È 174.7 Ø È 139.8 Ø
= É Ù ´ 500 ´ É
Ê 239.8 ÙÚ
= 369.013
Ê 138 Ú
È 108.62 Ø
Percentage yield = É ´ 100 = 29.4%
Ê 369.01ÙÚ
Ans.
8. 900 kg of ferrous sulphate solution with a solute content of 40% is available.

If it is cooled to 10°C, find out the weight of crystal formed and yield of the
crystal with the crystal of the form FeSO4 . 7H2O.
Data: Solubility of FeSO4 at 10°C = 20.51 g of FeSO4/100 g of water
Solution.
Molecular weight of FeSO4 . 7H2O = 277.85
Percentage solute in FeSO4 . 7H2O = 151.85/277.85 = 0.5465
Let x be the quantity of FeSO4 . 7H2O crystal formed
by making material balance for solute
È 20.51 Ø
900 ´ 0.4 = 0.5465x + (900 – x) ´ É
Ê 120.51ÙÚ
x = 549.34 kg Ans.
Weight of FeSO4 . 7H2O in original solution
È 277.85 Ø
= É ´ 900 ´ 0.4 = 658.71 kg
Ê 151.85 ÙÚ
È 549.34 Ø
Percentage yield = É ´ 100 = 83.39%
Ê 658.71 ÙÚ
Ans.
9. Cesium chloride solution with a solute content of 68% is at 60°C. Find out
(i) percentage saturation (ii) weight CsCl2 crystal formed if 1000 kg of
solution is cooled (iii) percent yield of solution if cooled to 10°C.
Data: Solubility at 60°C = 229.7 g of CsCl2/100 g of water
Solubility at 10°C = 174.7 g of CsCl2/100 g of water
Solution.
(i) Weight percent of solute at saturation condition at 60°C
È 229.7 Ø
= É ´ 100 = 69.66%
Ê 329.7 ÙÚ
Ë (68/32) Û
Percentage saturation = Ì Ü ´ 100 = 92.5% Ans.
Í (69.66/30.34) Ý
(ii) Let x be the weight of CsCl2 formed

Making material balance gives,
È 174.7 Ø
1000 ´ 0.68 = x + (1000 – x) ´ É
Ê 274.7 ÙÚ
x = 120.97 kg
Weight of crystal formed = 120.97 kg Ans.
È 120.97 Ø
(iii) Percentage yield = É ´ 100 = 17.8%
Ê 680 ÙÚ
Ans.
10. A solution of sodium carbonate in water is saturated at a temperature of 10°C.

Calculate the weight of Na2CO3 . 10H2O needed to dissolve in 200 kg of
original solution at 30°C.
Data: Solubility at 30°C = 38.8 gms of Na2CO3/100 g of water
Solubility at 10°C = 12.5 gms of Na2CO3/100 g of water
Solution.
Molecular weight of Na2CO3 . 10H2O = 286
È 106 Ø
Percentage solute in Na2CO3 . 10H2O = É ´ 100 = 37.06%
Ê 286 ÙÚ
Let x be the weight of Na2CO3 . 10H2O needed to dissolve
Weight of Na2CO3 originally present in 200 kg of solution
È 12.5 Ø
= 200 ´ É
Ê 112.5 ÙÚ
= 22 kg
Weight of water = 200 – 22 = 178 kg

Weight of Na2CO3 after dissolution = 22 + 0.3706x
Weight fraction of solute after dissolution at 30°C
38.8
= = 0.279
138.8
For the total solution after dissolution
(22 0.3706 x )
0.279
[(22 0.3706 x ) (178 0.6294 x )]
Solving for x,
x = 369 kg Ans.
11. A 35% solution of Na2CO3 weighing 6000 kg is cooled to 20°C to yield

crystals of Na2CO3 . 10H2O. During cooling 4% by weight of original
solution is lost due to vapourisation. Find out the weight of crystal formed.
Data: Solubility at 20°C = 21.5 g of Na2CO3/100 g of water
Solution.
Molecular weight of Na2CO3.10H2O = 286
Percentage of solute in hydrated salt = ÈÉ

106 Ø
´ 100 = 37.06%
Ê 286 ÙÚ
Crystallization 181
Weight of solute = 6000 ´ 0.35 = 2100 kg

Weight of solution lost by vapourisation = 6000 ´ 0.04 = 240 kg
Let x be the weight of Na2CO3 . 10H2O formed
Making material balance on solute
È 21.5 Ø
2100 = 0.3706x + (6000 – 240 – x) ´ É
Ê 121.5 ÙÚ
x = 5580 kg Ans.
12. How much feed is required when 10,000 kg of crystal as FeSO4 . 7H2O is
produced per hour by a simple vacuum crystallizer. The feed containing
40 parts of FeSO4 per 100 parts of total water, enters the crystallizer at 80°C.
The crystallizer vacuum is such that crystallizer temperature of 30°C can be
produced.
Data: Saturated solution at 30°C contains 30 parts of FeSO4 per 100 parts of
total water vapour enthalpy is 612 cal/g (neglect superheat). The enthalpies of
saturated solution, the crystals leaving the crystallizer and feed are: –1.33,
–50.56 and 26.002 cal/g.
Solution.
FeSO4 . 7H2O
Crystals formed = 10000 kg
Enthalpy of feed hF at 80°C = 26.002 cal/g
Enthalpy of saturated solution at 30°C = hL = –1.33 cal/g
Enthalpy of crystals hC = – 50.56
40
xF = = 0.286
(100 + 40)
30
xM = = 0.231
(100 + 30)
151.85
xC = = 0.547
277.85
Component balance,
F(xF) = (M) (xM) + C(xC)
0.286F = (M) (0.231) + (10000) (0.547)
F = M + 10000 + V
F HF = V . HV + M . HM + C . HC
.
HF = 26.002 cal/g
HV = 612 cal/g
HM = –1.33 cal/g
HC = – 50.56 cal/g
F = M + V + 10000 (1)
0.286 F = 0.231 M + 5470 (2)
(26.002) (F) = (612) V + (–1.33) (M) + (–50.56) (10000) (3)
Solving Eq. (1) ´ 0.286
0.286 F = 0.286 M + 0.286 V + 2860 (4)
0 = 0.055 M + 0.286 V – 2610
2610 = 0.055 M + 0.286 V (5)
Equation (1) ´ 26.002
26.002 F = 26.002 M + 26.002 V + 260200 (6)
Equation (6) – Eq. (3)
0 = 27.332 M – 585.998 V + 765800 (7)
765800 = – 27.33 M + 585.998 V
Equation (5) ´ 496.9 gives
1296909 = + 27.33 M + 142.113 V (8)
Equation (7) + Eq. (8) 2062709 = 728.111 V
\ V = 2832.96 kg/h
M = 32723.16 kg/h
F = 45556.12 kg/h Ans.
13. A Swenson–Walker crystallizer has to produce 800 kg per hour of
FeSO4 . 7H2O crystals. The saturated solution enters the crystallizer at 49°C
and the slurry leaves at 27°C. Cooling water enters the crystallizer jacket at
15°C and leaves at 21°C. The overall heat transfer co-efficient has been
estimated to be 175 kcal/(hr)(m2)(°C). There are 1.3 m2 of cooling surface per
metre of crystallizer length.
i(i) Estimate the cooling water requirement in kg/h.
(ii) Determine the number of crystallizer sections, each section being 3 metre
long.
Data: Saturated solutions of FeSO4 at 49°C and 27°C contain 140 parts and
74 parts of FeSO4 . 7H2O per 100 parts of free water respectively. Average
specific heat of the initial solution is 0.70 and the heat of crystallization is
15.8 kcal/kg.
Solution.
Crystals produced = 800 kg/h
21°C
49°C
800 kg/hr of FeSO4.

crystal 27°C
140 parts of FeSO4 . 7H2O/ 74 parts of
100 part of free water FeSO4 . 7H2O/100
CW parts of free water
15°C
Fig. 7.8 Example 13 Material and energy balance schematic diagram.
Crystallization 183
U = 175 kcal/(h)(m2)(°C)
Feed concentration = 140 parts of FeSO4 . 7H2O/100 parts of free water
151.85
140 FeSO4
277.85
i.e., 140 kg of FeSO4 . 7H2O = 76.51 kg of FeSO4
76.51
Concentration in feed solution = = 0.319
240
Product concentration in leaving solution/100 parts of free water =
151.85
74 × = 40.44
277.85
40.44
Concentration of FeSO4 in product = = 0.2324
174
151.85
xL = = 0.547
277.85
\ Total feed solution, F entering by mass balance is
Feed = Mother liquor + Crystals
F=M+C
Making a solute balance
F . xF = M . xM + C . xC
(F)(0.319) = (M)(0.2324) + (C) (0.5465)
= (F – C) (0.2324) + (C) (0.5465)
F (0.0866) = C (0.3141)
800 0.3141
F= = 2901.62 kg/h
0.0866
M = 2101.616 kg/h
F = 2901.62 kg/h
M = 2101.62 kg/h
C = 800.00 kg/h
Making an energy balance,
Heat to be removed by cooling water ‘Q’ = (Heat to be removed from
solution + Heat of Crystillisation) = F . Cp . (DT) + (DHC)C
Q = (2901.62) (0.7) (49 – 27) + (15.8)(800)
= 57324.95 kcal/h
Cooling water needed = mW Cp DT
57324.95
= 9554.16 kg/h
(1)(6)
Q = UA (DT) lm
(49 21) (27 15) (28 12) 16

(DT) lm = = 18.88
Ë 49 21 Û È 28 Ø 0.847
ln Ì Ü ln É Ù
Í 27 15 Ý Ê 12 Ú
57324.94
A = = 17.35 m2
175(18.88)
17.35
Length needed = = 13.35 m Ans.
1.3
EXERCISES
1. A solution of sodium nitrate in water at a temperature of 40°C contains 45%
NaNO3 by weight.
(a) Calculate the percentage saturation of this solution
(b) Calculate the weight of NaNO3 that may be crystallised from 500 kg of
solution by reducing the temperature to 10°C
(c) Calculate the percentage yield of the process.
Solubility of NaNO3 at 40°C = 51.4% by weight.
Solubility of NaNO3 at 10°C = 44.5% by weight.
(Ans: (a) 87.55%, (b) 4.5 kg, (c) 2%)
2. A solution of K2Cr2O7 in water contains 10% by weight. From 1000 kg of this
solution are evaporated 600 kg of water. The remaining solution is cooled to
20°C. Calculate the amount and the percentage yield of K2Cr2O7 crystals
formed.
Solubility at 20°C = 0.39 kmole/1000 kg H2O.
(Ans: 65.58 kg, 65.58%)
3. 1000 kg of a 25% aqueous solution of Na2CO3 is slowly cooled to 20°C.
During cooling 10% water originally present evaporates. The crystal is
Na2CO3 . 10H2O. If the solubility of anhydrous Na2CO3 at 20°C is
21.5 kg/100 kg of water, what weight of salt crystallises out?
(Ans: 445.64 kg)
4. A batch of saturated Na2CO3 solution of 100 kg is to be prepared at 50°C.
The solubility is 4.48 g moles/1000 g H2O at 50°C.
(i) If the monohydrate were available, how many kg of water would be
required to form the solution?
(ii) If the decahydrate is available how many kg of salt will be required?
(Ans: 62.33 kg, 54.68 kg)
5. A crystallizer is charged with 10000 kg of aqueous solution at 104°C
containing 30% by weight of anhydrous Na2SO4. The solution is then cooled
Crystallization 185
to 20°C. During this operation 4% of water is lost by evaporation. Glauber

salt crystallises out. Find the yield of crystals.
Solubility at 20°C = 19.4 g Na2SO4/100 g water.
(Ans: 74.98%)
6. 2500 kg of KCl are present in a saturated solution at 80°C. The solution is
cooled to 20°C in an open tank. The solubilities of KCl at 80°C and 20°C are
55 and 35 parts per 100 parts of water.
(a) Assuming water equal to 5% by weight of solution is lost by evaporation,
calculate the weight of crystals obtained.
(b) Calculate the yield of crystals neglecting loss of water by evaporation
KCl crystallises without any water of crystals.
(Ans: 908.755 kg and 36.37%)
7. A crystallizer is charged with 6400 kg of an aqueous solution containing
29.6% of anhydrous sodium sulphate. The solution is cooled and 10% of the
initial water is lost by evaporation. Na2SO4 . 10H2O crystallises out. If the
mother liquor (after crystallization) is found to contain 18.3% Na2SO4,
calculate the weight of the mother liquor.
(Ans: 2826.7 kg )
8. A hot solution containing 2000 kg of MgSO4 and water at 330 K and with
a concentration of 30 wt% MgSO4 is cooled to 293 K and MgSO4 . 7H2O
crystals are removed. The solubility at 293 K is 35.5 kg MgSO4 per 100 kg
total water. The average heat capacity of feed solution is 2.93 kJ/kg K. The
heat of solution at 293 K is—13.31 ´ 103 kJ/K . mol MgSO4 . 7H2O. Calculate
the yield of crystals and make a heat balance. Assume no water is vaporised.
Molecular weight of MgSO4 = 120.35.
(Ans: 27.29%)
9. A hot solution containing 5000 kg of Na2CO3 and water with a concentration
of 25 wt% Na2CO3 is cooled to 293 K and crystals of Na2CO3 . 10H2O are
precipitated. At 293 K, the solubility is 21.5 kg anhydrous Na2CO3/100 kg of
water. Calculate the yield of crystals obtained if 5% of the original water in
the system evaporates on cooling. Molecular weight of Na2CO3 = 106.
(Ans: 60.98%)
8
ABSORPTION
8.1 INTRODUCTION
Absorption is one of the important gas–liquid contact operations in which a
gaseous mixture is contacted with a solvent to dissolve one or more components
of the gas preferentially and provide a solution of them in the solvent. Some of the
applications of this operation are as follows:
(i) Ammonia is removed from coke-oven gas with water
(ii) Benzene and toluene vapours are removed using hydrocarbon oil from the
coke-oven gas.
(iii) Hydrogen sulfide is removed from naturally occurring hydrocarbon gases
with alkaline solutions.
(iv) Ammonia and other water soluble harmful gases from air are removed
using water.
8.2 GAS SOLUBILITY IN LIQUIDS AT EQUILIBRIUM

The equilibrium characteristics of gas solubility in liquids are generally represented
as partial pressure of solute in gas (p*) vs mole fraction of solute in liquid (x). A
typical gas solubility curve drawn at a particular temperature and pressure for
different gases is shown in Fig. 8.1. If the gas solubility is low, then the equilibrium
pressure for that particular system is very high. The solubility of gas is significantly
affected by the temperature. Generally absorption processes are exothermic and if
the temperature is increased at equilibrium, the solubility of gases, but not always,
will be decreased due to evolution of heat.
8.3 IDEAL AND NON-IDEAL LIQUID SOLUTIONS

In an ideal solution, all the components present in the solution approach similarity
with regard to their chemical nature. When the gas mixture is in equilibrium with
an ideal solution, then it follows Raoult’s law.
186
Absorption 187
Fig. 8.1 Solubility of gas in liquid.
p* = Px (8.1)
where p* is the partial pressure of solute, P is the vapour pressure of solute at the
same temperature and x is the mole fraction of solute in liquid.
For non-ideal solutions, Henry’s law can be applied and is given by,
p*
y* = = m×x (8.2)
Pt
where m is Henry’s constant, Pt is the total pressure and y* is the mole fraction of
solute in gas.
8.4 CHOICE OF SOLVENT FOR ABSORPTION

The following properties are to be considered while choosing a particular solvent
in any absorption system.
(i) Gas solubility: Solubility of the solute to be absorbed in solvent should
be relatively high, as it will decrease the quantum of solvent requirement.
(ii) Chemical nature: Generally solvent should be chemically similar in
structure to that of the solute to be absorbed as it will provide good
solubility.
(iii) Recoverability: The solvent should be easily recovered and as it will help
in reusing it.
(iv) Volatility: The solvent should have a low vapour pressure, i.e. less
volatile.
(v) Corrosiveness: The solvent should not be corrosive to the material of
construction equipment.
(vi) Cost and availability: The solvent should be inexpensive and readily
available.
(vii) Viscosity: The solvent should have low viscosity as it will reduce
pumping and transportation costs.
(viii) Toxic, flammability and stability: The solvent should be non-toxic,
inflammable, chemically stable and non-reactive.
8.5 DESIGN OF ISOTHERMAL ABSORPTION

TOWERS
The design of isothermal absorption towers is based on material balance in them.
The flow of streams could be either co-current or countercurrent. The operation is
either carried out as a single stage operation or as a multistage operation.
8.5.1 Single Stage—One Component Transferred—

Countercurrent and Isothermal Operation
Consider a single stage isothermal absorber as shown in Fig. 8.2, where (1) and (2)
refer to the bottom and top sections of the equipment respectively. Gaseous
mixture entering the absorber at the bottom is contacted countercurrently with
liquid solvent, entering from the top.
Fig. 8.2 Flow in a countercurrent absorber.
Let G1 and L2 be the molar flow rates of entering binary gaseous mixture and
liquid respectively in moles / (area) (time).
Absorption 189
Let G2 and L1 be the molar flow rates of leaving gaseous mixture and liquid
respectively in moles / (area) (time).
Let GS and LS be the molar flow rates of inert gas and pure liquid respectively
in moles/ (area) (time).
Let x, y be the mole fractions of solute in liquid and gas phases respectively.
Let X, Y be the mole ratios of solute to inert component in liquid and gas
phases respectively.
In the gas phase, only one component is transferred and the other component
remains as inert. Similarly, in the liquid phase, solvent is the inert component. It
is more convenient to represent the concentrations of solute in liquid and gas
phases in terms of mole ratios (X and Y) of solute to inert component. So
x y
X= and Y = (8.3)
(1 x ) (1 y)
X Y
Likewise, x= and y = (1 Y ) (8.4)
(1 X )
GS
GS = G1 (1 – y1) or G = (8.5)
(1 y)
Writing the material balance on solute basis for the above countercurrent operation,
we get
GSY1 + LSX2 = GSY2 + LSX1 (8.6)
\ Gs(Y1 – Y2) = LS(X1 – X2) (8.7)
Ë LS Û Ë (Y1 Y2 ) Û
i.e. ÌG Ü Ì (X X ) Ü (8.8)
Í SÝ Í 1 2 Ý
Equation (8.8) represents the operating line for a single stage countercurrent
absorber. The operating line is linear which passes through the coordinates (X1, Y1)
and (X2,Y2) with a slope of (LS/GS). Since the solute transfer is taking place from
gas to liquid phase, the operating line always lies above the equilibrium curve,
which is shown in Fig. 8.3.
Suppose, if the flow rates of gas and liquid streams are not considered on inert
basis, i.e. when considered on mole fraction basis, then the operating line would
be a non-linear one passing through the coordinates (x1, y1) and (x2, y2) as shown
in Fig. 8.3. It is highly impossible to know the intermediate concentrations which
will enable one to draw this operating curve passing through the terminal points
(x1, y1) and (x2, y2). Hence, it is more preferable to obtain the linear operating line
with the known terminal concentrations of the system by considering mole ratio
basis as shown in Fig. 8.4.
Fig. 8.3 Equilibrium curve and operating line on mole fraction basis.
Fig. 8.4 Equilibrium Curve and Operating Line in Mole Ratio Basis.
8.5.2 Determination of Minimum (LS /GS) Ratio

In absorption, minimum (LS/GS) ratio indicates a slope for operating line, at which
the maximum amount of solute concentration is obtained in the final liquid. It will
be achieved only in the presence of infinite number of stages for a desired level
of absorption of solute. When the operating line is tangent to the equilibrium curve,
then there is no net driving force and the required time of contact for the
concentration change desired is infinite and an infinitely tall tower will result. This
is highly uneconomical. So, the tower is operated at the (LS/GS) ratio of 1.2 to 2.0
times the minimum (LS /GS) ratio.
Absorption 191
8.5.3 Steps Involved in Determining (LS/GS)min

1. Plot X and Y data to draw the equilibrium curve.
2. Locate point A(X2,Y2).
3. From point A draw a tangent to the equilibrium curve.
4. Determine the slope of this line which will be (LS /GS) min.
5. Extend the line from Y1 to intersect this operating line which corresponds
to the point B¢[(X1) max,Y1].
6. Determine (LS /GS) actual and find the slope.
7. Using the operating line equation, obtain (X1) actual and draw the actual
operating line AB as shown in Fig. 8.5
Fig. 8.5 Minimum L/G ratio.
In some cases, the equilibrium curve will be more or less a straight line or
concave upward. In such cases the minimum (LS/GS) ratio can be determined as
shown in Figs. 8.6(a) and (b).
Fig. 8.6 Equilibrium curve and operating line for special cases.
Ë (Y1 Y2 ) Û
Therefore, (LS/GS)min = Ì Ü (8.9)
Í ( X1 ) max X 2 Ý
Since (LS/GS)min is known, (X1) max can be determined as all the other quantities in
Eq. (8.9) are known.
8.5.4 Multistage Countercurrent Isothermal

Absorption
Let us consider a multistage tray tower containing Np number of stages as shown
in Fig. 8.7, where the suffix p represents the tray number. The operation is
isothermal and it is assumed that the average composition of gas leaving from a
tray is in equilibrium with the average composition of liquid leaving from the same
tray. The flow of streams is countercurrent. The liquid flows downwards and the
gas upwards and only one component is transferred. The number of theoretical or
ideal stages required for the desired operation in the tower is determined as
follows:
The material balance on inert basis gives,
GSYNp +1 + LS X0 = GSY1 + LS XNp (8.10)
GS(YNp +1 – Y1) = LS (XNp – X0) (8.11)
Ë LS Û Ë (YNp 1 Y1 ) Û
i.e. Ì G Ü = Ì (X X ) Ü (8.12)
Í SÝ Í Np 0 Ý
Equation (8.12) represents a linear operating line for a multistage

countercurrent absorber which passes through the coordinates (X0,Y1) and
(XNp,YNp +1) with a slope (LS /GS). Between the equilibrium curve and the operating
line, a stepwise construction is made to obtain the number of theoretical trays. The
stepwise construction is started from (X0, Y1) since it represents operating condition
in plate number 1 (as per our convention). This is illustrated in Fig. 8.8.
8.5.5 Analytical Method to Determine the

Number of Trays
In some special cases such as dilute gaseous mixtures or solutions, the equilibrium
curve is a straight line, the number of trays can be determined analytically by using
Kremser-Brown–Souders equation given in Eq. (8.13) without going in for a
graphical method.
Ë È yNp 1 mx0 Ø Û
log Ì É
Ù (1 1 / A) 1 / A Ü
ÌÍ Ê 1
y mx 0 Ú ÜÝ
Np = (8.13)
log A
where A is the absorption factor given by L/mG and m is the slope of the
equilibrium curve.
Absorption 193
Fig. 8.7 Various streams in a countercurrent multistage tray tower.
Fig. 8.8 Stepwise construction for estimating the number of plates/stages.
Absorption factor, A, is defined as the ratio of the slope of the operating line
to that of the equilibrium curve. If ‘A’ varies due to small changes in L/G
from bottom to top of the tower, then the geometric mean value of A has to be
considered.
Hence, geometric mean value of A = A1 A2 (8.14)
L1 L
where, A1 = 0
mG1 mG1
LNp LNp
A2 =
mGNp mGNp 1
where A1 is the absorption factor at the top of the tower and A2 is the absorption
factor at the bottom of the tower. For larger variations in A, graphical computations
must be followed.
8.5.6 Significance of Absorption Factor

If A < 1, the operating line and equilibrium curve converge at the lower end of the
tower indicating that the solubility of solute is limited even when large number of
trays are provided.
If A > 1, any degree of separation is possible with adequate number of trays.
However, as A increases beyond 1.0 for a fixed quantity of gas and a given degree
of absorption, the absorbed solute is dissolved in a larger quantity of liquid
(solvent) and hence becomes less valuable. In addition to that, the number of trays
also decreased leading to a lower cost of equipment. This leads to a variation in
total cost of operation which will pass through a minimum. Hence, for an
economical operation, the value of A has been estimated for various systems and
found to be in the range of 1.2 to 2.0.
8.6 DESIGN OF MULTISTAGE NON-ISOTHERMAL

ABSORBER
Generally the absorption operations are exothermic in nature. Hence, the solubility
of gas decreases as temperature of the liquid increases which in turn decreases the
capacity of the absorber. When concentrated gaseous mixtures are to be absorbed
in solvent then the temperature effects have to be taken into account. If the heat
liberated is more, then cooling coils should be provided for an efficient absorption
operation. Since the temperature is varying from tray to tray, it influences the
concentration changes as well as the flow rate of streams. Hence, energy balance
should also be incorporated along with material balance to determine the number
of trays. It is very difficult to compute manually the tray to tray calculations. A
simple algorithm is developed for one ideal tray involving trial and error
calculations and then the programming is extended to other trays for the
determination of the number of trays.
Consider a stagewise tray tower operating non-isothermally as shown in
Fig. 8.9.
Total mass balance around the entire tower gives
GNp+1 + L0 = LNp + G1 (8.15)
Component balance gives,
[GNp+1] yNp+1 + L0x0 = LNpxNp + G1y1 (8.16)
Energy balance gives,
[GNp+1]HG,Np+1 + L0HL0 = LNpHLNp + G1HG1 (8.17)
Absorption 195
Fig. 8.9 Streams in a countercurrent multistage tray tower and envelope-I.
where, H is the molal enthalpy of streams. Enthalpies can be determined using the
available literature data with reference to some base temperature say, t0, (Pure state).
HG = CpG, inert (tG – t0) (1 – y) + y [CpG, solute (tG – t0) + l0] (8.18)
HL = CpL, inert (tL – t0)(1 – x) + x [CpL, solute (tL – t0)] (8.19)
where Cp is the specific heat of the component and l0 is the latent heat of
vapourization at reference temperature, t0.
Now let us consider the envelope-I.
Mass and energy balance in envelope-I follow,
Ln + GNp + 1 = Gn+ 1 + LNp (8.20)
Ln xn + [GNp + 1] yNp + 1 = Gn+ 1yn + 1 + LNpxNp (8.21)
LnHLn + [GNp + 1] HGNp + 1 = Gn+ 1 HGn+1 + LNpHLNp (8.22)
Let n = Np – 1,
LNp –1 + GNp + 1 = GNp + LNp (8.23)
LNp – 1xNp – 1 + [GNp + 1] yNp + 1 = GNpyNp + LNpxNp (8.24)
LNp –1 HL, Np –1 + [GNp + 1] HG, Np + 1 = GNpHG, Np + LNpHL, Np (8.25)
To solve the above system of equations and determine the number of trays, the
following procedure is used.
1. Assume the top tray temperature, tG1. The other values like GNp+1, y1,
yNp + 1, L0, x0, tL0 and tG Np + 1 are known.
2. Calculate GS from the relationship, GS = GNp + 1(1 – yNp + 1)
GS
3. Calculate G1 from the relationship, G1 =
1 − y1
4. Using Eq. (8.15), Calculate LNp.
5. Find xNp from Eq. (8.16).
6. Calculate HGNp+1, HL0 and HG1 using Eqs. (8.18) and (8.19).
7. Find HLNp from Eq. (8.17).
8. Determine tLNp making use of Eq. (8.19).
9. With this knowledge of the temperature of the last tray Np, the
compositions can be determined by y* = (V.P/T.P)x or y* = m.x, where
V.P. is vapour pressure, T.P. is total pressure and m is equilibrium
constant. Hence yNp = (m) xNp
10. Now for the last tray, xNp, yNp, tLNp are known.
Gs
11. Find GNp =
(1 yNp )
12. Now calculate LNp – 1 using Eq. (8.23).
13. Find xNp–1 from Eq. (8.24).
14. Calculate HLNp–1 using Eq. (8.25).
15. Find tLNp–1 from Eq. (8.19).
16. Now determine the composition, yNp–1 and GNp–1 as mentioned in step (9)
and step (11) respectively.
17. Similarly calculate for the next tray by taking n = Np–2 and starting from
step (12), by making use of material and enthalpy balances.
18. Finally, the computation is stopped on reaching the value of y1 and also
satisfying the assumed tG1. If these two values namely, the assumed
composition and computed composition y1 and the assumed temperature
and the calculated temperature t0 are not satisfied together, once again the
iteration has to be started fresh by assuming a new temperature tG1.
However, when both the values of y1 and tG1, are satisfied, the number of
trays are known from the computation values.
8.7 DESIGN OF COCURRENT ABSORBER

In a cocurrent absorber both gas and solvent streams enter at the same end and flow
in the same direction as shown in Fig. 8.10.
Fig. 8.10 Cocurrent absorber.

Absorption 197
Making material balance,

LSX1 + GSY1 = LSX2 + GSY2 (8.26)
\ LS(X1 – X2)] = GS (Y2 – Y1) (8.27)
ËL Û Ë Y1 Y2 Û
i.e. Ì s Ü = Ì Ü (8.28)
Í Gs Ý ÍÌ ( X1 X2 ) ÝÜ
Equation (8.28) is the equation of operating line for cocurrent absorption operation
with the slope – (LS/GS) and this is presented in the X–Y diagram of Fig. 8.11. If
the leaving streams are in equilibrium with each other, then the compositions are
represented by (X¢2, Y¢2) and for a typical liquid phase composition of X2, the gas
phase composition will be Y2.
Fig. 8.11 Equilibrium curve and operating line in a cocurrent absorber.
8.8 DESIGN OF CONTINUOUS CONTACT

EQUIPMENT FOR ABSORPTION
Packed columns and spray towers fall in the category of continuous contact or
differential contact towers. They are different from stagewise contactors in the
sense that the fluids are in continuous contact throughout the tower. So the liquid
and gas compositions change continuously with respect to the height of the tower.
Consider a packed tower of unit cross sectional area as shown in the Fig. 8.12.
The characteristics of inlet and outlet streams are also indicated.
Let Z be the total height of the tower and dZ be the differential height which
is same as the differential volume. S is the total effective interfacial surface per unit
tower cross section. Hence,
Interfacial area (a) ¹ [ A ¹ Z ]

S= = (8.29)
Area of tower A
\ dS = a × dZ (8.30)
where dS is the differential interfacial surface in the differential volume of packing.
Fig. 8.12 Continuous countercurrent absorber.
As shown in Fig. 8.12, the quantity of solute A passing through the differential
section is G×y moles/(area) (time). The rate of mass transfer is d(G×y) mole A/
(differential volume) (time). Since NB = 0, NA/(NA + NB) = 1.0. The molar flux of
A is obtained by applying the original basic flux equation,
Rate of absorption of solute A

NA =
Interfacial area
d (Gy) ⎡ (1 − yi ) ⎤
= = FG ln ⎢ ⎥ (8.31)
adZ ⎣ (1 − y ) ⎦
d(Gy) can be written as
⎡ G y ⎤
d(Gy) = d ⎢ s ⎥ (8.32)
⎣ (1 − y ) ⎦
Since one component is transferred, G and y vary throughout the tower.
Ë G y Û Gs dy Gdy
i.e. dÌ s Ü = (8.33)
Í (1 y) Ý (1 y)2 (1 y)
Substituting Eq. (8.33) in Eq. (8.31), rearranging and integrating, we get

Z y1
Gdy
Z Ô dZ Ô F a(1 y) ln[(1 y ) /(1 y)]
0 y2
G i
(8.34)
It is more convenient to write, y – yi = [(1 – yi) – (1 – y)] (8.35)

Absorption 199
The numerator and denominator of Eq. (8.34) can be multiplied by the right
and left hand sides of Eq. (8.35) respectively to obtain
y1
G(1 y)iM dy
Z Ô F a(1 y)(1 y )
G i
(8.36)
y2
where (1 – y)iM is logarithmic mean of (1 – yi) and (1 – y).
G
y1
1 y iM dy
Z
FG a Ô (1 y)( y y ) H i
tG ¹ N tG (8.37)
y2
where HtG is the height of a gas transfer unit and NtG is the number of gas transfer
units.
G G G
Thus, HtG (8.38)
FG a k y a(1 y)iM kG aPt (1 y)iM
in terms of other individual mass transfer coefficients.

NtG is simplified further by substituting the arithmetic average instead of
logarithmic average of (1 – y)iM
Hence,
(1 yi ) (1 y) (1 yi ) (1 y)
(1 y)iM (8.39)
Ë (1 yi ) Û 2
ln Ì Ü
Í (1 y ) Ý
y1 y1
(1 y)iM dy dy 1 (1 y2 )
N tG Ô
y2
[(1 y)( y yi ) Ô ( y y ) 2 ln (1 y )
y2
i 1
(8.40)
Similarly, when the above mentioned relations have been applied for liquid
compositions, we obtain
x1
L (1 x )iM dx
Z
FL a Ô [(1 x )( x
x2
i x )]
HtL ¹ N tL (8.41)
where HtL is the height of liquid transfer unit, NtL is the number of liquid transfer
units and (1 – x)iM is logarithmic mean of (1 – x) and (1 – xi)
On simplification, we get
L L
HtL (8.42)
FL a k x a(1 x )iM
and
x1
dx 1 (1 x1 )
N tL Ô (x
x2
i x )
ln
2 (1 x2 ) (8.43)
Equations (8.38), (8.40), (8.42) and (8.43) can be used to determine the height
of the tower.
With the known quantities, HtG or HtL can be easily determined. But NtG
and NtL can be determined only through the graphical method. For this, plot of
1/(y – yi) against y is drawn and the area under the curve will give NtG. The values
of y and yi can be evaluated by drawing a line between equilibrium curve and
operating line with the slope (–kxa/kya) where y and yi are points of intersection of
this line on operating line and equilibrium curve respectively.
8.8.1 Overall Transfer Units

In some cases where the equilibrium curve is straight and the ratio of mass transfer
coefficients is constant, it is more convenient to make use of overall mass transfer
coefficients. The height of the tower can be expressed in such cases as
Z = NtoG × HtoG (8.44)
y1 y1
(1 y)* M dy dy 1 (1 y2 )
NtoG =
Ô
y2
(1 y)( y y*)
Ô ( y y*) 2 ln (1 y )
y2
1
(8.45)
G G G
HtoG = (8.46)
FOG a K y a(1 y)* M K G aPt (1 y)* M
x1
dx 1 (1 x1 )
NtoL =
Ô ( x * x) 2 ln (1 x ) 2
(8.47)
x2
L L
HtoL = (8.48)
FoL a K x a(1 x )* M
8.8.2 Dilute Solutions

For dilute solutions or gaseous mixtures, the above equations become much
simpler. The second term in Eq. (8.45) and in Eq. (8.47) become negligible.
Hence,
y1 x1
dy dx
N toG Ô
y2
( y y*)
or N toL Ô ( x * x)
x2
(8.49)
If the equilibrium curve in terms of mole fractions is also linear over the entire
range of x, then
y* = m × x + C (8.50)
If the solutions are dilute, there won’t be variations in L/G ratio throughout,
and the operating line can be considered as a straight line so that the driving force
(y – y*) is also linear. In such cases, Eq. (8.43) is simplified to
Absorption 201
( y1 y2 )
NtoG (8.51)
( y y*) M
where (y – y*)M is logarithmic average of the concentration differences at the
terminals of the tower.
Therefore,
( y1 y1 *) ( y2 y2 *)
( y y*) M (8.52)
( y y1 *)
ln 1
( y2 y2 *)
and
G G
HtoG = or K aP (8.53)
Kya G t
8.8.3 Dilute Solutions Using Henry’s Law

In dilute solutions, if Henry’s law is applied, then
y* = m × x (8.54)
The operating line can be written in a linear form as
ÈLØ
(y – y2) = É Ù (x – x2) (8.55)
ÊGÚ
Eliminating x between Eqs. (8.54) and (8.55) and substituting y* in Eq. (8.49), we
get
Î Ë y mx2 Û Ë 1 Û Ë 1 ÛÞ
ln Ï Ì 1
Ü Ì1 A Ü Ì A Ü ß
ÐÍ 2y mx 2 ÝÍ Ý Í Ýà
NtoG = (8.56)
Ë 1 Û
Ì1 A Ü
Í Ý
where A is the absorption factor = L/mG
The overall height of transfer units can also be expressed in terms of individual
phases,
È mG Ø È L Ø
HtL or HtoL = HtL + É
Ê mG ÙÚ tG
HtoG = HtG + É H (8.57)
Ê L ÙÚ
8.9 STRIPPING OR DESORPTION

When mass transfer occurs from liquid to gas, i.e. the solute is removed from the
liquid solution by contacting with a gas, then the operation is called Desorption or
Stripping.
8.9.1 Operating Line for Stripper

The schematic representation of operating lines for both countercurrent and co-
current operations of a stripper are shown in Fig. 8.13 and Fig. 8.14.
Fig. 8.13 Equilibrium curve and operating line in a countercurrent stripper.
Fig. 8.14 Equilibrium curve and operating line in a cocurrent stripper.
8.9.2 Analytical Relation to Determine

Number of Plates
From Kremser–Brown–Souder’s Eq. (8.13) on rearranging for desorption we get,
ÎÑ Ë x0 yNp 1 / m Û Ë 1 Û Ë 1 Û ÞÑ
log Ï Ì Ü Ì1 Ü Ì Üß
x yNp 1 / m Ý Í S Ý Í S ÝÑ
Np = ÐÑ Í Np à (8.58)
log S
mG
where S is the stripping factor, S =
L
Absorption 203
For dilute solutions, if Henry’s law is applied,
Î Ë x y1 / m Û Þ
ln Ï Ì 2 Ü (1 A) A ß
Ð Í x1 y1 / m Ý à
NtoL = (8.59)
1 A
WORKED EXAMPLES
1. An air–NH3 mixture containing 5% NH3 by volume is absorbed in water
using a packed tower at 20ºC and 1 atm pressure to recover 98% NH3. Gas
flow rate is 1200 kg/h m2. Calculate (a) Minimum mass flow rate of liquid;
(b) NTU using 1.25 times the minimum liquid flow rate; (c) Height of
packed column using KGa = 128 kg/h m2 atm. The equilibrium relation is y
= 1.154x where, x, y are expressed in mole fraction units.
Solution.
(a) Given that
y1 = 0.05, Pt = 1 atm, T = 20oC and X2 = 0
Gas flow rate = 1200 kg/h m2
Average molecular weight of mixture = (0.05 × 17) + (0.95 × 28.84) = 28.25
1200
G1 = 42.478 kmol/h m 2
28.25
Gs = G1(1 – y1) = 42.478 (1 – 0.05) = 40.354 kmol/h m2
Y2 = 0.02 × 0.0526 = 0.001052
y1 0.05
Y1 = 0.0526 kmol NH3/kmol dry air
1 y1 1 0.05
Y2 = 0.001052
Y2 0.001052
y2 = 0.00105
1 Y2 1.001052
G 40.354
G2 = S
40.396 kmol/h m 2
1 y2 1 0.00105
y = 1.154x
Y 1.154 X
=
1Y 1 X
1.154 X
Y=
1 0.154 X
X 0.01 0.02 0.03 0.04 0.05

Y 0.0116 0.0232 0.0348 0.0464 0.058
For minimum liquid flow rate

y = 1.154x, then y1 = 1.154x1
0.05 = 1.154x1, so x1 = 0.0433
x1
X1 = 0.04526 kmol NH 3 / kmol water

1 x1
Fig. 8.15(b) Example 1.
(This can also be obtained from graph as shown in Fig. 8.15(b))
È LS Ø (Y1 Y2 ) (0.0526 0.001052)

ÉÊ G ÙÚ 1.139
S min ( X1 X 2 ) (0.04526 0)
(LS) min = 40.354 × 1.139 = 45.969 kmole/h m2
Mass flow rate of minimum water required = 45.969 × 18 = 827.44 kg/h m2
È LS Ø ÈL Ø
ÉÊ G ÙÚ 1.25 É S Ù 1.25 1.139 1.42375
S actual Ê GS Ú min
Absorption 205
ÈL Ø È (Y1 Y2 ) Ø (0.0526 0.001052)

(b) Again, É S Ù ÉÊ ( X Ù 1.42375
Ê GS Ú actual 1, actual X 2 ) Ú ( X1, actual 0)
X1, actual = 0.0361.

Hence,
X1
x1 = 0.0349
(1 X1 )
y1* = m x1 = 1.154 × 0.0349 = 0.0403
y2* = m x2 = 0
( y1 y2 )
NTU =
( y y*)lm
[( y1 y1*) ( y2 y2 *)]
(y – y*)lm =
Ë y y1 * Û
ln Ì 1 Ü
ÍÌ y2 y2 * ÝÜ
[(0.05 0.0403) (0.001052 0)]

= 3.89 10 3
(0.05 0.0403)
ln
(0.001052)
(0.05 0.001)
NTU = 12.581 13
3.89 10 3
(c) Average gas flow rate
(G1 G2 ) (42.478 40.396)
= 41.437 kmol / h/m 2
2 2
G 41.437
HTU 0.3237 m
KG aPt 128
Height of the tower, Z = NTU × HTU = 12.581 × 0. 3237 = 4.073 m
2. Air containing methanol vapour (5-mole %) is scrubbed with water in a
packed tower at 26ºC and 760 mm Hg pressure to remove 95% of the
methanol. The entering water is free of methanol. The gas-phase flow rate
is 1.22 kmol/m2 s and the liquid-phase flow rate is 0.631 kmol/m2 s. If the
overall height of a transfer unit based on the liquid phase resistance is
4.12 m, determine NTU and the overall liquid phase mass transfer
coefficient. The equilibrium relation is p = 0.280 x, where p is the partial
pressure of methanol in atmospheres and x is the mole fraction of methanol
in liquid.
Solution.
y1 = 0.05, T = 26°C, pressure = 760 mm Hg

y1 0.05
Y1 = 0.0526
(1 y1 ) 0.95
Y2 = 0.05 × 0.0526 = 0.00263

Gas flow rate = 1.22 kmol/m2 s
Liquid flow rate = 0.631 kmol/m2 s

HtoL = 4.12 m
Equilibrium relationship is: p = 0.280x
where, p = partial pressure
x = mole fraction of methanol in liquid.
0.631
L2 = LS 0.0351 kmol/m2 s
18
(Assuming entering water is pure)
Average molecular weight of entering gas =

0.05 32 0.95 28.84
1
= 2.8.998
1.22
G1 = 0.0421 kmol/m2 s
28.998
GS = G1(1 – y1) = 0.0421(1 – 0.05) = 0.04 kmol/m2 s
Absorption 207
Equilibrium relation is: p = 0.280x

pt y = 0.280x ( pt = total pressure, x = mole fraction in liquid
phase, y = mole fraction in gas phase)
1 × y = 0.280x
y = 0.280x
È LS Ø (Y1 Y2 )
ÉÊ G ÙÚ = ( X X )
S 1 2
Y2 0.00263
y2 = 0.00262
1 Y2 (1 0.00263)
X2 = 0 (assuming pure water enters the absorber)
È LS Ø (Y1 Y2 )
ÉÊ G ÙÚ =
S ( X1 X 2 )
0.0351 (0.0526 0.00263)

i.e. =
0.04 ( X1 0)
Therefore, X1 = 0.0569
L1 = LS(1 + X1) = 0.0351 (1.0569) = 0.0371 kmol/m2 s
LAvg = (L1 × L2)0.5 = (0.0371 × 0.0351)0.5 = 0.0361 kmol/m2 s
X1 0.0569
x1 = 0.0539
(1 X1 ) (1 0.0569)
We have, y1* = 0.280x1
x1 = 0.0539
x2 = 0.0
y1 = 0.05
y2 = 0.00262
y1 0.05
x1* = 0.1786
0.280 0.280
y2 0.00262
x2* = 0.00936
0.280 0.280
ËÍ( x1* x1 ) ( x2* x2 ) ÛÝ

(x* – x)lm =
Ë ( x * x1 ) Û
ln Ì 1 Ü
Í ( x2* x2 ) Ý
=
>(0.1786 0.0539) (0.00936 0)@ = 0.04455
Ë (0.1786 0.0539) Û
ln Ì Ü
Í (0.00936 0) Ý
NtoL =
( x1 x2 ) 0.0539 0 1.21
( x * x)lm
0.04455
HtoL = 4.12 m
Lavg
HtoL =
K La
0.0361
Therefore, KLa = 8.76 10 3 kmol/m2 s (Dx)
4.12
3. An air-NH3 mixture containing 20-mole % NH3 is being treated with water
in a packed tower to recover NH3. The incoming gas rate is 1000 kg/h m2.
The temperature is 35ºC and the total pressure is 1 atm. Using 1.5 times the
minimum water flow rate, 95% of NH3 is absorbed. If all the operating
conditions remain unchanged, how much taller should the tower be to
absorb 99% of NH3? Henry’s law is valid and ye = 0.746x. Variations in gas
flow rate may be neglected.
Solution.
Given that
y1 = 0.2
Gas flow rate (incoming) = 1000 kg/h m2
Temperature = 35°C, pressure = 1 atm
HTU = 1 m
(LS) actual = 1.5 × (LS)min
Assuming, incoming water to be pure, its flow rate L2 is LS kmol/h m2
Equilibrium relation = ye = 0.746x
y1 0.2
Y1 = 0.25
(1 y1 ) (1 0.2)
95% Ammonia is absorbed
Absorption 209
Y2 = (1 – 0.95) × 0.25 = 0.0125

Y2 0.0125
y2 = 0.0123
1 Y2 (1 0.0125)
Average molecular weight of incoming gas mixture

= [(0.2 × 17) + (0.8 × 28.84)] = 26.472
1000
G1 = 37.776 kmol/h m2
26.472
GS = G1 (1 – y1) = 37.776(1 – 0.2) = 30.221 kmol/h m2
For minimum liquid flow rate.
y1* = 0.746x1
0.2
x1 = 0.2681
0.746
x1
X1 = 0.3663
1 x1
È Ls Ø (Y1 Y2 ) (0.25 0.0125)

ÉÊ G ÙÚ 0.648
s min ( X1 X 2 ) (0.3663 0)
(Assuming pure water enters, X2 = 0)
We can also obtain this graphically for which X–Y data has to be computed.
y1* = 0.746x1
Y X
0.746
(1 Y ) (1 X )

0.746 X
Y
(1 0.254 X )
X 0 0.1 0.2 0.3 0.4

Y 0 0.0728 0.142 0.208 0.271
From the graph X1,max = 0.3663 (which is also the same as obtained from
calculation)
È LS Ø
ÉÊ G ÙÚ = 0.648
S min
È LS Ø È LS Ø
ÉÊ G ÙÚ = 1.5 É 1.5 0.648 0.972
S actual Ê GS ÙÚ min
È LS Ø (Y1 Y2 ) (0.25 0.0125)

ÉÊ G ÙÚ =
( X1 X2 ) ( X1 0)
S actual
X1 = 0.2443
X1
X1 = 0.1963
(1 X1 )
y1* = 0.746x1
y1* = 0.746 × 0.1963 = 0.1464
[( y1 y1 *) ( y2 y2 *)]
(y – y*)lm =
Ë ( y y1 *) Û
ln Ì 1 Ü
Í ( y2 y2 *) Ý
[(0.2 0.1464) (0.0123 0)]
= 0.0281
(0.2 0.1464)
ln
(0.0123 0)
( y1 y2 ) (0.2 0.0123)
NTU 6.68
( y y*)lm 0.0281
Z = HTU × NTU = 1 × 6.68 = 6.68 m
Now if 99% of NH3 is absorbed,
Y2 = 0.25 × 0.01 = 0.0025
Y2
y2 = 0.0025
1 Y2
ÈL Ø
For, É S Ù
Ê GS Ú min
y1* = 0.746x1
X1 0.2
x1 = 0.2681
(1 X1 ) 0.746
Absorption 211
x1
X1 0.3663
1 x1
È LS Ø (Y1 Y2 ) (0.25 0.0025)

ÉÊ G ÙÚ = 0.6755
S min ( X1 X 2 ) (0.3663 0)
È LS Ø
ÉÊ G ÙÚ = 1.5 0.6755 1.013
S actual
È LS Ø (Y1 Y2 ) (0.25 0.0025)

ÉÊ G ÙÚ =
( X1 X2 ) ( X1 0)
S actual
X1 = 0.2443
X1
x1 = 0.1963
(1 X1 )
y1* = 0.746 × 0.1963 = 0.1464
(y – y*)lm =
>( y1 y1*) ( y2 y2*)@
Ë ( y y1*) Û
ln Ì 1 Ü
Í ( y2 y2*) Ý
[(0.2 0.1464) (0.0025 0)]
= 0.01667
(0.2 0.1464)
ln
(0.0025 0)
( y1 y2 ) (0.2 0.0025)
NTU = 11.847
( y y *)lm 0.01667
Z = NTU × HTU =11.847 × 1 = 11.847 m.
In the first case, when 95% of NH3 was absorbed, Z = 6.68 m
Increase in length of tower = 11.847 – 6.68 = 5.168 m
So, when 99% of NH3 is to be absorbed, the tower should be 5.168 m taller
than that needed for 95% NH3 absorption, or 77.36% taller.
4. An effluent gas containing 12% C6H6 is to be scrubbed in a packed column,
operating at 43ºC and 1 atm. pressure. The column is to be designed for
treating 15 m3 of entering gas per hour per m2 of column cross-section, such
that the exit gas will contain 1% benzene. The solvent for scrubbing is
mineral oil which will enter the top of the column at a rate of 28 kg/h m2
and a benzene content of 1%. Determine the height of the column assuming
height of transfer unit to be 0.75 m. The equilibrium concentration at the
operating conditions is given by y* = 0.263x, where x and y are in mole
fraction units.
Solution.
y1 = 0.12, T = 43°C, pressure = 1 atm

3 2
Gas flow rate = 15 m /h m
y2 = 0.01
Solvent is mineral oil
L2 = 28 kmol/h m2, x2 = 0.01,
HTU = 0.75 m
The equilibrium relation is y* = 0.263x
Assuming the gas mixture to be ideal,
P1V1 P2V2 (1 15) (1 V2 )

T1 T2 (273 43) 273
V2 = 12.9589 m3 (at N.T.P)
12.9589
or Molar flow rate = 0.5782 kmol
22.414
G1 = 0.5782 kmol/h m2
GS = G1 (1 – y1) = 0.5782(1 – 0.12) = 0.5088 kmol/h m2
LS = L2 (1 – x2) = 28(1 – 0.01) = 27.72 kmol/h m2
È LS Ø (Y1 Y2 )
ÉÊ G ÙÚ ( X1 X 2 )
S
y1 0.12
Y1 = 0.1364
(1 y1 ) (1 0.12)
Absorption 213
y2 0.01
Y2 = 0.0101
(1 y2 ) (1 0.01)
x2 0.01
X2 = 0.0101
(1 x1 ) (1 0.01)
È LS Ø 27.72 (0.1364 0.0101)

ÉÊ G ÙÚ 0.5088 ( X1 0.0101)
S
X1 = 0.01242
X1
x1 0.0123
(1 X1 )
y1* = mx1
y1* = 0.263 × 0.0123 = 0.00323
y2* = 0.263 × 0.01 = 0.00263
[( y1 y1 *) ( y2 y2 *)]
( y y*)lm
Ë ( y y1 *) Û
ln Ì 1 Ü
Í ( y2 y2 *) Ý
[(0.12 0.00323) (0.01 0.00263)]
0.0395
(0.12 0.00323)
ln
0.01 0.00263
( y1 y2 ) (0.12 0.01)
NTU 2.786 3
( y y*)lm 0.0395
Height of tower, Z = NTU × HTU = 2.786 × 0.75 = 2.0895 m.
5. An air–NH3 mixture containing 5% NH3 is being scrubbed with water in a
packed tower to recover 95% NH3. G1= 3000 kg/h m2, Ls = 2500 kg/h m2.
Tower is maintained at 25ºC and 1 atm pressure. Find NTU and height of
the tower. The equilibrium relation is given by y* = 0.98x, where x and y
are mole fraction units. KGa = 65 kmol/h m3 atm
Solution.
y1 = 0.05
0.05
Y1 = 0.0526
(1 0.05)
Y2 = 0.05 × 0.0526 = 0.00263
Y2 0.00263
y2 = 0.00262
1 Y2 (1 0.00263)
Entering gas flow rate = 3000 kg/h m2
LS = 2500 kg/h m2, T = 25°C, Pressure = 1 atm,

3
KGa = 65 kmol/h m atm
Equilibrium relation = y* = 0.98x
Average molecular weight of incoming gas mixture
(0.05 17) (0.95 28.84)
= 28.248
1
3000
G1 = 106.20 kmol/h m2
28.248
2500
LS = 138.89 kmol/h m2
18
GS = G1(1 – y1) = 106.2(1 – 0.05) = 100.89 kmol/h m2
GS 100.89
G2 = 101.16 kmol/h m2
1 y2 1 0.00262
È LS Ø (Y1 Y2 ) 138.89 (0.0526 0.00263)
ÉÊ G ÙÚ = ( X1 X2 ) 100.89 ( X1 0)
S
X1 0.0363
x1 = 0.035
(1 X1 ) (1 0.0363)
y1* = 0.98x1
y1* = 0.98 × 0.035 = 0.0343
x2 = 0; y2* = 0
Absorption 215
( y y*)lm ÍË( y1 y1 *) ( y2 y2 *) ÝÛ
Ë ( y y1 *) Û
ln Ì 1 Ü
Í ( y2 y2 *) Ý
ËÍ 0.05 0.0343 0.00262 0 ÛÝ
0.0073
ln
0.05 0.0343
0.00262 0
( y1 y2 ) (0.05 0.00262)
NTU 6.486
( y y*)lm 0.0073
Gavg
(G1 G2 ) 106.2 101.16 103.68 kmol/m 2 h
2 2
Gavg 103.68
HTU 1.595 m
KGa Pt 65 1
Z = NTU × HTU = 6.486 × 1.595 = 10.346 m.
6. An air-C6H6 mixture containing 5% benzene enters a countercurrent
absorption tower where it is absorbed with hydrocarbon oil. Gs = 600 kmol/h.
The solubility follows Raoult’s law. Temperature at 26.7ºC and 1 atm
pressure are the operating conditions. The average molecular weight of oil
is 200. The vapour pressure of benzene at 26.7ºC is 103 mm Hg.
Find:
(i) (LS)min to recover 90% of entering C6H6.
(ii) The number of theoretical stages if 1.5 times the minimum liquid rate
used.
(iii) The concentration of solute in liquid learning the absorber for
condition (ii).
Solution.

Given that
y1 = 0.05, GS = 600 kmol/h T = 26.7°C, Pressure = 1 atm
Average molecular weight of oil = 200, pA = 103 mm Hg
According to Raoult’s law,
p* pA x A
p* ( pA x A ) 103
y* x 0.1355 x
Pt Pt 760
y1 0.05
Y1 0.0526
(1 y1 ) (1 0.05)
Y2 (0.1 0.0526) 0.00526
Y2 0.00526
y2 0.00523
1 Y2 (1 0.00526)
X2 0. (Assuming pure oil enters)
We have, y* = 0.1355x
Y X
0.1355
(1 Y ) (1 X )
0.1355 x
Therefore, Y
(1 0.8645 x )
X 0 0.1 0.2 0.3 0.4 0.5 0.6

Y 0 0.0125 0.023 0.03228 0.0403 0.0473 0.0535
From the graph, we can get, X1, max = 0.54
È LS Ø (Y1 Y2 )
ÉÊ G ÙÚ ( X1, max X 2 )
S min
For minimum flow rate of oil,
È LS Ø (Y1 Y2 ) (0.0526 0.00526)

ÉÊ G ÙÚ 0.0877
S min ( X1 X 2 ) (0.54 0)
( LS )min 0.0877 600 52.62 kmol/h
( LS )actual 1.5( LS )min
( LS )actual 1.5 52.62 78.93 kmol/h
È LS Ø (Y1 Y2 ) 78.93 (0.0526 0.00526)

ÉÊ G ÙÚ ( X1 X 2 ) 600 ( X1 0)
S actual
Absorption 217
X1 = 0.36 (which is the same as obtained from graph)
X1 0.36
x1 0.265
(1 X1 ) (1 0.36)
The number of stages by stepwise construction is 6.
7. It is desired to absorb 95% of acetone from feed mixture of acetone and air
containing 2 (mole) % of acetone using a liquid flow rate of 20 % more than
the minimum. Gas flow rate is 450 kg/h. The gas mixture enters at 25ºC and
1 atm pressure, which is the operating condition. The equilibrium relation is
y* = 2.5x. Find (i) Flow rate of water, and (ii) Number of theoretical plates,
when the operation is carried out countercurrently.
Solution.
yNp 1
yNp+1 = 0.02 YNp+1 = 0.0204
(1 yNp 1 )
Y1 = 0.0204 × 0.05 = 0.00102, y1 = 0.00102
(LS)actual = 20% more than (LS)min
Gas flow rate (entering) = 450 kg/h
T = 25°C, Pressure = 1 atm, y* = 2.5x
Average molecular weight of feed mixture
(0.02 58) (0.98 28.84)
= 29.42
1
450
GNp+1 = 15.296 kmol/h
29.42
GS = GNp+1(1 – yNp+1) = 15.296 (1 – 0.02) = 14.99 kmol/h

Equilibrium relation is y* = 2.5x
Y X
(i.e.) 2.5
(1 Y ) (1 X )
2.5 X
Y
(1 1.5 X )
X 0.0 0.002 0.004 0.006 0.008 0.01

Y 0.0 0.005 0.01 0.0151 0.0202 0.0254
x Np 0.008
X Np 0.00806
(1 x Np ) (1 0.008)
È LS Ø (YNp 1 Y1 ) (0.0204 0.001)

ÉÊ G ÙÚ ( X Np X 0 ) (0.00806 0)
S min
È LS Ø
(Assuming pure water enters, X0 = 0) ÉÊ G ÙÚ = 2.4069
S min
È LS Ø È LS Ø
ÉÊ G ÙÚ ÉÊ G ÙÚ (1 0.20) 2.4069 1.2 2.888
S actual S min
È LS Ø (YNp 1 Y1 ) (0.0204 0.001)

ÉÊ G ÙÚ ( X Np X 0 ) ( X Np 0)
S actual
X Np 0.00672
È LS Ø
ÉÊ G ÙÚ 2.888
S actual
( LS )actual 2.888 14.8205 42.802 kmol/h
0.00672
(ii) XNp = 0.00672, xNp = 0.00667
(1 0.00672)
( LS ) LNp (1 x Np )
42.802
LNp 43.089 kmol/h
(1 0.00667)
GS G1 (1 y1 )
14.8205
G1 14.835 kmol/h
(1 0.01)
Absorption 219
(Assuming pure water enters, L0 = LS)

L0 42.802
A1 1.154
mG1 (2.5 14.835)
LNp 43.089
A2 1.133
mGNp 1 (2.5 15.213)
A A1 A2 (1.154 1.133) 1.143
Ë ( yNp 1 mx 0 ) È 1 Ø È 1 ØÛ
log Ì É1 Ù É Ù Ü
Í ( y1 m x1 ) Ê A Ú Ê AÚ Ý
Np
log A
Ë (0.02 (2.5 0)) È 1 Ø È 1 ØÛ

log Ì É1 ÙÚ ÉÊ 1.143 ÙÚ Ü
Í (0.001 0) Ê 1.143 Ý 9.1 10
log1.143
8. A soluble gas is absorbed in water using a packed tower. The equilibrium
relation is Ye = 0.06Xe. Hx = 0.24 m, Hy = 0.36 m. Find HtoG.
Solution.
Given
X2 = 0, X1 = 0.08, Y2 = 0.0005, Y1 = 0.009, where X and Y are mole ratios.
Ye = 0.06Xe.
X 0 0.02 0.04 0.06 0.08
X
x 0 0.0196 0.038 0.057 0.074
(1 X )
Y = 0.06X 0 0.0012 0.0024 0.0036 0.0048
Y
y 0 0.0012 0.0024 0.0036 0.0048
(1 Y )
y
m= — 0.0612 0.0632 0.0632 0.0649
x
Average m = 0.063
È mG Ø
H toG Hy É H
Ê L ÙÚ x
Hx 0.24 m, H y 0.36 m, X1 0.08, Y1 0.10, X 2 0, Y2 0.005
È LS Ø (Y1 Y2 ) (0.1 0.005)

ÉÊ G ÙÚ 1.1875
S ( X1 X 2 ) (0.08 0)
È mG Ø È 0.063 1 Ø
H toG Hy É H 0.36 É 0.24 0.3727 m
Ê L ÙÚ x Ê 1.1875 ÙÚ
(Since absolute flow rates are not available, we have taken the flow rates on
solute free basis.)
9. Acetone is to be recovered from a 5% acetone air mixture by scrubbing with
water in a packed tower using countercurrent flow. Both liquid and gas rates
are 0.85 kg/m2 s and 0.5 kg/m2 s respectively. KGa =1.5 ×10–4 kmol/m2 s
(kN/m2) partial pressure difference and the gas film resistance controls the
process. What should be the height of the tower to remove 98 % acetone?
The equilibrium data in mole fractions are as follows:
x 0.0099 0.0196 0.036 0.04

y 0.0076 0.0156 0.0306 0.0333
Absorption 221
Solution.
y1 = 0.05;
y1 0.05
Y1 = 0.05263
1 y1 1 0.05
L2 = 0.85 kg/m2 s, KGa = 1.5 × 10–4 kmol/m2 s (kN/m2)
Gas flow rate = 0.5 kg/m2 s
Y2 = 0.05263 × 0.02 = 0.001053
0.001053
y2 = 1 0.001053 0.00105
x 0.0099 0.0196 0.036 0.04
y 0.0076 0.0156 0.0306 0.0333
y 0.7677 0.7959 0.85 0.8325

m=
x
x 0.01 0.02 0.037 0.042

X
(1 x )
y 0.0077 0.0158 0.0316 0.0344

Y
(1 y)
0.7677 0.7959 0.85 0.8325

maverage = 0.8115
4
Hence, the equilibrium relation will be y* = 0.8115x
Average molecular weight of gas feed mixture
(0.05 58) (0.95 28.84)
= 30.298
1
0.5
G1 = = 0.0165 kmol/m2 s
30.298
GS = G1 (1 – y1) = 0.0165(1 – 0.05) = 0.0157 kmol/m2 s

G2 = Gs(1 + Y2) = 0.0157 × (1 + 0.001053) = 0.01572 kmol/m2 s
0.85
Assuming pure water enters, so L2 = LS = = 0.0472 kmol/m2 s
18
È LS Ø (Y1 Y2 ) 0.0472 (0.05263 0.001053)
ÉÊ G ÙÚ ; X1 0.01716
S ( X1 X 2 ) 0.0157 ( X1 0)
X1 0.01716
x1 0.01687
(1 X1 ) (1 0.01716)
y1 * mx1 0.8115 0.01687 0.01369, y2 * 0 (since x 2 0)
ËÍ( y1 y1 *) ( y2 y2 *) ÛÝ
( y y*)lm
Ë ( y y1 *) Û
ln Ì 1 Ü
Í ( y2 y2 *) Ý
ÍË(0.05 0.01369) (0.00105 0) ÝÛ 0.00995

Ë (0.05 0.01369) Û
ln Ì Ü
Í (0.00105 0) Ý
( y1 y2 ) (0.05 0.00105)
NTU 4.92
( y y*)lm 0.00995
G1 0.0165 kmol/m 2 s; G2 0.01572 kmol/m 2 s
Gaverage G G1G2 0.01611 kmol/m 2 s

G 0.01611
HTU 1.06
KGa Ë (1.5 10 4 ) (1.013 102 ) Û
ÍÌ ÝÜ
Z NTU HTU 4.92 1.06 5.216 m
(Alternative method)
We can also draw the equilibrium curve and operating line (on mole ratio
dY
basis) and evaluate Ô (Y Y *) between the limits Y1 = 0.001 and
Y2 = 0.0525 graphically. The values of Y and Y* have been presented below.
Y* Y 1
(Y Y *)
0.000 0.001 1000

0.001 0.005 250
0.0025 0.01 133.3
0.005 0.0175 80
0.0075 0.0275 50
0.01 0.03625 38.1
0.01125 0.04125 33.33
0.0125 0.04625 29.6
0.014 0.0525 25.97
Absorption 223
The NOG thus calculated is 4.9, which is in close agreement with the value
reported above.

10. A countercurrent packed absorption tower is to be designed to handle a gas

containing 5% C6H6, 95% air at 26.5ºC and 1 atm. At the top of the tower,
a non-volatile oil is to be introduced containing 0.2% C6H6 by weight. The
other data are as follows
LS = 2000 kg/h
Molecular weight of oil = 230
Vapour pressure of C6H6 at 26.5ºC = 106 mm Hg.
Volumetric flow rate of inlet gas = 1140 m3/h at 26.5ºC and 1 atm.
Kya = 34.8 kmol/h m3 (mole fraction).
Mass velocity of entering gas = 1460 kg/h m2.
Calculate the height and the diameter of packed tower for 90% C6H6
recovery. Raoult’s law is valid.
Solution.
Given that
y1 = 0.05, gas flow rate = 1140 m3/h at 26.5°C, 1 atm
Pressure (pt) = 1 atm
Liquid flow rate = 2000 kg/h
Molecular weight of oil = 230
Vapour pressure of C6H6 = 106 mm Hg
Kya = 34.8 kmol/h m3 (mole fraction)
Mass velocity of inert gas = 1460 kg/h m2
y2 = 0.05 × 0.1 = 0.005
According to Raoult’s law:
p pA x A
Pt y pA x
p ( pA x A ) 106
y x 0.1395 x
Pt Pt 706
Average moleculor weight of incoming gas

0.05 78 0.95 28.84
1
31.3
1460
Mass velocity of incoming gas in moles = = 46.645 kmol/h m2
31.3
y1 0.05
Y1 = 0.0526
(1 y1 ) (1 0.05)
Y2 = (0.1 × 0.0526) = 0.00526
Absorption 225
Y2 0.00526
y2 = 0.00523
1 Y2 (1 0.00526)
x2 0.002
x2 = 0.002, X2 = 0.00204
(1 x1 ) (1 0.002)
1460
Mass velocity of incoming gas = = 46.645 kmol/h m2
31.3
Volumetric flow rate of incoming gas = 1140 m3/h at 26.5°C and 1 atm
Assume that mixture follows ideal gas law,
P1V1 P2V2 1 1140 1 V2

T1 T2 299.5 273
V2 = 1039.132 m3/h.
1039.132
Molar flow rate = 46.361 kmol/h
22.414
G1 = 46.361 kmol/h.
We know that y = 0.1395x
Y X
0.1395
(1 Y ) (1 X )
0.1395 X
Y
(1 0.8605 X )
Volumetric flow rate

Area of cross section =
Mass velocity
Q D2 46.361
D 1.1249 m
4 46.645
2000
LS 8.696 kmol/h
230
GS G1 (1 y1 ) 46.361(1 0.05) 44.043 kmol/h
GS 44.043
G2 44.275 kmol/h
1 y2 (1 0.00523)
È LS Ø Y1 Y2 8.696 0.0526 0.00526

ÉÊ G ÙÚ
S X1 X2 44.043 X1 0.00204
X1 0.242
x1 0.1948
(1 X1 ) (1 0.242)
y1 * mx1 0.1395 0.1948 0.0272
y2 * 0.1395 0.002 0.000279
ËÍ( y1 y1 *) ( y2 y2 *) ÛÝ
y y *lm Ë ( y y1 *) Û
ln Ì 1 Ü
Í ( y2 y2 *) Ý
ËÍ 0.05 0.0272 0.00523 0.00279 ÛÝ

0.01133
ln
0.05 0.00272
0.00523 0.00279
NTU
( y1 y2 ) 0.05 0.005 3.95 4
( y y*)lm 0.01133
Gaverage G1G2 45.306 kmol/h
Q D2
Cross sectional area =
4
Diameter = 1.1249 m (calculated earlier)
Q D2 Q 1.1249 2
Cross sectional area 0.9938 m 2
4 4
G 45.306
HTU 1.31 m
Kya [0.9938 34.8]
Z NTU HTU 4 1.31 5.14 m

11. It is desired to recover 98 % of NH3 from air – NH3 mixture containing
2% NH3 at 20ºC and 1 atm by scrubbing with water in a tower packed with
2.54 cm stoneware Raschig rings. If the gas flow rate is 19.5 kg/min m2 at
the inlet and liquid flow rate is 1.8 times the minimum, estimate the
height of the tower for a countercurrent operation. Absorption is
isothermal. y* = 0.746x, where x and y are mole fractions. KGa =
1.04 (kmol/min m3 atm.)
Solution.
y1 = 0.02,
y1 0.02
Y1 = 0.02041
(1 y1 ) 1 0.02
Absorption 227
Y1 = 0.02041 × 0.02 = 0.00041
Y2 0.00041
y2 = 0.00041
1 Y2 1.00041
Gas flow rate = 19.5 kg/min m2
(LS) actual = 1.8 × (LS)min
Equilibrium relation = y* = 0.746x
Y X
0.746
(1 Y ) (1 X )
Therefore,
0.746 X
Y
(1 0.254 X )
X 0 0.010 0.020 0.025 0.03
0.746 X
Y 0 0.00744 0.01484 0.0185 0.0222
(1 0.254 X )
We can calculate minimum liquid flow rate using the equilibrium

relationship or from the graph shown in Fig. 8.23.
0.0242
y1 * mx1 , x1 0.0268
0.746
x1 0.0268
X1 0.0275
1 x1 (1 0.0268)
y1 0.02
Y1 0.02041
(1 y1 ) (1 0.02)
y2 0.0004
Y2 0.0004002
(1 y2 ) 1 0.0004
From Graph also we get, X1 = 0.0275
È LS Ø (Y1 Y2 ) (0.02041 0.00041)

ÉÊ G ÙÚ 0.7273
S min ( X1 X 2 ) (0.0275 0)
È LS Ø
ÉÊ G ÙÚ 0.7273 1.8 1.309
S actual
È LS Ø (Y1 Y2 ) (0.02041 0.00041)

ÉÊ G ÙÚ 1.309 X1 0.01528
S actual ( X1 X 2 ) ( X1 0)
X1 0.01528
x1 0.01505
(1 X1 ) (1 0.01528)
y1 * 0.746 x1 0.746 0.01505 0.01123, y2 * 0
ÍË( y1 y1 *) ( y2 y2 *) ÝÛ
y y *lm Ë ( y y1 *) Û
ln Ì 1 Ü
Í ( y2 y2 *) Ý
ËÍ(0.02 0.01123) (0.00041 0) ÛÝ

0.00273
Ë (0.02 0.01123) Û
ln Ì Ü
Í (0.00041 0) Ý
NTU
y1 y2 (0.02 0.00041)
7.176
( y y*)lm 0.00273
Average molecular weight of incoming gas

(0.02 17) (0.98 28.84)
= 28.6
1
19.5
G1 19.5 kg/min m 2 0.682 kmol/min m 2
28.6
Gs G1 (1 y1 ) 0.682 (1 0.02) 0.6684 kmol/min m 2
GS 0.6684
G2 0.6687 kmol/min m 2
1 y2 1 0.00041
Gaverage G1G2 = 0.6753 kmol/min m 2
G 0.6753
HTU 0.649 m
K Ga Pc 1.04 1
Z N TU HTU 7.176 0.649 4.657 m

Absorption 229
12. CS2 – N2 mixture containing 7% CS2 is to be absorbed by using absorption

oil. The gas mixture enters at 24ºC and 1 atm at a rate of 0.4 m3/s. The
vapour content is to be brought down to 0.5%. The oil enters free from CS2.
Raoults law is valid. Determine:
(i) Minimum liquid/gas ratio.
(ii) For a liquid/gas ratio of 1.5 times the minimum, determine the kgs of
oil entering the tower and the number of theoretical stages required.
Vapour pressure of CS2 = 346 mm Hg, Molecular weight of oil = 180.
Solution.
Average molecular weight of feed gas = (0.07 × 32) + (0.93 × 28) = 28.28
Gas flow rate = 0.4 m3
P0V0 PV
1 1
T0 T1
V1 0.4
V0 T0 273 0.3677 m 3 /s (At NTP condition)
T1 0.297
0.3677
G1 kmol/s
22.414
G1 59.06 kmol/h
GS 59.06(1 0.07) 54.93 kmol/h
Now,
y mx
346
y x 0.455 x
760
Y X
0.455
1 Y 1 X
1 Y 1 X
Y 0.455 X
1 1 X 0.455 X 1 0.545X
Y 0.455 X 0.455 X
0.455 X
\ Y
1 0.545X
X 0 0.05 0.1 0.15 0.2
Y 0 0.022 0.043 0.0631 0.082
X1, max = 0.1775
È LS Ø Y1 Y2 0.0753 0.005
ÉÊ G ÙÚ 0.396
X1,max X2 0.1775 0
=
S min
È LS Ø
ÉÊ G ÙÚ = (1.5 × 0.395) = 0.594
S actual
\ LS = (0.594 × 54.93) = 32.63 kmol/h
= 32.63 × 180 = 5873.4 kg/h
(Y1 Y2 ) (0.0753 0.005)

0.594 =
( X1, Act X2 ) ( X1,Act 0)
(0.0753 0.005)
\ X1, act = 0.1184
0.594
Number of theoretical stages: 5 as shown in Fig. 8.24.
13. NH3 is absorbed from a gas by using water in a scrubber under atmospheric
pressure. The initial NH3 content in the gas is 0.04(kmol/kmol of inert gas).
The recovery of NH3 by absorption is 90 %. The water enters the tower free
from NH3. Estimate (i) the concentration of NH3 in the exiting liquid if the
actual water used is 1.5 times of the minimum. (ii) the number of theoretical
stages required.
Absorption 231
X 0.005 0.01 0.0125 0.015 0.02 0.023

Y 0.0045 0.0102 0.0138 0.0183 0.0273 0.0327
where x and y are in mole ratios.
Solution.
È LS Ø (Y1 Y2 )
ÉÊ G ÚÙ ( X1, max X 2 )
S
È LS Ø (Y1 Y2 ) (0.04 0.004)

ÉÊ G ÙÚ ( X1, max X 2 ) ( X1, max 0)
S min
X1, max 0.027 (from graph in Fig. 8.25)
È LS Ø 0.036
ÉÊ G ÚÙ 1.333
S min 0.027
È LS Ø ÈL Ø
ÉÊ G ÙÚ 1.5 É S Ù 2
S actual Ê GS Ú min
(0.04 0.004)
2
( X1, act 0)
(0.04 0.004) 0.036

X1, act 0.018
2 2

The concentration of ammonia in the exiting liquid: 0.018 kmol/kmol of water.

The number of theoretical stages required: 3 (from Fig. 8.25).
14. Gas from petroleum refinery has its concentration of H2S reduced from 0.03
(kmol H2S/kmol inert gas) to 1% of these value by scrubbing with a solvent
in a countercurrent tower at 27ºC and 1 atm. The equilibrium relation is
Y* = 2X, where X and Y* are in mole ratios. Solvent enters free of H2S and
leaves at a concentration of 0.013 kmol H2S/kmol of solvent. If the flow rate
of incoming gas is 55.6 kmol/hr m2, calculate the height of absorber used if
the entire resistance to mass transfer lies in gas phase. Assume Kya = 0.04
kmol/(m3 of tower volume × s × Dy.)
Solution.
X1 = 0.013; X2 = 0;
Y1 = 0.03; Y2 = 0.0003
Y1* = 2 × 0.013 = 0.026; Y2* = 0
Y1 0.03
y1 = 0.029
1 Y1 1.03
Y2 0.0003
y2 = 0.0003
1 Y2 1.0003
Inert gas flow rate = Gs = G1(1 – y1) = 55.6 × 0.971 = 54 kmol/h m2
G2 = Gs(1 + Y2) = 54 × 1.0003 = 54.016 kmol/h m2
G = (54.016 55.6)0.5 = 54.6 kmol/h m2
(Y1 Y2 ) (Y1 Y2 )
NTU =
Ë Û ( 'Y )lm
Ì (Y Y *) (Y Y *) Ü
Ì 1 1 2 2
Ü
Ì (Y1 Y1*) Ü
ln
ÌÍ (Y2 Y2 *) ÜÝ
Absorption 233
(0.03 0.026) (0.0003 0.0)

( ' Y )lm 1.428 10 3
(0.03 0.026)
ln
(0.0003 0.0)
(0.03 0.0003)
NTU 20.79
(1.428 10 3 )
G (54.6)
HTU 0.379 m
K ya (0.04 3600)
Height of tower = HTU × NTU = 0.379 × 20.79 = 7.879 m
EXERCISES
1. An air–NH3 mixture containing 20% (mole) NH3 is being treated with water
in a packed tower to recover NH3. Incoming gas rate = 1000 kg/h m2. Water
used is 1.5 times the minimum. The temperature is 35ºC and the pressure is
1 atm. The equilibrium relation is y* = 0.746x, where x and y are mole
fraction units. Find the NTU for removing 95% NH3 in the feed.
2. An air–SO2 mixture containing 5% SO2 is scrubbed with water to remove
SO2 in a packed tower. 20 kmol/s of gas mixture is to be processed, to
reduce SO2 concentration at exit to 0.15%. If (Ls) actual is twice (Ls) min,
and the equilibrium relationship is y = 30x, HTU = 30 cms, find the height
of packing to be used.
3. It is desired to absorb 95% NH3 from a feed mixture containing 10% NH3
and rest air. The gas enters the tower at a rate of 500 kmol/h. If water is used
as solvent at a rate of 1.5 times of the minimum, estimate (i) NTU,
(ii) (Ls) actual.
4. An air–SO2 mixture containing 5.5% SO2 is scrubbed with water to remove
SO2. 500 kg/hr of gas mixture is to be processed and the SO2 content in the
exit should be brought to 0.15%. Calculate the height of packing required
if the liquid used is 2.5 times the minimum liquid rate. Dilute solutions are
involved in operation. The equilibrium lines are given by y = 30x, where x
and y are mole fractions. The HTU is 30 cm.
5. An air–NH3 mixture containing 5% NH3 enters a packed tower at the rate
of 500 kmol/h m2. It is desired to recover 95% NH3 using a liquid flow rate
of 1.5 times the minimum. Estimate the height of the tower. HTU is 0.25 m.
Fresh solvent enters the absorber. The equilibrium relation is y* = 1.08x
where x and y are mole fractions.
6. A packed tower is to be designed to absorb SO2 from air by scrubbing the
gas with water. The entering gas contains 20% of SO2 by volume and the
leaving gas contains 0.5% of SO2 by volume. The entering water is SO2 free.
The water flow to be used is twice the minimum. The airflow rate on SO2
free basis is 975 kg/h m2. The temperature is 30ºC and pressure is 1 atm. y*
= 21.8x, where x and y are mole fractions. Find the NTU.
7. NH3 is to be absorbed from air at 20ºC and 1 atm pressure in a packed tower
using water as absorbent. GS = 1500 kmol/h m3, LS = 2000 kmol/h m2.
y1 = 0.0825; y2 = 0.003. Ky a = (0.3 kmol/h m2 (Dy)). Determine the height
of the tower by NtoG method.
X 0.0164 0.0252 0.0359 0.0455 0.072
Y 0.021 0.032 0.042 0.053 0.08
X and Y are mole ratios.

8. An air–NH3 mixture containing 20 mole % of NH3 is being treated with water
in a packed tower to recover NH3. The incoming gas rate is 700 kg/h m2. The
water used is 1.5 times the minimum and enters the tower free of NH3. Under
these conditions, 95% of NH3 is absorbed from the incoming feed. If all the
operating conditions remain unchanged, how much taller the tower should be
to absorb 99% of NH3, under the given conditions y* = 0.75x where x and y
are mole fractions of NH3 in liquid and gas phase respectively.
9. A packed tower is to be designed to recover 98% carbon dioxide from a gas
mixture containing 10% carbon dioxide and 90% air using water. The
equilibrium relationship is Y =14X, where Y = (kg CO2/kg dry air) and
X = (kg CO2/kg dry water). The water to gas rate is kept 30% more than the
minimum value. Calculate the height of the tower if (HTU)OG is 1 metre.
(Ans: 11.42 m)
10. An air–NH3 mixture containing 6% of NH3 is being scrubbed with water to
recover 90% of NH3. The mass velocities of gas and water are 3200 kg/h m2
and 2700 kg/h m2 respectively. The operating conditions are 25ºC and 1
atm. Find NTU and height of the tower. Given that, KGa = 65 kmol/h m3
atm, y* = 0.987x, where x and y are mole fractions.
11. 500 m3/h of a gas at 760 mm Hg and 35ºC containing 3% by volume of toluene
is absorbed using a wash oil as an absorbent to remove 95% of toluene. The
wash oil enters at 35ºC contains 0.5% toluene and has an average molecular
weight of oil 250. The oil rate used is 1.5 times the minimum. Wash oil is
assumed to be ideal. Vapour pressure of toluene is 110 mm Hg. Find the amount
of wash oil used and the number of theoretical stages.
12. Ammonia is recovered from a 10% NH3–air mixture by scrubbing with
water in a packed tower at 20ºC and 1 atm. pressure such that 99% of the
NH3 is removed. What is the required height of the tower? Gas and water
enter at the rate of 1.2 kg/m2 s and 0.94 kg/m2 s respectively. Assume
KGa = 0.0008 kmol/m3 s. atm. The equilibrium data is as follows:
x 0.021 0.031 0.042 0.053 0.079 0.106 0.159
p (mm Hg) 12 18.2 24.9 31.7 50 69.6 114
where x is the mole fraction of NH3 in liquid, p is the partial pressure of NH3
in mm Hg.
Absorption 235
13. An air–acetone mixture, containing 5% acetone by volume, is to be scrubbed

with water in a packed tower to recover 95% of the acetone. Airflow rate
is 1400 m3/h at 20ºC and 1 atmosphere. The water rate is 3000 kg/h. The
equilibrium relation is Ye = 1.68 X, where Ye and X are mole fractions of
acetone in vapour and liquid respectively. The flooding velocity is 1.56
metre per second and the operating velocity is 25% of the flooding velocity.
The interfacial area of the packing is 204 m2/m3 of packing and the overall
mass transfer coefficient Ky is 0.40 kmol/h m2 mole fraction. Estimate the
diameter and packed height of the tower operating at 1 atmosphere.
14. CO2 evolved during the production of ethanol by fermentation contains
1 mole ratio of alcohol. It is proposed to remove alcohol by absorption in
water at 40ºC. The water contains 0.0001-mole ratio of alcohol. 500 moles/hr
of gas is to be processed. Equilibrium data is given by y = 1.05x, where x
and y are mole fractions. Calculate the water rate for 98% absorption of
alcohol by using 1.5 times the minimum liquid rate and determine the
number of plates.
15. A gas stream containing a valuable hydrocarbon (molecular weight = 44)
and air is to be scrubbed with a non-volatile oil (molecular weight = 300)
in a tower placed with 2.54 cm Raschig rings. The entering gas analyses 10
mole % hydrocarbon and 95% of this hydrocarbon is to be recovered. The
gas stream enters the bottom of the column at 2270 kg/h and the
hydrocarbon free oil used is 1.5 times the minimum. Find NtoG for this
operation. The equilibrium data is as follows:
X 0 0.1 0.2 0.3 0.4 0.458
Y 0 0.01 0.02 0.06 0.118 0.2
where X and Y are mole ratios. (ii) If the flow rate of liquid is 4600 kg/h,
estimate the number of transfer units needed and the solute concentration in
mole fraction in leaving liquid?
(Ans: (ii) 4, 0.322)
16. A soluble gas is absorbed in water using a packed tower. The equilibrium
relationship may be taken as y = 0.06x.
Terminal conditions
Top Bottom
x 0 0.08
y 0.001 0.009
(x, y: Mole fraction of solute in liquid and vapour phase respectively)

If the individual height of transfer units based on liquid and gas phase
respectively are Hx = 0.24 m and Hy = 0.36 m, (i) what is the value of
(HTU)OG and (ii) what is the height of packed section?
(Ans: (i) 0.511 m and (ii) 1.833 m)
17. An air–NH3 mixture containing 20-mole % NH3 is being treated with water
in a packed tower to recover NH3. The incoming gas rate is 1000 kg/h m2.
The temperature is 35ºC and the total pressure is 1 atm. The water flow rate
is 3000 kg/h m2. 95% of incoming NH3 is to be absorbed. If all the operating
conditions remain unchanged, how much taller should the tower be to
absorb 99% of NH3? Henry’s law is valid and Henry’s constant is 0.746.
Variations in gas flow rates may be neglected.
(Ans: 58.15%)
9
DISTILLATION
9.1 INTRODUCTION
The method of separating the components from a solution depending on its
distribution between a liquid phase and vapour phase is termed distillation. This is
applied to mixtures which distribute in both the phases.
This can also be defined as an operation in which a liquid or vapour mixture
of two or more components is separated into its component fractions of desired
purity, by the application of heat. Thus, in this process, a vapour is obtained from
a boiling mixture which will be richer in components that have lower boiling
points.
9.2 VAPOUR LIQUID EQUILIBRIA (VLE)

The vapour liquid equilibrium data is the basis for design of distillation operation
equipments.
9.2.1 Constant Pressure Equilibria

A typical VLE at constant pressure is shown in Fig. 9.1.
The upper curve is the dew point curve which provides the relationship
between temperature and mole fraction of the more volatile component in
vapour phase (y) and the lower curve is the bubble point curve which gives the
relationship between the temperature and mole fraction of the more volatile
component in liquid phase (x) at a particular pressure. The horizontal tie lines CD,
EF and GH at different temperatures provide equilibrium compositions of liquid
and vapour phase at each temperature. Any mixture lying on the lower (bubble
point) curve will be a saturated liquid and the mixture lying on the upper (dew
point) curve will be a saturated vapour. A mixture located in between the two
237
Fig. 9.1 VLE diagram at constant pressure.
curves, say K, will be a two-phase mixture of liquid and vapour with compositions
C and D in liquid phase and vapour phase respectively. Their relative amounts are
given by
moles of C Length of line KD

=
moles of D Length of line KC
Consider a mixture at point M. It is only a liquid. If it is kept inside a cylinder

fitted with a frictionless piston and heated, its temperature will increase till
it reaches ‘E’ when it will become a saturated liquid. The vapour in equilibrium
with it will have a composition of F. As heating is further continued, more
vapourization takes place, the liquid phase composition will move towards G and
the associated vapour will have a composition of H. The effective composition of
the entire mass comprising both liquid and vapour continues to remain at M.
Finally, when the last droplet of liquid as indicated at point ‘I’ is vapourized, the
vapour generated would have a composition of ‘J’. Further application of heat
results in superheating of the vapour. During the entire operation, the pressure is
kept constant.
9.2.2 Effect of Pressure

As pressure is increased, the boiling points of components increase and the looped
curves become more and more narrow. As the critical pressure is exceeded for one
of the components, there is no longer a distinction between vapour and liquid
for that component, and for mixtures the looped curves are, therefore, shorter
as depicted in Fig. 9.2, for case (C). Distillation is possible only in the region
where a looped curve exists. It is also clear that relative volatility, a, also changes
in such cases.
Distillation 239
Fig. 9.2 Effect of pressure on VLE.
9.2.3 Constant Temperature Equilibria

A typical VLE at constant temperature is shown in Fig. 9.3.
Fig. 9.3 VLE at constant temperature.
As in the case of constant temperature equilibria, lines CD, EF and GH are tie
lines indicating the equilibrium compositions of liquid and vapour phase at various
pressures. A liquid defined at point M is a liquid below its bubble point and as the
pressure is reduced at constant temperature, at point ‘N’ on the upper (bubble
point) curve, a saturated liquid is obtained. As the pressure is brought down further,
at point Q on the lower (dew point) curve, a saturated vapour forms and a further
reduction in pressure gives a fully superheated vapour as defined by R.
9.3 RELATIVE VOLATILITY (a )

This is defined as the ratio of vapour pressure of more volatile component to that
of less volatile component. If PA and PB are the vapour pressures of A and B
respectively, the relative volatility of A with respect to B, aAB is defined as the ratio
of vapour pressure of A to that of B.
PA
i.e. aAB =
PB
(9.1)
Raoult’s law states that when a gas and a liquid are in equilibrium, the partial
pressure of A, pA is equal to the product of its vapour pressure, PA at that
temperature and its mole fraction xA in the liquid.
i.e. pA = PA × xA (9.2)
Similarly, pB = PB× xB (9.3)
When the gas and liquid behave ideally, Raoult’s law holds good.
We know that sum of the partial pressures of components in a gas mixture is
equal to the total pressure, PT. The composition of a component y, in gas phase is
given by Dalton’s law,
pA pB
yA and yB (9.4)
PT PT
È pA Ø È PT y A Ø È yA Ø
PA ÉÊ x ÙÚ ÉÊ x ÙÚ ÉÊ y ÙÚ
\ B AB A A B
PB È pB Ø È PT yB Ø È xA Ø
ÉÊ x ÙÚ ÉÊ x ÙÚ ÉÊ x ÙÚ
B B B
È yA Ø
ÉÊ 1 y ÙÚ
B AB A
È xA Ø (9.5)
ÉÊ 1 x ÙÚ
A
Rearranging, we get
B AB x A
yA (9.6)
1 x A (B AB 1)
and more simply as
Bx
y= (9.7)
1 x (B 1)
9.4 COMPUTATION OF VLE DATA

(EQUILIBRIUM DATA)
The vapour pressure of the components involved is the basis for the computation
of VLE data.
Distillation 241
From Eqs. (9.2) and (9.3), pA = xA PA

pB = xB PB = (1 – xA) PB (9.8)
For a binary system,
pA + pB = PT = xA PA + (1 – xA) PB = PB + xA (PA – PB) (9.9)
( PT PB )
\ xA
( PA PB ) (9.10)
From the vapour pressure data at each temperature, xA can be computed using
Eq. (9.10). After computing xA, the partial pressure pA can be estimated by
using Eq. (9.2). The mole fraction of A in gas phase, yA is then determined by using
Eq. (9.4). Thus, for the whole range of boiling points of components involved, the
VLE data can be computed.
Whenever a lies in a narrow range, y can be computed by assuming various
values of x using Eq. (9.7).
9.5 DEVIATION FROM IDEALITY

A mixture whose total pressure is either greater or lesser than that computed using
Raoult’s law is said to exhibit either a positive deviation or a negative deviation
from ideality.
9.5.1 Positive Deviation from Ideality

When the total pressure of a mixture is greater than that for ideal mixtures
computed using Raoult’s law, the mixture is said to exhibit positive deviations
from ideality and such mixtures are called minimum boiling azeotropes, i.e. at
some composition the mixture shows minimum boiling point (at constant pressure)
and maximum pressure (at constant temperature) as shown in Figs. 9.4 and 9.5.
A typical x-y diagram is also shown in Fig. 9.6. Most of the azeotropic mixtures
fall under this category.
Fig. 9.4 Minimum boiling azeotrope at constant temperature.

Fig. 9.5 Minimum boiling azeotrope at constant pressure.
Fig. 9.6 VLE of minimum boiling azeotrope.
9.5.2 Negative Deviations from Ideality

When the total pressure of a system is less than the ideal value as computed using
Raoult’s law, the system is said to deviate negatively. Such systems are very rare
and they are also called maximum boiling azeotropes, i.e. at some composition the
mixture shows maximum boiling point. Typical P–x–y, T–x–y and x–y diagrams
are shown in Figs. 9.7, 9.8 and 9.9.
9.6 TYPES OF DISTILLATION COLUMNS

Based on the nature of operation, distillation columns have been classified as batch
and continuous columns as shown in Fig. 9.10.
9.6.1 Batch Columns

In batch columns, the feed to the column is introduced batchwise and the
distillation is carried. When the desired quality is reached or when the desired
quantity is distilled out, the operation is stopped and next batch of feed is
introduced.
Distillation 243
Fig. 9.7 Maximum boiling azeotrope at constant temperature.
Fig. 9.8 Maximum boiling azeotrope at constant pressure.
Fig. 9.9 VLE of maximum boiling azeotrope.

9.6.2 Continuous Columns

These columns have a continuous feed stream and are capable of handling high
throughputs. These are further classified on the basis of,
· The nature of the feed they are further processing
¨ Binary columns—Feed has only two components
¨ Multicomponent column—Feed has more than two components
· The number of product streams they have
¨ Two product streams
¨ Multi product streams
· The use of additional components in distillation
¨ Extractive distillation—use of solvent
¨ Azeotropic distillation—use of entrainer
· The type of columns:
¨ Tray columns—use of sieve plate columns/Bubble cap trays/Valve
trays for better vapour–liquid contacting
¨ Packed towers—use of packings in columns for better vapour—liquid
contacting.
Fig. 9.10 Types of distillation and equipments.
9.7 STEAM DISTILLATION

Some systems have very high boiling points and some of these substances are
unstable at high temperatures. Especially when such systems are completely
insoluble with each other, steam distillation can be a useful method of separating
such mixtures.
Distillation 245
For example, consider a mixture of hydrocarbon and water which are

immiscible. The vapour pressure of either component cannot be influenced by the
presence of the other component and each exerts its own vapour pressure at the
prevailing temperature. When the sum of the vapour pressures is equal to the total
pressure, the mixture boils. With vapour pressure data of the individual
components, one can also estimate the temperature at which such distillations take
place.
PT = PA + PB (9.11)
It is clear from Fig. 9.11, that this type of distillation takes place at a
temperature which will be even less than that of the boiling point water. This
method suffers from poor efficiency in its operation, as large quantity of water has
to be evaporated. However, one can introduce the effectiveness in such operations
by
· Operating at different total pressures in which case the ratio of vapour
pressure of the substances may be more favourable.
· Sparging the mixture with superheated steam or other insoluble gas.
Fig. 9.11 Steam distillation.
9.8 DIFFERENTIAL OR SIMPLE DISTILLATION

Consider a feed F containing xF mole fraction of more volatile component fed into
a batch still as shown in Fig. 9.12. Let L be the total moles present in the still at
any instant, t and x be the mole fraction of more volatile component. Let dL be the
moles distilled out. The concentration of vapour in the leaving stream is y*. The
moles left behind in the still is (L – dL). During this process the concentration of
more volatile component left behind in the still is (x – dx).
Total moles of more volatile component present initially is Lx
Total moles of more volatile component in distillate is y*dL
Total moles of more volatile component in residue is (L – dL) (x – dx)
Fig. 9.12 Differential distillation.
Making a component balance, we get

Lx = y* dL + (L – dL) (x – dx) 0 (9.12)
Lx = y* dL + Lx – Ldx – x×dL + dx dL (9.13)
(Q Product of two very small quantities)
Then, dL(y* – x) = Ldx (9.14)
dL dx
\ L ( y * x) (9.15)
Integrating between limits x = xF L=F

x = xW L=W
F XF
dL dx
\ Ô L Ô ( y * x) (9.16)
W XW
XF
F dx
ln
W Ô ( y * x)
XW
(9.17)
Equation (9.17) is called Rayleigh’s equation.

The right-hand side cannot be integrated as y* is a function of x.
Hence, the right-hand side of Eq. (9.17) can be evaluated either graphically or
numerically with the help of x-y or VLE data.
For systems where the relative volatility lies in a narrow range, we can use
Eq. (9.7) which states that
Bx
y
[1 (B 1) x ]
Distillation 247
Hence, replacing y in terms of Eq. (9.7), we get
Ë Û
xF Ì Ü
F Ì dx Ü
ln
W Ô Ì
xw Ì
Bx Ü
xÜ
(9.18)
ÌÍ ËÍ1 B 1 x ÛÝ ÜÝ
Ë Û
Ì Ü
Ì dx Ü
RHS of Eq. (9.18) = Ô Ì Bx Ü
xÜ
(9.19)
Ì
ÌÍ ËÍ1 B 1 x ÛÝ ÜÝ
On simplification,
[1 (B 1) x ]dx [1 B 1 x ]dx
Ô [B x x B x 2
x ] 2 Ô x[B 1 B x x ]
[1 (B 1) x ]dx [1 (B 1) x ]dx
Ô x[1(B 1) x(B 1)] Ô [ x(1 x )(B 1)]
dx dx 1 ËÈ A Ø È B Ø Û
Ô [ x(1 x )(B 1)] Ô (1 x ) Ô
(B 1) ÌÍ ÊÉ x ÚÙ ÊÉ 1 x ÚÙ ÜÝ
dx ln (1 x )
1 A(1 x ) B( x )
(B 1) Ô x (1 x )
dx ln(1 x )
1 Ë dx dx Û
Ô
(B 1) ÌÍ x
Ô (1 x ) ÜÝ ln (1 x )
Substituting the limits for x as xF and xW, we get
1
Ëln x ln(1 x ) ÝÛ ln 1 x
(B 1) Í
1 Ë È xF Ø (1 x F ) Û (1 x F )
Ì ln ln
(1 xW ) ÜÝ
ln É Ù
(B 1) Í Ê xW Ú (1 xW )
ÈFØ 1 Ë È xF Ø È (1 x F ) Ø Û (1 x F )
ln É ln
(B 1) ÌÍ ÉÊ xW ÙÚ Ê (1 xW ) ÙÚ ÜÝ
i.e. ln É Ù ln
ÊW Ú (1 xW )
Ë xF Û
ÈFØ È 1 x F Ø 1 Ì x Ü
ln É Ù ln É Ù ln Ì W
Ü
ÊW Ú Ê 1 xW Ú (B 1) Ì (1 x F ) Ü
ÌÍ (1 xW ) ÝÜ
F (1 x F ) 1 Î Ë x F Û Ë (1 xW ) Û Þ
(B 1) ÏÐ ÌÍ (1 x F ) ÜÝ ÌÍ xW ÜÝ ßà
ln ln
W (1 xW )
F (1 x F ) Î Ë x F Û Ë (1 xW ) Û Þ
(B 1) ln ln Ï Ì ÜÌ Üß
W (1 xW ) Ð Í (1 x F ) Ý Í xW Ý à
Ë xF Û
F (1 x F ) Ì x Ü Ë F 1 xF Û
B ln ln Ì W
Ü ln Ì Ü
W (1 xW ) Ì (1 x F ) Ü ÍÌ W 1 xW ÝÜ
ÌÍ (1 xW ) ÜÝ
F (1 x F ) Û
B ln ËÌ Ü
È x ØÈ FØ
ln É F Ù É Ù
Í (1 xW ) Ý
W Ê xW Ú Ê W Ú
F (1 x F ) Û
B ln ËÌ È Fx F Ø
ln É
Í W (1 xW ) Ý
Ü Ê WxW ÙÚ
B
Fx F Ë F (1 x F ) Û
i.e. WxW Ì W (1 x ) Ü (9.20)
Í W Ý
Equation (9.20) is very useful in the estimation of the amount of residue

(alternatively, the estimation of the quantity to be distilled) in case of systems of
constant relative volatility. This is also used in the estimation of relative volatility
for such systems.
9.9 EQUILIBRIUM OR FLASH DISTILLATION

Consider a feed at a flow rate of F (moles per hour), containing the more volatile
component with a composition of ZF and an enthalpy of HF (per mole of feed)
entering a preheater. Let the heat added in the preheater be Q. The mixture then
enters a flash chamber where a distillate leaves at a rate of D (moles per hour) with
a composition of yD and an enthalpy of HD (per mole of distillate). The bottoms
(residue) leave at a rate of W, with a composition of xW and an enthalpy of HW (per
mole of residue). The entire process is shown in Fig. 9.13
Fig. 9.13 Flash distillation.

Distillation 249
A total material balance, gives,

F=W+D (9.21)
A component balance gives,
FZF = WxW + DyD (9.22)
An enthalpy balance gives,
FHF + Q = WHW + DHD
È QØ
i.e. F É HF Ù WHW DH D (9.23)
Ê FÚ
From Eqs. (9.21) and (9.22), we get

(W + D)ZF = WxW + DyD (9.24)
\ W [ZF – xW] = –D[ZF – yD] (9.25)
W ( Z F yD )
\ (9.26)
D ( Z F xW )
Similarly from Eqs. (9.21) and (9.23), we get
ËÈ QØ Û
Ì ÉÊ H F F ÙÚ H D Ü

W Í Ý
D ËÈ QØ Û (9.27)
Ì ÉÊ H F F ÙÚ HW Ü
Í Ý
Dividing Eq. (9.25) by F, we get
W D
( Z xW ) ( Z yD ) (9.28)
F F F F
Let f be the fraction of feed vaporised and subsequently condensed and removed.
Hence, (1 – f) is the fraction of feed left behind as residue.
\ (1 – f) (ZF – xW) = f (yD – ZF) (9.29)
ZF – xW – fZF + f xW = fyD – fZF
\ ZF – xW = f (yD – xW)
ZF + xW (f – 1) = fyD
ZF ( f 1)
\ yD = xW (9.30)
f f
So Eq. (9.30) can be called an operating line drawn with a slope of [( f – 1)/f] and
simplified as,
È ZF Ø È f 1Ø
y ÉÊ f ÙÚ x ÉÊ f ÙÚ (9.31)
The feed point is x = y = ZF

Having seen the principles involved in flash distillation, let us now see how
compositions are estimated in a flash distillation operation.
9.9.1 Steps
There are two methods available to estimate the composition of products. They are
explained in detail below.
Case I
When the equilibrium data and the quantity of either the distillate or the residue
and feed are available, the following procedure shall be adopted:
· Draw the equilibrium curve
· Draw the diagonal (x = y line)
· Locate feed point corresponding to xF on the diagonal (xF = yF = ZF)
Ë WÛ
· Draw the operating line with a slope of Ì Ü
Í DÝ
· The intersection of this line with equilibrium curve gives xW and yD as
shown in Fig. 9.14.
Case II
When the enthalpy–concentration data (HL vs x and HG vs y) and heat added
Q are available, the following procedure shall be adopted.
· Plot the enthalpy concentration data and also equilibrium curve below it.
· Locate the feed point corresponding to F (ZF, HF + Q/F)
· Draw a line by trial and error, passing through F such that it will be a tie
line.
· The points of intersection of this line (drawn by trial and error) with
enthalpy–concentration curves gives the enthalpy and concentration of
both the distillate and the residue.
Figures (9.14) and (9.15) represent the procedures followed to determine the
product concentrations for case I and case II respectively.
Fig. 9.14 Estimation of composition of products in flash distillation.

Distillation 251
Fig. 9.15 Enthalpy–concentration diagram.
9.10 MULTICOMPONENT SIMPLE DISTILLATION

Let us consider a multicomponent mixture fed to a still. The distillate and the
residue left behind will also be multicomponent mixtures. For our analysis, let us
consider a three-component system wherein a remains fairly constant. Modified
Rayleigh’s equation can be applied for material balance,
B AB
Ë Fx F , A Û Ë FxF , B Û
ln Ì Ü ln Ì Ü (9.32)
Í WxW , A Ý Í WxW , B Ý
B AC
Ë Fx F , A Û Ë Fx F ,C Û
ln Ì Ü ln Ì Ü (9.33)
Í WxW , A Ý Í WxW ,C Ý
B BC
Ë Fx F , B Û Ë Fx F ,C Û
Similarly, ln Ì Ü ln Ì Ü (9.34)
Í WxW , B Ý Í WxW ,C Ý
Here, BPA < BPB < BPC, where BP is the boiling point. We also know that
xWA + xWB + xWC = 1.0 (9.35)
In a typical feed mixture, the values of F, xFA, xFB and xFC are known. The
unknown quantities will be W, D, xWA, xWB and xWC. To solve such problems one
has to assume W. By substituting in the first three equations, a relationship between

xWA, xWB and xWC is obtained. Then it can be solved and checked for the validity
of assumed value of W using Eq. (9.35). If Eq. (9.35) is satisfied, the assumed
value of W is correct. If not, a new value for W is assumed and the above
calculations are repeated till Eq. (9.35) is satisfied.
Subsequently using the total material balance equation, D can be calculated
and then the mole fraction of each component in the distillate phase (vapour phase)
can be evaluated by making a component balance.
However, in cases where a varies significantly, the Rayleigh’s equation of the
x
F
F dx
form ln
W Ô
xW
y x
has to be used taking two components at a time. Here also
one has to assume W and suitably estimate xW. The values of xW will have to be
determined for all the components and finally checked using Eq. (9.35). If
Eq. (9.35) is not satisfied, one has to make a fresh assumption of W and has to
proceed till Eq. (9.35) is satisfied.
9.11 MULTICOMPONENT FLASH DISTILLATION

At low pressures almost all systems behave ideally. As flash distillation occurs
generally at low pressures, ideal behaviour can be expected and Raoult’s law is
applicable. Hence, the equilibrium relationship for any component may be
expressed as
yi = mi xi (9.36)
where mi = vapour pressure of component/total pressure. The suffix i denotes the
component.
i.e. yi,D = mi (xi,W) (9.37)
W ( yD Z F )
We know that [from Eq. (9.26)]
D ( xW Z F )
W ( yi, D Zi , F )
\ (9.38)
D ( Z i, F xi,W )
ËÍ yi, D Zi,F ÛÝ
(9.39)
Ë yi, D Û
Ì Z i, F m Ü
Í i Ý
W Ë yi, D Û
or
D Ì Z i, F m Ü [ yi, D Z i,F ] (9.40)
Í i Ý
ËW Û Ë È 1 Ø ÈW ØÛ
i.e Z i, F Ì 1 Ü yi , D Ì1 É Ù É Ù Ü (9.41)
Í D Ý Í Ê mi Ú Ê D Ú Ý
Distillation 253
ËW Û
Ì D 1Ü
yi ,D Z i, F Í Ý
\ Ë È 1 Ø ÈW ØÛ (9.42)
Ì1 É m Ù ÉÊ D ÙÚ Ü
Í Ê iÚ Ý
ËW Û
Ì D 1Ü
xi,W Z i, F Í Ý
and Ë W Û (9.43)
Ì mi D Ü
Í Ý
yi, D is evaluated using Eq. (9.42) and xi,W is evaluated using Eq. (9.43) by assuming
(W/D) value and finally checked for its validity by using
Sxi, W = 1.0; Syi, D = 1.0
9.11.1 Steps Involved

· From vapour pressure, determine m for each component.
· Assume W/D value and determine xi,W and yi,D
· Check whether Sxi, W and Syi, D are 1.0.
· If they are 1.0, then the assumed W/D ratio is correct.
· If not, assume a new value for W/D and ensure that Sxi, W = 1.0;
Syi,D = 1.0 are satisfied.
9.12 CONTINUOUS RECTIFICATION

A schematic sketch of a typical distillation column with a feed stream and a
distillate and residue stream is shown in Fig. 9.16 along with its main accessories.
9.12.1 Ponchon–Savarit Method

There are two methods by which the design of the continuous fractionator can be
established. Let us first consider Ponchon–Savarit method where it requires both
enthalpy and concentration data.
Envelope I: Condenser section
Envelope II: Full distillation unit
Envelope III: Enriching/Rectifying section
Envelope IV: Stripping/Exhausting section
The numbering of plates or trays is accounted from the top to bottom. Suffix
denotes the properties of streams leaving a particular plate or tray. Let n and m,
denote general plates in the enriching section and stripping section respectively.
Let G be the molar flow rate of vapour in enriching section, G the molar flow
rate of vapour in stripping section, L the molar flow rate of liquid in enriching
Fig. 9.16 Continuous fractionator.
section, L the molar flow rate of liquid in stripping section, HG the Enthalpy of
vapour, HL the Enthalpy of liquid, y the mole fraction of more volatile component
in vapour and x the mole fraction of more volatile component in liquid.
Let R be the external reflux ratio L0/D, QC the load on condenser, QB the heat
supplied in reboiler and QL the total heat loss.
Distillation 255
Considering envelope I and making a mass balance,

G1 = D + L0 (9.44)
G1 = D + RD = D(R + 1) (9.45)
A component balance gives
G1y1 = DZD + L0x0 (9.46)
Making an energy balance, we get
G1HG1 = L0HL0 + DHD + QC (9.47)
\ QC = G1HG1 – L0HL0 – DHD (9.48)
Substituting for G1 from Eq. (9.45), we get
QC = [D(R + 1) HG1] – RDHL0 – DHD
= D[(R + 1)HG1 – RHL0 – HD] (9.49)
Considering envelope II and making an energy balance, we have
Heat in = Heat out
QB + FHF = DHD + WHW + QC + QL (9.50)
\ Heat added in reboiler QB = DHD + WHW + QC + QL – FHF (9.51)
Now, let us consider envelope III, the enriching section and make mass and energy
balance.
A total mass balance yields,
Gn+1 = Ln + D (9.52)
Gn+1 yn+1 = Lnxn + DZD (9.53)
An energy balance gives,
Gn+1HGn + 1 = Ln×HLn + DHD + QC (9.54)
Ë (Q DH D ) Û
Let Q¢ = (Net heat out/Net moles out) = Ì C Ü (9.55)
Í D Ý
Then, Eq. (9.54) becomes
Gn+1 HGn+1 = Ln×HLn + DQ¢ (9.56)
Eliminating D from Eq. (9.53) using Eq. (9.52), we get
(Gn+1)(yn+1) – Lnxn = (Gn+1 – Ln)ZD (9.57)
(Gn+1)[ZD – yn+1] = Ln(ZD – xn)
Ln ( Z D yn 1 )
(9.58)
Gn 1 (Z D xn )
where (Ln/Gn + 1) is defined as internal reflux ratio.
Similarly, Eqs. (9.52) and (9.56) yield
Ln (Q HGn 1 )
Gn 1 (Q H Ln ) (9.59)
Equating Eq. (9.58) with Eq. (9.59), we get
Ln ( Z D yn 1 ) (Q HGn 1 )
Gn 1 ( Z D xn ) (Q H L n ) (9.60)
Equation (9.60) represents a straight line passing through

(HGn+1, yn+1) at Gn+1, (HLn, xn) at Ln and (Q¢, ZD) at DD
where DD is called the difference point and it represents
Q¢: Net heat, out/Net moles, out and
ZD: Net moles of more volatile component, out/Net moles, out
Let us consider Eq. (9.59).
Ln (Q HGn 1 )
Gn 1 (Q H Ln )
Substituting for Gn+1 in the above expression from Eq. (9.52), we have
Ln (Q HGn 1 )
( Ln D ) (Q H Ln ) (9.61)
( Ln D ) (Q H Ln )
i.e. Ln (Q HGn 1 )
ËDÛ (Q H Ln )
i.e. 1 Ì Ü
Í Ln Ý (Q HGn 1 )
D ( HGn 1 H Ln )
\ Ln (Q HGn 1 ) (9.62)
Ln (Q HGn 1 )
\ D ( HGn 1 H Ln ) (9.63)
When n = 0, it indicates the condenser and for n = 0, we get
L0 (Q HG1 )
D HG1 H L0 (9.64)
L0 Length of line ' DG1

i.e. R, the external reflux ratio = (9.65)
D Length of line G1L0
as indicated in Fig. 9.17(a).
Distillation 257
Hence, if the reflux ratio R is known, then it will be easy for us to locate DD point
(ZD, Q¢).
Ln ( Z D yn 1 )
Also, [from Eq. (9.58)]
D ( yn 1 x n )
Let us consider envelope IV in the stripping section.
A mass balance yields
\ Lm Gm 1 + W (9.66)
A component balance yields
Lm x m Gm 1 ym 1 WxW (9.67)
\ Lm xm – Gm 1 ym + 1 = WxW (9.68)
An energy balance yields
Lm × HLm + QB = Gm 1 HGm + 1 + WHW (9.69)
(WHW QB )
Let Q (9.70)
W
\ Lm × HLm – Gm 1 HGm+1 = WQ¢¢ (9.71)
Eliminating W from Eqs. (9.66) and (9.68), we get
Lm ( ym 1 xW )
(9.72)
Gm 1 ( x m xW )
Similarly eliminating W from Eqs. (9.66) and (9.71), we have
Lm ( HGm 1 Q )
Gm 1 ( H Lm Q ) (9.73)
Hence from Eqs. (9.72) and (9.73), we get
Lm ( ym 1 xW ) ( HGm 1 Q )
Gm 1 ( x m xW ) ( H Lm Q ) (9.74)
From Eq. (9.66), we have
Lm È W Ø
1É
Gm 1 Ê Gm 1 ÙÚ
Hence, rearrangement of Eq. (9.74) using Eq. (9.66) gives
W ( ym 1 xW )
Gm 1 ( x m xW ) (9.75)
Lm ( HGm 1 Q ) ym 1 xW
\ W ( HGm 1 H Lm ) ( ym 1 x m ) (9.76)
Equation (9.76) represents a line passing through (xW, Q¢¢), (xm, HLm) and (ym+1,
HGm+1) where Q¢¢ represents net heat out /Net moles out and xW denotes moles of
A out/net moles out. Now let us consider the fractionator as single unit and make
mass and energy balances;
Total mass balance gives
F=D+W (9.77)
FZF = DyD + WxW (9.78)
An enthalpy balance gives
F × HF = (DQ¢ + WQ¢¢) (9.79)
(Neglecting QL, the heat loss)
Eliminating F from Eqs. (9.77), (9.78) and (9.79) we get
D ( Z F xW ) ( H F Q )
W (ZD ZF ) (Q H F ) (9.80)
Equation (9.80) represents a line passing through (ZD, Q¢), (ZF, HF) and (xW, Q¢¢)
In other words,
F = DD + DW (9.81)
The schematic representation of enthalpy concentration and distribution diagrams
for determination of number of stages for a total condensation of distillate vapour
is shown in Fig. 9.17(a).
Steps involved
1. Draw H vs x, y diagram and the equilibrium curve.
2. Locate zD, yD and xW in both the diagrams and draw vertical lines from zD
in positive y-axis direction and from xW in the negative y-axis direction.
3. Locate F(xF, HF) in the H–x, y diagram.
(Q H G )
4. Obtain Q¢ using the given reflux ratio, R 1
( HG H L )
1 0
where HG1, HL0 indicate the enthalpy of vapour and liquid correspond to
the distillate composition for a total condensation.
5. In cases where the reflux ratio is not given, an optimum reflux ranging
from 1.5 to 2 times the minimum reflux can be chosen.
6. To determine the minimum reflux, several lines can be drawn through the
feed point F in the entire range of x and projected downwards from both
H vs x and H vs y curves to the x-y diagram as shown in Fig. 9.17(b) and
one such horizontal line in x-y diagram will be a tie line. This line is
extended to cut the vertical line drawn at zD and this intersection point
corresponds to the value of Q¢ at minimum reflux and the value of
R estimated is Rmin.
Distillation 259
Fig. 9.17(a) Determination of number of stages by Ponchon–Savarit method.

Fig. 9.17(b) Determination of minimum reflux in Ponchon–Savarit method.

Distillation 261
7. Locate DD (yD, Q¢) using the HG1, HL0 and reflux ratio.
8. Join DD with F and project it to cut the vertical line at xW and that point
is DW.
9. Draw arbitrarily several lines both from DD and DW to cut both the curves.
The values taken from H vs y give y¢ and the line from H vs x gives x¢.
For each line drawn we will have a set of x¢ and y¢ values with which we
can construct the operating line in the distribution diagram for both
enriching and stripping sections.
10. Draw the equilibrium curve and plot x¢, y¢ data obtained from step (9).
11. By stepwise construction starting from point D, between the equilibrium
curve and operating line up to W, the number of stages for the desired
separation is determined.
9.12.2 McCabe–Thiele Method

When systems exhibit ideal behaviour, the time-consuming Ponchon–Savarit
method of determining the number of ideal stages, can be replaced with the
following technique. Let us begin our analysis by considering enriching section for
total condensation of distillate as shown in Fig. 9.18.
Fig. 9.18 Enriching section of a fractionator.

Assuming the application of equimolar counter diffusion, i.e. the molar flow
rates are assumed to be constant for both the vapour and liquid steams irrespective
of the stages, we get
G1 G2 Gn+1 G
A total material balance gives
G=L+D (9.82)
Let the external reflux ratio R be given by
L0 L
R
D D
then, G = DR + D = D(R + 1) (9.83)
A component balance for A in enriching section gives
Gyn+1 = Lxn + DyD (9.84)
ËLÛ ËDÛ
i.e. yn 1 Ì G Ü xn Ì G Ü x D (9.85)
Í Ý Í Ý
ÈLØ
L L ÉÊ D ÙÚ R
G LD È L Ø È DØ R 1 (9.86)
ÉÊ D ÙÚ ÉÊ D ÙÚ
D D 1
(9.87)
G LD R 1
Ë R Û Ë 1 Û
\ y n 1 Ì R 1 Ü xn Ì R 1 Ü x D (9.88)
Í Ý Í Ý
Equation (9.88) represents the operating line for enriching section, which has a
Ë R Û Ë xD Û
slope of Ì Ü and an intercept of Ì Ü . If xn = xD, then substituting in
Í R 1Ý Í R 1Ý
Eq. (9.88), we get
È 1 Ø
y n 1 ÉÊ R 1 ÙÚ ( Rx D x D ) yD (9.89)
i.e. when xn = xD, yn+1 = xD.

Hence, this line passes through x = y = xD, i.e. it lies on the diagonal. This
Ë xD Û
point on the diagonal and the y-intercept Ì R 1 Ü permit us the construction of
Í Ý
operating line for enriching section.
Let us consider the stripping section as shown in Fig. 9.19.
Distillation 263
Fig. 9.19 Stripping section.
Material balance gives
L G W (9.90)
A component balance for A gives,
Lx m Gym 1 WxW (9.91)
ÈLØ ÈW Ø
\ y m 1 ÉÊ G ÙÚ x m ÉÊ G ÙÚ xW (9.92)
È L Ø È W Ø
i.e. y m 1 ÉÊ L W ÙÚ x m ÉÊ L W ÙÚ xW (9.93)
Equation (9.93) describes the operating line for stripping section. The operating
È L Ø È W Ø
and an intercept of – É
Ê L W ÙÚ
line has a slope of É Ù .
ÊL WÚ
Let us assume that xm = xW (Reboiler)
È L Ø È W Ø
\ ym 1 ÉÊ L W ÙÚ xW ÉÊ L W ÙÚ xW xW (9.94)
i.e. xm = ym + 1 = xW
Hence, the operating line passes through the point x = y = xW (i.e. it lies on the
diagonal). Having seen the analysis of enriching section and stripping section
separately, let us analyze the feed plate, f, shown in Fig. 9.20.
Fig. 9.20 Feed plate section.
A mass balance on feed plate gives
F+L+ G =G+ L (9.95)
(L L ) (G G ) F (9.96)
i.e. (L L) (G G ) F (9.97)
Enthalpy balance on feed plate gives
F ¹ H F L ¹ H L f 1 G ¹ HG f 1 G ¹ HG f L ¹ H L f (9.98)
As an approximation, HG f » HGf +1 = HG and HL f–1 = HL f = HL (9.99)
\ (L L)H L (G G) H G FH F (9.100)
(L L) (G G)
i.e. HL HG H F (9.101)
F F
Substituting for ( L L ) from Eq. (9.97) we get
Ë (G G ) F Û (G G )
Ì Ü HL HG H F (9.102)
Í F Ý F
(G G) (G G )
i.e. HL HL HG H F (9.103)
F F
(G G)
( H L HG ) ( HF H L ) (9.104)
F
Ë (G G ) Û (HF H L )
Ì Ü ( H L HG ) (9.105)
Í F Ý
Substituting for (G G ) from Eq. (9.97), we get
(L L) F (HF H L )
F ( H L HG ) (9.106)
Distillation 265
(L L) (HF HL )
i.e. 1 (9.107)
F ( H L HG )
( HG H F )
( HG H L ) (9.108)
( HG H F )
Let us now define as q, where q is the quantity of heat required to
( HG H L )
convert one mole of feed at its thermal condition to a saturated vapour, to the molal
latent heat of vaporization.
(L L) ( HG H F )
\ q
F ( HG H L ) (9.109)
(G G ) (L L)
Similarly, 1 (q 1) (9.110)
F F
i.e. (G G) F (q 1) (9.111)
A solute balance above feed plate gives
Gy Lx Dx D (9.112)
A solute balance below feed plate gives
Gy Lx WxW (9.113)
Subtracting Eq. (9.112) from Eq. (9.113), we have
(G G) y ( L L ) x ( Dx D WxW ) (9.114)
Total component balance for the distillation column gives
FZF = DxD + WxW (9.115)
Substituting Eqs. (9.109), (9.111) and (9.115) in Eq. (9.114), we get
F (q 1) y Fq ¹ x FZ F
q ZF
\ y x (9.116)
(q 1) (q 1)
Equation (9.116) is the equation for feed line. It has a slope of q/q – 1 and passes
through y = x = ZF.
The various values of slope obtained under different thermal conditions of feed
are given below and shown in Fig. 9.21.
Fig. 9.21 Feed line for different thermal conditions of feed.

Feed condition GF LF HGF H LF Enthalpy of Ë ( HG H F ) Û q

feed, HF
q Ì (H H ) Ü q 1
Í G L Ý
Liquid below 0 F – HF HF < HL > 1.0 >1.0

boiling point
Saturated liquid 0 F – HF HF = HL 1.0 ∞

Liquid + vapour GF LF HG* HL *
HG* > HF > HL *
1.0 to 0 LF
LF F
Saturated vapour F 0 HF – HF = HG 0 0
Superheated F 0 HF – HF > HG <0 1.0 to 0

vapour
* indicates HG and HL are enthalpies per mole of individual phases.
Determination of q is as follows:
(i) Cold feed
From Eq. (9.109), we have
( HG H F )
q
( HG H L )
Let Tb be the boiling point of mixture and TF be the feed temperature. Let
HG and HL be the enthalpies of saturated vapour and liquid respectively. If l
is the latent heat of vaporization, CP, L is the specific heat of feed liquid and
T0 is the reference temperature, then
HG CP, L (Tb T0 ) M
HF CP, L (TF T0 ) and ( HG H L ) M (9.117)

[CP, L (Tb T0 ) M ] [CP, L (TF T0 )] [CP, L (Tb T0 TF T0 ) M ]
q
M M
(9.118)
CP, L (Tb TF )
i.e. q 1 (9.119)
M
(ii) Saturated liquid
( HG H F )
q (9.120)
( HG H L )
For saturated liquid HF = HL, \ q = 1.0
(iii) Mixture of liquid and vapour
Let x be the mole fraction of liquid in feed in the case of liquid + vapour
mixture. Then,
HF = xHL + (1 – x)HG (9.121)
Distillation 267
q ÍË HG xH L HG xHG ÝÛ
Therefore,
HG H L
1.0
x ( HG H L )
=x (9.122)
( HG H L )
(iv) Saturated vapour
( HG H F )
q (9.123)
( HG H L )
For saturated vapour HF = HG, \ q = 0
(v) Superheated vapour
Let CP,V be the specific heat of feed vapour
HG = HG
HF = HG + CP,V (TF – Tb) (9.124)
HG [ HG CP,V (TF Tb )] CP,V (TF Tb )

q (9.125)
M M
Steps involved in the determination of number of trays

The equilibrium curve along with the operating lines for both enriching and
stripping sections to determine the number of stages is shown in Fig. 9.22.
Fig. 9.22 Determination of number of stages by McCabe–Thiele method.
1. Draw the equilibrium curve and diagonal.

2. Locate F, D and W corresponding to feed, distillate and residue
compositions based on more volatile component.
3. Estimate xD /(R + 1) and locate it on y-axis as S.
4. Join SD, this is the operating line for enriching section.
5. From F draw q-line depending on feed condition. Let it cut the operating
line for enriching section at T.
6. Join TW-operating line for stripping section.

7. Construct stepwise from D to W and the steps so constructed will give the
number of stages.
9.13 LOCATION OF FEED TRAY

For an optimal design or when a column is designed first (wherein one goes for
optimal design) the feed tray is located at the intersection of operating lines of
enriching and exhausting sections of the tower.
However, we may at times use a column which has been designed with some
other objectives. Whenever the quality and condition of feed is fixed along with
reflux ratio, xD and xW, the operating lines are fixed. It may so happen that in an
existing column, the location of feed nozzle is fixed and it may not really lie at the
optimal point as shown in Figs. 9.23(a), (b) and (c).
Fig. 9.23(a) Optimal feed location.
The point of intersection of the two operating lines is generally believed to be

the point that demarcates enriching and exhausting sections. This normally occurs
in the newly designed columns from a specific xw, xD, xF and condition of feed.
However, in an existing column, designed for a different utility, the feed point
location is fixed and may not be at the optimum location. Further, the feed entry
point will not demarcate the enriching and exhausting sections.
Generally when the reflux ratio and the xD values are fixed, the operating line
for enriching section is fixed. Further, when the xw and the condition of the feed
are fixed the operating line for exhausting section is fixed.
Distillation 269
Fig. 9.23(b) Delayed feed entry.
Fig. 9.23(c) Early feed entry.

Once a feed enters a specific plate, below the point of intersection of operating
lines and q-line (in an existing column), from the top plate to feed entry point, the
operating line for enriching section is to be used and subsequently the operating
line for exhausting section. Such an arrangement indicates a delayed feed entry. If
the feed enters at a specific plate, above the point of intersection of operating lines
and q-line (in an existing column), from the top plate to feed entry point, the
operating line for enriching section is to be used and subsequently the operating
line for exhausting section. This arrangement indicates an early feed entry. In both
the cases the number of stages estimated will always be more compared to the
number of stages estimated with feed entering exactly at the point of intersection
of operating lines and q-line.
Consider the above three figures,
Figure 23(a): Optimal design with 9 plates and the 5th plate is feed plate.
Figure 23(b): An existing column with 10 plates and feed enters at 7th plate.
Figure 23(c): An existing column with 10 plates and feed is introduced at 3rd
plate.
9.14 REFLUX RATIO

It is one of the important operating parameters in distillation, by which the quality
of the products can be changed. Let us deal with the relationship between reflux
ratio and the number of trays in the tower.
9.14.1 Determination of Minimum Reflux Ratio

To determine the minimum reflux ratio, draw the q-line from F to cut the
equilibrium curve at T ¢. Join DT ¢ and extend it to intersect on y-axis and indicate
Ë xD Û
it as S¢. OS¢ gives Ì Ü from which Rmin is estimated as shown in Fig. 9.24.
Í Rmin 1 Ý
Normally at Rmin condition, the number of stages will be infinity as the equilibrium
curve and operating line get pinched.
Fig. 9.24 Determination of minimum reflux ratio.

Distillation 271
Steps involved in the determination of minimum reflux

2. Locate F, D and W corresponding to feed, distillate and residue
compositions based on more volatile component.
3. Draw the q-line from F and allow it to intersect the equilibrium curve at T¢.
4. Join T ¢D and allow it to intersect the y-axis at S¢.
Ë yD Û
5. OS¢ corresponds to Ì Ü from which Rmin, the minimum reflux ratio
Í Rmin 1 Ý
is estimated.
9.14.2 Total Reflux

At total reflux, all the distillate is returned to the column and no product is taken
out as distillate.
i.e. D=0
L
\ R
D
Hence, the operating line [Eq. (9.88)] for enriching section is
Ë R Û Ë 1 Û
yn 1 Ì R 1 Ü xn Ì R 1 Ü xD
Í Ý Í Ý
becomes, yn +1 = xn (9.126)
i.e. it merges with the diagonal (x = y line) for both enriching and stripping
sections. Under such circumstances, the minimum number of theoretical stages
can be estimated by the same graphical procedure described in the
Section of 9.12.2. For systems where the relative volatility is constant and under
total reflux conditions the theoretical number of stages needed could be estimated
analytically.
Ë Ë yA Û Û Ë Ë yA Û Û
ÌÌ x ÜÜ ÌÌy ÜÜ
We know that for a binary system, B AB ÌÍ A ÝÜ ÌÍ B ÝÜ
Ì Ë yB Û Ü Ì Ë xA Û Ü
ÌÌx ÜÜ ÌÌ x ÜÜ
ÌÍ Í B Ý ÜÝ ÌÍ Í B Ý ÜÝ
yA xA
\ B AB
yB xB
yA xA
B AB
1 yA 1 xA
Let us apply this relationship to (n + 1)th plate
yn 1 xn 1
\ B (9.127)
(1 yn 1 ) (1 x n 1 )
L R
At total reflux D = 0 and 1.0
G R 1
Hence, from Eq. (9.126), we get
(yn + 1) = xn (9.128)
When n = 0, i.e. at the top of the column, xn = x0
y1 = x0 = xD, when total condenser is used.
Substituting for yn +1 in terms of xn in Eq. (9.128), we get
xn x n 1
\ B AB (9.129)
(1 x n ) (1 x n 1 )
x0 x1
When n = 0, B AB (9.130)
(1 x0 ) (1 x1 )
x1 x2
When n = 1, B AB (9.131)
(1 x1 ) (1 x2 )
x n 1 xn
When n = n – 1, B AB (9.132)
(1 x n 1 ) (1 x n )
Substituting for x1, x2, …, xn – 1 from Eqs. (9.131) and (9.132), we get
x0 xn
(B AB ) n (9.133)
(1 x0 ) (1 x n )
Substituting n = NP + 1 (last stage, i.e. reboiler), we get
x0 x N 1
(B ) N P 1 P
(9.134)
(1 x0 ) (1 x N 1 )
P
As (NP + 1)th stage accounts for reboiler, xNP + 1 = xw
yD 1 xW
i.e. (B ) N P
(9.135)
(1 yD ) (1 xW )
Equation (9.135) is called Fenske equation. To apply this equation, a, the
relative volatility must be fairly constant and the column has to be operated under
total reflux conditions. This may not be possible in industries, but has theoretical
importance.
9.14.3 Optimum Reflux Ratio

At minimum reflux ratio the column requires infinite number of stages or trays.
However, as reflux ratio increases from minimum, for a given feed and specified
Distillation 273
quality of distillate and residue, the number of stages or trays decrease. At

minimum reflux ratio when the stages or trays are infinite, the fixed cost and the
maintenance cost are also infinite. However, the operating cost for operating
condenser, reboiler etc. is the least. When the reflux increases, the trays or stages
reduce but the column diameter has to be increased to handle larger capacities of
liquid being recycled. The size of other accessories like condenser and reboiler
increase which will result in a higher requirement of cooling water or heating.
Ultimately this will result in a higher operating cost. Thus, the total cost which
includes both operating cost and fixed cost, vary with reflux ratio and reach a
minimum value for a certain reflux ratio which is called the optimum or economic
reflux ratio. This value is normally in the range of 1.2 Rmin to 1.5 Rmin. This is
shown in Fig. 9.25.
Fig. 9.25 Effect of Reflux ratio on cost.
9.15 REBOILERS
Fig. 9.26(a) Thermosyphon reboiler.

Fig. 9.26(b) Internal reboiler.
Fig. 9.26(c) Jacketed kettle reboiler.
They are heat exchangers of different configurations used to supply the heat
to the liquid at the bottom of the column to vaporize them. In effect all the heat
needed is basically supplied at the reboiler only.
A simple Jacketed kettle is one such reboiler which has a low heat transfer area
and hence vapour generation capacity will also be poor.
Distillation 275
Fig. 9.26(d) External reboiler
Tubular heat exchangers (both of vertical and horizontal configurations)

provide larger area of heat transfer. They can be placed inside the column or
outside the column. When they are located inside, during cleaning of the
exchanger, the distillation operation has to be stopped. However, when external
reboilers are used, a standby exchanger is always kept which can be used during
cleaning of the exchanger attached to the column. Thus, the distillation operation
will proceed without any interruption. The liquid can flow either through the tube
side or shell side. Reboilers can be heated by steam, oil or other hot fluids.
Different types of reboilers are shown in Figs. 9.26(a)–(d).
9.16 CONDENSERS
The condensers are generally heat exchangers of horizontal orientation with
coolant flowing through the tube side. However, in rare instances vertical
condensers are used with the coolant flowing on either side of the tubes. They are
placed above the tower in the case of laboratory scale units for gravity flow of the
condensed reflux to the topmost tray. Sometimes they are placed at ground level
for easy maintenance, in which case the liquid is pumped from accumulator to the
top tray. The coolant is normally water. The condensers may either be a total
condenser or a partial condenser. Whenever a partial condenser is used, the
condensate is returned as reflux and the vapour from condenser is the main
distillate product. The partial condenser itself acts as one stage for separation. In
an existing distillation column, if one desires to have a highly enriched distillate
(richer than the designed value) then one can resort to partial condensation and
obtain an enriched product. However, when a column is being designed fresh it is
always preferable to go for additional trays compared to partial condensation
technique for enrichment.
9.17 USE OF OPEN STEAM

Normally the heat needed for distillation is supplied through (by heat exchangers)
reboilers. However, when an aqueous solution is fractionated to give non-aqueous
solute as distillate and water as residue, the heat required may be supplied by open
steam in which case the reboiler is not required. The schematic arrangement is
shown in Fig. 9.27 and the overall material balance is given below.
Fig. 9.27 Open steam distillation.
The equation for the operating line in enriching section is obtained as in the case
of McCabe–Thiele method.
L R xD
i.e. Slope = and intercept = (9.136)
G R 1 R 1
However, let us analyze the exhausting section.
Distillation 277
Lx m G (0) Gym 1 LxW (9.137)
Lx m G (0) Gym 1 Wxw (9.138)
L ( ym 1 0)
i.e. ( xm xW ) (9.139)
G
The operating line for exhausting section passes through (x = xW and y = 0)
and (xm, ym+1). Thus, the line passes through xW, the point in x-axis as shown in
Fig. 9.28. After constructing the equilibrium curve and operating lines, by
step-wise construction the number of stages are determined as in the case of
McCabe-Thiele method.
Fig. 9.28 Determination of number of stages in open steam distillation.
If the steam entering the tower is superheated (HG, NP+1), it will vaporize liquid on
tray NP to the extent such that the steam will reach saturation (HG, Sat). An energy
balance yields,
Ë
GN P 1 Ì1
G

HG, N P 1 HG,Sat ÛÜ (9.140)
Ì MM Ü
Í Ý
where lM is the molar latent heat of vaporization, and
L G GN P 1 L N P (9.141)
Using Eqs. (9.140) and (9.141), the L /G ratio is computed.
9.17.1 Determination of Number of Trays

2. Locate F and D corresponding to the composition of feed and distillate
respectively on diagonal.
3. Locate W corresponding to the composition of xW on x-axis.
xD
4. Based on the reflux ratio and distillate composition, estimate and
R 1
locate it on y-axis as S.
5. Join SD, this is the operating line for enriching section.
6. From F draw q-line depending on feed condition and allow it to cut the
operating line for enriching section SD, and locate the point of intersection
as T.
7. Join TW. TW is the operating line for stripping section.
8. By stepwise construction starting from D up to W, the number of stages
can be determined.
9. The minimum reflux ratio needed is estimated in the same manner as in
the case of McCabe–Thiele method.
9.18 CONTINUOUS DIFFERENTIAL CONTACT–

PACKED TOWER DISTILLATION
Whenever we have heat sensitive materials to be distilled which require less
contact time, packed towers are preferred. The pressure drop is also low and hence
it is suitable for low pressure distillation operations.
The height of column can be determined in the same way as for other mass
transfer operations using packed towers by making a material balance across a
differential section and integrating as indicated in Fig. 9.29.
The material balance across the elemental section in enriching zone gives
d (Gy) d ( Lx )
NA k y ( yi y ) k x ( x xi ) (9.142)
adZ adZ
Ze ( Gy )2 ( Lx )2
d (Gy ) d ( Lx )
\ Ze Ô dZ Ô
( Gy )a
k y a( yi y) Ô
( Lx ) a
k x a( x xi ) (9.143)
0
Assuming that G, L, k y and k x are constants.
(However, this has to be checked before using as kx and ky depending on the flow
rates)
y2
G dy
Ze Ô
k y a ( yi y )
ya
( H tG )( N tG ) (By definition) (9.144)
(Suffix a indicates the point of intersection of operating lines)

Distillation 279
Fig. 9.29 Analysis of packed distillation column.
Based on liquid phase, Ze can be expressed as

x2
L dx
Ze
k x a Ô (x x ) i
( HtL )( N tL ) (By definition) (9.145)
xa
Similarly, the stripping section can also be analysed and it can be shown that,
ZS = (HtG) (NtG) = (HtL) (NtL) (9.146)

Total height Z = Ze + ZS (9.147)
The determination of HtG or HtL can be done using the flow rates of vapour
or liquid and vapour or liquid mass transfer coefficients. However, to determine
NtG or NtL one needs to find interfacial compositions. If the film coefficients are
known, the interfacial concentrations can be determined from the operating line
and equilibrium curve. These values are given by a line drawn with a slope of
Ë k x Û
Ì k Ü from the operating line to the equilibrium curve. The point at which this
Í yÝ
line cuts operating line gives x and y values and the point of intersection with the
equilibrium curve gives the interfacial compositions xi and yi. A number of such
lines can be drawn which will give various sets of (x – xi) and (yi – y) values as
shown in Fig. 9.30. Using these values, NtL or NtG can be determined. One should
use NtL or NtG (corresponding to HtL or HtG) to determine the height depending on
the resistance which is controlling the mass transfer.
Fig. 9.30 Determination of interfacial conditions for packed distillation column.
Further, if the equilibrium curve is essentially straight in the range of our

application, then the expressions are simplified as
y2
dy
Ze H t0 G Ô y * y ( H t0G )( N t0G ) (9.148)
ya
when gas phase is controlling and

x2
dx
Ze H t0 L Ô ( x x*) ( H t0 L )( N t0 L ) (9.149)
xa
when liquid phase is controlling.
In Eqs. (9.148) and (9.149) , (y* – y) and (x – x*) are the overall driving forces
in terms of vapour and liquid phase composition respectively.
G L
Here, H t0 G and H t L
K y a 0
K x a
Distillation 281
1 1 m
We know that,
K y k y k x
1 1 1

K x k x mk y
Similarly, H t0G and H t0 L can also be written as
È mG Ø
Ht0G HtG É H
Ê L ÙÚ tL (9.150)
È L Ø
H t0 L HtL É H
Ê mG ÙÚ tG (9.151)
where m is the slope of the equilibrium curve.
9.18.1 Steps Involved in the Determination

of the Height of Tower
xD
2. Locate S, corresponding to in y-axis.
R 1
3. Locate F, D and W on diagonal corresponding to xF, xD and xW
4. Join DS. This is the operating line for enriching section.
5. From F draw q-line. Let the point of intersection on operating line DS for
enriching section be T.
6. Join TW. This is the operating line for stripping section.
Ë k x Û Ë K x Û
7. From D to T and T to W draw lines of slope Ì k Ü or Ì K Ü (as the
Í yÝ Í y Ý
case may be) to obtain (xi and yi) or (x* and y*) and (x and y) values.
8. x and y values are read from operating lines and (xi, yi) or (x*, y*) values
are read from equilibrium curve.
dx dy dx dy
Ô i i
Ô
9. Evaluate ( x x ) or ( y y) or
( x x*)
orÔ( y * y)Ôgraphically
to determine NtL or NtG or NtoL or NtoG.

10. HtL, HtG, HtoG or HtoL are determined with the help of liquid and vapour
flow rates and mass transfer coefficients.
11. Height is then estimated based on the values from steps (9) and (10).
12. The tower diameter is normally set by the conditions at the top of
stripping section because of large liquid flow rate at that point.
9.19 AZEOTROPIC DISTILLATION

This is a technique which is used for the separation of binary mixtures which are
either difficult or impossible to separate by ordinary fractionation. This happens
when either the mixture to be separated has a very low relative volatility, in which
case one may require high reflux ratio and more number of trays, or when the
mixture forms an azeotrope. Under such circumstances, a third component called

an ‘entrainer’ is added to the binary mixture to form a new low boiling hetero-
azeotrope with one of the components in the original mixture whose volatility is
such that it can be separated from the other original constituent.
A typical example for this operation is presented in the flow diagram of
Fig. 9.31 where the separation of acetic acid (BP: 118.1°C) and water (BP: 100°C)
mixture is demonstrated. This mixture has a low relative volatility and hence
separation by conventional methods is not economical. Here Butyl acetate, which is
slightly soluble in water, is added to the mixture from the top of the column as an
entrainer. It forms a ‘hetero-azeotrope’ with all the water in the feed and readily
distills out from the high boiling acetic acid and the acetic acid leaves as a residue
product. The hetero-azeotrope on condensation forms two insoluble layers which can
easily be separated. The water layer obtained is saturated with ester and vice versa.
The ester layer saturated with water is returned back to the column as a source of
entrainer for further separation. The aqueous layer is also sent to another column to
separate water and ester. The separated ester is also sent back as entrainer.
Sometimes the new azeotrope formed contains all the three constituents. In the
dehydration of ethanol water mixture, benzene is added as an entrainer which gives
a ternary azeotrope containing benzene (53.9 mole %), water (3.3 mole %) and
ethanol (22.8 mole %) boiling at 64.9°C as distillate and ethanol (BP: 78.4°C) as
residue. Benzene is separated and sent back to the top of the column as entrainer.
Since water – ethanol are equally present in distillate, the mixture should be given
a preliminary rectification to produce an alcohol rich binary azeotrope. Azeotropic
distillation is shown in Fig. 9.31.
Fig. 9.31 Azeotropic distillation.

Distillation 283
9.19.1 Desired Properties of an Entrainer for

Azeotropic Distillation
(i) Should be cheap and easily available.
(ii) Chemically stable and inactive towards the solution to be separated.
(iii) Non-corrosive.
(iv) Non-toxic.
(v) Low latent heat of vaporization.
(vi) Low freezing point to facilitate storage and easy handling.
(vii) Low viscosity to provide high tray efficiency and minimum pumping cost.
9.20 EXTRACTIVE DISTILLATION

This method is also used under similar circumstances as in the case of azeotropic
distillation. Here a third component called solvent is added, instead of entrainer,
which alters the relative volatility of the original constituents, thus permitting the
separation. The added solvent should have low volatility and not vaporized in the
fractionator.
One such example is the separation of toluene (BP: 110.8°C) from isooctane
(BP: 99.3°C). Their separation is relatively difficult. In the presence of Phenol
(BP: 181.4°C), the relative volatility of isooctane increases, so that with an increase
in phenol content, the separation becomes more and more easy. A typical flow
diagram of the process is shown in Fig. 9.32.
Fig. 9.32 Extractive distillation.

Here, the toluene–isooctane binary mixture is introduced in the middle of the

column and phenol near the top of the column. Isooctane is readily distilled as an
overhead product, while toluene and phenol are collected as residue. The residue
from the tower is rectified in the auxiliary tower to separate toluene and phenol as
distillate and residue respectively. Phenol is returned to the main column as
solvent. Similarly a mixture of acetone (BP: 56.4°C) and methanol (BP: 64.7°C)
can be separated by using Butanol (BP: 117.8°C) solvent.
9.20.1 Desired Properties of Solvent for

Extractive Distillation
(i) High selectivity and capability to alter VLE for easy separation.
(ii) Ability to dissolve the components in the mixture.
(iii) Low volatility in order to prevent vaporization of solvent.
(iv) Easy separability, for easier removal of solvent.
(v) Non-corrosive.
(vi) Non-toxic.
(vii) Cheap and easily available.
(viii) Low freezing point.
(ix) Low viscosity.
(x) Chemical stability and inertness towards the components to be separated.
9.21 COMPARISON OF AZEOTROPIC AND

EXTRACTIVE DISTILLATION
In both the processes an additional external agent is added, which is undesirable.
Solvent to feed ratio in extractive distillation greater than 3 or 4 is found to be
effective. Proper choice of material of construction and recovery technique are to
be examined. However, of the two, extractive distillation is said to be more
favoured than azeotropic distillation since (i) there is a greater choice of solvent,
(ii) the smaller quantity of solvent to be volatilized. In spite of the above
advantages, the azeotropic distillation is said to be more effective in the
dehydration of ethanol from an 85.6 mole % Ethanol–water solution. In this case
water is azeotroped with n–pentane and then separated rather than using extractive
distillation with ethylene glycol as solvent.
9.22 LOW PRESSURE DISTILLATION

Whenever the heat sensitive materials are to be separated, as in the case of many
organic mixtures, low pressure distillation will be effective. In this case the time
of exposure of the substances to high temperature is kept minimum. Packed towers
can be used for distillation under pressures of 50 to 250 mm Hg. Bubble cap and
sieve trays can be used for pressure drops around 2.6 mm Hg and shower trays for
pressure drops around 0.75 mm Hg. This is used in the separation of vitamins from
animal and fish oils as well as the separation of plasticizers.
Distillation 285
9.22.1 Molecular Distillation

This is a very low pressure distillation where the absolute pressure is in the range
of 0.003 mm Hg to 0.03 mm Hg. On reducing the absolute pressure, the mean free
path of the molecules becomes large. If the condensing surface is placed at a
distance from the vaporizing liquid, surface not exceeding few cms, only a few
molecules will return to the liquid. The composition of the distillate will now be
different from that given by normal vaporization and the ratio of the constituents
is given by
Ë È pA Ø Û
ÌÉ 0.5 Ù Ü
NA moles of A Ì Ê MA Ú Ü (9.152)
NB moles of B Ì È pB Ø Ü
ÌÉ ÙÜ
ÌÍ Ê MB0.5 Ú ÜÝ
In molecular distillation this ratio is maintained by allowing the liquid to flow
in a thin film over a solid surface thus renewing the surface continually and at the
same time maintaining low hold-up of liquid.
A schematic arrangement of a device used for this type of distillation is shown
in Fig. 9.33. The degassed liquid to be distilled is introduced at the bottom of the
inner surface of the rotor, rotating at 400 to 500 rpm. A thin layer of liquid 0.05
to 0.1 mm spreads over the inner surface and travels rapidly to the upper periphery
under centrifugal force. Heat is supplied to the liquid through the rotor from radiant
electrical heaters. Vapors generated are condensed and collected in the collection
troughs. The residue liquid is collected in the collection gutter and removed. The
entire unit is maintained at low pressure, good enough for molecular distillation to
occur. Normal residence time is of the order of 1 second and hence decomposition
of mixture does not take place. Multiple units can be used to have multistage
separation effects.
Fig. 9.33 Molecular distillation.

WORKED EXAMPLES
1. Compute the equilibrium data from the following data at 760 mm Hg
pressure and calculate the relative volatility.
VP of A, mm Hg 760 830 920 1060 1200 1360
VP of B, mm Hg 200 350 420 550 690 760

PT = 760 mm Hg
Solution.
PA, mm Hg 760 830 920 1060 1200 1360
PB, mm Hg 200 350 420 550 690 760
Ë ( PT PB ) Û Ë ( PA x A ) Û
We know that x A Ì ( P P ) Ü and y A Ì P Ü
Í A B Ý Í T Ý
Ë ( PT PB ) Û
xA Ì (P P ) Ü 1.0 0.854 0.68 0.412 0.137 0
Í A B Ý
Ë ( PA x A ) Û
yA Ì P Ü 1.0 0.933 0.823 0.575 0.216 0
Í T Ý
B"# = VP of A/VP of B 3.80 2.37 2.19 1.93 1.74 1.79
Average relative volatility: 2.303

2. The vapour pressure data for n–Hexane –n–Octane system is given below.
Compute the equilibrium data and relative volatility for the system at a total
pressure of 101.32 kPa.
n-Hexane n-Octane
T°C
PA ,kPa (A) PB,kPa (B)
68.7 101.32 16.1

79.4 136.7 23.1
93.3 197.3 37.1
107.2 284.0 57.9
125.7 456.0 101.32
Distillation 287
Solution.
T°C n- n – Octane Bcal = Pt PB PA x A Bx
xA yA y
Hexane PB,kPa (B) PA/PB ( PA PB ) Pt [1 (B 1) x ]
PA ,kPa
(A)
68.7 101.32 16.1 6.29 1.000 1.00 1.000
79.4 136.7 23.1 5.92 0.689 0.930 0.923
93.3 197.3 37.1 5.32 0.401 0.781 0.783
107.2 284.0 57.9 4.91 0.192 0.538 0.562
125.7 456.0 101.32 4.50 0 0 0
3. Compute x–y data at 1 atm. Pressure from the following data:
T 80.1 85 90 95 100 105 110.6

VPA 760 877 1016 1168 1344 1532 1800
VPB – 345 405 475 577 645 760
Solution.
T 80.1 85 90 95 100 105 110.6

VPA 760 877 1016 1168 1344 1532 1800
VPB — 345 405 475 577 645 760
VPA
B — 2.54 2.51 2.46 2.33 2.38 2.37
VPB
(Ans: aaverage = 2.43)
Ë ( PT PB ) Û
xA Ì (P P ) Ü 1.0 0.78 0.58 0.411 0.239 0.13 0
Í A B Ý
Ë ( PA x A ) Û
yA Ì P Ü 1.0 0.9 0.777 0.632 0.423 0.26 0
Í T Ý
4. A solution of methanol and ethanol are substantially ideal. Compute the
VLE for this system at 1 atm pressure and relative volatility.
1473.11
log [P, mm] Methanol = 7.84863 –
(230 t°C)
1554.3
log [P, mm] Ethanol = 8.04494 –
(222.65 t°C)
Solution.
In this problem one has to compute the vapour pressure values at different
temperatures. The temperature range is fixed by keeping the pressure as
760 mm Hg for each component. Thus, in the following equation for

Methanol,
1473.11
log [P, mm] = 7.84863 –
Methanol
(230 t°C)
Setting the vapour pressure as 760 mm Hg (at BP, vapour pressure equals
the prevailing pressure), we get the temperature as 66.53°C, which is the
boiling point of Methanol. Similarly, by setting P as 760 mm Hg in the
equation for ethanol,
1554.3
log [P, mm] Ethanol = 8.04494 –
(222.65 t°C)
we get the boiling point of Ethanol as 78.33°C. This fixes the range of
temperature.
t°C 66.53 70 72 74 76 78 78.33
V.P. of Methanol,
PA, mm 760 867.5 934.94 1006.6 1082.79 1163.6 1177.4
V.P. of Ethanol,
PB, mm 467.8 541.77 588.66 638.9 692.66 750.14 760
Relative volatility,
PA
a= PB 1.625 1.601 1.588 1.576 1.563 1.551 1.549
Pt PB
xA
( PA PB ) 1.0 0.67 0.495 0.329 0.173 0.024 0.0
PA x A
yA
Pt 1.0 0.765 0.609 0.436 0.246 0.0365 0.0
Average relative volatility = 1.579

5. Methanol and Ethanol form an ideal solution. Compute the VLE data at
760 mm Hg pressure,
Vapour pressure Data:
Vapour pressure, mm Hg 200 400 760 1520
Temperature,°C, Ethanol 48.4 62.5 78.4 97.5

Temperature,°C, Methanol 34.8 49.9 64.7 84.0
Plot vapour pressure vs temperature for both the components and compute
T vs. VP for Methanol and T vs. VP for Ethanol as shown in Fig. 9.34.
Distillation 289
Solution.
Fig. 9.34 Example 5 Vapour Pressure–temperature plot.
V.P. of V.P. of Pt PB PA x A
Temperature, xA yA
Ethanol, Methanol,
°C ( PA PB ) Pt
mm Hg (B) mm Hg (A)
64.7 430 760 1.0 1.0
67.0 470 830 0.806 0.880
70.0 540 950 0.537 0.671
73.0 620 1080 0.304 0.432
76.0 700 1200 0.120 0.189
78.4 760 1300 0.0 0.0
6. It is desired to separate a feed mixture containing 40% heptane and 60%

ethyl benzene, such that 60% of the feed is distilled out. Estimate the
composition of the residue and distillate when the distillation process is (i)
equilibrium distillation, and (ii) differential distillation.
Equilibrium Data:
x 0 0.08 0.185 0.251 0.335 0.489 0.651 0.79 0.914 1.0

y 0 0.233 0.428 0.514 0.608 0.729 0.814 0.910 0.963 1.0
x, y: Mole fraction of heptane in liquid and vapour phase respectively.

Solution.
(i) Plot the equilibrium data and draw the diagonal.
Draw a line with a slope of –W/D = – 0.4/0.6 = – 0.667 from a point on the
diagonal corresponding to xF = 0.4 and its intersection on the equilibrium
curve and read them as xw and yD as shown in Fig. 9.35.
xw = 0.24 and yD = 0.5
Fig. 9.35 Example 6 Solution for flash distillation.

1
(ii) Compute and plot it against x as shown in Fig. 9.36
yx
x 0 0.08 0.185 0.251 0.335 0.489 0.651 0.79 0.914 1.0

y 0 0.233 0.428 0.514 0.608 0.729 0.814 0.91 0.963 1.0
y–x 0 0.153 0.243 0.263 0.273 0.240 0.163 0.12 0.049 0
1
yx
B 6.54 4.12 3.80 3.66 4.17 6.13 8.33 20.41 B
We know that
xF dx ËFÛ Ë 1 Û
Ô
xW ( y x)
ln Ì Ü = ln Ì
Í Ý
W Ü = 0.916
Í 0.4 Ý
By trial and error, find the x-co-ordinate which will give the area under the
curve as 0.916 from xF = 0.4. xw = 0.2. By making component balance,
yD = 0.533.
Distillation 291
Fig. 9.36 Example 6 Solution for differential distillation.
7. A feed mixture containing 50 mole % Hexane and 50 mole % Octane is fed

into a pipe still through a pressure reducing valve and flashed into a
chamber. The fraction of feed converted to vapour is 0.6. Find the
composition of the distillate and residue
x 0 4.5 19.2 40 69 100

y 0 17.8 53.8 78 93.2 100
x, y mole percent of Hexane in liquid and vapour phase respectively

Solution.
Draw the equilibrium curve and diagonal. From the feed point draw a line
with a slope of
Ë WÛ 0.4
Ì D Ü
0.6
0.667
Í Ý
From graph shown in Fig. 9.37, we get

xW = 0.275, yD = 0.65
Fig. 9.37 Example 7 Flash distillation.
8. A equimolar feed mixture containing A and B is differentially distilled such

that 70% of the feed is distilled out. Estimate the composition of the
distillate and residue.
Equilibrium data
x 0 1 8 14 21 29 37 46 56 66 97 100
y 0 3 16 28 39 50 59 65 76 83 99 100
x, y: mole fraction of benzene in liquid and vapour phase respectively.

Solution.
x 0 0.01 0.08 0.14 0.21 0.29 0.37 0.46 0.56 0.66 0.97 1.0
y 0 0.03 0.16 0.28 0.39 0.50 0.59 0.65 0.76 0.83 0.99 1.0
y–x 0 0.02 0.08 0.14 0.18 0.21 0.22 0.19 0.20 0.17 0.02 0
1
yx
B 50 12.5 7.14 5.56 4.76 4.55 5.26 5.0 5.88 50 B
Distillation 293
1
Plot y x against x as shown in Fig. 9.38
We know that,
xF dx ËFÛ
ÔxW ( y x)
ln Ì Ü
ÍW Ý
Let the feed be 100 moles
Therefore, D = 70 moles and W = 30 moles
ËFÛ Ë 100 Û
\ ln Ì Ü = ln Ì Ü = 1.204
ÍW Ý Í 30 Ý
xF
dx
By trial and error, locate xw such that
xW
Ô ( y x ) = 1.204
We get, xw = 0.23
Making material balance, we get
F=W+D
FxF = W xW + DyD
Substituting for various quantities, we get
100 × 0.5 = 30 × 0.23 + 70 × yD
Solving, we get,
yD = 0.616
Fig. 9.38 Example 8 Solution for differential distillation.

9. A liquid mixture of components A and B containing 30 mole percent A is

subjected to differential distillation. What percentage of the original mixture
must be distilled off in order to increase the concentration of A in the residue
to 65 mole percent?
The relative volatility of B in respect of A is 2.15.
Solution.
Ë Fx F , B Û Ë Fx F , A Û
ln Ì Ü B BA ln Ì Ü
Í WXW , B Ý Í WXW , A Ý
Ë F 0.7 Û Ë F 0.3 Û
ln Ì Ü 2.15 ln Ì Ü
Í W 0.35 Ý Í W 0.65 Ý
2.15
ËFÛ Ë F 0.4615 Û
2Ì Ü Ì Ü
ÍW Ý Í W Ý
ËFÛ
Solving, we get Ì Ü 7.75
ÍW Ý
Therefore, if F = 100 kmol, W = 12.91 kmol.
Hence, 87.09% of feed has to be distilled.
10. Nitrobenzene (NB) has to be steam distilled. If the vaporization efficiency
is 85%, estimate the amount of nitrobenzene in the distillate if 100 kg of
steam is present in distillate. The distillation takes place at a total pressure
of 760 mm Hg.
Vapour pressure data for nitrobenzene:
T°, C 44.4 71.6 84.9 99.3 115.4 125.8 139.9 185.8 210.6
VP of NB mm Hg 1 5 10 20 40 60 100 400 760
Vapour pressure of water:
T°C 20 40 60 80 100
VP of water, mm Hg 17.5 55.3 149.4 355.1 760
T (°C) 71 78 80 82 90 96 100
pB 5 7.5 9 10 14 17.5 21
pA 242.5 340 355 412.5 515 605 760
Solution.
From total vapour pressure curve: Boiling point of mixture = 99.0°C
At 99°C, vapour pressure of nitrobenzene = 20 mm Hg
vapour pressure of water = 740 mm Hg
Distillation 295
Vaporization h = [(Actual NB/Actual water)]

Ë Ë Actual NB Û Û
Ì Ì Actual water Ü Ü
Í Ý Ü
0.85 = Ì (all in moles)
Ì Ë Theoretical NB Û Ü
Ì Ì Theoretical water Ü Ü
ÍÍ ÝÝ
Actual NB Ë Theoretical NB Û
= 0.85 × Ì Theoretical water Ü
Actual water Í Ý
0.85 20 123
= kg of NB/kg of steam
740 18
= 0.85 × 0.1847 = 0.157 kg of NB/kg of steam
Mass of NB per 100 kg of steam = 15.7 kg
Fig. 9.39 Example 10 Determination of boiling point for steam distillation.

11. A methanol–water solution containing 36 mole % methanol at 26.7°C is

continuously distilled to yield a distillate containing 91.5 mole % methanol
and a residue containing 99 mole % water. The feed enters at its bubble
point. Distillate is totally condensed and refluxed at its bubble point. (i) Find
the minimum reflux ratio. (ii) For a reflux ratio of 3, estimate the number
of plates by Ponchon–Savarit method.
Enthalpy data:
x or y mole Enthalpies of Enthalpies of

fraction of saturated liquid saturated vapour
methanol kJ/kmol kJ/kmol
0 8000 48000
1 7500 39000
Equilibrium data:
x, % 4 10 20 30 50 70 90 95
y, % 23 42 58 66 78 87 96 98.15
x, y are mole fractions of methanol in liquid and vapour phase respectively.

Solution.
(i) xF = 0.36, xw = (1 – 0.99) = 0.01, xD = 0.915
Both feed and Reflux are at bubble point.
Plot H-x-y diagram and xy diagram as shown in Fig. 9.40.
By intrapolation, HG1 = 39765 kJ/kmol
Locate F corresponding to xF = 0.36 on the bubble point curve.
Through F draw a tie line and extend it to intersect the vertical line drawn
at xD = 0.915
Q¢min (from graph) = 62500 kJ/kmol
HG1 )
(Qmin (62500 39765)
Rmin = 0.7056
( HG1 H L0 ) (39765 7542.5)
Minimum reflux ratio = 0.7056

(ii) For R = 3
(Q HG1 ) (Q 39765)
R= 3
( HG1 H L0 ) (39765 7542.5)
Q¢ = 136432.5 kJ/kmol
Distillation 297
Fig. 9.40 Example 11 Ponchon–Savarit method.

We know that DD, DW and F (ZF, HF) lie on a straight line

(Z F Zw ) ( H F Q )
( xD xF ) (Q H F )
Q 73004.5 kJ/kmol
Locate DD(Q¢, xD) and Dw(Q¢¢, xw) on Hxy diagram. Randomly draw
construction lines starting from DD and Dw and obtain the operating curves
for both sections on xy-diagram. Stepwise construction between equilibrium
curve and operating curve will give the number of stages.
Number of stages (including reboiler) = 6
Number of plates in tower = 6 – 1 = 5
12. A continuous distillation column is used to separate a feed mixture at its
boiling point, containing 24 mole % acetone and 76 mole % methanol into
a distillate product containing 77 mole % acetone and a residue product
containing 5 mole % acetone. A reflux ratio of twice the minimum is to be
used. The overall plate efficiency is 60%. Determine the number of plates
required for the separation.
Equilibrium data:
x 0.0 0.05 0.1 0.2 0.3 0.4 0.5 0.6 0.7 0.8 0.9 1.0
y 0.0 0.102 0.186 0.322 0.428 0.513 0.586 0.656 0.725 0.82 0.9 1.0
Solution.
x, y Mole fraction of acetone in liquid and vapour phase respectively.
xF = 0.24, xD = 0.77, xw = 0.05
Ractual = 2Rmin
hoverall = 60%
Plot xy diagram and draw the feed line with its corresponding slope of
infinity to equilibrium curve and let it be F. Let the point D on the diagonal
corresponds to xD. Join DF and extend it to y-axis. The point of intersection is
xD
0.19 (from Fig. 9.41)
Rmin 1
\ Rmin = 3.053
\ Ractual = 6.106
xD 0.77
= 0.108
Ractual 1 7.106
Locate 0.108 on y-axis and let it be A. Join AD. The point of intersection of
AD with feed line is Q. DQ is the operating line for enriching section. Locate
W on diagonal corresponding to xW = 0.05. Join W and Q. WQ is the
operating line for stripping section. By stepwise construction the number of
stages = 14 (including reboiler)
\ Number of plates is 13 (Theoretical)
13
Actual number of plates = = 21.7, i.e. 22 plates
0.6
Distillation 299
Fig. 9.41 Example 12 McCabe–Thiele method.
13. A fractionating column separates a liquid mixture entering at 5000 kmol/h

containing 50 mole % A and 50 mole % B into an overhead product of
95 mole % A and a bottom product of 96 mole % B. A reflux ratio of twice
the minimum will be used and the feed enters at its boiling point. Determine
the number of theoretical stages required and the location of feed point.
Equilibrium data:
x 0.03 0.06 0.11 0.14 0.26 0.39 0.53 0.66 0.76 0.86 1.0
y 0.08 0.16 0.27 0.33 0.50 0.63 0.71 0.83 0.88 0.93 1.0
x, y mole fraction of A in liquid and vapour phase respectively.

Solution.
xF = 0.5, xD = 0.95, xw = 0.04
Feed-saturated liquid
F = 5000 kmol/h
Total condenser
(i) Total material balance
F=D+W
Component balance
FxF = DxD + WxW
5000 = D + W (1)
(5000 × 0.5) = (D × 0.95) + (W × 0.04) (2)

5000 = D + W
Distillate D = 2527.5 kmol/h
Residue W = 2472.5 kmol/h
(ii) Rmin = [(xD – y¢)/(y¢ – x¢)]
Ë (0.95 0.720) Û
Rmin = Ì Ü = 1.045
Í (0.720 0.5) Ý
Also, by graphical xD /(Rmin + 1) = 0.46 and Rmin = 1.065
(iii) Ractual = 2 × Rmin
Ractual = 2 × Rmin = 2 × 1.045 = 2.09 (Taking Rmin value as 1.045)
xD 0.95
= = 0.307
( R 1) (2.09 +1)
With the above intercept, draw both enriching and stripping operating curves.
By McCabe–Thiele method,
Number of plates (including reboiler) = 11
Number of plates in tower = 11 – 1 = 10
The location of feed tray is 6th tray.

14. A mixture of benzene and toluene containing 38 mole % of benzene is to
be separated to give a product of 90 mole % benzene at the top, and the
bottom product with 4 mole % benzene. The feed enters the column at its
Distillation 301
boiling point and vapour leaving the column is simply condensed and
provide product and reflux. It is proposed to operate the unit with a reflux
ratio of 3.0. Locate the feed plate and number of plates. The vapour
pressures of pure benzene and toluene are 1460 and 584 mm Hg
respectively. Total pressure is 750 mm Hg.
Solution.
vapour pressure of pure benzene 1460
B 2.5
vapour pressure of pure toluene 584
Bx
y
[1 (B 1) x ]
Compute equilibrium data.
x 0 0.1 0.2 0.3 0.4 0.5 0.6 0.7 0.8 0.9 1.0
y 0 0.22 0.38 0.52 0.63 0.71 0.79 0.85 0.91 0.96 1.0
Draw the equilibrium curve, diagonal and locate feed, distillate and residue
points as shown in Fig. 9.43.
xD 0.9
Locate the intercept 2.25 and by stepwise construction
[ R 1] 3 1
we can get the number of stages.
No. of stages = 8 (including reboiler) and feed plate is 4

15. It is desired to separate a mixture of 50% vapour and 50% saturated liquid
in a plate type distillation column. The feed contains 45 mole % A and the
top product is to contain 96 mole % A. The bottom product is to contain 5
mole % A. Determine the minimum reflux ratio and the number of
theoretical plates needed if a reflux ratio of twice the minimum is used.
Eq. data:
x 0 0.1 0.16 0.3 0.4 0.5 0.6 0.7 0.8 0.9 1.0
y 0 0.215 0.30 0.52 0.625 0.725 0.78 0.89 0.89 0.95 1.0
x, y : mole fraction of A in liquid and vapour phase respectively.
Solution.
Ë xD Û
Ì R 1Ü 0.33
Í min Ý
0.96
Rmin 1 =
0.33
Rmin = 1.909
q = 0.5 (Fraction of liquid)
Ë q Û 0.5
Slope of q-line Ì q 1 Ü 0.5 1 1.0
Í Ý
Ractual = 2.0 × Rmin = 2.0 × 1.909 = 3.818
Ë yD Û 0.96
ÌR Ü 0.199
Í actual 1 Ý 3.818 1
Number of stages = 10

Distillation 303
16. A fractionating column separates a liquid mixture containing 50 weight %

chloroform and 50 weight % carbon disulphide into an overhead product of
94 weight % CS2 and a bottom product of 95 weight % chloroform. A reflux
ratio of twice the minimum will be used and the feed enters at its boiling
point. Determine the number of theoretical stages required.
Equilibrium data:
x 0.03 0.06 0.11 0.14 0.26 0.39 0.53 0.66 0.76 0.86 1.0
y 0.08 0.16 0.27 0.33 0.50 0.63 0.71 0.83 0.88 0.93 1.0
x, y mole fraction of carbon disulphide in liquid and vapour phase

respectively.
Solution.
Molecular weight of carbon disulphide = 76
Molecular weight of chloroform = 119.5
50 weight % of carbon disulphide,
È 50 Ø
ÉÊ 76 ÙÚ
xF = = 0.611 (in mole fraction)
Ë 50 50 Û
Ì 76 119.5 Ü
Í Ý
Similarly, the distillate and residue compositions in terms of mole fraction
of carbon disulphide are yD = 0.961 and xw = 0.076 respectively.
È yD Ø
From graph (Fig. 9.45), ÉÊ R Ù 0.49
min 1 Ú
Rmin = 0.96
Ract = 2 × Rmin = 1.92
È yD Ø
Therefore, ÉÊ R ÙÚ 0.329 0.33
actual 1
Number of theoretical stages (from Fig. 9.45) including reboiler = 9

17. A laboratory rectification column is operated at atmospheric pressure and at
total reflux, for benzene–chlorobenzene mixture. Samples of liquid from the
condenser and reboiler analyze 95 mole percent benzene and 98 mole
percent chlorobenzene respectively. Assuming a perfect reboiler, a total
condenser, constant molal overflow and no heat loss from the tower,
calculate the actual number of plates in the column. The average plate
efficiency is 70%. The relative volatility of benzene to chlorobenzene
is 4.13.
Solution.
Bx
y
[1 (B 1) x ]
Compute equilibrium data.
x 0 0.1 0.2 0.3 0.4 0.5 0.6 0.7 0.8 0.9 1.0
y 0 0.31 0.51 0.64 0.73 0.81 0.86 0.91 0.94 0.97 1.0
Draw the equilibrium curve, diagonal and locate feed, distillate and residue
points.
By stepwise construction, the number of stages determined is 5.
Hence, the theoretical plates required is 4.
4
Actual plates required will be = 5.71 » 6.
0.7
Distillation 305
Alternatively, we can use the Fenske equation and determine the number of
stages.
yD xW
(B ) P 1
N
(1 yD ) (1 xW )
0.95 N P 1 0.02
(4.13)
(1 0.95) (1 0.02)
N P 1
19 = (4.13) × 0.02041
Hence, NP + 1 = 4.82 stages ≈ 5 stages
Therefore, the theoretical number of plates = 4
4
Actual plates required will be = 5.71 ≈ 6
0.7
(Same as obtained from the graphical procedure)
18. A continuous rectification column is used to separate a binary mixture of
A and B. Distillate is produced at a rate of 100 kmol/hr and contains
98 mole % A. The mole fractions of A in the liquid (x) and in the vapour
(y) respectively from the two adjacent ideal plates in the enriching section
are as follows:
x y
0.65 0.82
0.56 0.76
The latent heat of vaporization is the same for all compositions. Feed is a
saturated liquid. Calculate the reflux ratio and the vapour rate in the
stripping section.
Solution.
yn = 0.82
n
xn = 0.65
n+1 yn + 1 = 0.76
xn + 1 = 0.56
Ë R Û Ë 1 Û
\ yn 1 Ì R 1 Ü x n Ì R 1 Ü yD
Í Ý Í Ý
Ë R Û Ë 1 Û
0.76 = Ì R 1 Ü 0.65 Ì R 1 Ü 0.98
Í Ý Í Ý
Solving, we get
0.76R + 0.76 = 0.65R + 0.98
Reflux ratio, R = 2
In the stripping section,
L G W
( L L)
\ q
F
(G G)
F
q 1
For a saturated feed q = 1.0
(G G)
\ q 1.0
F
Distillation 307
i.e. G G LD
= D(R + 1) = 100(2 + 1) = 300 kmol/h
19. A continuous rectifying column treats a mixture containing 40% benzene
and 60% toluene and separates into a distillate product containing 98%
benzene and a bottom product containing 98% toluene. The feed enters as
a liquid at its boiling point. If a reflux ratio of 3.5 is used, estimate height
of the tower. The average height of a transfer unit is 0.7 m. The overall
resistance to mass transfers lies in vapour phase.
Equilibrium data:
x 0.1 0.2 0.3 0.4 0.5 0.6 0.7 0.8 0.9

y 0.22 0.38 0.51 0.63 0.70 0.78 0.85 0.91 0.96

Solution.
y 0.98 0.92 0.81 0.74 0.655 0.57 0.44 0.318 0.2 0.1 0.02
y¢ 0.995 0.96 0.89 0.83 0.75 0.655 0.543 0.43 0.30 0.183 0.05
1
( y y) 66.67 25 12.5 11.11 10.53 11.76 9.71 8.93 10 12.05 33.33
y is from operating line and y¢ is obtained from equilibrium curve for a

specific x value.
xF = 0.4, xw = (1 – 0.98) = 0.02, R = 3.5, HTU = 0.7
[xD/(R + 1)] = [0.98/ (3.5 +1)] = 0.218
Overall mass transfer lies in vapour phase. So the slope – [(1/kx)/ (1/ky)]
becomes vertical, y and y¢ values are obtained at the intersection of operating
and equilibrium curves.
Ë dy Û
Ô Ì Ü
Í ( y y) Ý
13.175
Z = HTU × NTU = 0.7 × 13.175 = 9.22 m

20. Feed rate to a distillation column is 400 kmol/hr. The overhead product rate
is 160 kmol/h. The mole fraction of more volatile component in distillate is
94%. The residue contains 5% of more volatile component. The reflux ratio
is 4. The mole fraction of vapour leaving a plate is 0.4, whereas the mole
fraction of liquid coming to the same plate is 0.3. Assuming constant molal
overflow, determine the condition of feed.
Solution.
Feed rate: 400 kmol/h
Distillate, D: 160 kmol/h
Therefore, flow rate of residue, W: 240 kmol/h
The composition of distillate xD = 0.94
Fig. 9.47 Example 19 packed distillation.

Distillation 309
The composition of residue xw = 0.05

Reflux ratio: 4
ym+1 = 0.94
xm = 0.05
We know that
Lm Gm 1 W [Eq. 9.67]
Since, the molal overflow rate is constant, Lm Lm 1 L
È L Ø È W Ø
ym 1 ÉÊ L W ÙÚ xm ÉÊ L W ÙÚ xW [Eq. 9.94]
Substituting, we get,
È L Ø È 240 Ø
0.4 ÉÊ L 240 ÙÚ 0.3 ÉÊ L 240 ÙÚ 0.05
Solving, we get
L = 880 kmol/h
From Eq. (9.67) we get
Gm 1 Lm W = 880 – 240 = 640 kmol/h = Gm = G (Due to constant
molal flow rate).
Feed rate = 400 kmol/h
L
Reflux ratio = =4
D
Hence, L = 4D = 640 kmol/h.
L = 880 kmol/h
We also know that
(L L) ( HG H F )
q (Eq. 9.110)
F ( HG H L )
\ L L qF
Substituting, we get
880 640
q= 0.6 (Fraction of liquid)
400
Hence, the feed is a mixture of 60% liquid and 40% vapour.
21. The feed rate to a binary distillation column is 200 kmol/hr and 75% of it
is vaporized. Distillate flow rate is 120 kmol/h with 95% composition of
more volatile component. Reboiler steam demand is 4000 kg/h. Latent heat
of steam used in reboiler is 2304 kJ/kg. Latent heat of liquid to be distilled
is 32000 kJ/kmol. Determine the reflux ratio.
Solution.
We know that L L qF (from Eq. 9.110)
G = (R + 1)D (from Eq. 9.84)
From Eq. (9.111), we get
(G G) (L L)
1 (q 1)
F F
\ (G G) = F(q – 1)
\ G = G + F(q – 1)
i.e. G = (R + 1)D + F(q – 1)
Fraction of vapour = (1 – q) = 0.75
Fraction of liquid = q = 0.25
\ G = (R + 1)120 + 200(0.25 – 1)
= (R + 1)120 – 150 = 120R – 30
GMfeed
Steam needed for the reboiler ms =
Msteam
ms lsteam = Gl feed = (120R – 30)l feed

ms lsteam = 4000 × 2304 = 9.216 × 106 kJ/hr
= (120R – 30)l feed
i.e. 9.216 ´ 106 = (120R – 30)32000
Solving, we get
R = 2.65.
EXERCISES
1. Compute the VLE data from the following vapour pressure data at 760 mm
Hg. Pressure assuming ideal solution.
Temperature,°C 98.4 105 110 120 125.6

Vapour pressure of A, mm Hg 760 940 1050 1350 1540
Vapour pressure of B, mm Hg 333 417 484 650 760
Ans:
xA 1.0 0.655 0.487 0.157 0.0
yA 1.0 0.810 0.674 0.279 0.0
Distillation 311
2. A mixture containing benzene and toluene with 50 mole % benzene is flash

distilled such that 70% of the feed is distilled out. Estimate the composition
of the distillate and residue. If the same quantity of distillate is obtained by
simple distillation, estimate the composition of the residue and distillate.
Equilibrium data:
x 0.1 0.2 0.3 0.4 0.5 0.6 0.7 0.8 0.9
y 0.22 0.38 0.51 0.63 0.70 0.78 0.85 0.91 0.96

(Ans: (i) –W/D = –0.3/0.7 = – 0.429
yD = 0.56 and xw = 0.35 (From graph)
(ii) xw = 0.245 and yD = 0.61)
3. A simple batch still is used to distill 1000 kg of a mixture containing 60
mass % ethyl alcohol and 40 mass % water after distillation, the bottom
product contains 5 mass % alcohol. Determine the composition of the
overhead product, its mass and mass of the bottom product.
The equilibrium data:
x 5 10 20 30 40 50 60
y 36 51.6 65.5 71 74 76.7 78.9
where x and y are weight percent of ethyl alcohol in liquid phase and vapour
phase respectively.
(Ans: Residue = 192.28 kg; Distillate 807.72 kg;
yD = 0.731 mass % alcohol)
4. A liquid mixture containing 50 mole % acetone and rest water is
differentially distilled at 1 atm. pressure to vaporize 25% of the feed.
Compute the composition of the composited distillate and residue. VLE data
at 1 atm. pressure is given below.
x, mole fraction of
acetone in liquid 0.1 0.2 0.3 0.4 0.6 0.7 0.9
y, mole fraction of
acetone in vapour 0.76 0.82 0.83 0.84 0.86 0.87 0.94
5. A solution of 40 mole % of acetic acid in water is flash distilled at

atmospheric pressure, until 60 mole % of the feed was distilled. Compute the
compositions of the distillate and residue.
Equilibrium data:
Mole fraction of acetic acid in
Liquid, x 0.07 0.15 0.27 0.37 0.50 0.62 0.72 0.82 0.90 1.0
Vapour, y 0.05 0.11 0.20 0.28 0.38 0.49 0.60 0.73 0.80 1.0
(Ans: xw = 0.53 and yD = 0.65 in terms of water)

6. Feed mixture containing equimolar quantities of ‘A’ and ‘B’ is differentially
distilled such that 60 mole % of feed is distilled out. Estimate the
composition of distillate and residue.
x 0 0.157 0.312 0.487 0.655 1.0
y 0 0.279 0.492 0.674 0.810 1.0
x, y are mole fractions of A in liquid and vapour phase respectively.

(Ans: xw = 0.335 and yD = 0.61)
7. A equimolar feed mixture containing Benzene and Toluene is distilled such
that 60% of feed is distilled out. Estimate the composition of distillate and
residue by taking the relative volatility as 2.5 for (i) Simple distillation, (ii)
Equilibrium distillation.
(Ans: (i) xW = 0.29, yD = 0.64 and (ii) xW = 0.365, yD = 0.59)
8. It is desired to separate a feed mixture of ‘A’ and ‘B’ containing 50 mole %
A to a product such that 60% feed is distilled out. Estimate the composition
of residue and distillate if (i) simple distillation is carried out and (ii)
equilibrium distillation is carried out. VLE data:
x 0 5 10 15 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90 100
y 0 11 21 30 38 51 63 72 78 85 91 96 100
x, y are mole % of A in liquid and vapour phase respectively.

(Ans: (i) xW = 0.3, yD = 0.63, (ii) xW = 0.36, yD = 0.59)
9. It is desired to separate a feed mixture of 100 kmol containing 60% heptane
and 40% ethyl benzene such that 60 kmol of the feed is distilled out.
Determine the composition of residue and distillate if the distillation is
(i) Flash distillation and (ii) Differential distillation.
x 0 0.08 0.185 0.251 0.335 0.489 0.651 0.79 0.914 1.0

y 0 0.233 0.428 0.514 0.608 0.729 0.814 0.91 0.963 1.0
x, y is the mole fraction of heptane in liquid and vapour phase respectively.

(Ans: (i) xW = 45%, yX = 70%; (ii) xW = 37.5, yD = 75%)
10. A liquid mixture containing 50 mole % n-heptane and 50 mole % n-octane
is differentially distilled until the residue contains 33% n-heptane. Calculate
Distillation 313
the % vaporization and the composition of the composited distillate. If the

residue with the same composition is achieved in an equilibrium still,
estimate the composition of the distillate and total moles distilled assuming
a = 2.17.
(Ans: yD n-heptane = 0.617, total moles distilled = 60 ml/h;
vaporization: 60%; (ii) yD = 0.52% vaporization: 89.47%)
11. A mixture of 30 mole % Naphthalene and 70 mole % Dipropylene glycol
is differentially distilled at 100 mm Hg until a final distillate containing
55 mole % Naphthalene is obtained. Determine the amount of residue and
the composition of residue.
VLE data:
x 5.4 11.1 28.0 50.6 68.7 80.6 84.8 88
y 22.3 41.1 62.9 74.8 80.2 84.4 86.4 88
12. A mixture containing 30 mole % Hexane, 45 mole % Heptane and

25 mole % Octane is subjected to flash distillation. If 60 mole % of the feed
is vaporized and condensed, calculate the composition of vapour leaving the
separator.
(m values for Hexane, Heptane and Octane: 2.18, 0.99 and 0.46
respectively)
13. A binary mixture containing 55 mole % n-heptane and 45 mole % n-octane
at 27°C is subjected to differential distillation at atmospheric pressure with
60 mole % of the feed liquid is distilled. Assuming a relative volatility of
n-heptane with respect to n-octane is 2.17, determine the composition of the
charge in still and that of distillate.
(Ans: composition of n-heptane xW = 0.38, yD = 0.665)
14. Continuous fractionating column operating at 1 atm is designed to separate
13600 kg/hr of a solution of benzene and toluene. Feed is 0.4-mole fraction
benzene. Distillate contains 0.97 mole fraction benzene and residue contains
0.98 mole fraction toluene. A reflux ratio of twice the minimum is used.
Feed is liquid at its saturation temperature and reflux is returned at
saturation.
Determine:
(i) Quantities of products in kg/hr
(ii) Minimum reflux ratio
(iii) Number of theoretical plates
The average relative volatility for the given system is 2.56.
(Ans: (i) D = 5524.2 kg/h w = 8075.8 kg/h; (ii) Rm = 1.487; (iii) 13)
15. A solution of carbon tetra chloride and carbon disulfide containing
50 mole % of each is to be fractionated to get a top and a bottom product
of 95% and 6% carbon disulfide respectively. The feed is a saturated liquid
at its boiling point and is fed at the rate of 5000 kg/hr. A total condenser is
used and reflux returned to the top plate as a saturated liquid. The
equilibrium data at 1 atm pressure is given below:
x 0 0.06 0.11 0.26 0.39 0.53 0.66 0.76 0.86 1.0
y 0 0.16 0.27 0.50 0.63 0.75 0.83 0.88 0.93 1.0
where x, y are mole fractions of carbon disulfide in liquid and vapour phase
respectively.
(i) Determine the product rate in kg/hr.
(ii) What is the minimum reflux ratio?
(iii) Determine the theoretical number of plates required and the feed
plate location if the tower is operated at twice the minimum reflux ratio.
16. A mixture of 35 mole % A and 65 mole % B is to be separated in the
fractionating column. The concentration of A in the distillate is 93 mole %
and 96% A in the feed is recovered in the distillate. The feed is half vapour
and reflux ratio is to be 4.0. The relative volatility of A to B is 2.0. Calculate
the number of theoretical plates in the column and locate the feed plate.
17. A continuous fractionating column, operating at atmospheric pressure, is to
be designed to separate a mixture containing 30% CS2 and 70% CCl4 into
an overhead product of 96% CS2 and a bottom product of 96% CCl4 (all
mole percent). A reflux ratio of twice the minimum will be used and the
overall efficiency of the column is estimated to be 65%. Feed enters at its
boiling point. Determine the number of plates to be provided and the correct
location of the feed plate.
Equilibrium data:
x 0.0296 0.0615 0.258 0.390 0.532 0.663 0.758 0.860
y 0.0823 0.1555 0.495 0.634 0.747 0.830 0.880 0.932
18. A continuous fractionating column, operating at atmospheric pressure, is to

separate a mixture containing 30 mole % CS2 and 70 mole % CCl4 into an
overhead product of 95 mole % CS2 and a bottom product of 95 mole %
CCl4. The feed enters the column as liquid at its boiling point.
Assuming an overall plate efficiency of 70% and a reflux ratio of 3.16,
determine the number of plates to be provided.
Mole fractions of CS2 in liquid (x) in equilibrium with mole fraction CS2 in
vapour (y) are given below.
Equilibrium data:
x 2.96 11.06 25.8 53.18 66.3 75.75 86.04
y 8.23 26.6 49.5 74.7 83.0 88.0 93.2
19. A feed containing 50 mole % heptane and 50 mole % octane is fed into a
pipe still through a pressure reducing value and then into a flash discharging
chamber. The vapour and liquid leaving the chamber are assumed to be in
Distillation 315
equilibrium. If the fraction of feed converted to vapour is 0.5, find the composition
of the top and bottom plates. The following table gives VLE data:
x, mole fraction of 1.0 0.69 0.4 0.192 0.045 0.0

heptane in vapour phase
y, mole fraction of 1.0 0.932 0.78 0.538 0.178 0.0

heptane in vapour phase
(Ans: xw = 0.31 yD = 0.69)
20. A continuous distillation column is used to separate a feed mixture
containing 24 mole % acetone and 76 mole % methanol into a distillate
product containing 77 mole % acetone and a residue product containing
5 mole % acetone. The feed is A saturated liquid. A reflux ratio of twice the
minimum is used. The overall stage efficiency is 60%. Determine the
number of plates required for the separation.
Equilibrium data:
x 0.0 0.05 0.1 0.2 0.3 0.4 0.5 0.6 0.7 0.8 1.0
y 0.0 0.102 0.186 0.322 0.428 0.513 0.586 0.656 0.725 0.80 1.0
(x, y mole fraction of acetone in liquid and vapour phase respectively)

(Ans: 24 stages)
21. The enthalpy-concentration data for a binary system is given below:
x, mole fraction of A 0.0 0.25 0.407 0.62 0.839 1.0
y, mole fraction of A 0.0 0.396 0.566 0.756 0.906 1.0
H l, kcal/kmol 280 180 145 195 260 380
Hg, kcal/kmol 1000 1030 955 895 885 880
Rest of the data could be obtained by extrapolation. A feed mixture with an

initial composition of 30 mole % A is to separate into an overhead product
of 95 mole % A and a 4 mole % bottom product. Determine the ideal
number of stages needed if the reflux ratio is twice the minimum reflux
ratio. Feed enters as a saturated liquid.
xF = 0.3, xD = 0.95, xw = 0.04, R = 2.4
22. A mixture containing 50 mole % A and 50 mole % B is distilled in a packed
column to yield a top product containing 94 mole % A and a bottom product
containing 95 mole % B. The feed enters a saturated vapour. Estimate the
height of the packing needed if the height of a transfer unit is 0.5 m. A
reflux ratio of 1.5 times the minimum is to be used. The relative volatility
of A with respect to B is 2.5.
(Ans: NTU = 11.25, Ht = 5.625 m)
10
EXTRACTION
10.1 INTRODUCTION
Liquid extraction is the separation of the constituents of a liquid by contact
with another insoluble liquid called solvent. The constituents get distributed
between the two phases. The solvent rich phase is called extract and the
residual liquid from which the solute has been removed is called raffinate.
Some of the complicated systems may use two solvents to separate the
components of a feed. A mixture of para or ortho–nitro benzoic acids can be
separated by distributing them between the insoluble liquids chloroform and
water. The chloroform dissolves the para isomer and water the ortho isomer.
This is called dual solvent or double solvent or fractional extraction. Some of
the components which are difficult to separate by other separation processes
like distillation can effectively be separated by extraction or extraction
followed by distillation, (e.g.) acetic acid – water separation. Similarly long
chain fatty acids can be separated from vegetable oils economically by
extraction rather than high vacuum distillation. The separation of fission
products from nuclear energy process and separation of low cost metals can be
effectively carried out by liquid extraction. Pharmaceutical products like
penicillin are also separated by this technique. Mercaptans can be removed by
using hydrocarbon oil as solvent. Phenol is extracted from coal tar using
alkaline solution as solvent. Caprolactum is extracted with benzene as solvent.
10.2 EQUILIBRIA
In extraction operation generally ternary systems are involved. The solute
distributes between solvent rich phase called extract and solvent lean phase called
raffinate. The schematic diagram shown in Fig. 10.1 indicates the various streams
involved in a typical liquid–liquid extraction operation. The equilibrium
concentration of such systems can be represented in a triangular coordinate
system.
316
Extraction 317
x = mass fraction of solute in Feed and Raffinate stream

y = mass fraction of solute in Solvent and Extract stream
X = Mass of solute/mass of solute free components in Feed or Raffinate phase
Y = Mass of solute/mass of solute free components in Extract or Solvent phase
Fig. 10.1 Streams in extraction.
10.2.1 Equilateral–Triangular Coordinates

A mixture having a typical composition of 50% A, 30% B and 20% C is
represented by point M as shown in Fig. 10.2. Now let us consider that P kg of
a mixture at a point P is added to Q kg of mixture at Q, the resulting mixture is
shown by point R on line PQ such that
P Length of QR xQ x R
(10.1)
Q Length of PR x R xP
The ternary systems usually follow any one of the two categories given
below:
(i) one pair partially soluble and two pairs partially soluble
(ii) Insoluble systems.
Fig. 10.2 Representation of ternary data in a triangular chart.

In all our subsequent discussions ‘C’ indicates the distributing solute, ‘B’
the solvent and ‘A’ the solute-free component in feed. Some of the common
combinations of A, B and C are as follows:
A B C
Water Chloroform Acetone
Benzene Water Acetic acid
The equilibrium composition of mixtures can be represented in a

triangular coordinate system. These diagrams drawn at constant temperatures
are also called isotherms. A typical isotherm is shown in Fig. 10.3 in which ‘C’
is the solute which dissolves in A and B completely. A and B mutually dissolve
to a limited extent. If the solubility of ‘A’ and ‘B’ is very minimal, then the
points S and T will be very close to apexes A and B respectively. The curve
SPQT is the binodal solubility curve. Any mixture outside the curve SPQT will
be a homogeneous solution of the one liquid phase. Any point within the area
bounded by the curve and the axis AB will form two insoluble saturated liquid
phases, one rich in A phase and the other rich in B phase.
Fig. 10.3 Extraction isotherm.
10.3 SYSTEMS OF THREE LIQUIDS—ONE PAIR

PARTIALLY SOLUBLE
Let us consider a ternary mixture whose effective composition is defined by point
M as shown in Fig. 10.4. This mixture will form two insoluble but saturated
phases. Many lines can be drawn through the point M. However, there can only be
one tie line as indicated by the line RE passing through M. Tie line can be located
by projecting the arbitrary lines passing through M to the distribution diagrams. Tie
line is the one whose projections to the equilibrium distribution curve and x = y
(diagonal) line form a vertical line in the xy diagram as shown in Fig. 10.4.
Whenever the distribution curve is above the diagonal line, as shown in Fig. 10.4,
the extract stream will have a higher concentration of the solute than the raffinate
stream. In such cases the tie line will have a positive slope as indicated by line
RE. However, when the distribution curve is below the diagonal line, the
raffinate will
Extraction 319
Fig. 10.4 Ternary system representation and Tie line.
have a higher concentration of solute compared to extract stream and the line
RE instead of having a positive slope will have a negative slope. Occasionally,
the tie lines change their slope from one direction to another and one such tie
line will be horizontal. Such systems are called solutropic systems. When the
tie line simply becomes a point ‘P’, it is called Plait point as shown in Fig.
10.4.
10.3.1 Effect of Temperature

The mutual solubility of A and B increases with increasing temperature and
beyond some critical temperature, A and B are completely soluble. Thus, the
heterogeneity decreases at higher temperatures. Also, the slope of tie lines and
distribution curve vary with changes in temperature and it is shown in Fig.
10.5. Hence, it is preferable to operate below the critical temperature such that
the heterogeneity is maintained.
Fig. 10.5 Effect of temperature on Extraction Isotherm (T1 < T2 < T3).
10.3.2 Effect of Pressure

Generally the effect of pressure is not very significant. It is preferable to
operate above the vapour pressure of solutions.
10.4 SYSTEMS OF THREE LIQUIDS—TWO PAIRS

PARTIALLY SOLUBLE
Let us assume that A and C are completely soluble, while the pairs A–B and
B–C show limited solubility. A typical isotherm is shown below in Fig. 10.6.
Points F and H indicate mutual solubilities of A and B and points G and J indicate
those of B and C. Curves FKG is for A rich layer and HLJ is for B rich layer. The
area bounded by FKGJLH indicates a heterogeneous mixture and outside this area
the mixture is homogeneous. KL is a tie line which corresponds to the effective
composition M. Increase in temperature usually increases the mutual
solubilities and at the same time influences the slope of the tie lines.
Fig. 10.6 Isotherm of system of three liquids—two pairs partially soluble.
10.5 TWO PARTIALLY SOLUBLE LIQUIDS AND

ONE SOLID
When the solid does not form hydrates with the liquids, the characteristics of the
isotherm will be as shown in Fig. 10.7. K and L indicate saturated solutions of C
in A and B respectively. A and B are soluble only to the limited extent shown at
H and J. Area bounded by HDGJ shows a heterogeneous mixture while the region
KDHA and JGLB indicate homogeneous phase. RE indicates the tie line for a
mixture whose effective composition is M. The region CDG consists of 3 phases,
Fig. 10.7 Isotherm of system of two partially soluble liquids and one solid.
Extraction 321
namely solid C and saturated liquid solutions at D and G. Liquid extraction is

mainly confined to the heterogeneity area which is bounded by HDGJ.
Temperature has a significant effect on the shape of the curve HDGJ.
10.6 OTHER COORDINATES

The equilibrium concentrations of ternary systems can also be expressed in
rectangular coordinates. This is done by taking the concentration of B along x- axis
and that of the concentrations of C in A rich phase, denoted conventionally as x
and B rich phase, denoted conventionally as y, both on y-axis in rectangular
coordinates. It will be more convenient to solve problems using graphical
procedure with rectangular coordinate system. Rectangular coordinate system has
been used in the worked examples presented in this chapter.
10.7 FACTORS INFLUENCING CHOICE OF

SOLVENT
1. Selectivity, b: The effectiveness of solvent B for separating a solution of
A and C into its components is measured by comparing the ratio of C to
A in the B–rich phase to that in the A–rich phase at equilibrium and is
called selectivity or separation factor. This is also analogous to relative
volatility in distillation and it is defined as
[(weight fraction of C)/(weight fraction of A)]Extract

C
[(weight fraction of C)/(weight fraction of A)]Raffinate
È yE * Ø È weight fraction of A in raffinate Ø

ÉÊ x ÙÚ ÉÊ weight fraction of A in extract ÙÚ (10.2)
R
It is preferable to choose a solvent with selectivity higher than unity.

Selectivity also varies with concentration and in some systems it will vary
from high values through unity to fractional values. Such systems are
analogous to azeotropes.
2. Distribution coefficient: It is defined as the concentration of solute
in extract(y) to that in raffinate(x). It is preferable to have a higher
ratio of y/x as it results in the use of lesser quantity of solvent.
3. Recoverability of solvent: The solvent has to be recovered from
extract phase for reuse. This is normally done by distillation. Hence,
one should ensure that the mixture does not form an azeotrope which
has a higher relative volatility and its latent heat of vaporization shall
be low so that lesser energy is spent during vaporization.
4. Density: A larger difference in densities is necessary both for stagewise
and continuous contact operations as it will help in easier separation
of phases. However, at plait point the density difference is zero.
5. Interfacial tension: If the interfacial tension of solvent is large,
more readily the coalescence of droplets or emulsions will occur but
the dispersion of one liquid in the other will be difficult. Since

coalescence is usually of greater importance in extraction operation,
the interfacial tension should therefore be high. It is zero at plait
point.
6. Chemical reactivity: Solvent should be thermally stable and
chemically inert towards the other components of the system and also
towards the material of construction.
7. Other properties: Viscosity, vapour pressure and freezing point
should be low for ease in handling and storage. They should also be
non-toxic, non-flammable and of low cost.
10.8 OPERATIONS
Extraction operations can be carried out either as a single stage or as a multistage
operation. Again the multistage operation could be either a cross-current or a
counter-current operation. The leaving streams, viz. the extract and raffinate from
each stage is always in equilibrium. A combination of mixer-settler is said to
constitute a stage and in a multistage operation they are arranged in cascades.
10.8.1 Single Stage Operation

A typical flow diagram of a single stage extraction operation is shown in Fig. 10.8.
Fig. 10.8 Streams in a single stage operation.
F, R1, E1, and S are either the flow rates or quantities of different streams
such as feed, raffinate, extract and solvent respectively and xF, x1, y1, yS are all
weight fractions of solute in their respective streams.
The material balance gives
F + S = M1 = E1 + R1 (10.3)
where M1 is the total weight of mixture (Feed + solvent or extract + raffinate)
A solute balance yields
FxF + SyS = M1xM1 = E1y1 + R1x1 (10.4)
where xM1 is the effective solute concentration in the extractor.
Eliminating M1 from Eqs. (10.3) and (10.4), we get
S xF x M1
F x M1 yS (10.5)
The quantities of extract and raffinate can be computed from mixture rule
given by Eq. (10.1) or by material balance given in Eq. (10.4)
Extraction 323
E1y1 + R1x1 = M1xM1 (10.6)

E1y1 + (M1 – E1)x1 = M1xM1 (10.7)
È x M x1 Ø
E1 M1 É 1 Ù (10.8)
Ê y1 x1 Ú
Let us now try to use the phase diagram and distribution diagram to determine
the product composition as shown in Fig. 10.9.
Fig. 10.9 Determination of minimum and maximum solvent.
The point F corresponds to feed mixture and S, the solvent. Once the feed and
solvent are mixed, the mixture has an effective solute concentration of xM1 and is
located as M1 which lies on the line joining F and S. Thus the point M1 lies within
the curve. However, on settling, the mixture forms the two phases E1 and R1
and the line joining the points E1 and R1 intersects the feed line FS which is
M1. Though many lines can be drawn through the point M1, only one line could
be the tie line which will correspond to the equilibrium composition of extract
and raffinate phases. The tie line could be located by a trial and error
procedure using the equilibrium curve as shown.
10.8.1.1 Minimum solvent requirement
If the point M1 lies on the point of intersection of curve (of solvent lean phase
side) with FS (the point D) as shown in Fig. 10.9, then the corresponding
amount of solvent is the minimum solvent needed and it provides an
infinitesimal amount of extract as indicated by G.
10.8.1.2 Maximum solvent requirement
If the point M1 lies on H (solvent rich phase side), then the amount of solvent
used becomes the maximum and the corresponding raffinate concentration K
obtained by the tie line indicates the infinitesimal amount of raffinate.
10.8.1.3 Steps involved in the estimation of extract and

raffinate quantities
1. Plot the ternary data and equilibrium curve.
2. Locate the feed point ‘F’ and solvent point ‘S’ on the ternary data
plot.
Ë ( Fx F Sys ) Û
3. Join FS and locate M1 Ì M1 corresponds to x M1 .
Í (F S ) ÜÝ
4. Draw a suitable tie line through M1 with the help of equilibrium curve.
5. Locate the points of intersection of this tie line on the ternary data
curve as E1 and R1 on solvent rich layer and solvent lean layer
respectively and find y1 and x1 values corresponding to these points.
È x M x1 Ø
6. The quantity of extract layer, E1 M1 É 1 Ù and that of raffinate
Ê y1 x1 Ú
layer, R1 = F + S – E1 can be determined.
10.8.2 Multistage Cross-current Operation

A typical flow diagram of a multistage cross-current operation is shown in
Fig. 10.10
Fig. 10.10 A three stage cross-current extraction operation.
Consider a three-stage cross-current extraction process as shown in Fig. 10.10.

The feed enters the first stage and the raffinate successively passes from stage
(1) to (2) and (2) to (3) and finally leaves the system. Fresh or recovered
solvent enters each stage. The solvent used could be of different
concentrations but generally it will have the same value as it enters either fresh
or after recovery from extract. The values of Mi, xMi, xi and yi, where i stands
for the ith stage, can be computed as indicated in the single stage operation
using material balances and tie lines. From these values the quantities of
extract and raffinate from each stage can be computed.
Material balance across stage (1) gives
F + S1 = R1 + E1 = M1 (say) (10.9)
Extraction 325
Component balance gives

FxF + S1ys = R1x1 + E1y1 = M1xM1 (10.10)
(FxF S1 ys )
\ x M1 (10.11)
(F S1 )
Similarly for any stage i
( Ri 1 xi 1 Si ys )
x Mi (10.12)
( Ri 1 Si )
10.8.2.1 Steps
1. Plot the ternary data and equilibrium curve.
2. Locate the feed point F and solvent point S1 on the ternary data plot.
3. Join FS1 and locate M1. {M1 corresponds to xM1 and is given by
(FxF S1 ys )
x M1 }
(F S1 )
4. Draw a suitable tie line passing through M1.
5. Locate the points of intersection of tie line on the ternary data as E1
and y1 on B – rich layer and R1 on solvent lean layer respectively.
Estimate y1 and x1 corresponding to these points.
Fig. 10.11 Three stage cross-current operation.
È x M x1 Ø
6. The quantity of extract layer is given by M1 É 1 and that of
Ê y1 x1 ÙÚ
raffinate layer is given by R1 = F + S1 – E1.
7. Join R1S2 and locate M2. {M2 corresponds to xM2 and is given by
( R1 x1 S2 ys )
x M2 }
( R1 S2 )
8. Draw a suitable tie line passing through M2 to estimate y2 and x2 from
graph.
9. The quantity of extract and raffinate E2 and R2 leading second stage
È x M x2 Ø
are given by E2 M 2 É 2 Ù and R2 = R1 + S2 – E2
Ê y2 x2 Ú
10. Repeat the procedure for stage 3 as mentioned in steps (7) and (8) and
obtain E3, R3, y3 and x3.
10.8.3 Multistage Countercurrent Extraction

A typical flow diagram of a multistage countercurrent operation is shown in
Fig. 10.12.
Fig. 10.12 Multistage countercurrent extraction operation.
Material balance for the system gives

F + ENp+1 = E1 + RNp (10.13)
i.e. F – E1 = RNp – ENp+1 (10.14)
FxF + ENp+1yNp+1 = E1y1 + RNp . xNp (10.15)
i.e. FxF – E1y1 = RNp . xNp – ENp+1 . yNp+1 (10.16)
A material balance from 1 to n stages gives
F + En+1 = E1 + Rn (10.17)
F – E1 = Rn – En+1 (10.18)
Hence, from Eqs. (10.14) and (10.18) , we get
F – E1 = RNp – ENp+1 = Rn – En+1 (10.19)
By substituting for n as 1, 2, 3, … we can show that
F – E1 = R1 – E2 = R2 – E3 = DR
Here DR, which is defined as a difference point, is the net flow outward not
only at the last stage but also between any two adjacent stages and it remains
constant. In other words, any line joining FE1, R1E2, R2E3, … and extended
must pass through the point DR as shown in Fig. 10.13.
Extraction 327
Fig. 10.13 Countercurrent operation—graphical representation of stages.
10.8.3.1 Steps involved in the determination of number of

stages
1. Plot ternary data and draw the distribution curve adjacent to the
ternary data in rectangular co-ordinates as shown in Fig. 10.13.
2. Locate the feed point (F), solvent point (ENp+1) and the raffinate point
(RNp) leaving the systems based on their composition.
Ë FX F ( E N p 1 )( yN p 1 ) Û
3. Join FS and locate xm where, x m Ì Ü.
ÌÍ F EN p 1 ÜÝ
4. Join RNp and xm and extend it to intersect the binodal curve which gives E1.
5. Join F and E1. Similarly join RNp and ENp+1.
6. Lines FE1 and RNp ENp+1 are extended to meet and the meeting point is DR.
7. Through E1 and with the help of distribution curve, locate R1 on solvent
lean layer.
8. Join R1 with DR and extend the line to obtain E2 on the solvent rich layer
part of the ternary data plot.
9. Through E2 and with the distribution curve, obtain R2.
10. Proceed similarly till RNp is crossed, thus number of stages needed for
a specific operation is obtained.
However, if the number of stages are specified, there are two possible
questions that arise.
(a) For a specified amount of solvent, what will be the raffinate
concentration?
(b) For a specified raffinate concentration, what is the amount of solvent
to be used?
Both need trial and error technique.

For situation (a), assume RNp and proceed as discussed earlier. As soon as
the specified stages are completed, check whether the assumed RNp value
also matches with the theoretical value obtained. If not, make another
assumption of RNp and proceed as earlier till the assumed RNp value and the
number of stages coincides with the specified values.
For situation (b), assume the quantity of solvent, estimate xm and proceed
as earlier. Check whether the specified RNp value is reached for the given
number of stages. If not, assume a new value for the solvent quantity again
and proceed as earlier till the RNp value and the number of stages match.
10.8.3.2 Minimum solvent requirement
The minimum solvent needed is fixed by the tie line which passes through the
point of intersection of line FEmm and solvent lean layer curve (the
corresponding point of intersection is F¢). The procedure to determine the
minimum amount of solvent is given below and shown in Fig. 10.14.
Fig. 10.14 Countercurrent operation—determination of minimum solvent.
Steps
1. Plot the ternary data and draw the distribution curve.
2. Locate F, ENp + 1 and RNp.
3. Arbitrarily draw the line RNp Emm and check with the help of x-y plot
whether the points F¢ and Emm correspond to a tie line. If not, by trial
and error locate a suitable RNp Emm line which will ultimately
correspond to tie line.
4. Join F ENp + 1 and Emm RNp to find the intersection of these lines, xmm .
FxF ( ENp 1 )( yNp 1 )
5. Since, xmm , the determined ENp+1 will be the
F ENp 1
minimum solvent required. (Since, all the other quantities are known.)
Extraction 329
10.9 INSOLUBLE SYSTEMS (IMMISCIBLE SYSTEMS)

10.9.1 Cross-current Operation
In insoluble systems, the solvent (B) and the non-solute component in feed
solution (A) are insoluble and remain so at all solute concentrations. Since A and
B are insoluble, the amount of A and B both in their feed streams and the leaving
streams remain constant. If X is the solute concentration in feed stream or raffinate
stream expressed in mass ratio (kg of C/kg of A) and Y is the solute concentration
in solvent or extract stream expressed in mass ratio (kg of C / kg of B), then a mass
balance around stage n with reference to Fig. 10.15 yields
Fig. 10.15 Multistage cross-current operation for an insoluble system.
A . Xn – 1 + Bn . YS = Bn . Yn + A . Xn (10.20)
A [Xn – 1 – Xn] = Bn [Yn – YS] (10.21)
A (Yn Ys )
(10.22)
Bn ( X n X n 1 )
where A is the non-solute component in feed and Bn is the quantity of pure solvent
used in nth stage, –A/Bn is the slope of the operating line for stage n. For a
typical three stage cross-current operation the construction of operating lines
and the determination of final concentration of raffinate is shown in Fig. 10.16.
Fig. 10.16 Determination of number of stages in a cross-current operation.

10.9.1.1 Steps involved (Fig. 10.16)

1. Draw the equilibrium curve (X vs Y) on mass ratio basis.
2. Locate F (X0, Ys) and also draw a horizontal line L at Y = YS.
3. Draw a line with the slope (–A/B1) and allow it to intersect the curve
at .
4. Draw a vertical line from to the horizontal line L and the point of
intersection corresponds to (X1, YS).
5. From (X1, YS) draw a line with a slope of (–A/B2) to intersect curve at
.
6. The vertical line drawn from to the horizontal line L gives the
coordinates (X2, YS).
7. Similarly proceed till XNp is crossed and determine the number of stages
needed or for the given number of stages, determine the XNp value and
hence the percentage extraction.
10.9.2 Countercurrent Operation

The flow of various streams in a countercurrent immiscible system with their
compositions in a multistage operation is shown in Fig. 10.17.
Fig. 10.17 Multistage countercurrent extraction operation for an insoluble system.
The material balance based on solute is given below:

A . X0 + B . YNp+1 = BY1 + A . XNp (10.23)
A [X0 – XNp] = B [Y1 – YNp+1] (10.24)
A (Y1 YNp 1 )
i.e. (10.25)
B ( X 0 X Np )
A (Yout Yin )
i.e. (10.26)
B ( X in X out )
The operating line will have a slope of A/B and also pass through the points
(X0, Y1) and (XNp, YNp+1).
Once the operating line is constructed, the number of stages needed either for
a specified percentage recovery or the exit concentration of raffinate stream
can be found.
Sometimes the percentage recovery and the number of stages will be
specified. The objective will be to fix the amount of solvent needed for the
operation. This can be done by fixing the operating line by trial and error,
Extraction 331
which will exactly yield both the exit concentration of raffinate and the
specified number of stages.
Minimum solvent requirement is estimated by drawing either a tangent to the
equilibrium curve or based on the equilibrium solute concentration in the solvent
rich layer for the exit concentration of raffinate. The slope of the tangent gives the
slope of operating line under minimum solvent conditions. In the later case, it is
estimated by the slope of the line joining the terminal conditions.
When the equilibrium curve is of constant slope, say m¢, then m¢ = (Y*/X).
The number of stages Np can be estimated by
Np 1
È mB Ø È mB Ø
ÉÊ Ù É
( X F X Np ) A Ú Ê A ÙÚ
(YNp 1 ) Np 1 (10.27)
XF È mB Ø
ÉÊ Ù 1
m A Ú
mB
where, is called the extraction factor.
A
10.9.2.1 Steps involved (Fig. 10.18)
1. Draw the equilibrium curve.
2. Locate X0, XNp and YNp+1.
3. From the point (XNp, YNp+1) draw a tangent to the equilibrium curve
which will give slope of the operating line at minimum solvent
condition, (A/B) min.
4. If Bactual in terms of Bmin is known, then we can determine (A/B)actual and
draw the actual operating line. Otherwise, if the quantity of B is given,
draw the operating line directly.
Fig. 10.18 Stages for countercurrent extraction.

5. At X0 from the operating line draw a horizontal line to equilibrium

curve which will give Y1, the concentration of solute in final extract.
6. By stepwise construction from (X0, Y1), determine the number of
stages needed to cross XNp.
7. However, if the number of stages are prescribed, XNp will have to be
fixed by trial and error and checked for the prescribed number of
stages.
8. In case the amount of solvent used is not given and XNp along with the
stages are known then the operating line has to be fixed by trial and error
to ensure that both the prescribed XNp and the number of stages are
reached. From the slope of the operating line so fixed, we can estimate the
solvent needed for the operation.
10.10 CONTINUOUS COUNTERCURRENT

EXTRACTION WITH REFLUX
In a normal countercurrent extraction operation, the extract obtained will at the
most be in equilibrium with the feed solution. However, the use of reflux at the
extract end of the plant can provide a product even richer, as in the case of the
rectifying section of a distillation column. Reflux is not used for the raffinate
stream. A typical flow diagram of a countercurrent extraction with reflux is shown
in Fig. 10.19.
Fig. 10.19 Countercurrent extraction with reflux.
E1¢ = E¢ = R0 + PE¢ (10.28)

(The prime indicates the flow rate of solvent-free streams)
The procedure for determining the number of stages is quite similar to
Ponchon–Savarit method discussed under distillation in Chapter 9.
Bout C
Let us define ‘N’ as and X and Y as in raffinate and
( A C )out ( A C)
extract streams respectively.
Let DE represent the net flow outwards from the enriching section.
i.e. DE¢ = PE¢ (10.29)
Extraction 333
A component balance for solute indicates, XDE = XPE

Balance for solvent B gives
BE = DE¢ . NDE (10.30)
For all stages up to c, a balance for A + C gives
E¢c+1 = PE¢ + Rc¢ = DE¢ + Rc¢ (10.31)
i.e. DE¢ = E ¢c+1 – Rc¢ (10.32)
The component balance for A and C is
DE¢XDE = E¢c+1Yc+1 – Rc¢XRc (10.33)
Similarly, a balance for B gives
DE¢NDE = E¢c+1N¢Ec+1 – Rc¢ NRc (10.34)
Since c represents any stage, all lines radiating from point DE represent extract
and raffinate flowing between any two successive stages.
Solving Eq. (10.31) with Eqs. (10.33) and (10.34), we get the expression, for
internal reflux ratio.
Rc ( N 'E N E ,c 1 ) ( X 'E Yc 1 )
(10.35)
E c 1 ( N 'E N Rc ) ( X 'E X Rc )
line ' E Ec 1
(10.36)
line ' E Rc
Ro Ro ( N 'E N E1 )
External reflux ratio (10.37)
PE PE ( N E1 )
and this can be used to locate DE point which will have coordinates as (XDE, NDE).
Similarly, we can show that R¢NP – S¢ = R¢n–1 – En¢ = DR¢ (for a general stage n in
stripping section) and hence all operating lines will pass through DR¢ in stripping
section. A material balance for the entire plant, on solvent-free basis, gives
F¢ + S¢ = PE¢ + R¢NP (10.38)
F¢ = PE¢ + R¢Np – S¢ = DE¢ + DR¢ (10.39)
Hence, the feed point F will lie on the line joining DE¢ and DR¢.
The minimum reflux ratio occurs when the line radiating either from D¢E or
D¢R coincides with a tie line and also pass through feed point F.
10.10.1 Steps
The procedure for determining the number of stages in continuous
countercurrent with reflux is shown in Fig. 10.20.
1. Convert the data to solvent free basis and estimate N, X, Y.
2. Plot N vs X and Y.
3. Draw the X vs Y diagram and locate X P E and X R Np .
4. Locate X P E and X R Np and draw vertical lines in N vs X, N vs Y plot.

Fig. 10.20 Procedure to determine the number of stages in countercurrent

extraction operation with reflux.
5. For the given reflux ratio estimate NDE and plot (X¢DE, NDE) point and
call it DE.
6. Locate feed point F (XF, NF).
7. Join DE and F and produce it to cut the vertical line drawn at X R Np to

obtain DR.
8. Draw arbitrary lines from DE and DR point to N vs X and N vs Y plot and
obtain the coordinates of the operating line.
9. Plot the coordinates of operating line in X vs Y diagram.
10. By stepwise construction starting from X P E determine the stages needed

up to X R Np . The stage which crosses the feed point (corresponding to

XF), gives the location of feed point.
10.11 FRACTIONAL EXTRACTION

When a solution contains two solutes, both of which can be extracted by
countercurrent extraction with a suitable solvent, then any great degree of
separation of the solutes by this method is difficult, unless their distribution
coefficients are very large. By using partially miscible solvents, separation can be
achieved.
10.12 MULTICOMPONENT EXTRACTION

For systems containing more than four components, presentation of equilibrium
data and the computation of stages are very difficult (as in the extraction of
petroleum lubricating oils). In such cases the number of stages needed are
determined experimentally in the laboratory.
Extraction 335
10.13 CONTINUOUS CONTACT EXTRACTORS

In these extractors liquid flows countercurrently through a single piece of
equipment and one extractor is equivalent to many theoretical stages. The flow is
produced by virtue of the variation in densities of the liquids. Whenever the
motivating force is gravity it has a vertical orientation and if the motivating force
is centrifugal force, it is horizontal in nature. Flooding is one of the common
problems encountered in the operation of these devices. They are also subjected to
axial mixing which severely reduces the extraction rates. The tower design
procedure is similar to the design of packed absorption tower. Raffinate stream
corresponds to gas stream and extract stream corresponds to the liquid stream.
Z = HtR . NtR (10.40)
R
where HtR (10.41)
k R a (1 x )im
x1 x1
(1 x )im dx dx 1 (1 x2 )
N tR Ô (1 x )(1 xi ) Ô ( x x ) 2 ln (1 x )
i 1
(10.42)
x2 x2
xi = Interface concentration of solvents

kR = mass transfer coefficient for raffinate phase
HtR = height of raffinate transfer unit
NtR = Number of raffinate transfer units
(1 – x)im = logarithmic mean of (1 – x) and (1 – xi)
The height of the tower can also be estimated using the overall mass
transfer coefficients as in the case of absorption in which case,
Z = HtoR . NtoR = HtoE × NtoE (10.43)
R E
where, HtoR ; HtoE (10.44)
K R a (1 x ) *m K E a (1 y) *m
x1 x1
(1 x ) *M dx dx 1 (1 x2 )
N toR Ô (1 x )( x x*) Ô ( x x*) 2 ln (1 x ) 1
(10.45)
x2 x2
x1 x1
(1 y) * M dy dy 1 (1 y1 )
N toE Ô
x2
(1 y)( y * y)
x2
Ô ( y * y) 2 ln (1 y ) 2
(10.46)
(1 x*) (1 x )
(1 x ) *M (10.47)
È (1 x*) Ø
ln É
Ê (1 x ) ÙÚ
(1 y) (1 y*)
(1 y) *M (10.48)
È (1 y) Ø
ln É
Ê (1 y*) ÙÚ
where x* is the concentration in equilibrium with y and y* is the concentration

in equilibrium with x.
10.14 DILUTE SOLUTIONS

For dilute solutions and whenever the equilibrium curve and operating curve
are linear in the operating range,
( x1 x2 ) ( y1 y2 )
NtoR and NtoE (10.49)
( x x*) m ( y * y) m
If the equilibrium relationship is given by m = y*/x, similar to Henry’s law, then
ËÈ È y2 Ø Ø Û
Ì É x1 ÉÊ ÙÚ Ù Ü
m È R Ø R Ü
ln Ì É Ù É1 Ù
ÌÉ È y2 Ø Ù Ê mE Ú mE Ü
Ì ÉÊ x2 ÉÊ ÙÚ ÙÚ Ü
NtoR Í m Ý
(10.50)
È R Ø
1É
Ê mE ÙÚ
Ë È y mx1 Ø È mE Ø mE Û
ln Ì É 2 Ù É1
Ê Ù Ü
Í Ê y1 mx1 Ú R Ú R Ý
NtoE (10.51)
È mE Ø
1É
Ê R ÙÚ
Though the above expressions can be used in the design of continuous contactors,
it is always advisable to go in for pilot plant studies at nearly the expected
operating conditions to enable the design of extractors as lot of parameters
influence extraction. These include physical properties of liquids, its flow rate,
solubility of solute and the presence of surface active agents. The equipment
also has its own impact on the extraction performance. The factors such as
type of agitator and its size, the size of extractor, the presence of baffles and
type of agitation have an influence on the performance of extraction.
10.15 EQUIPMENT
The equipment used for liquid-liquid extraction operations are classified as:
Single stage mixer settler
A multistage cascade of single stage mixer settler
Continuous contactors.
10.15.1 Mixer-settler
A single stage mixer-settler is a simple arrangement with two units. In the first
unit, called ‘mixer’, mixing of two phases takes place which leads to transfer
of mass and in the second unit, called ‘settler’, separation of phase takes place
(Fig. 10.21). In a multistage operation, several such combinations are used.
Extraction 337
The degree of dispersion depends on the type of contactor/mixer and liquid

characteristics. The liquid phases can also be mixed by the use of different
types of impellers such as marine impeller, flat blade turbine, etc. The normal
ratio of impeller to tank diameter is 0.25 to 0.33. The dispersion can also be
achieved by the dispersion of one liquid through another liquid in the form of
fine droplets with the help of nozzles. In a multistage cascade arrangement,
feed after entering the first mixer (subsequently raffinate) flows from the first
settler to the next mixer-settler combination till it leaves from the last settler
as final raffinate. The solvent enters the last mixer and from the last settler it
passes on to the next mixer before it finally leaves as the concentrated extract
from the first settler. The flow, thus, is countercurrent.
However, large towers are used when large volumes of liquid have to be
handled and that too on continuous basis. In these towers, the liquids flow
countercurrently. The heavy phase is introduced at the top and it flows downwards.
The lighter phase is introduced at the bottom and this phase flows upwards. Some
of the commonly used towers for this operation are briefly described here.
Fig. 10.21 A mixer-settler combination.
10.15.2 Mechanically Agitated Tower

These towers are provided with agitators which are mechanically agitated. The
efficiency of separation increases due to agitation of the liquid streams. The
agitators are of different configurations.
10.15.3 Oldshue-Rhuston Extractor

In this case the extractor is provided with flat blade disc turbine impeller for
dispersing and mixing and horizontal compartmental plates which are provided to
reduce axial mixing. This is a very old type of extractor.
10.15.4 Rotating Disc Contactor (RDC)

The schematic diagram of RDC is shown in Fig. 10.22. It comprises a tall
vertical tower provided with inlets for both feed and solvent streams to enter
and outlets
Fig. 10.22 Rotating disc contactor (RDC).
for both product (Raffinate and Extract) streams. It has a central shaft attached
with rotor discs and is driven by a motor. Stators of centrally hollowed rings
attached to the wall of the tower alternate position to the rotors. This can be
operated at high speeds and it finds wide application in petroleum industries.
10.15.5 York-Scheibel Column

This column is provided with mixing and horizontal packed compartments
arranged alternately as shown in Fig. 10.23. Mixing is done by a turbine impeller
which is attached to a mechanically driven central shaft. The packed
compartments are provided with wire mesh to reduce axial mixing.
10.15.6 Pulsed Column Extractor

In this extractor, there is no moving device. A reciprocating pulse input is
hydraulically transmitted into the column due to which there is thorough
contact between liquid streams. Column is provided with perforated plates
attached as shown in Fig. 10.24. Due to the pulse input, the light and heavy
liquids move upward and downward throughout the tower through the
perforations. Since it has no moving parts, it finds extensive use in handling.
Extraction 339
Fig. 10.23 York scheibel column.
Fig. 10.24 Pulsed column extractor.

10.15.7 Other Extractors

Apart from these we have conventional packed towers, spray towers and for
lesser density difference systems the centrifugal extractors.
WORKED EXAMPLES
1. A 5% (by weight) solution of acetaldehyde in toluene is extracted with water
in a three stage cross-current unit. If 100 kg of water is used per stage
for 500 kg of feed, calculate (using graphical method) the percentage
extraction of acetaldehyde and the weights of final raffinate and mixed
extract. The equilibrium relationship is given by the equation, Y = 2.3 X
where Y = kg acetaldehyde/kg water and X = kg acetaldehyde/kg
toluene. Assume that toluene and water are immiscible with each other.
Solution.
A : toluene, B : water, C : acetaldehyde,
F = 500 kg, xF = 0.05, Y = 2.3X
B = 100 kg water/stage
Three stage cross-current operation
Assume solvent to be pure, i.e. ys = 0
F = 500 kg, A = 475 kg, and C = 25 kg
Slope = (– A/B)
So (– A/B) for each stage = (– 475/100) = (– 4.75)
Draw the operating line with a slope of – 4.75 for each stage
xF 0.05
XF 0.0526
(1 x F ) 1 0.95
X (kg acetaldehyde/
0 0.01 0.02 0.03 0.04 0.05 0.06
kg toluene)
Y (kg acetaldehyde/
0 0.023 0.046 0.069 0.092 0.115 0.138
kg water)
Since system is immiscible, the whole of solvent goes in extract. The

feed introduced in 1st stage just passes through all stages and comes out
as final raffinate:
A plot between X and Y is drawn. The operating line is drawn with a
slope of – 4.75 for each of the three stages.
Weight of A in final raffinate = A = 475 kg
Final raffinate contains X3 = 0.0161 kg C/kg A (from graph)
Amount of C in raffinate = 475 × 0.016 = 7.6 kg
Total weight of raffinate = 475 + 7.6 = 482.6 kg
Total C extracted = (Y1 + Y2 + Y3) × 100
= 100 × (0.082 + 0.055 + 0.037) = 17.4 kg
In extract, the amount of B = 100 kg (in each stage)
Y3 = 0.037 kg C/kg B (from graph)
Amount of C in final stage extract = 0.037 × 100 = 3.7 kg
Total weight of extract = 300 + 17.4 = 317.4 kg
% Extraction = (17.4/25) × 100 = 69.6%
Extraction 341
2. 100 kg of a solution containing acetic acid and water containing 25%

acid by weight is to be extracted with isopropyl ether at 20°C. The total
solvent used for extraction is 100 kg. Determine the compositions and
quantities of various streams if,
(i) The extraction is carried out in single stage
(ii) The extraction is carried out in two stages with 50 kg of solvent in
each stage.
Equilibrium data:
Water layer (wt. %) Ether layer (wt. %)

Acid (x) Water (A) Acid (y) Water (A)
0.69 98.1 0.18 0.5
1.41 97.1 0.37 0.7
2.9 95.5 0.79 0.8
6.42 91.7 1.93 1.0
13.3 84.4 4.82 1.9
25.5 71.1 11.4 3.9
36.7 58.9 21.6 6.9
44.3 45.1 31.1 10.8
46.4 37.1 36.2 15.1
Solution.
A ® water, B ® isopropyl ether, C ® Acetic acid,
F = 100 kg, A = 75 kg, and C = 25 kg, xF = 0.25
Total solvent used = 100 kg = B
B 0.0121 0.0149 0.016 0.0188 0.023 0.034 0.044 0.106 0.165

x 0.0069 0.0141 0.029 0.0642 0.133 0.255 0.367 0.443 0.464
B 0.9932 0.9893 0.9841 0.9707 0.9328 0.847 0.715 0.581 0.487
y 0.0018 0.0037 0.0079 0.0193 0.0482 0.114 0.216 0.311 0.362
(i) Single stage operation:

By total and component material balances,
F + S = M1
100 + 100 = M1 = 200 kg
Fx y Sys 100 0.25 100 0
x M1 0.125
FS 100 100
Locate M1 on the FS line corresponding to xM1. By trial and error, a tie
line is drawn which passes through M1.
The co-ordinates (x1, y1) obtained are (0.18, 0.075).
By material balance,
R1x1 + y1E1 = M1xM1
R1 + E1 = M1
R1 × 0.18 + 0.075E1 = 200 × 0.125
R1 + E1 = 200
È x M x1 Ø
Solving we get, E1 M1 É 1 Ù
Ê y1 x1 Ú
Quantities of product streams are
E1 = 104.76 kg
R1 = 95.24 kg
Extraction 343
(ii) Two-stage operation:

F = 100 kg, S = 50 kg
S + F = M1
Fx F Sys 100 0.25 50 0
x M1,2 0.167
FS 100 50
M1 = 50 + 100 = 150 kg
Locate M1,2 on the Fs line corresponding to xM1,2. By trial and error, a tie
line is drawn which passes through M12.
The co-ordinates (x12, y22) obtained are (0.215, 0.09)
By following the same procedure mentioned above and solving, we get
È x M x12 Ø È 0.167 0.215 Ø
E12 M12 É 12 Ù 150 É 57.6 kg
Ê y12 x12 Ú Ê 0.09 0.215 ÙÚ
R12 = 150 – 57.6 = 92.4 kg
Similarly for II stage, xM22 = 0.1395, M2 = 92.4 + 50 = 142.4 kg
x2 = 0.175 and y2 = 0.07 (from tie line)
E2 = 48.14 kg
R2 = 94.26 kg
(25 94.26 0.175)
Percentage recovery = 100 34.02%
25
3. 1000 kg/hr of an acetone-water mixture containing 20% by weight of
acetone is to be counter-currently extracted with trichloroethane. The
recovered solvent to be used is free from acetone. The water and
trichloroethane are insoluble. If 90% recovery of acetone is desired
estimate the number of stages required if 1.5 times the minimum solvent
is used. The equilibrium relationship is given by y = 1.65x, where x and y
are weight fractions of acetone in water and trichloroethane respectively.
Solution.
XF = 0.2/(1 – 0.2) = 0.25
XNP = 0.25 × 0.1 = 0.025
y1 = 1.65 × 0.2 = 0.33
Y1 = 0.33/0.67 = 0.49
Ys = 0 (Pure solvent)
(the same value is got from plotting of the graph also)
X 0.05 0.1 0.175 0.25 0.325
x
x= 0.0476 0.0909 0.149 0.20 0.245
1 x
y = 1.65x 0.0785 0.15 0.246 0.33 0.404
y
Y= 0.085 0.176 0.326 0.493 0.678
1 y
A Y1 Ys
Bmin X F X Np
800 0.49 0
Bmin 0.25 0.025
Bmin = 367.35 kg
Bact = 1.5 × Bmin = 1.5 × 367.35 = 551.025 kg
A Y1,act Ys
Bact X F X Np
800 Y1,act 0
1.452
551.025 0.25 0.025
Y1,act = 0.327
An operating line with a slope of 1.452 is drawn and by stepwise
construction the number of stages is determined as 5.
4. Water–dioxane solution is to be separated by extraction process using

benzene as solvent. At 25°C the equilibrium distribution of dioxane between
water and benzene is as follows:
Weight % of dioxane in water 5.1 18.9 25.2

Weight % of dioxane in benzene 5.2 22.5 32.0
Extraction 345
At these concentrations water and benzene are substantially insoluble.

1000 kg of a 25% dioxane water solution is to be extracted to remove 95%
of dioxane. The benzene is dioxane free.
(i) Calculate the benzene requirement for a single batch operation.
(ii) Calculate the benzene requirement for a five-stage cross-current
operation with 600 kg of solvent used in each stage.
Solution.
Solvent = amount of feed or raffinate in each stage
(B) = (F) or (R)
x 0.051 0.189 0.252

y 0.052 0.225 0.32
X = x/(1 – x) 0.054 0.233 0.337
Y = y/(1 – y) 0.05485 0.29 0.471
(i) F = 1000 kg (A = 750 kg, C = 250 kg)

xF = 0.25, XF = 0.25/0.75 = 0.333
XRNp = 0.05 × 0.333 = 0.01665
Yin = 0
Y1 = 0.0175 (From graph)

A Y1 Ys
B X F X Np
750 0.0175 0
B 0.333 0.01665
B = 13557.86 kg
(ii) Five-stage cross-current operation
E1 E2 E3 E4 E5
R1 R2 R3 R4 R5
F 1 3 4 5
A + C A+C A+C
A = 750 kg
C = . . . kg
750 250 750 750
(To be
determined)
B1 = 1000 B2 B3 B4 B5
Amount of solvent used is 600 kg

A 750
1.25
B 600
Draw operating lines with a slope of –1.25 and determine the raffinate
concentration.
Xfinal = 0.0175
(0.333 0.0175) 100
% recovery = 94.75%
0.333
5. 1000 kg per hour of a solution of C in A containing 20% C by weight

is to be countercurrently extracted with 400 kg per hour of solvent B.
The components A and B are insoluble. The equilibrium distribution of
component C between A and B are as follows;
Wt. of C/Wt. of A 0.05 0.20 0.30 0.45 0.50 0.54

Wt. of C/Wt. of B 0.25 0.40 0.50 0.65 0.70 0.74
How many theoretical stages will be required to reduce the

concentration of C to 5% in effluent?
Solution.
F = 1000 kg/h, (A = 800 kg/h, C = 200 kg/h)
xF = 0.2, xRNp = 0.05
Assume solvent to be pure, then
countercurrent extraction ys = Ys = 0
solvent = B = 400 kg/h
Extraction 347
A and B are insoluble

XF = 0.2/(1 – 0.2) = 0.25, XRNp = 0.05/(1 – 0.05) = 0.0526
A Y1 Ys
B X F X Np
A 800
Slope = 2
B 400
A Y1 0
B 0.25 0.0526
Y1 = 0.395
Plot X vs Y to obtain the equilibrium curve.
Draw an operating line between (XRNp, Ys) and (XF, Y1) and determine the
number of stages by stepwise construction.
Number of stages obtained = 3.
6. Water–dioxane solution is to be separated by extraction process using

benzene as solvent. At 25°C the equilibrium distribution of dioxane between
water and benzene is as follows:
wt. % of dioxane in water 5.1 18.9 25.2

wt. % of dioxane in benzene 5.2 22.5 32.0
At these concentrations water and benzene are substantially insoluble.

1000 kg of a 25% dioxane water solution is to be extracted to remove 95%
of dioxane. The benzene is dioxane free. Calculate minimum solvent
required in kg/h if the extraction is done in countercurrent fashion.

Estimate the number of stages needed if 1.5 times the minimum amount of
solvent is used.
Solution.
Benzene: B Water: A Dioxane: C
F = 1000 kg (A = 750 kg, C = 250 kg)
x 0.051 0.189 0.252

y 0.052 0.225 0.32
X = x/(1 – x) 0.054 0.233 0.337
Y = y/(1 – y) 0.05485 0.29 0.471
xF = 0.25,
XF = 0.25/0.75 = 0.333
XRNp = 0.05 × 0.333 = 0.01665
A YNp 1 Y1
Bmin X Np X F
A YNp 1 Y1 0 0.365
1.1154
Bmin X Np X F 0.01665 0.333
Bmin = 650 kg
Bact = 1.5 × 650 = 975 kg

Extraction 349
A YNp 1 Y1,act
Bact X Np X F
750 0 Y1,act
975 0.01665 0.333
Y1,act = 0.243
By stepwise construction, the number of stages can be determined as 6.
7. Nicotine in a water solution containing 1% nicotine is to be extracted
once with kerosene at 20°C. Kerosene and water are insoluble.
Determine the percentage extraction if 1000 kg of feed solution is
extracted once with 1500 kg solvent. What will be the extraction if three
ideal stages are used with 500 kg solvent in each stage?
Equilibrium data:
X 0 0.00101 0.00246 0.00502 0.00751 0.00998 0.0204

Y 0 0.00081 0.001962 0.00456 0.00686 0.00913 0.0187
where X is kg Nicotine/kg water and Y is kg Nicotine/kg kerosene.

Solution.
Water: A, Kerosene: B, Nicotine: C
0.01
xF = 0.01 XF X0 0.0101
(1 0.01)
F = 1000 kg, (C = 10 kg, A = 990 kg), B = 1500 kg
A (Yn Ys ) A Y1 Ys
when n = 1,
Bn ( X n X n 1 ) B X1 X 0
990 Y1 0
1500 0.0101 X1
A line with a slope of – 0.66 is drawn from (0.0101, 0) to obtain X1 and Y1.
Y1 = 0.66 [(0.0101) – X1]
Y1 = 0.0037 (From graph)
X1 = 0.0045
Amount of nicotine in extract = 0.0037 × 1500 = 5.55 kg
% extraction = (5.55/10) × 100 = 55.5%
For three stages
(–A/B) = A 990/500 = –1.98.
3 lines with a slope of –1.98 each are drawn starting from (0.0101,0)
X3 = 0.0035, Y3 = 0.003
Amount of nicotine in final extract = 0.003 × 500 = 1.5 kg
Total C extracted = (Y1 + Y2 + Y3) × 500

= (0.0061 + 0.0037 + 0.003) × 500 = 6.4 kg
% extraction = (6.4/10) × 100 = 64%
8. 1000 kg/h of a water–dioxane solution containing 20% dioxane is to be

continuously and counter-currently extracted with benzene at 25°C to
recover 80% dioxane. Water and benzene are essentially insoluble and the
equilibrium distribution of dioxane between them are as follows:
Dioxane in water wt. % 5.1 18.9 25.2

Dioxane in benzene wt. % 5.2 22.5 32.0
Determine the number of theoretical stages if the solvent rate is 1.5 times
the minimum.
Solution.
Water: A Dioxane: C Benzene: B
x 0.051 0.189 0.252

y 0.052 0.225 0.32
X = x/(1 – x) 0.054 0.233 0.337
Y = y/(1 – y) 0.05485 0.29 0.471
Extraction 351
F = 1000 kg/h
xF = 0.2, XF = X0 = 0.2/0.8 = 0.25
Countercurrent extraction
XNp = 0.2 × 0.25 = 0.05
A YNp 1 Y1
Bmin X Np X F
800 0 0.3075
(From Graph)
Bmin 0.05 0.25
Bmin = 520.33 kg
Bact = 1.5Bmin = 1.5 × 520.33 = 780.5 kg

A 800
1.025
Bact 780.5
Draw the operating line with a slope of 1.025 from (0.05,0) and by
stepwise construction determine the number of stages.
No. of stages = 4

EXERCISES
1. A 25% (weight) solution of dioxane in water is to be continuously extracted
with 300 kg/hr of pure benzene in each stage in a cross-current
extraction battery. The feed rate is 100 kg/h and if the extraction is
carried out in 3 stages, estimate the % recovery.
Equilibrium data:

2. Repeat the above problem for a counter current extraction process using
1.5 times the minimum solvent and determine the number of stages needed
to recover 90% of dioxane for a feed rate of 100 kg/h.
3. 1000 kg/hr of an acetone-water mixture containing 10% by weight of
acetone is to be countercurrently extracted with trichloroethane. The
recovered solvent to be used is free from acetone. The water and
trichloroethane are insoluble. If 95% recovery of acetone is desired, estimate
the number of stages required if 1.5 times the minimum solvent is used. The
equilibrium relationship is given by y = 1.65x, where x and y are weight
fractions of acetone in water and trichloroethane respectively.
4. Repeat problem 3 for a 4-stage cross-current operation using 300 kg/h
of solvent in each stage and determine the % of recovery.
5. A 10% (by weight) solution of acetaldehyde in toluene is extracted with
water in a countercurrent unit. For a 500 kg of feed, calculate the number
of stages needed for reducing the acetaldehyde to 0.5% using 1.5 times
the minimum amount of solvent. The equilibrium relationship is given
by the equation, Y = 2.3X where Y = kg acetaldehyde/kg water and X =
kg acetaldehyde/kg toluene. Assume that toluene and water are
immiscible with each other.
6. 500 kg/h of an aqueous solution containing 8% acetone is to be
countercurrently extracted using monochlorobenzene to reduce the acetone
content to 4% of its initial value. Water and monochlorobenzene are
immiscible with each other. (i) Determine the minimum solvent rate, and
(ii) the number of theoretical stages required if 1.3 times the minimum
solvent rate is used. The equilibrium data is as follows:
kg acetone/kg water 0.030 0.074 0.161 0.210

kg acetone/kg monochlorobenzene 0.029 0.071 0.158 0.204
7. 150 kg of a solution containing acetic acid and water containing 20% acid
by weight is to be extracted with isopropyl ether at 20°C. The total solvent
used for extraction is 200 kg. Determine the composition and quantities
of various streams if,
Extraction 353
(i) The extraction is carried out in single stage,

(ii) The extraction is carried out in two stages with 100 kg of solvent in
each stage.
Equilibrium data:
Water layer (wt. %) Ether layer (wt. %)

Acid Water Acid Water
0.69 98.1 0.18 0.5
1.41 97.1 0.37 0.7
2.9 95.5 0.79 0.8
6.42 91.7 1.93 1
13.3 84.4 4.82 1.9
25.5 71.1 11.4 3.9
36.7 58.9 21.6 6.9
44.3 45.1 31.1 10.8
46.4 37.1 36.2 15.1
8. Repeat the Problem 7 for a countercurrent operation using 1.5 times the
minimum solvent. Determine the percentage recovery after two stages.
9. 1000 kg/h of a pyridine water solution containing 50% pyridine is to be
reduced to 10% by using Chlorobenzene in a countercurrent extraction
battery. (i) Determine the minimum solvent requirement. By using twice the
minimum rate of solvent, estimate the number of stages needed.
Chlorobenzene layer Water layer

Pyridine Chlorobenzene Pyridine Chlorobenzene
0 99.5 0 0.08
11.05 88.28 5.02 0.16
18.95 79.9 11.05 0.24
24.1 74.28 18.9 0.38
28.6 69.15 25.5 0.58
31.55 65.58 36.1 1.85
35.08 61 44.95 4.18
40.6 53 53.2 8.9
49 37.8 49 37.8
10. Repeat problem 9 for a cross-current operation using solvent equivalent to

the amount of Raffinate/feed entering each stage and estimate the number of
stages needed.
11. 1000 kg/h of a solution of C in A containing 10% C by weight is to be
countercurrently extracted with 500 kg/hr of solvent B. The components A
and B are insoluble. The equilibrium distribution of component C between
A and B are as follows:
Wt. of C/Wt. of A 0.05 0.20 0.30 0.45 0.50 0.54

Wt. of C/Wt. of B 0.25 0.40 0.50 0.65 0.70 0.74
How many theoretical stages will be required to reduce the

concentration of C in A to 2%?
12. Acetone is to be recovered from dilute aqueous solutions by liquid–
liquid extraction using toluene as solvent. The acetone concentration in
the feed solution is 0.05 kmol/m3 and 90% of this acetone is to be
extracted by countercurrent operation. The flow rate of aqueous phase
is 1.5 m3/min. The equilibrium distribution ratio of acetone in the
solvent and in the aqueous phase could be described by the relation,
y = 1.5x, where x and y are weight fraction units.
13. Nicotine in a water solution containing 1% nicotine is to be extracted
with kerosene at 20°C. Kerosene and water are insoluble. Determine the
number of stage needed if 100 kilogram of feed solution is extracted
once with 1.6 times the minimum amount of solvent to recover 95%
nicotine.
Equilibrium data:
X 0 0.00101 0.00246 0.00502 0.00751 0.00998 0.0204

Y 0 0.00081 0.001962 0.00456 0.00686 0.00913 0.0187
where X is kg nicotine/kg water and Y is kg nicotine/kg kerosene.

14. 100 kg/h of a water–dioxane solution containing 15% dioxane is to be
continuously and countercurrently extracted with benzene at 25°C to recover
95% dioxane. Water and benzene are essentially insoluble and the
equilibrium distribution of dioxane between them are as follows:

(i) Determine the number of theoretical stages if the solvent rate is 1.5 times
the minimum. (ii) If the same operation is done in a three-stage cross-current
battery with 60 kg of solvent in each stage, estimate the required number of
stages.
11
LEACHING
11.1 INTRODUCTION
Leaching is one of the oldest operations in chemical industries which involves the
use of a solvent to remove a solute from a solid mixture. Though originally it was
referred to the percolation of liquid through a bed of solids, it is now used to refer
the operations by other contacting means also. Lixiviation is used for the leaching
of alkali from wood ashes. Decoction refers to the operation where the solvent at
its boiling is used. Whenever the solute material is present largely on the surface
of an insoluble solid and is merely washed off by the solvent, the operation is
called elutriation or elution.
It is one of the most important operations in metallurgical industries for the
extraction of metals from ores of Al, Ni, Co, Mn and Zn. It is also used for the
extraction of sugar from sugar beets with hot water, extraction of oil from oil seeds
using organic solvents, removal of tannin from various tree barks by leaching with
water, preparation of tea and coffee and extraction of many pharmaceutical
products from plant roots and leaves.
The success of this operation depends on the proper preparation of the given
solid. Depending on the nature of solid, the solid is crushed and ground to desired
size to accelerate the leaching action. For example, a certain copper takes about 6
hours if crushed to – 60 mesh size and about 5 days for a size of 6 mm. Gold is
sparsely distributed in its ore. Hence it is crushed to – 100 mesh size to have an
effective leaching. Sugar beets are cut into thin wedge shaped slices called
cassettes before leaching to enable the solvent water to reach the individual plant
cells. In the manufacture of pharmaceutical products from plants they are dried in
order to rupture the cell walls so that solvent can reach the solute easily. Vegetable
seeds when used for the extraction of oil are crushed to a size of 0.15 to 0.5 mm
to enable easier extraction. However, when the solid is present on the surface, no
grinding or crushing is necessary and the particles can be washed directly.
To summarize, the leaching action depends on:
· The nature of solid/cell structure.
355
· Diffusion of solute from the material to surface and then to the bulk of the
solution.
· Particle size and its distribution.
· Solubility of solute in solvent and the temperature of operation.
11.2 UNSTEADY STATE OPERATION

These operations are carried out batchwise or semibatchwise.
11.2.1 In Place (in-situ) Leaching

This operation is also called solution mining which refers to the percolation
leaching of minerals in place at a mine, by circulation of the solvent over and
through the ore bed. This technique is adopted for the leaching of low-grade
copper. In these operations, the solvent/reagent is injected continuously through
one set of pipes drilled down to the ore and the resulting solution is pumped out
through another set of pipes. Alternatively, the solvent/reagent can be pumped into
the ore bed intermittently and withdrawn through the same well. In this technique
crushing and grinding of ore are avoided. In place leaching also called in-situ
leaching is shown in Fig. 11.1.
Solvent Solution
Sediment layer 1
Sediment layer 2
Solution Solution
Ore deposits
Fig. 11.1 In situ leaching.
11.2.2 Heap Leaching

Low-grade ores can be easily leached by this technique where the ore is gathered
as a heap upon impervious ground. The leach liquor is pumped over the ore, which
percolates through the heap and collected as it drains from the heap. This technique
is used for the extraction of copper and uranium from their low grade ores. Heap
leaching is shown in Fig. 11.2.
Leaching 357
Fig. 11.2 Heap leaching.
11.2.3 Percolation Tank

Whenever small tanks are to be used, they can be made of metal or wood. The solid
particles to be leached, rest on a false bottom which could be made of wood strips
and may be covered by a coconut matting and a tightly stretched canvas filter cloth.
The leach liquor flows to a collection pipe leading from the bottom of the tank. A
very large percolation tanks are made of reinforced concrete and lined with lead or
bituminous mastic. Small tanks may be provided with side doors near the bottom
for removing the leached solid while the large tanks are emptied by excavating
from the top. It is always preferable to fill the tanks with particles of uniform size
so that voids will be more and the pressure drop required for flow of leaching
liquid is least. This also leads to uniform leaching of individual particles.
For these operations the crushed solids may be filled in the tank initially and
then the solvent is allowed to enter in. The solid and solvent may remain in contact
with each other for a specified amount of time and then drained. During the
process, if necessary, the liquid can also be circulated through the bed. The liquid
can also be allowed to enter in continuously and also drained continuously. The
liquid from the exit can also be recirculated, if necessary. The flow of liquid could
either be downwards or upwards with proper distribution of liquid. Percolation tank
is shown in Fig. 11.3.
11.2.4 Countercurrent Contact

At times, one is interested in getting a strong solution, which can be obtained by
a countercurrent operation. This arrangement, also called Shanks system, contains
number of tanks as shown in Fig. 11.4. The number of tanks generally vary from
6 to 16. In a typical system with 8 tanks at a particular time, tank 8 is empty and
tanks 1 to 7 contain solids. Fresh solvent enters tank 1, where the solid has spent
maximum amount of time and the material in tank 2, 3, 4, 5, 6 and 7 have
progressively spent lesser time. The material in 7th tank has spent the least amount
of time. The solution withdrawn from the 7th tank has the maximum solute
concentration because the solution comes after contact with fresh solids. The
solution withdrawn from tank 1 goes to tank 2, from tank 2 to tank 3, …, tank 6
Fresh or recirculated solution
Wood (small tank)/Concrete tank

properly coated
mastic or lead tank
(Large tank)
Solids to be leached
Canvas/filter cloths
Coir/Coconut malting
wooden grating
Solution (Can be recirculated

or taken as extract)
Fig. 11.3 Percolation tank.
Fig. 11.4 Countercurrent system–shanks system.
to tank 7. The leached solid is discarded from tank 1 and fresh solid is now added
in tank 8. The solution is transferred from tank 7 to 8, 6 to 7, 5 to 6, …, 2 to 3.
Here the fresh solvent is added in tank 2, and the solid from tank 2 is finally
discarded. The solution now obtained from tank ‘8’ will have maximum solute
concentration. Tank 1 which is now empty will be loaded with a fresh batch of
solids. This is nothing but advancing the tanks by one. The operation is continued
in this manner by keeping successive tanks as the first tank in which the fresh
solvent enters. The solids move counter currently to liquid flow.
11.2.5 Percolations in Closed Vessels

At times the pressure drop for flow of liquids by gravity is high or the solvent is
highly volatile. Under such circumstances the liquid is pumped through the bed of
Leaching 359
solids in vessels called diffusers. The main advantage of these units is the
prevention of evaporation losses of solvent, when they are operated above the
boiling point of solvent (e.g. leaching of tannins using water at 120°C, 345 kN/m2).
11.2.6 Filter–Press Leaching

When the solids are in finely divided form, percolation tanks are not suitable.
Under such circumstances, solids can be filtered and leached in the filter press by
pumping the solvent through the press cake. This is also a common feature while
washing the filtered cakes.
11.2.7 Agitated Vessels

These are either vertical or horizontal closed cylindrical vessels with power-driven
paddles or stirrers on vertical or horizontal shafts. They have a provision at the
bottom for the withdrawal of leach solution at the end of the operation. In some
of the designs, the horizontal drum is the extraction vessel, and the solid and liquid
are tumbled about inside by rotation of the drum on rollers. They are operated on
batch basis and each one is a single leaching stage. They can also be used in series
for a multistage operation. For the leaching of finely divided solids, Pachuca tank
is used. This finds extensive use in metallurgical industries. These tanks are
constructed with wood, metal or concrete and lined with suitable material
depending on the nature of leaching liquid. Agitation is accomplished by air lift.
The bubbles rising through the central tube cause the upward flow of liquid and
suspended solid in the tube and hence circulation of the mixture. Conventional
mechanical agitators are also used for this purpose. Once the desired leaching is
achieved, the agitation is stopped, the solids are allowed to settle and the clear
supernatant liquid is decanted by siphoning over the top of the tank or by
withdrawal through discharge pipes placed at appropriate level in the side of the
tank. Whenever, the solids settled form a compressible sludge, the solution retained
will be more and generally the last traces of solute in such cases are recovered in
countercurrent manner.
11.2.8 Features of Percolation and Agitation

Techniques
If a solid is in the form of big lumps, the question that arises is whether one should
go in for percolation technique or agitation–settling technique. The problem is
quite complicated due to the diverse leaching characteristics of the various solids
and the value of solute. However, the following points are worth considering.
Though fine grinding is more costly and provides more rapid and possibly
more thorough leaching, the quantity of liquid associated with the settled solid is
very large. Hence, one may have to use large quantity of solvent to recover as
much solute as possible. The composited extract thus obtained could be dilute.
Coarsely ground particles, on the other hand, leach more slowly and possibly less
thoroughly and may retain lesser quantity of solution. They may also require lesser
washing and hence the extract could be a concentrated one due to the use of lesser
quantity of solvent.
Practical results have shown that leaching in an agitated vessel is more
effective than by percolation for a fibrous solid like sugar cane.
Hence, one may have to decide based on the economy and the case of
operation.
11.3 STEADY STATE OPERATIONS

They are classified as stagewise or continuous contact operations. Stagewise
equipment are sometimes assembled in multiple units to produce multistage effects,
whereas, continuous contact equipment provide the equivalent of many stages in a
single unit. Some of the solids may also require grinding in order to make the
soluble portions accessible to the leaching solvents. In fact, wet grinding is an
operation during which some leaching could be accomplished. For example, 50 to
75% of the soluble gold may be dissolved by grinding the ore in the presence of
cyanide solution. Castor oil is also extracted suitably in an attrition mill with
solvent.
11.3.1 Agitated Vessels

Finely ground solids which can be readily suspended in liquids by agitation can be
handled in agitated vessels. These must be arranged for continuous flow of both
liquid and solid in and out of the tank. Care must be taken to ensure that no
accumulation of solid occurs. Due to thorough mixing, equilibrium is always there
between the solid and liquid. The agitated vessels discussed earlier can also be
used.
The average holding time can be estimated both for solids and liquids
separately in an agitated vessel by dividing the vessel contents by the rate of flow
of solids and liquids. The average holding time should be adequate to provide the
required leaching action. Short circuiting is a disadvantage encountered which can
be eliminated by passing the solid–liquid mixture through a series of smaller
agitated vessels such that the cumulative holding time is the required leach time.
The effluent from continuous agitators are sent to a filter for separating liquid from
solid upon which the solid may be washed free of dissolved solids, or to a series
of thickeners for countercurrent washing.
11.3.2 Thickeners
There are mechanical devices which are meant for increasing the ratio of solid to
liquid in a suspension of finely-sized particles by settling and decanting, thus
producing a thickened sludge and a clear supernatant liquid. They are generally
installed before any filter to minimize the filtering costs. Since both effluents can
be pumped and transported, thickeners are frequently used to wash leached solids
and chemical precipitates free of adhering solution in a continuous multistage
countercurrent arrangement and hence worth their use in leaching operations also.
Leaching 361
The liquid content in the sludge varies from 15 to 75% and is greatly dependent
on the nature of the solids and liquids and upon the time allowed for settling. This
is shown in Fig. 11.5.
To motor Lifting device
Verticle shaft
Arm
Blades
Discharge cover Cone scrapper

Fig. 11.5 Thickeners.
11.3.3 Continuous Countercurrent Decantation

It is an arrangement involving both the thickeners and agitators/grinders. The solids
enter the first set of agitators/grinders and are mixed with overflow liquid from the
2nd thickener. Then the contents after through agitation/grinding enter the 1st
thickener. The agitators along with thickener constitute the first stage. The sludge
from the first thickener passes on to the 2nd thickener where it is mixed with
overflow from the 3rd thickener and the sludge is then transferred to 3rd thickener
where it is mixed with overflow liquid from 4th. Fresh solvent enters the last
thickener. The overflow liquid taken out from the first thickener will have the
maximum concentration of solute. If necessary the sludge from each stage can be
thoroughly agitated with the solvent in order to effect better separation. This is
shown in Fig. 11.6.
Fig. 11.6 Continuous countercurrent decantation.

11.3.4 Leaching of Vegetable Seeds

Soya beans, cotton seeds, rice bran and castor seeds are some of the products
regularly leached with an organic solvent for removing the oil present in them. The
process involves dehulling, precooking, adjustment of water content and flaking. In
some cases solvent extraction of oil is preceded by mechanical expression of oil
from oil seeds. Leaching solvents are generally petroleum fractions. Chlorinated
hydrocarbons leave the residue meal a toxic one. The oil-solvent solution
containing a small amount of finely divided suspended solids is called miscella and
the leached solid is called marc.
11.3.4.1 Rotocel extractor
It is a modification of shanks system wherein the leaching tanks are continuously
moved, permitting a continuous introduction and discharge of solids. It is shown
in Fig. 11.7(a) and (b).
Interstage
solution Fresh solvent
spray
Solids feed
Interstage solution
Extract
Solids discharge
(a) Rotocel extractor (front view).
Pumps for solvent/solution

spray Solvent/solution
in spray
Extract
Solids
(b) Rotocel extractor (top view).
Fig. 11.7
Leaching 363
It consists of a circular shell partitioned into several cells each fitted with a
hinged screen bottom for supporting the solids. This shell slowly revolves above
a stationary compartmented tank. As the rotor revolves, each cell passes in turn
under the prepared solids feeder and then under a series of sprays by which the
contents in each cell is periodically drenched with solvent for leaching. By the time
one rotation is completed, when the leaching is expected to be completed, the
leached solids of each cell are automatically dumped into one of the lower
stationary compartments, from which they are continuously conveyed away. The
solvent sprayed over each cell filled with solids, percolates downward through the
solid and supporting screen into the appropriate compartment of the lower tank
from which it is pumped to the next spray. The leaching is countercurrent, and the
strongest solution comes from the cell which is filled with fresh solid. It is essential
to maintain the equipment properly to ensure smooth operation. It is also enclosed
in a vapour tight housing to prevent the escaping of solvent vapours.
11.3.4.2 Kennedy extractor
A schematic arrangement is shown in Fig. 11.8. It is a stagewise device, originally
used for leaching tannins from tan bark. The solids are leached in a series of tubs
and are pushed from one to next in the cascade by perforated paddles, while the
solvent flows in countercurrent direction. Perforations in paddles permit drainage
of liquid from solids between stages, and the solids are scrapped from each paddle
as shown in Fig. 11.8. The number of tubs depends on the nature of solid, solvent
and the level of extraction desired. Since it has a horizontal orientation, more floor
space is required.
Fig. 11.8 Kennedy extractor.
11.3.4.3 Bollman extractor

It has a vertical orientation and has several perforated baskets attached to a chain
conveyor for conveying solids. As the chain descends, the solids are leached in
parallel flow by a dilute solvent – oil solution, called half miscella, pumped from
the bottom of the vessel and sprayed over the baskets at the top. The liquid
percolates through the solids from basket to basket and collects at the bottom as
a final strong solution called full miscella and is withdrawn. On the ascent, the
solids are leached countercurrently by a spray of fresh solvent and the product is
called half miscella. A short drainage time is provided before leached solid in the
baskets are dumped at the top. A schematic arrangement is shown in Fig. 11.9.
Fig. 11.9 Bollman extractor.
11.3.4.4 Continuous horizontal filter

A schematic arrangement of continuous horizontal filter is shown in Fig. 11.10.
The filter in the form of a circular wheel is divided into a number of sectors and
revolves in the horizontal plane. Here prepared seeds are slurried with solvent
which has already been used for leaching, and the slurry is sent to the filter. The
Fig. 11.10 Continuous horizontal filter.

Leaching 365
first filtrate is passed again through the filter cake to remove finely divided solids
(polishing) before being discharged as miscella. The principle behind the operation
is quite similar to Rotocel extractor.
11.3.4.5 Recovery of oil
The recovery of solvent from both the miscella and leached solids is an essential
feature in these operations. Recovery of oil in miscella is accomplished by
evaporation of solvent and if necessary by further stripping in a tray column to
remove the solvent–free oil. The oil in solid is removed by steaming and
subsequent cooling. Vent gas from condensers can be sent to an absorber and
scrubbed with petroleum white oil and the resulting mixture can be stripped to
recover the solvent.
11.4 DEFINITIONS
Let, B = insoluble solid or inert solid (kg),
C = soluble solute (kg),
A = pure solvent (kg),
C
x ; Weight fraction of solute in effluent solution (on B free basis)
AC
C
y ; Weight fraction of solute in the solid or slurry or sludge (on B
AC
free basis)
B
N ; (in each phase)
AC
The variation of N, x and y under different conditions are as follows:
B
(a) For a dry solid (free from solvent) N (Q A = 0)
C
y = 1.0
(b) Solid free from solvent and solute N = ¥ (Q A = 0; C = 0)
(c) Pure solvent x = 0, N = 0 (Q B = 0; C = 0)
11.5 DIFFERENT TYPES OF EQUILIBRIUM

DIAGRAMS
11.5.1 Type 1
A typical trend of N vs x, y and equilibrium relationship is shown in Fig. 11.11(a)
characteristics of such systems are:
· Preferential adsorption of the solute occurs on solid.
· Solute is soluble in the solid B and distributes unequally between liquid and
solid phases at equilibrium.
· Insufficient contact time between solute and solvent.
· EF is a tie line.
Fig. 11.11(a) Type I equilibrium.
11.5.2 Type II
A typical trend of N vs x, y and equilibrium relationship is shown in Fig. 11.11(b).
The characteristics of such systems are:
· No adsorption of solute occurs.
· Solution withdrawn and the solution associated with the solid have the same
composition.
· Tie lines are vertical.
· The distribution coefficient is unity.
· Solids are drained to the same extent at all solute concentrations and such
a condition is known as constant underflow condition.
· No B is present in solution either dissolved or suspended.
Fig. 11.11(b) Type II rquilibrium.
11.5.3 Type III

A typical trend of N vs x, y and equilibrium relationship is shown in Fig. 11.11(c).
The characteristics of such systems are:
· Solute C has a limited solubility xS in solvent A and one can never have a
clear (leach) solution stronger than xS.
· Tie lines joining slurry and saturated solution converge as shown.
· Till the concentration of xS is reached, the solution retained in the solid and
Leaching 367
the clear solution have some concentration and hence the distribution
coefficient is unity, i.e. up to the tie line FE. No adsorption of solute occurs.
· The tie lines to the right of FE indicate the same solute concentration in
clear solution but a different solute concentration in slurry as indicated by
points G, H.
In practice we come across situations which will fall in any one of the above three
types.
Fig. 11.11(c) Type III equilibrium.
11.6 SINGLE STAGE OPERATION

A typical single stage operation is shown in Fig. 11.2. The characteristics of various
streams flowing into and out of the system are also shown. The flow rate of streams
are on B free basis.
(All the streams are on absolute mass basis)
Fig. 11.12 Streams in a leaching operation.

B B
NF
AC F
B B
N1
AC E1
\ B = NF × F = E1N1
Total material balance gives,
F + R 0 = E1 + R1 = M 1
Solute balance gives,
FyF + R0x0 = E1y1 + R1x1
Solvent balance gives
F (1 – yF) + R0 (1 – x0) = E1 (1 – y1) + R1 (1 – x1)
When the solids and the solvent are mixed together in a stage (say, stage 1), the
effective value of ‘N’, called N M1, will be given by
B B
N M1
F R0 M1
Similarly the concentration of solute after thorough mixing in the stages is given
by,
yF F R0 X0
yM1
F R0
Using the values of yM1 , N M1 and N vs. x, y diagram, one can determine the
concentration and flow rates of leaving streams as indicated below.
(The co-ordinates ( yM1 , N M1 ) can be represented as shown in Fig. 11.13 in N vs
x, y diagram).
Steps
(i) Draw the N vs x, y diagram.
(ii) Draw the distribution curve.
(iii) Locate F (yF, NF) and R0 (x0, N0).
(iv) Join R0 F.
(v) Locate M1 ( yM1, N M1 ) in R0F line.
(vi) Draw the tie line R1E1 passing through M1 with the help of distribution
curve and read N1 from N vs y curve.
(vii) E1 = B/N1 (weight of solution associated with sludge)
We know that,
F + R0 = E1 + R1
Hence, R1, the weight of clear solution can be estimated.
Leaching 369
Fig. 11.13 Single stage operation.
11.7 MULTISTAGE CROSS-CURRENT LEACHING

In a multistage cross-current leaching E1 stream from the I stage becomes the feed
stream for the II stage and the E2 stream from the II stage becomes the feed stream
for the III stage. In each stage the mixture is contacted with a fresh stream of solvent.
R0, 1 R0, 2 R0, 3 R0, Np
E1 E2 E3
F 1 2 3 Np ENp
R1 R2 R3 RNp
Fig. 11.14 A typical multistage cross-current operation.

Steps
(i) Proceed as per the procedure mentioned in steps (i) to (vii) of single stage
operation of section 11.6.
(ii) Join E1 with R0 and locate M2 (yM2, NM2). Generally R01, R02, R03, ..., R0, NP
are all same R01 = R02 = R03 . . . = R0, NP = R0.
(iii) Draw the tie line E2R2 passing through M2 and locate N2.
B
(iv) E2
N2
(v) We know from material balance, E1 + R0 = E2 + R2.
(vi) Hence, the unknown quantity R2 (weight of clear solution) can be
determined since the remaining quantities (E1, R0 and E2 ) are all known.
(vii) Proceed in the same manner for other stages also.
Fig. 11.15 Multistage cross-current operation.

Leaching 371
11.8 MULTISTAGE COUNTERCURRENT OPERATION

Solution balance for the system as a whole gives,
F RN p 1 R1 E N p M
where M is the total mass of B (inert) free mixture.
Fig. 11.16 A typical multistage countercurrent operation.
Solute balance gives,

F ¹ yF RN p 1 ¹ X N p 1 R1 x1 E N p ¹ yN p M ¹ yM
B
where, NM
F RN p 1
FyF RN p 1 X N p 1
yM
F RN p 1
F R1 E N p RN p 1 'R
A solution balance for the first two stages gives

F + R2 = R1 + E1
i.e. F – R1 = E1 – R2 = DR.
Similarly a solution balance for the first two stages yields
F – R1 = E2 – R3 = DR.
It clearly indicates that the difference in flow between streams at either ends in
each stage remains constant.
In a typical operation, the number of stages (for a given recovery and a given
amount of solvent) or concentration of solute in the leaving stream (for a given
number of stages and solvent used) or the amount of solvent (for a given number
of stages and percentage recovery) will be needed.
11.8.1 Analysis of Variable Underflow System

11.8.1.1 Case I
Determination of stages for a specified recovery or final concentration:
Steps
1. Draw N vs x and N vs y and the distribution curve.
2. Locate the points F, ENp and RNp +1.
Fig. 11.17 Multistage countercurrent operation.
3. Estimate M (yM, NM) and locate it on FRNp +1 line.

4. Join ENp with M and extend it to cut N vs x curve at R1.
5. Join ENp with RNp +1 and extend it.
6. Join F with R1 and extend it to cut the ENpRNp +1 line and call the point
of intersection as DR.
7. Using R1 and equilibrium curve, locate E1. This corresponds to stage 1.
8. Join E1 with DR and this line cuts N vs x curve at R2.
Leaching 373
9. Using R2 and equilibrium curve, locate E2. This corresponds to stage 2.

10. Proceed in this manner till ENp is reached or crossed.
11. From this, the number of stages Np can be determined.
11.8.1.2 Case II
If final concentration is needed or percentage recovery is needed for a given
number of stages:
Assume some ENp value and proceed as mentioned above and verify whether
the assumed ENp matches the given number of stages. If it does not match, assume
a new value for ENp and proceed till the given number of stages and the assumed
ENp value match.
11.8.1.3 Case III
If the solvent amount is needed:
Assume some solvent flow rate and check whether the ENp and stages match.
If they do not match, assume a different value and proceed till the assumed ENp
value and the given stages match.
11.8.1.4 Case IV
Minimum solvent requirement:
It is a specific solvent quantity at which the operating line becomes a tie line,
i.e. FR1 or E1R2 or E2R3, ..., becomes a tie line.
11.8.2 Number of Stages for a Constant

Underflow System
The number of stages can be determined easily for constant underflow systems as
the slope is constant (m = y/x) and operating line is straight, by using the Kremser,
Brown and Souder’s equation.
N p 1
È R Ø È R Ø
ÉÊ mE ÙÚ É
yF yN p Ê mE ÙÚ
y1 mx N p 1 N p 1
È R Ø
ÉÊ mE ÙÚ 1
WORKED EXAMPLES
1. Oil is to be extracted from halibut liver in a countercurrent extraction
battery. The entrainment of solution by the granulated liver mass is given
below.
kg solution retained/ 0.035 0.042 0.05 0.058 0.068 0.081 0.099 0.12
kg of exhausted liver
kg of oil/ kg of solution 0 0.1 0.2 0.3 0.4 0.5 0.6 0.68
In the extraction battery change is to be 100 kg based on completely

exhausted liver. The unextracted liver contains 0.043 kg of oil/kg of
exhausted material. 95% recovery is desired. The final extract is to contain
0.65 kg oil/kg of extract. The ether used as solvent is free from oil. How
many kg of ether is needed per kg of liver? How many extractors are
needed?

Leaching 375
Solution.
kg solution retained
,1/ N 0.035 0.042 0.05 0.058 0.068 0.081 0.099 0.12
kg exhausted liver
kg oil
, x, y 0 0.1 0.2 0.3 0.4 0.5 0.6 0.68
kg solution
kg exhausted liver
N 28.6 23.8 20.0 17.25 14.7 12.35 10.1 8.3
kg solution retained
Basis: 100 kg of exhausted liver

i.e. B = 100 kg
C (oil) = 100 × 0.043 = 4.3 kg
F=A+C
A = 0 (solvent is not present)
B 100
NF = 23.26
A C 4.3
C 4.3
yF = 1.0
AC 0 4.3
\ Feed point F is given by (NF, yF) = (23.26, 1.0)
The final extract contains 0.65 kg of oil/kg of extract
\ R1 is given by (N1, x1) = (0, 0.65)
RNp + 1 is given by (NNp + 1, xNp + 1) = (0, 0)
95% recovery of oil is to be achieved.
\ 5% oil leaves with the liver.
i.e. oil leaving is 4.3 × 0.05 = 0.215 kg
0.215
\ yNp =
A 0.215
\ ENp is given by (NNp, yNp)
B 100
NNp
A C A 0.215
È B Ø È C Ø 100
\ Slope of operating line É 465
Ê A C ÙÚ ÉÊ A C ÙÚ 0.215
From the plot ENp = (25.5, 0.055)

Stages needed = 7.
B
NNp = 25.5 =
AC
B 100
\ AC 3.92
25.5 25.5
C
yNp = 0.055 =
AC
A + C = 3.92
\ A = 3.92 – C = 3.92 – 0.215 = 3.705 kg
i.e. amount of solvent in liver = 3.705 kg

Quantity of ether used
Extract contains 0.65 kg oil/kg extract
i.e. Extract contains 0.35 kg ether/kg extract
C
R1 0.65
AC
But C, Oil in extract = Total oil fed – Oil in exhausted liver
= 4.3 – 0.215 = 4.085 kg
4.085
\ R1 0.65
A 4.085
\ A = 2.2 kg
\ Total ether used = Amount in extract + Amount in exhausted liver
= 2.2 + 3.705 = 5.905 kg.
2. 10 tonnes/hour of day seashore sand containing 1% by weight of salt is to
be washed with 10 tonnes/hour of fresh water running countercurrent to the
sand through two classifiers in series. Assume perfect mixing of sand and
water occurs in each classifier and that the sand discharged from each
classifier contain one part of water for every two parts of sand by weight.
If the washed sand is dried in kiln, what % of salt will it retain? What wash
rate is required in a single classifier in order to wash the sand equally well?
Solution.
Let x be the fraction of salt in the underflow discharge from stage 1.
Sand entering 9.9 tonnes/hour. Salt entering = 0.1 tonnes/hour. 1 part of

sand discharged associated with 0.5 parts of water.
9.9 tonnes of sand leaving will be associated with 9.9/2 = 4.95 tonnes of
water each stage.
By Coulson–Richardson method,
Sn 1 R 1
S1 R n 1 1
where S1 = Quantity of solute in the sludge coming out from stage 1,
Sn+1 = Quantity of solute in the sludge coming out from stage n + 1.
Quantity of solution in overflow (solute or solvent)
R
Quantity of solution in underflow (solute or solvent)
Leaching 377
weight of solution in overflow 10

R 2.02
weight of soluton in underflow 4.95
Sn+1 = (x) × (0.1)

S1 = (1 – x) × (0.1)
2.02 1 x 1.02
\ =
(2.02) 1
2 (1 x ) 3.08
1 x
\ 3.02
x
\ x = 0.249
A = 4.95 A = ---
B = 9.9 tonnes B = 0.9 tonnes
C = 0.0249 C = 0.1
Single stage
A = ---
B = ---
C = 0.0751

Concentration in underflow
C 0.0249
\ x1 0.5 10 2
A C 4.95 0.0249
0.0751
x1 in overflow (same as underflow) = 0.5 10 2
A 0.0751
\ A = 14.93 (amount of water with extract)
Amount of water with sand = 4.95
\ Total feed water = Water in extract + Water in sand
= 14.93 + 4.95 = 19.88
3. 100 tonnes of underflow feed containing 20 tonnes of solute. 2 tonnes of
H2O, 78 tonnes of inerts are to be leached with water to give an overflow
of concentration, 15% solute. 95% recovery is desired. The underflow from
each stage carries 0.5 kg of solution/kg of inert. Estimate the number of
stages needed.
Solution.

C 1
yb* 0.0256
AC 39
x1 (Desired outlet concentration of overflow) = 0.15
C 19
i.e. 0.15
A C A 19
\ A + C = 126.67 tonnes
Let us make a mass balance around stage 1.
Entering liquid = Leaving liquid
22 + m = 126.67 + 39
\ m = 143.67 tonnes
Similarly making a solute balance, we get
20 + 143.67 ya =19 + 39 ´ 0.15
\ ya = 0.034
Solving by McCabe’s method, we get
yb = 0; yb* = 0.0256; ya = 0.034; ya* = 0.15
(Q the leaving streams are in equilibrium)
Ë y yb * Û
log Ì b Ü
( N 1) Í ya y a * Ý 0.6562
1.165
Ë y ya Û 0.5633
log Ì b Ü
Í yb* ya* Ý
N = 2.165
Baker’s method:
R n 1 1 S1
R 1 Sn 1
S1 = 39 × 0.15 = 5.85; Sn+1 = 1.0
solution/solute or solvent in overflow 143.7
R= 3.685
solution/solute or solvent in underflow 39
3.685n 1 1 5.85
; n + 1 = 2.159 stages
2.685 1
4. A plant produces 100 tonnes/day of TiO2 pigment which must be 99.9%
pure when dried. The pigment produces by precipitation and the material as
prepared is contaminated with 1 ton of salt solution containing 0.55 ton of
salt/ton of pigment. The material is washed countercurrently with water in
a number of thickeners arranged in series. How many thickeners will be
required if water is added at the rate of 200 tonnes/day and the solid
discharged from each thickener removed 0.5 ton of solvent/ton of pigment.
Leaching 379
What will be the number of thickeners if the amount of solution removed in

association with pigment varies in the following way with the concentration
of the solution in the thickeners.
x 0 0.1 0.2 0.3 0.4 0.5
N 3.333 3.125 2.94 2.78 2.63 2.5
Solution.
Concentrated wash liquor is fed with the feed top concentrator = 1

A + C = 100; A = 45; B = 100
C = 0.55 × 100 = 55
B
NF 1.0
AC
C
yF 0.55
AC
C = 55 – 0.1 = 54.9
A = 200 + 45 – 50 = 195
C 54.9
y 0.22
AC 249.9
C
x1 = 0.22 =
AC
R n 1 1 S1
R 1 Sn 1
200
R 4
50
S1 = 14.1
Sn+1 = 0.1
4 n 1 1 14.1
4 1 0.1
\ n + 1 = 4.36

Leaching 381
(ii) Feed point F, (NF, yF) = (1, 0.55)

Leached solids leaving, ENp (NNp, yNp) = (?, ?)
Solvent entering, RNp+1 (Np+1, xNp+1) = (0, 0)
Solution leaving, R1 (N1, x1) = (0, ?)
F ¹ yF RN p x N p 1 (100) (0.55) 0
y 0.1833
F RN p 1 100 200
B 100
N 0.333
AC 300
Join F and RNp+1 Locate m ( N , y ) .
By stagewise construction, the stages are estimated to be: 4
5. By extraction with kerosene two tonnes of waxed paper per day is to be
dewaxed in a continuous countercurrent extraction system. The waxed paper
contains 25% paraffin wax by weight and 75% paper pulp. The pulp which
retains the unextracted wax must not contain over 0.2 kg of wax/100 kg of
wax free pulp. The kerosene used for extraction contains 0.05 kg of wax/100
kg wax free kerosene, experiments show that pulp retains 2 kg of kerosene
per kg of wax free pulp. The extract from battery contains 5 kg of wax/100
kg of wax free kerosene. How many stages are needed?
Solution.
Basis: 100 kg of wax and kerosene free pulp
25
Wax in the pulp = 100 33.33 kg
75
Wax in the solvent = 0.0005 kg of wax/kg of kerosene
Let s be the weight of solvent used.
\ Total wax entering = wax from pulp + wax from kerosene = 33.33 +
0.0005s
Wax in the exiting pulp = 100 × 0.002 = 0.2 kg
Wax in the solution leaving
[Solvent entering – solvent carried away in leaving pulp] [Weight ratio of
wax to solvent in leaving solution]
= [s – (2) (100)] [0.05] = (0.05s – 10) kg
\ Total wax output = (0.05s – 10) + (0.2) = (0.05s – 9.8)
Wax input = wax output
i.e. 33.33 + 0.0005s = 0.05s – 9.8
s = 871.3 kg
Kerosene in the exhausted pulp = 2 × 100 = 200
Kerosene in the extract (overflow) solution = 871.3 – 200 = 671.3 kg
0.5
i.e. wax in the extract (overflow) solution = 671.3 33.565 kg
100
Concentration in underflow in II unit = Concentration in overflow from

I stage
Wax in underflow leaving I solution = Weight of kerosene in underflow ´
wax concentration
È 5 Ø
(200) É = 10 kg
Ê 100 ÙÚ
The wax in the overflow from II cell to I cell by wax balance
[Wax in underflow leaving I + wax in overflow solution leaving I – wax in
pulp entering I]
10 + 33.565 – 33.33 = 10.235 kg
10.235
Concentration of this solution is 0.0117
871.3
xa = ya* = 0.05 and ya = 0.0117
0.2
xb = yb* = 0.001, yb = 0.0005
200
Ë 0.0005 0.001 Û
log Ì Ü
N–1= Í 0.0117 0.05 Ý 1.88423
= 2.94
Ë 0.0005 0.0117 Û 0.641
log Ì Ü
Í 0.001 0.05 Ý
\ N = 3.94 stage; N » 4 stage
6. A five-stage countercurrent extraction battery is to be used to extract the

sludge from the reaction
Na2CO3 + CaO + H2O ¾® CaCO3 + 2NaOH
The CaCO3 leaving each carries with it 1.5 times its weight the solution, in
flowing from one unit to other. It is desired to recover 98% of NaOH. The
products from the reaction enter the first unit with no excess reactant but
with 6.5 kg of water/kg of CaCO3.
(i) How much wastewater must be used for 1 kg of CaCO3?
(ii) What is the concentration of leaving solution assuming CaCO3 is
insoluble?
(iii) Using the same quantity of wastewater, how many units must be
employed to recover 99.5% of NaOH.
Solution.
F
(NF, YF) ENp (NNp, yNp)
R1
(N1, x1) RNp+1 (NNp+1, xNp+1)

Leaching 383
Basis:
100 kg CaCO3 formed
B (Inert) : 100 kg
A (Solvent) : 650 kg
C (Solute) : 80 kg (from stoichiometry)
B 100
\ NF = 0.137
AC 650 80
C 80
yF 0.1096
AC 730
\ F (0.137, 0.1096)
1
NNp 0.667
1.5
Recovery of NaOH is 987 = 78.4 kg
\ NaOH in leaving stream = 1.6 kg
C C
\ yN p
AC EN p
B 100
EN p 150
NNp 0.667
1.6
\ yN p = 0.0107
150
Point ENp is (NNp, yNp) = (0.667, 0.0107)
Assume x1 and hence locate R1. (0, x1) locate ENp (0.667, 0.0107), F (0.137,
0.1096) and RNp+1 (0, 0)
Join ENp, RNp+1 and F, R1 and produce them to cut at DR.
By stepwise construction check whether both five stages and ENP (assumed)
match.
If not, make a fresh assumption of x1 and proceed till the stages and x1
match.
By trial and error x1 = 0.1
Total amount of wastewater
(i) Water in sludge (A + C) = Weight of solution in sludge – weight of
solute = 150 – 1.6 = 148.4 kg
(ii) Weight of water in overflow
C 78.4
Concentration in overflow = x1 = 0.1
AC AC
Weight of solution A + C = 784 kg
\ Weight of solvent (A) = 784 – 78.4 = 705.6 kg
\ Total weight of water added = 148.4 + 705.6 – 650 = 204 kg
Concentration of leaving solution from each stage:

x1 = 0.1; x2 = 0.068; x3 = 0.044; x4 = 0.026; x5 = 0.0107
(iii) For 99.5% recovery:
Concentration of NaOH leaving = 0.995 × 80 = 0.14.
F
( N F , yF ) F (0.137, 0.1096)
R
R1 ( N1 , x1 ) R1 (0, 0.1)
C C
yN p
AC EN p
B
\ EN p 150
NN p
0.4
\ yN p 2.667 10 3 0.002667
150
EN p (0.667, 2.667 10 3 )
RN p 1 (0, 0)
By stagewise construction, we find the number of stages as 5.

In the previous problem worked out, it is found that the sludge retains the
solution varying with the concentration as follows:
NaOH 0 5 10 15 20
kg of solution 1
, 1.5 1.75 2.2 2.7 3.6
kg of CaCO3 N
N 0.667 0.571 0.455 0.370 0.278
It is desired to produce a 10% solution of NaOH. How many stages must be

used to recover 99.5% of NaOH?
Recovered NaOH = 99.5%
i.e. 99.5 × 80 = 79.6 kg
Solute = 0.4 kg
C 79.6
x 0.1
AC A 79.6
\ A = 716.4 kg
Leaching 385
A+C 80 kg of NaOH
yb ya x1 = 0.10; 796 kg

EXERCISES
1. Seeds containing 25% oil by weight are to be extracted in a countercurrent
plant and 95% of the oil is recovered in a solution containing 60% oil by
weight. If the seeds are contacted with fresh solvent and 1 kg of solution is
removed in the underflow in association with every 2 kg of insoluble matter,
determine the theoretical stages required.
2. Crushed oil seeds containing 55% oil by weight are to be extracted at the
rate of 5000 kg/hr using 8000 kg/hr of hexane containing 5% oil by weight
as the solvent. A countercurrent two-stage extraction system is used. The oil
seeds retain 1 kg of solution per kg of oil-free cake. Calculate the percent
recovery of oil (based on original feed) obtained under the above conditions.
3. Seeds containing 20% oil by weight is extracted countercurrently with oil-
free hexane as a solvent. Calculate the number of theoretical stages required
is 90% of the oil is recovered in extract with 40% oil by weight and the
amount of liquid (solvent + oil) in the underflow from each stage is 0.60 kg
per kg of insoluble matter.
Use triangular coordinates or rectangular coordinates.
4. In a lime-soda process a slurry containing 10 kg water, 1 kg sodium
hydroxide (NaOH) and 1 kg calcium carbonate particles. The slurry is
washed countercurrently with water in four stages. The solid discharged
from each stage contains 3 kg water per kg calcium carbonate. Calculate the
amount of wash water needed when the discharged calcium carbonate after
drying contains a maximum of 0.01 kg sodium hydroxide per kg calcium
carbonate.
12
ADSORPTION
12.1 INTRODUCTION
Adsorption operation involves contact of solids with either liquids or gases in
which the mass transfer is towards solids. The reverse of this operation is called
Desorption. Adsorption operations exploit the ability of certain solids to
concentrate specific substances from fluid on to their surfaces. The adsorbed
substance is called adsorbate and the solid substance is called adsorbent.
Typical applications of this solid–liquid operation are as follows:
• removal of moisture dissolved in gasoline
• de-colorization of petroleum products and sugar solutions
• removal of objectionable taste and odour from water.
The solid–gas operations include:
• dehumidification of air and gases
• removal of objectionable odours and impurities from gases
• recovery of valuable solvent vapours from dilute gas mixtures
• to fractionate mixtures of hydrocarbon gases such as methane, ethane and
propane.
12.2 TYPES OF ADSORPTION

The two types of adsorption are physical adsorption or physi-sorption (van der
Waals adsorption) and chemi-sorption (activated adsorption).
Physical adsorption is a readily reversible phenomenon, which results from
the intermolecular forces of attraction between a solid and the substance adsorbed.
Chemi-sorption is the result of chemical interaction, generally stronger than
physi-sorption between the solid and the adsorbed substance. This process is
irreversible. It has importance in catalysis.
387
12.3 NATURE OF ADSORBENTS

Adsorbents are usually in granular form with their size ranging from 0.5 mm to 12
mm. They must neither offer high pressure drop nor get carried away by flowing
stream. They must not loose their shape and size while handling. They must have
larger surface area per unit mass and also lot of pores.
Some of the commonly used adsorbents, their sources and applications are
given below:
Sl. No. Adsorbent Source Application
1. Fuller’s earth Naturally occurring clay is De-colorizing, drying of

heated and dried to get a lubricating oils, kerosene and
porous structure. engine oils.
2. Activated clay Bentonite or other activated Used for de-colorizing
clay which are activated by petroleum products.
treatment with sulfuric acid
and further washing, drying
and crushing.
3. Bauxite A naturally occurring hydrated Used for de-colorizing
alumina, activated by heating petroleum products and for
at 230–815oC. drying gases.
4. Alumina A hard hydrated aluminium Used as desiccant.
oxide, which is activated by
heating to drive off the
moisture and then crushed to
desired size.
5. Bone-char Obtained by destructive Used for refining sugar and can
distillation of crushed bones at be reused after washing and
600–900oC. burning.
6. Activated (i) Vegetable matter is De-colorizing of sugar solutions,
carbon mixed with calcium chemicals, drugs, water
chloride, carbonized and purification, refining of
finally the inorganic comp- vegetable and animal oils,
ounds are leached away. recovery of gold and silver from
(ii) Organic matter is mixed cyanide ore-leach solution,
with porous pumice recovery of solvent vapour from
stones and then heated gas-mixtures, collection of
and carbonized to deposit gasoline hydro-carbons from
the carbonaceous matter natural gas, fractionation of
throughout the porous hydrocarbon gases.
particle.
(iii) Carbonizing substances
like wood, sawdust,
coconut shells, fruit pits,
coal, lignite and subse-
quent activation with hot
air steam. It is available in
granular or pellated form.
(Contd.)
Adsorption 389
(Contd.)
Sl. No. Adsorbent Source Application
7. Silica gel A hard granular and porous Used for de-hydration of air and
product obtained from sodium other gases, fractionation of
silicate solution after treatment hydrocarbons.
with acid. Normally has 4 to
7% water in the product.
8. Molecular These are porous synthetic Dehydration of gases and
sieves zeolite crystals, metal alumino- liquids, and separation of gas–
silicates. liquid hydrocarbon mixture.
12.4 ADSORPTION EQUILIBRIA

Different gases and vapours are adsorbed to different extent under comparable
conditions as shown in Fig. 12.1.
Fig. 12.1 Equilibrium adsorption on activated carbon.
As a general rule, vapours and gases with higher molecular weight and lower
critical temperature are more readily adsorbed. To some extent, level of saturation
also influences the degree of adsorption. The adsorption isotherms are generally
concave to pressure axis. However, other shapes are also exhibited as shown in
Fig. 12.2.
Repeated adsorption and desorption studies on a particular adsorbent will
change the shape of isotherms due to gradual change in pore-structure. Further,
adsorption is an exothermic process and hence the concentration of adsorbed gas
Fig. 12.2 Adsorption isotherms.
decreases with an increase in temperature at a constant pressure. Similarly an

increase in pressure increases the concentration of adsorbed gas in the adsorbent at
a constant temperature. There are three commonly used mathematical expressions
to describe vapour adsorption equilibria, viz. Langmuir, Brunauer-Emmett-Teller
(BET) and Freundlich isotherms. The first two are derived from theory whereas the
last one is derived by a fit technique from the experimental data.
12.5 ADSORPTION HYSTERESIS

The adsorption and desorption operations exhibit different equilibrium phenomena
as shown in Fig. 12.3 and is called adsorption hysteresis.
Fig. 12.3 Adsorption hysteresis.
This may be due to the shape of the openings to the capillaries and pores of
the solid or due to the complex phenomena of wetting of the solid by the adsorbate.
Whenever hysteresis is observed, the desorption curve is below the adsorption curve.
12.6 HEAT OF ADSORPTION

The differential heat of adsorption (–H) is defined as the heat liberated at constant
temperature when unit quantity of vapour is adsorbed on a large quantity of solid
Adsorption 391
already containing adsorbate. Solid so used is in such a large quantity that the
adsorbate concentration remains unchanged.
The integral heat of adsorption, (DH) at any concentration X is defined as the
enthalpy of the adsorbate–adsorbent combination minus the sum of the enthalpies
of unit weight of pure solid adsorbent and sufficient pure adsorbed substance
(before adsorption) to provide the required concentration X, at the same
temperature.
The differential heat of adsorption and integral heat of adsorption are functions
of temperature and adsorbate concentration.
12.7 EFFECT OF TEMPERATURE

Increase of temperature at constant pressure decreases the amount of solute
adsorbed from a mixture. However, a generalization of the result is not easy.
Figure 12.1 also indicates the effect of temperature.
12.8 EFFECT OF PRESSURE

Generally lowering of pressure reduces the amount of adsorbate adsorbed upon the
adsorbent. However, the relative adsorption of paraffin hydrocarbon on carbon
decreases at increased pressures.
12.9 LIQUIDS
The impurities are present both at low and high concentrations in liquids. These are
normally removed by adsorption technique. The characteristics of adsorption of
low and high concentration impurities are different. They are discussed below.
12.9.1 Adsorption of Solute from Dilute Solutions

Whenever a mixture of solute and solvent is adsorbed using an adsorbent, both the
solvent and solute are adsorbed. Due to this, only relative or apparent adsorption
of solute can alone be determined.
Hence, it is a normal practice to treat a known volume of solution of original
concentration C0, with a known weight of adsorbent. Let C* be the final
equilibrium concentration of solute in the solution.
If v is the volume of solution per unit mass of adsorbent (cc/g) and C0 and C*
are the initial and equilibrium concentrations (g/cc) of the solute, then the apparent
adsorption of solute per unit mass of adsorbent, neglecting any change in volume
is v(C0 – C*), (g/g). This expression is mainly applicable to dilute solutions. When
the fraction of the original solvent which can be adsorbed is small, the C* value
depends on the temperature, nature and properties of adsorbent.
In the case of dilute solutions and over a small concentration range, Freundich
adsorption Isotherm describes the adsorption phenomena,
C* = K [v(C0 – C*)]n (12.1)
Freundlich adsorption equation is also quite useful in cases where the actual
identity of the solute is not known, e.g. removal of colouring substance from sugar
solutions, oils etc. The colour content in the solution can easily be measured using
spectrophotometer or colorimeter. The interpretation of this data is illustrated in
worked example 2. If the value of n is high, say 2 to 10, adsorption is good. If it
lies between 1 and 2, moderately difficult and less than 1 indicates poor adsorption
characteristics. A typical adsorption isothermal for the adsorption of various
adsorbates A, B and C in dilute solution at the same temperature for the same
adsorbent is shown in Fig. 12.4.
Fig. 12.4 Adsorption isotherms for various adsorbates.
12.9.2 Adsorption from Concentrated Solution

When the apparent adsorption of solute is determined over the entire range of
concentrations from pure solvent (0% solute concentration) to pure solute (100%
solute concentration), curves as shown in Fig. 12.5 will occur. Curve ‘1’ occurs
when the solute is more strongly adsorbed in comparison to solvent at all solute
concentration. Whenever both solute and solvent are adsorbed to nearly the same
extent, the ‘S’ shaped curve ‘2’occurs. In the range PQ solute is more strongly
adsorbed than solvent. At point Q both are equally well adsorbed. In the range QR
solvent is more strongly adsorbed.
12.9.3 Other Adsorption Isotherms
12.9.3.1 Langmuir adsorption isotherm

The theory proposed by Langmuir postulates that gases being adsorbed by a solid
surface cannot form a layer more than a simple molecule in depth. His theory
visualizes adsorption as a process consisting two opposite actions, a condensation
of molecules from the gas phase on to the surface and an evaporation of molecules
from the surface back into the body of the gas. When adsorption starts, every
molecule colliding with the surface may condense on it. However, as adsorption
Adsorption 393
Fig. 12.5 Adsorption of solute in concentrated solutions.
proceeds, only those molecules which strike the uncovered area surface can be
adsorbed. Due to this, the initial rate of condensation of molecules on the surface
is very high and decreases as the time progresses. The molecules attached to the
surface also get detached by factors like thermal agitation. The rate at which
desorption occurs depends on the amount of surface covered by molecules and will
increase as the surface becomes more fully saturated. When the rate of adsorption
and desorption become equal, adsorption equilibrium is said to be reached. If ‘q’
is the fraction of surface covered by adsorbed molecules at any instant, the
fractional area available for adsorption is (1 – q). The rate at which the molecules
strike the unit area of surface is proportional to pressure.
Therefore the rate of condensation
= k1(1 – q)P
where, k1 is a constant.
Similarly, the rate of evaporation
µ k2q
where, k2 is a constant.
Under adsorption equilibrium,
k1(1 – q)P = k2q
k1 (1 R ) P
i.e. R
k2 k1 P
bP k1
where, b (12.2)
1 bP k2
Now the gas adsorbed per unit area or unit mass of adsorbent, y, must obviously
be proportional to the fraction of surface covered. Hence,
Î bP Þ aP
y kR kÏ ß (12.3)
Ð1 bP à 1 bP
where, a and b are constants. This is Langmuir adsorption Isotherm
12.9.3.2 BET adsorption isotherm
This postulates that the adsorption phenomenon involves the formation of many
multilayers on the surface rather than a single one. Based on this, Brunauer,
Emmett and Teller derived the following adsorption isotherm popularly known as
BET adsorption isotherm.
P 1 Ë (C 1) Û Ë P Û
Ì
[V ( P P )]
o
[VmC ] Í VmC ÜÝ ÍÌ P o ÝÜ (12.4)
where, V is the volume, reduced to standard conditions of gas adsorbed at pressure

P and temperature T, P° is the saturated vapour pressure of the adsorbate at
temperature T, Vm is the volume of gas reduced to standard conditions, adsorbed
when the surface is covered with a unimolecular layer, C is a constant at any given
temperature given by exp [(E1 – E2)/RT], where E1 is the heat of adsorption for the
first layer and E2 is that for the second and higher layers.
12.10 TYPES OF OPERATION

Adsorption operations are carried out either on batch or continuous basis. Batch
process is not very much used. However, a batch operation is quite useful in
obtaining equilibrium data. Much widely used continuous operation can either be
a single stage or a multistage operation. The multistage operation could once again
either be a cross-current operation or a countercurrent operation.
12.10.1 Single Stage Operation

A schematic arrangement for a single stage operation is shown in Fig. 12.6.
The concentration of solute increases in the adsorbent from X0 to X1 (g/g) and
the concentration of solute in the solution decreases from Y0 to Y1 (g/g).
Fig. 12.6 Single stage operation.

Adsorption 395
The mass balance for solute gives

Gs [Y0 – Y1] = LS [X1 – X0] (12.5)
LS (Y0 Y1 )
i.e. (12.6)
GS ( X 0 X1 )
where (LS/GS) indicates the slope of the operating line passing through the points
(X0, Y0) and (X1, Y1). If the leaving streams are in perfect equilibrium, then the
point (X *1, Y*1) will lie on the equilibrium adsorption isotherm. If the equilibrium
is not reached due to factors like poor contacting, then the point P represents the
conditions of leaving streams as shown in Fig. 12.7.
Fig. 12.7 Adsorption isotherm and operating line for a single stage operation.
Assuming the validity of Freundlich equation, especially when a low

concentration of solute is involved, the equation can be written as
Y* = mxn (12.7)
and at the final equilibrium conditions,
1/ n
È Y1 Ø
X1 ÉÊ ÙÚ (12.8)
m
when the pure adsorbent is used, i.e. X0 = 0.
Equation (12.8) yields
LS (Y0 Y1 )
1/ n
(12.9)
GS È Y1 Ø
ÉÊ ÙÚ
m
12.10.2 Multistage Cross-current Operation

A schematic arrangement of multistage cross-current operation is shown in
Fig. 12.8.
Fig. 12.8 Multistage cross-current operation.
Making a material balance of solute for stage 1 and use of Freundlich equation
for the entry of pure adsorbent gives
GS(Y0 – Y1) = LS1(X1 – X0) (12.10)
According to Eq. (12.9),
LS1 (Y0 Y1 )
1/ n
(12.11)
GS È Y1 Ø
ÉÊ ÙÚ
m
A material balance of solute for stage 2 yields,
GS(Y1 – Y2) = LS2(X2 – X0) (12.12)
Use of Freundlich equation for the entry of pure adsorbent gives
LS2 (Y1 Y2 )
1/ n (12.13)
GS È Y2 Ø
ÉÊ ÙÚ
m
A similar material balance for stage p yields
GS(Yp–1 – Yp) = LSp(Xp – X0) (12.14)
Using Freundlich equation as before gives
LSp (Yp 1 Yp )
1/ n
(12.15)
GS È Yp Ø
ÉÊ ÙÚ
m
This operation is represented graphically as shown in Fig. 12.9.
12.10.2.1 Steps involved in the determination of number of
stages needed for a cross-current adsorption
process
1. Draw the equilibrium curve (X vs Y).
2. Locate the point (X 0 , Y 0) and draw the operating line with a slope
(–L S 1/G S ).
3. The intersection of operating line and equilibrium curve yields (X1, Y1) –
the conditions of stream leaving from stage I.
Adsorption 397
Fig. 12.9 Adsorption isotherm and operating line for a two-stage cross-current
operation.
4. Locate (X0, Y1) and draw the operating line with a slope of (–LS2/GS) (since
X0 remains constant for adsorbent for II stage).
5. Intersection of operating line and equilibrium curve yields (X2, Y2) — the
conditions of leaving stream from stage II.
6. Proceed in the same way till the XNp point is crossed and count the number
of stages for the use of specified amount of adsorbent in each stage.
12.10.2.2 Optimisation of a two-stage cross-current operation

In a typical two-stage operation, the concentrations of solute both in the inlet
solution stream and the outlet solution stream are fixed along with the feed rate of
solution. The objective will be to use the minimum amount of adsorbent for this.
If the quantity of the adsorbent is changed, the exit concentration of solution from
each stage will also vary. However, the terminal conditions are always fixed and
only the intermediate concentration is a variable. Hence, with one particular
intermediate value, if the amounts of adsorbent used in both the stages are
estimated, it will result in the minimum amount of adsorbent being used.
For the schematic arrangement shown in Fig. 12.10, the material balance
equations for stages I and II are obtained from Eqs. (12.8) and (12.9) as
Fig. 12.10 Two-stage cross-current operation.

LS1 (Y0 Y1 )
GS 1/ n
È Y1 Ø
ÉÊ ÙÚ
m
LS2 (Y1 Y2 )
GS 1/ n
È Y2 Ø
ÉÊ ÙÚ
m
Adding Eqs. (12.11) and (12.12), we get
È LS1 LS2 Ø (Y0 Y1 ) (Y1 Y2 )
ÉÊ ÙÚ 1/ n
1/ n (12.16)
G s È Y1 Ø È Y2 Ø
ÉÊ ÙÚ ÉÊ ÙÚ
m m
The total amount of adsorbent used can be optimised with respect to Y1 (the
intermediate concentration), the only variable on the R.H.S. of Eq. (12.16). The
other parameters Y0, Y2, m and n are all fixed for a specified operation involving
a specific adsorbent.
d Ë LS1 LS2 Û d Ë (Y0 Y1 ) (Y1 Y2 ) Û

i.e. Ì Ü (12.17)
dY1 Í GS Ý dY1 ÌÌ È Y Ø 1/ n È Y2 Ø
1/ n Ü
Ü
1
É Ù
ÌÍ Ê m Ú É
Ê mÚ Ù ÜÝ
d Ë Y0 Y1 (Y1 Y2 ) Û
m1/ n
dY1 ÌÍ (Y1 )1/ n Ü
(Y2 )1/ n Ý
d Ë (Y0 Y1 ) Y21/ n (Y1 Y2 ) Y11/ n Û

i.e. m1/ n Ì Ü
dY1 ÍÌ [(Y2 )1/ n (Y1 )1/ n ] ÝÜ
d Ë [(Y0Y21/ n ) (Y1Y21/ n )] [Y1(11/ n ) Y2Y11/ n ] Û

m1/ n (Y2 ) 1/ n Ì Ü (12.18)
dY1 ÍÌ Y11/ n ÝÜ
d
m1/ n (Y2 )1/ n [Y0Y21/ nY11/ n Y21/ n ¹ Y1(11/ n ) Y1 Y2 ] (12.19)
dY1
m1/ n (Y2 ) 1/ n [Y0 ¹ Y21/ n ( 1/ n) Y111/ n Y21/ n (1 1 / n) Y11/ n 1 0]

(12.20)
For minimum adsorbent R.H.S. of (12.20) should be zero.
i.e. Y0Y21/ n ( 1 / n )Y111/ n (1 1 / n )Y21/ nY11/ n 1 0 0 (12.21)
(since m, n and Y2 have definite values)
1/ n
ÈY Ø
Dividing by É 2 Ù , we get
Ê Y1 Ú
1/ n
È Y0 Ø È 1 Ø È 1 Ø È Y1 Ø
ÉÊ Y ÙÚ ÉÊ n ÙÚ ÉÊ1 Ù
n Ú ÉÊ Y2 ÙÚ
0
1
Adsorption 399
1/ n
È Y1 Ø È 1 Ø È Y0 Ø È 1Ø
i.e. ÉÊ Y ÙÚ ÉÊ n ÙÚ ÉÊ Y ÙÚ 1 ÉÊ n ÙÚ (12.22)
2 1
Equation (12.22) can be solved by trial and error to get the intermediate
concentration Y1 which will optimise the total quantity of adsorbent to be used.
However, also using the chart as shown in Fig. 12.11, we can get the intermediate
concentration.
Fig. 12.11 Minimum total adsorbent two-stage cross-current Eq. (12.22).
12.10.3 Multistage Countercurrent Adsorption

The schematic arrangement as shown in Fig. 12.12 represents a multistage
countercurrent operation.
Fig. 12.12 Multistage countercurrent operation.
Solute balance for the system as a whole gives

GS(Y0 – YNp) = LS(X1 – XNp+1) (12.23)
È LS Ø (Y0 YNp )
i.e. ÉÊ G ÙÚ (12.24)
S ( X1 X Np 1 )
Equation (12.24) gives the slope of the operating line passing through the terminal
conditions (X1, Y0) and (XNp+1, YNp). By conventional stepwise construction starting
from the point (X1, Y0), the number of theoretical stages are estimated. This
operation is represented graphically as shown in Fig. 12.13.
Fig. 12.13 Countercurrent multistage adsorption.
In order to determine the minimum amount of adsorbent for the process, draw
a line from the point P (XNp+1, YNp) which could be a tangent to the equilibrium
curve. In such cases, the slope of the line gives the ratio of (LS/GS)min. However,
in the case of equilibrium curve being a straight line or concave upwards, draw a
horizontal line from Y0 to intersect the equilibrium curve, (or line) at a point by Q
and then join PQ which gives the slope of the operating line (LS/GS)min. The above
two cases have been shown graphically in Figs. 12.14(a) and 12.14(b) respectively.
Fig. 12.14 Operating line and minimum adsorbent/solvent ratio for infinite stages.
Adsorption 401
12.10.3.1 Steps involved in determining the number of

stages in a multistage countercurrent operation
1. Draw the equilibrium curve.
2. Locate the point P (XNp+1, YNp).
3. Draw a line with a slope of (LS/GS), where LS is the mass flow rate of
solute free adsorbent and GS is the mass flow rate of solution on solute
free basis.
4. Starting from (X1, Y0) by stepwise construction, estimate the number of
stages till the point (XNp+1, YNp) is crossed. The operation is graphically
shown in Fig. 12.14.
5. If it is desired to determine the amount of adsorbent needed for a specified
level of solute removal from a solution stream with a specified number of
stages, draw the operating line of different slopes by trial and error and
choose the one which gives exactly the same number of specified stages
and the specified concentration in the liquid stream. From the slope of the
operating line, thus chosen, determine the amount of adsorbent to be used
and the solute concentration in the adsorbent.
12.10.3.2 Optimization of two-stage countercurrent adsorption

A typical two-stage countercurrent operation is shown schematically in Fig. 12.15.
Fig. 12.15 Two-stage countercurrent adsorption.
Solute balance for the system as a whole with pure adsorbent yields
LS(X1 – 0) = GS[Y0 – Y2] (12.25)
Applying Eq. (12.8), we get
1/ n
ÈY Ø
LS É 1 Ù GS (Y0 Y2 ) (12.26)
Ê mÚ
LS (Y0 Y2 )
1/ n
(12.27)
GS È Y1 Ø
ÉÊ ÙÚ
m
Applying a similar balance for stage 2, we get
1/ n
ÈY Ø
GS (Y1 Y2 ) LS ( X2 0) LS É 2 Ù (12.28)
Ê mÚ
È LS Ø (Y1 Y2 )
ÉÊ G ÙÚ 1/ n (12.29)
S È Y2 Ø
ÉÊ ÙÚ
m
Equating Eqs. (12.27) and (12.29), we get
(Y0 Y2 ) (Y1 Y2 )
1/ n 1/ n
È Y1 Ø È Y2 Ø
ÉÊ ÙÚ ÉÊ ÙÚ
m m
(Y0 Y2 ) (Y1 Y2 ) Ë È Y Ø 1/ n È Y Ø 1/ n Û

ÌÉ 1 Ù É 2 Ù Ü
Y2 Y2 ÍÊ m Ú Ê mÚ Ý
1/ n
È Y0 Ø È Y1 Ø Ë È Y1 Ø Û
ÉÊ Y ÙÚ 1 ÉÊ Y ÙÚ Ì É Ù 1Ü (12.30)
2 2 ÍÊ 2 Ú
Y Ý
Since Y0, Y2, n are all specific values for a specified level of adsorption and also
a specific adsorbent, the only unknown Y1, can be estimated by trial and error.
Alternately, Y1, can be estimated by the following chart as shown in Fig. 12.16.
Fig. 12.16 Two-stage countercurrent adsorption Eq. (12.27).
12.11 CONTINUOUS ADSORPTION

In these adsorbers, the fluid and adsorbent are in continuous contact without any
separation of the phases. This is quite analogous to gas absorption with the solid
adsorbent replacing the liquid solvent. The operation can be carried out in strictly
continuous, steady state fashion with both fluid and solid moving at constant rate
Adsorption 403
and the composition remains constant at a particular point. It can also be operated
on semi-continuous basis with solid particles remaining stationary and fluid in
moving condition. Such operations constitute unsteady adsorption process.
12.11.1 Steady State Adsorption

Continuous differential contact tower is schematically represented in Fig. 12.17.
Fig. 12.17 Continuous differential contact tower.
Solute balance for the entire tower is

GS(Y1 – Y2) = LS(X1 – X2) (12.31)
Solute balance for the upper part of the tower is
GS(Y – Y2) = LS(X – X2) (12.32)
Using Eq. (12.31), one can draw the operating line and Eq. (12.32) gives us the
concentration of the two phases at any point in the tower.
Making a solute balance across the element of thickness dZ,
LS (dX) = GS dY = Kya (Y – Y*) dZ (12.33)
where Ky a is mass transfer coefficient based on the outside surface area a of
particles, kg/m3.s.(DY) and Y* is the equilibrium concentration of the fluid
corresponding to its concentration X.
Equation (12.33) on integration yields
Y2 Z
dY Kya Z
N toG Ô
Y2
( Y *)
Y GS Ô dZ
0
HtoG
(12.34)
where HtoG = GS/Kya

NtoG can be determined graphically as usual.
12.11.2 Unsteady State Adsorbers

When a fluid mixture is passed through a stationary bed of adsorbent, the adsorbent
adsorbs solute continuously and it results in an unsteady state operation.
Ultimately, the bed may get saturated and no further adsorption results. The change
in concentration of effluent stream is shown in Fig. 12.18. The system indicates an
exit concentration varying from C, to a final concentration very close to inlet
concentration. The point A indicates break point. The portion from A to B is termed
the break through curve. Beyond this, very little adsorption takes place, indicating
that the system has more or less reached equilibrium or saturation.
Fig. 12.18 The adsorption wave.
12.12 EQUIPMENT FOR ADSORPTION

Equipment are available for adsorption of a solute from a gaseous or a liquid
stream. When the solute (which could be colouring matter, odorous substances,
valuable solutes etc.) is strongly adsorbed from a liquid stream, one can use contact
filtration equipment which can be operated as batch units, semi-continuous or as
continuous ones. Continuous ones can be realized by fluidized bed techniques.
These are similar to mixer-settler units used in extraction operations. Generally
gases are treated with fluidized bed techniques.
12.12.1 Contact Filtration Equipment

The equipment consists of a mixing tank in which the liquid to be treated and the
adsorbent are thoroughly mixed at the operating temperature and for a specified
duration of time. In some cases like ion exchange sparging is done with air.
Subsequently the slurry is filtered off to separate the solids from the solution. The
filtration is done in a filter press or centrifuge or in a continuous rotary filter. Multi
stage operations could easily be done by providing a number of tanks and filter
combinations. The filter cake is usually washed to displace the solution. If the
adsorbate is the desired product, then it can be desorbed by contact with a solvent
other than the one which constituted the solution and the one in which the solute
is more readily soluble. When the solute is more volatile, it can be removed by the
Adsorption 405
passage of steam or warm air through the solid. Whenever the adsorbent is
activated carbon, care must be taken so that the adsorbent does not burn away at
high temperatures of desorption operation. Adsorbent can also be regenerated by
burning away the adsorbate.
12.12.2 Fluidised Beds

When a mixtures of gases are to be treated on a continuous basis, it is preferable
to use fluidized beds. This is done by passing the gases at high velocities through
a bed of granular solids in which the adsorption occurs. The beds of solids remain
in suspended condition throughout the operation. The bed can be regenerated by
passing steam/air at high temperatures. To improve the effectiveness of operation,
one can go in for the multistage counter operation with regeneration. In these
operations one has to take care to minimize or prevent the carry over of solids.
12.12.3 Steady-state Moving Bed Adsorbers

In this category of adsorbers both the solids and fluid move continuously. The
composition at any particular point is independent of time. They are operated with
the solids moving downwards and the liquid in upward direction. The flow of
solids is plug flow in nature and it is not in fluidized state.
The Higgins contactor developed for ion exchange is an excellent facility for
adsorption. Figure 12.19 indicates the arrangement. This consists of two sections.
In the top section to start with adsorption takes place. Simultaneously the bottom
section of the bed undergoes regeneration. After some pre-calculated duration of
operation, the flow of liquids is stopped and the positions of the valves are changed
Fig. 12.19 Higgins contactor.

as indicated. The liquid-filled piston pump is moved and this leads to the clockwise
movement of solids. Once again the valves are moved to their original position and
the movement of solid also stops. The adsorption cycle once again starts in the top
section of the unit and desorption at the bottom section.
WORKED EXAMPLES
1. One litre flask is containing air and acetone at 1 atm and 303 K with a
relative humidity of 35% of acetone. 2 g of fresh activated carbon is
introduced and the flask is sealed. Compute the final vapour composition
and final pressure neglecting adsorption of air.
Equilibrium data:
g adsorbed/g carbon 0 0.1 0.2 0.3 0.35

Partial pressure of acetone, mm Hg 0 2 12 42 92
Vapour pressure of acetone at 30°C is 283 mm Hg.

Solution.
Let us convert the data from partial pressure to concentration in terms of
g acetone/g of air.
2 58
i.e. ¥ = 5.28 ¥ 10 -3 g acetone/g air
(760 - 2) 28.84
Likewise the other values can also be converted to concentration in terms of
mass ratios.
Hence,
X, g adsorbed/g carbon 0 0.1 0.2 0.3 0.35
Y, g acetone/g air 0 5.28 × 10–3 32.1 × 10–3 117 × 10–3 276 × 10–3
Originally the feed contains 35% RH acetone

i.e. Partial pressure/vapour pressure = 0.35
\ Partial pressure of acetone = 283 × 0.35 = 99 mm Hg.
Partial pressure of air = 661 mm Hg.
99 58
\ Y0 = ¥ = 0.301 g of acetone/g of air
(760 - 99) 28.84
LS = 2 g
The feed point is (X0, Y0) = (0.0, 0.301)
(760 - 99)
Volume fraction of air in the original mixture = = 0.87 liters.
760
i.e. volume of air = 0.87 l (At 1 atm and 303 K)
(0.87 ¥ 1) 273 1
i.e. moles of air = ¥ ¥ = 0.03496 g moles
303 1 22.414
i.e. mass of air in the original mixture = 0.03496 × 28.84 = 1.008 g
Adsorption 407
LS 2
\ 1.984
GS 1.008
Y1 (from graph) = 13 × 10–3 g acetone/g air
Grams of acetone left behind after adsorption, per gram of air = 0.013
Partial pressure of acetone 58
i.e. g acetone/g air
Partial pressure of air 28.84
Partial pressure of acetone 58
i.e. 0.013 g acetone/g air
661 28.84
\ Partial pressure of acetone in flask after adsorption = 4.27 mm Hg
\ Total pressure = 661 + 4.27 = 665.27 mm Hg.
2. A solid adsorbent is used to remove colour impurity from an aqueous

solution. The original value of colour on an arbitrary scale is 48. It is
required to reduce this to 10% of its original value. Using the following data,
find the quantity of fresh adsorbent used for 1000 kg of solution for (a) a
single stage and (b) a two-stage cross-current operation when the
intermediate colour value is 24.
Equilibrium data:
kg adsorbent/kg of solution 0 0.001 0.004 0.008 0.02 0.04
Equilibrium colour (Y) 48 43 31.5 21.5 8.5 3.5
Solution.
(a) The given data will be converted to enable us to handle it more easily.
The initial values are Xo = units of colour/kg adsorbent = 0

Yo = units of colour/kg solution = 48
When 0.001 kg of adsorbent is added to1 kg of solution, the colour reduces
from 48 units to 43 units. These 5 units of colour are thus transferred to
0.001 kg adsorbent.
units of colour (48 43)
\ X, 5000
kg adsorbent 0.001
Similarly, by adding 0.004 kg adsorbent, colour drops by 16.5 units.
16.5
i.e. X 4125
0.004
X, colour adsorbent/kg 0 5000 4125 3312.5 1975 1112.5

adsorbent
Y, colour/kg solution 48 43 31.5 21.5 8.5 3.5
The final solution has 4.8 units of colour

(a) Single stage operation:
LS
Slope = – = – 0.030 (from graph)
GS
GS is 1000 kg of solution.
\ Dosage of carbon = 0.03 × 1000 = 30 kg

Adsorption 409
(b) A two-stage cross-current operation

ÈL Ø (48 24) 24
É S Ù 6.76 10 3
Ê GS Ú 1 (0 3550) 3550
ÈL Ø (24 4.8)
É S Ù 0.01324
Ê GS Ú 2 ( 1450 0)
GS is 1000 kg of solution
\ LS1 + LS2 = 6.76 + 13.24 = 20.00 kg
3. The equilibrium decolourisation data for a certain system using activated
carbon is given by the equation,
Y = 0.004X2
where Y is g colouring impurity/kg impurity free solution and X is g
colouring impurity/kg pure activated carbon.
Calculate the amount of activated carbon required per 1000 kg of impurity
free solution to reduce the impurity concentration from 1.2 to 0.2 g/kg of
impurity free solution using (i) a single stage operation and (ii) a two-stage
cross-current operation with intermediate composition of 0.5 g. of colouring
impurity per kg of impurity free solution.
Y = 0.004X2
Solution.
Feed, GS = 1000 kg of impurity free solution
(i) Y0 = 1.2 g/kg of impurity free solution
Y1 = 0.2 g/kg of impurity free solution
X0 = 0
0.5 0.5
È Y1 Ø È 0.2 Ø
X1 ÉÊ Ù ÉÊ Ù 7.07
0.004 Ú 0.004 Ú
LS (Y0 Y1 ) (1.2 0.2) 1
0.1414
GS ( X 0 X1 ) (0 7.07) 7.07
\ LS = 0.1414 × 1000 = 141.4 kg of adsorbent
(ii) Intermediate colour concentration is 0.5 g/kg of impurity free solution
0.5
È 0.5 Ø
\ X1 ÉÊ Ù 11.18
0.004 Ú
ÈL Ø (1.2 0.5) 0.7
\ É S Ù 0.06261
Ê GS Ú 1 (0 11.18) 11.18
X2 = Xfinal = 7.07
ÈL Ø (0.5 0.2)
É S Ù 0.04243
Ê GS Ú 2 (0 7.07)
È LS Ø
\ ÉÊ G ÙÚ 0.06261 0.04243 0.10504
S total
The adsorbent needed, LS = 105.04 kg of adsorbent.

4. A solution of washed raw cane sugar of 48% sucrose by weight is coloured
by the presence of small quantities of impurities. It is to be decolourised at
80ºC by treatment with an adsorptive carbon in a contact filtration plant. The
data for an equilibrium adsorption isotherm were obtained by adding various
amounts of the carbon to separate batches of the original solution and
observing the equilibrium colour reached in each case. The data with the
quantity of carbon expressed on the basis of the sugar content of the solution
are as follows:
kg carbon
0 0.005 0.01 0.015 0.02 0.03
kg dry sugar
% colour removed 0 47 70 83 90 95
The original solution has a colour concentration of 20 measured on an

arbitrary scale and it is desired to reduce the colour to 2.5% of its original
value.
(i) Convert the equilibrium data to Y and X.
(ii) Calculate the amount of carbon required for a single stage process for
a feed of 1000 kg solution.
(iii) Estimate the amount of carbon needed for a feed of 1000 kg solution
in a two-stage countercurrent process.
Solution.
Feed solution contains 48% sucrose.
kg carbon
0 0.005 0.01 0.015 0.02 0.03
kg dry sugar
% colour 0 47 70 83 90 95
removed
kg carbon
0 0.0024 0.0048 0.0072 0.0096 0.0144
kg dry solution
colour 0.53 20 0.30 20 0.17 20 0.10 20 0.05 20

Y, 20
kg of solution 10.6 6 3.4 2.0 1.0
colour (20 10.6) (20 6) (20 3.4) (20 2) (20 1)

X, –
kg carbon 0.0024 0.0048 0.0072 0.0096 0.0144
3916.7 2916.7 2305.6 1875 1319.4
Adsorption 411
Feed is (X0, Y0) = (0, 20)

Final product is to have 2.5% original colour, i.e. 0.5 units = Y1
ÈL Ø (20 0.5) 19.5
\ É S Ù 0.0195
Ê GS Ú (0 100) 1000
\ LS = GS × 0.0195 = 19.5 kg
(ii) The operating line is fixed by trial and error for exactly two stages.
È LS Ø 19.5
ÉÊ G ÙÚ 6.142 10 3
S 3175
\ LS = 6.142 kg
5. NO2 produced by a thermal process for fixation of nitrogen is to be removed

from a dilute mixture with air by adsorption on silica gel in a continuous
countercurrent adsorber. The gas entering at the rate of 0.126 kg/s contains
1.5% of NO2 by volume and 90% of NO2 is to be removed. Operation is
isothermal at 25°C and 1 atm pressure. The entering gel will be free of NO2.
Partial pressure of NO2, mm Hg 0 2 4 6 8 10 12

kg NO2/100 kg gel 0 0.4 0.9 1.65 2.6 3.65 4.85
(a) Calculate the minimum weight of gel required/h.

(b) For twice the minimum gel rate, calculate the number of stages required.
Solution.
Entering gas rate : 450 kg/hr = 0.126 kg/s
NO2 present : 1.5 % by volume
Temperature : 25oC
Pressure : 1 std. atm.
Partial pressure of NO2, 0 2 4 6 8 10 12

mm Hg
kg NO2/100 kg gel 0 0.4 0.9 1.65 2.6 3.65 4.85
Kg NO2/kg gel, X 0 0.004 0.009 0.0165 0.026 0.0365 0.0485
(pp NO2/pp air) × 0 0.0042 0.00844 0.01269 0.01697 0.02127 0.0256
(46/28.84), Y, (kg/kg)
Yin = 1.5%
1.5 46
Yin (kg/kg) 0.0243
98.5 28.84
0.0243
Yin (kg/kg of mixture) = 0.0237
1.0243
GS = 450 (1 – 0.0237) = 439.3 kg/h
90% of NO2 is to be recovered
1.5 0.1 46
Yout 0.00243
98.5 28.84
È LS Ø 0.025
ÉÊ G ÙÚ 0.667
S min 0.0375
Weight of absorbent required, LS = 0.667 × 439.3 = 291.1 kg/h
Number of stages needed for twice the adsorbent rate
È LS Ø 582.2
\ ÉÊ G ÙÚ 1.334
S act 439.3
No. of stages = 3

Adsorption 413
6. 500 kg/min of dry air at 20oC and carrying 5 kg of water vapour/min. is to

be dehumidified with silica gel to 0.001 kg of water vapour/kg of dry air.
The operation has to be carried out isothermally and countercurrently with
25 kg/min. of dry silica gel. How many theoretical stages are required and
what will be the water content in the silica gel leaving the last stage?
kg. of water vapour/ 0 0.05 0.10 0.15 0.20

kg of dry silica gel, X
kg of water vapour/ 0 0.0018 0.0036 0.0050 0.0062
kg of dry air, Y
Solution.
Quantity of dry air entering at 20oC, GS = 500 kg/min
Quantity of water vapour entering = 5 kg/min
5
Y1 0.01 kg water vapour/kg dry air
500
Concentration of water vapour in leaving air, Y2 = 0.001 kg water vapour/
kg dry air
Quantity of silica gel entering, LS = 25 kg/min
X2 = 0
È LS Ø 25
i.e. ÉÊ G ÙÚ 0.05
S 500
Making a material balance
LS [X1 – X2] = GS [Y1 – Y2]

500 ¥ 0.009
\ X1 = = 0.18
25
Total number of stages needed = 4
EXERCISES
1. The equilibrium relationship for the adsorption of colour from a carrier gas
is given by y = 0.57x0.5, where y is the gram of coloured substance removed
per gram of adsorbent and x is the gram of colour/100 grams of colour free
carrier. If 100 kg of the carrier containing 1 part of colour per 3 parts of total
carrier is contacted with 25 kg of adsorbent, calculate the percent of colour
removed by (i) single contact, (ii) two-stage cross-current contact dividing
the adsorbent equally per contact.
2. Experiments on decolourisation of oil yielded the following relationship
y = 0.5x0.5, where y is the gram of colour removed per gram of adsorbent
and x is the gram of colour/1000 grams of colour free oil. If 1000 kg of oil
containing 1 part of colour per 3 parts of colour free oil is contacted with
250 kg of adsorbent, calculate the percent of colour removed by (i) single
stage process, (ii) two-stage cross-current contact process using 125 kg
adsorbent in each stage.
3. A solid adsorbent is used to remove colour impurity from an aqueous
solution. The original value of colour on an arbitrary scale is 48. It is
required to reduce this to 10% of its original value. Using the following data,
find the number of stages needed for 1000 kg of a solution in a
countercurrent operation if 1.5 times the minimum adsorbent needed is used.
Equilibrium data:
kg adsorbent/kg of solution 0 0.001 0.004 0.008 0.02 0.04
Equilibrium colour (Y) 48 43 31.5 21.5 8.5 3.5
4. An aqueous solution containing valuable solute is coloured by the presence

of small amounts of impurity. It is decolourised using activated carbon
adsorbent. The equilibrium relationship is Y = 0.00009X1.7, where X = colour
units/kg carbon and Y = colour units/kg solution. If 1000 kg of the original
solution has 9.8 colour units/kg solution, calculate (i) the amount of colour
removed by using 30 kg of adsorbent in a single stage operation and (ii) the
amount of carbon needed for a two-stage countercurrent operation if the
final colour in the solution is to be 10% of the original value and the solution
leaving the first stage has 4 times the final colour of the solution.
5. The adsorption of moisture using silica gel varies with moisture content as
follows: Y = 0.035X1.05, where X = kg water adsorbed/kg dry gel and Y =
humidity of air, kg moisture/kg dry air. 1 kg of silica gel containing 2% (dry
basis) of moisture is placed in a vessel of volume 5 m3 containing moist air.
The partial pressure of water is 15 mm Hg. The total pressure and
temperature are 1 atm. and 298 K respectively. What is the amount of water
picked up by silica gel from the moist air in the vessel? Estimate the final
partial pressure of moisture and final total pressure in the vessel.
Appendix
I
IMPORTANT CONVERSION
FACTORS
Quantity To convert Multiply by

from to
Length in m 0.0254
ft m 0.3048
cm m 0.01
Angstron m 10–10
microns m 10–6
Area in2 m2 6.452 × 10–4
ft2 m2 0.0929
cm2 m2 10–4
Volume ft3 m3 0.02832
cm3 m3 10–6
liter m3 10–3
Gallons (UK) m3 4.546 × 10–3
Gallons (US) m3 3.285 × 10–3
Mass Pounds (lb) kg 0.4536
Gram kg 10–3
Density lb/ft3 kg/m3 16.019
g/lit kg/m3 1.0
g/cm3 kg/m3 1000
Force lbf N 4.448
kgf N 9.807
Pa N 980.7
dyn N 10–5
Pressure lbf/ft2 N/m2 = Pa 47.88
lbf/in2 (psi) N/m2 = Pa 6895
415 (Contd.)
416 Appendix I
(Contd.)
Quantity To convert Multiply by
from to
in Hg N/m2 = Pa 3386
in water N/m2 = Pa 249.1
mm Hg N/m2 = Pa 133.3
atm N/m2 = Pa 1.0133 × 105
torr N/m2 = Pa 133.3
bar N/m2 = Pa 105
kgf/cm2 N/m2 = Pa 9.807 × 104
Heat or Energy Btu J = N.m 1055
erg J = N.m 10–7
cal J = N.m 4.187
kcal J = N.m 4187
kW×h J = N.m 3.6 × 106
Volumetric flow rate ft3/s m3/s 0.02832
ft3/h m3/s 7.867 × 10–6
cm3/s m3/s 10–6
Lit/h m3/s 2.777 × 10–7
Mass flow rate (Mass flux) lb/ft2 . h kg/m2s 1.356 × 10–3
g/cm2s kg/m2s 10
Molar flow rate lb mol/ft2. h k mol/m2s 1.356 × 10–3
(Molar flux) g mol/cm2s kmolg/m2s 10
Enthalpy Btu/lb J/kg = N . m/kg 2326
cal/g = kcal/kg J/kg = N . m/kg 4187
Heat capacity (Holds good Btu/lb. °F N . m/kg K = J/kg K 4187
for molal heat capacity also) cal/g.°C N . m/kg K = J/kg K 4187
Appendix
II
ATOMIC WEIGHTS AND
ATOMIC NUMBERS OF
ELEMENTS
Element Symbol Atomic Number Atomic weight
Actinium Ac 89 227.00
Aluminum Al 13 26.98
Americium Am 95 243.00
Antimony Sb 51 121.76
Argon A 18 39.94
Arsenic As 33 74.91
Astatine At 85 210.00
Barium Ba 56 137.36
Berkelium Bk 97 245.00
Beryllium Be 4 9.01
Bismuth Bi 83 209.00
Boron B 5 10.82
Bromine Br 35 79.92
Cadmium Cd 48 112.41
Calcium Ca 20 40.08
Californium Cf 98 246.00
Carbon C 6 12.01
Cerium Ce 58 140.13
Cesium Cs 55 132.91
Chlorine Cl 17 35.46
Chromium Cr 24 52.01
Cobalt Co 27 58.94
Columbium Nb 41 92.91
Copper Cu 29 63.54
Curium Cm 96 243.00
Dysprosium Dy 66 162.46
Erbium Er 68 167.20
(Contd.)
417
418 Appendix II
(Contd.)
Europium Eu 63 152.00
Fluorine F 9 19.00
Francium Fr 87 223.00
Gadolinium Gd 64 156.90
Gallium Ga 31 69.72
Germanium Ge 32 72.60
Gold Au 79 197.20
Hafnium Hf 72 178.60
Helium He 2 4.00
Holmium Ho 67 164.94
Hydrogen H 1 1.00
Indium In 49 114.76
Iodine I 53 126.91
Iridium Ir 77 193.10
Iron Fe 26 55.85
Krypton Kr 36 83.80
Lanthanum La 57 138.92
Lead Pb 82 207.21
Lithium Li 3 6.94
Lutetium Lu 71 174.99
Magnesium Mg 12 24.32
Manganese Mn 25 54.93
Mercury Hg 80 200.61
Molybdenum Mo 42 95.95
Neodymium Nd 60 144.27
Neptunium Np 93 237.00
Neon Ne 10 20.18
Nickel Ni 28 58.69
Niobium Nb 41 92.91
Nitrogen N 7 14.01
Osmium Os 76 190.20
Oxygen O 8 16.00
Palladium Pd 46 106.70
Phosphorus P 15 30.98
Platinum Pt 78 195.23
Plutonium Pu 94 242.00
Polonium Po 84 210.00
Potassium K 19 39.10
Praseodymium Pr 59 140.92
Promethium Pm 61 145.00
Protactinium Pa 91 231.00
Radium Ra 88 226.05
Radon Rn 86 222.00
Rhenium Re 75 186.31
Rhodium Rh 45 102.91
Rubidium Rb 37 85.48
(Contd.)
Appendix II 419
(Contd.)
Ruthenium Ru 44 101.70
Samarium Sm 62 150.43
Scandium Sc 21 44.96
Selenium Se 34 78.96
Silicon Si 14 28.09
Silver Ag 47 107.88
Sodium Na 11 23.00
Strontium Sr 38 87.63
Sulphur S 16 32.07
Tantalum Ta 73 180.88
Technetium Tc 43 99.00
Tellurium Te 52 127.61
Terbium Tb 65 159.20
Thallium Tl 81 204.39
Thorium Th 90 232.12
Thulium Tm 69 169.40
Tin Sn 50 118.70
Titanium Ti 22 47.90
Tungsten W 74 183.92
Uranium U 92 238.07
Vanadium V 23 50.95
Xenon Xe 54 131.30
Ytterbium Yb 70 173.04
Yttrium Y 39 88.92
Zinc Zn 30 65.38
Zirconium Zr 40 91.22
INDEX
Absorption factor, 60, 192–194, 201 Capillary movement, 123

Absorption, 1, 44, 48, 60 Cascades, 59
choice of solvent for, 17 Channeling, 79
design of isothermal, 188 Chemi-sorption, 387
equilibrium curve, 189–193, 197, 200, 202 Chilton–Colburn analogy, 52, 89
Adiabatic chamber, 86 Collision function, 8, 9
Adiabatic operations, 90 Combination of film–surface renewal theory,
Adiabatic saturation curve, 86, 89, 94 49
Adsorbate, 387 Concentration gradient, 3, 4, 13, 15, 47, 54
Adsorbent, 387 Condenser, 273
Adsorption, 2 Coning, 73
from concentrated solution, 392, 393 Constant pressure equilibria, 237
from dilute solution, 391, 392 Constant rate period, 117, 120–123, 128, 129
effect of pressure on, 391 Constant temperature equilibria, 239
effect of temperature on, 391 Contact filters, 404
equilibria, 389 Continuous contact adsorber, 404
equipment for, 404 Continuous contact extraction, 335
heat of, 390 Continuous countercurrent extraction with
hysteresis, 390 reflux, 332
steady state, 403 Continuous differential contactor for
types of, 387 distillation, 278
unsteady state, 404 Continuous distillation, 244
Agitated vessels, 359 Continuous horizontal filter, 364
Analogies, 50 Continuous rectification, 253
Arrhenius relation, 14 Convective diffusion, 3
Association factor, 11 Conveyor, 130, 134,
Cooling towers, 90, 93, 96
Countercurrent contactor, 357, 358
Based on interfacial angle, 159 Countercurrent decantation, 361
Based on types of bonds held together, 160 Counter-current, 57, 58, 60, 75, 96, 132
Batch and continuous, 56 Critical moisture, 117, 121, 127, 128
Batch distillation columns, 242 Cross-current, 59, 96
BET adsorption, 390, 394 Crystal, 159
Binodal solubility, 318 classification of, 159
Bollman extractor, 363–364 density, 168
Boltzmann’s constant, 8 geometry, 15, 159
Bound moisture, 116, 117, 123, 125, 127, growth, 162–164, 167, 168
128 Crystallisation, 2, 159, 161
Boundary layer-universal velocity distri- enthalpy balance, 162
bution, 50 Crystalliser, 171–175
Break through curve, 404 agitated tank, 171
Bubble cap, 72, 74 draft tube baffle, 174
421
422 Index
Krystal, 172 Enthalpy of humid mixture, 83

Swenson–Walker, 170, 171 Equilibria and yield, 161
tank, 171 Equilibrium moisture, 117
vacuum, 173 Equimolar counter–diffusion, 7, 10
Cylinder dryer, 131, 135 Equipment for drying—direct and indirect
contact, 130
Equipment used for gas liquid operations, 72
Decoction, 355 Extract, 316
Dehumidification, 2, 82, 97 Extraction, 2, 316–354
Delayed feed entry, 269, 270 choice of solvent, 321
Design of continuous contact equipment for distribution coefficient, 321
absorption, 197 double solvent, 316
Design of isothermal absorption tower, 188 dual solvent, 316
Desorption, 1, 2, 387 equilibria, 316
Determination of minimum and maximum equipment for, 336–340
solvent in partially soluble liquid- fractional, 316, 334
extraction, 323 isotherm, 318, 319
Dew point, 83
Dielectric dryers, 131
Dielectric drying, 138 Falling rate period, 117–118, 121, 124, 130
Diffusion, 3–41 Feed line, 265
coefficient, 3, 7, 32, 35, 39 Feed plate section, 263, 264
through crystalline solids, 15 Festoon dryer, 131, 136
eddy, 3 Fibre saturation point, 117
Knudsen, 16 Film coefficient, 68
through polymers, 12 Film theory, 47
through porous solids, 15 Filter dryer, 131, 134
in solids, 13 Filter press leaching, 359
turbulent, 3 Flash vaporisation, 248
Diffusivity, 3, 4, 7, 8, 10, 11, 13–16 Flooding, 72, 74, 80
Direct heat driers, 126 Fluidised bed adsorber, 405
Distillation, 2, 32, 72, 75, 81 Free moisture, 118, 130
azeotropic, 241, 281–284 Freeze drying, 131, 138
differential, 245 Freundlich adsorption isotherm, 391
equilibrium, 248 Funicular state, 118
extractive, 283, 284
steam, 244
Downspout, 72–75 Gas solubility, 186, 187
Drum dryer, 136, 137 Grosvenor humidity, 82
Dry bulb temperature, 83, 99 Growth coefficients, 167
Drying, 116–158
hysteresis, 118
moisture content, 117 Heap leaching, 356, 357
operations-classification, 119 Heat of adsorption-differential, 390, 391
test, 119 Heat of adsorption-integral, 391
Dumping, 73 Height of overall gas transfer units, 93
Henry’s law, 187, 201, 203
Heterogeneous, 166
Early feed entry, 269, 270 Higgins contactor, 405
Economic reflux, 273 Hirschfelder-Bird-Spotz equation, 8
Effect of pressure on equilibria, 238 Humid heat, 83, 89
Effect of pressure on extraction isotherm, 319 Humid volume, 84
Effect of temperature on extraction isotherm,
319
Effective diffusivity, 7 Ideal and non-ideal liquid solution, 186
Elution/elutriation, 355 Ideal gas law, 5
Enriching section, 253, 255, 261, 262, 263, Immiscible system, 329
267, 268, 270, 271, 276, 278, 281 In-place leaching, 356
Index 423
Infrared drying, 131, 138 Multistage countercurrent operation for
Internal diffusion controlling, 124, 130 immiscible systems, 330, 331
Invariant crystal, 160, 167, 169 Multistage countercurrent partially soluble
systems, 326
Multistage cross-current adsorption, 395, 396
JD factor, 43, 47 Multistage cross-current leaching, 369–370
Multistage cross-current operation for
immiscible systems, 329
Kennedy extractor, 363 Multistage cross-current operation for
Knudsen’s law, 16 partially soluble systems, 324
Murphree efficiency, 75
Laminar flow, 42
Leaching, 2 Nature of adsorbent, 388
Leaching of vegetable seeds, 362 Negative deviation from ideality, 242
Lewis number, 89 Non-adiabatic operations, 90
Linde trays, 74 Normal boiling point, 8, 11
Lixiviation, 355 Nucleation, 163–166, 168, 169, 173
Loading, 80 Number of gas transfer units, 199
Location of feed tray, 268
Low pressure distillation, 284
Oldshue–Rhuston extractor, 337
Open steam distillation, 276, 277
Magma, 159, 161, 167–170, 173, 174 Operating line–absorption, 189–194, 197,
Mass transfer coefficient, 42–44, 47, 54–56 201–202
McCabe–Thiele method, 261, 267, 276–278 Operating line, 57–60
Mechanically agitated countercurrent Optimal feed location, 268, 270
extractor, 337 Optimization of two-stage countercurrent
Mechanically agitated dryer, 130, 131, 135, adsorption, 401, 402
136 Optimization of two-stage cross-current
Minimum reflux, 270, 271, 272 adsorption, 397, 399
Minimum solvent to gas ratio, 190 Optimum reflux, 258, 272, 273
Mixer–settler, 336 Overall mass transfer coefficient, 55, 56
Moisture movement in solids, 122 Overall transfer units for absorption, 200
capillary movement, 123 Overall tray efficiency, 75
liquid diffusion, 123
pressure diffusion, 123
vapour diffusion, 123 Packed cooling tower, 76–77, 81
Molal absolute humidity, 82 Packed tower distillation, 278
Molal volume, 8, 11 Packed tower, 72, 75–77, 81
Molar concentration, 4, 12, 13 Packings, 76 –81
Molar flux, 4, 5, 12 Pendular state, 118
Mole fraction, 4, 5, 7 Penetration theory, 47, 48
Molecular distillation, 285 Percentage humidity, 83
Mother liquor, 159, 161, 168, 171, 173, 174, Percolation in closed tanks, 359
175 Percolation tanks, 357
Moving bed adsorber, 405 Permeability, 15
MSMPR Model, 168 Physi-sorption, 387
Multicomponent flash distillation, 252 Point efficiency, 75
Multicomponent extraction, 334 Ponchon–Savarit method, 253, 259–260
Multicomponent simple distillation, 251 Population density function, 168, 169
Multistage countercurrent adsorption, 399, Positive deviation from ideality, 241
400, 401 Prandtl Number, 51, 52
Multistage countercurrent isothermal Precipitation, 163, 166
absorption, 192 Pressure diffusion, 123
Multistage countercurrent leaching, 371 Priming, 73
Multistage countercurrent non–isothermal Properties of entrainer for azeotropic
absorption, 194 distillation , 283
424 Index
Properties of solvent for extractive distillation, Taylor–Prandtl analogy, 52

284 Ternary data, 317
Pseudo steady state, 12 Theories of mass transfer, 47
Psychrometric chart, 84, 85, 97 Thickener, 360–361
Psychrometric ratio, 84–87 Through circulation drying, 120, 124
Pulsed column, 338 Total reflux, 271, 272
Tray dryer, 131
Tray efficiency, 75
Raffinate, 316 Trays, 72–75
Random packing, 77–78 Tunnel dryer, 131, 134
Raoult’s law, 240–242, 252 Turbo dryer, 131, 133, 134
Rate curve, 120 Two partially soluble liquids and one solid,
Reboiler, 273–276 320
reflux ratio, 270, 271 Types of distillation columns, 242
Regular packing, 77–78 Types of equilibrium diagrams in leaching,
Relative saturation, 83 365–367
Relative volatility, 240, 246, 248, 271, 272, Types of operations co-current, 57, 58
281–283 Types of operations countercurrent, 57, 58
Reynolds analogy, 51–53
Rotary dryer, 130–134,
Rotating disc contactor, 337, 338
Unbound moisture, 116, 117, 120, 124, 125,
Rotocel extractor, 362
127, 128
Roto-louvre, 131, 133
Unsaturated surface drying, 118, 119, 123,
124, 127, 128
Unsteady state diffusion, 16
Saturated absolute humidity, 82
Schmidt number, 43, 51
Selectivity in extraction, 321
Shanks system, 357 Valve tray, 72, 75
Simple distillation, 245 Vapour diffusion, 123
Single stage adsorption, 394, 395 Vapour liquid equilibria, 237
Single stage extraction operation, 322 Velocity profile, 45, 50, 53
Single stage leaching, 367 Venturi scrubber, 75
Solubility coefficient, 15 Von–Karmann analogy, 53
Spray chamber, 72, 75, 76
Spray dryer, 130, 131, 137
Spray ponds, 98
Weeping, 73
Stage contactors–Sieve tray, 72–75
Weirs, 74
Stage efficiency, 59
Wet bulb depression, 89
Stripping section, 253, 254, 257, 261, 262,
Wet bulb temperature approach, 89
263, 267, 271, 278, 279, 281
Wet bulb thermometry, 87
Supersaturation, 167, 171
Wetted wall towers, 75
Surface renewal theory, 48, 49
Wilke–Chang relation, 10
Surface stretch theory, 49
Winkelmann’s relation, 13
Spray tower, 76
Work function, 164, 165
System of three liquids–one pair partially
soluble, 318
System of three liquids–two pairs partially
soluble, 320 York Scheibel column, 338, 339

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MASS TRANSFER

Theory and Practice

K.M. MEERA SHERIFFA BEGUM

Delhi - 110 092

Second Printing ... ... ... July, 2013

1. INTRODUCTION TO MASS TRANSFER ................................. 12

2. DIFFUSION ................................................................................... 341

3. MASS TRANSFER COEFFICIENT AND INTERPHASE

3.2 Mass Transfer Coefficient 42

4. EQUIPMENT FOR GASLIQUID OPERATIONS ...............7281

4.9.2 Regular Packing 78

5. HUMIDIFICATION ................................................................... 82115

6. DRYING .................................................................................... 116158

6.2.4 Bound Moisture 117

6.11.11 Filter Dryer Combination 134

7. CRYSTALLIZATION ............................................................... 159185

8. ABSORPTION .......................................................................... 186236

8.5 Design of Isothermal Absorption Towers 188

9. DISTILLATION ....................................................................... 237315

9.12 Continuous Rectification 253

10. EXTRACTION .......................................................................... 316354

10.10 Continuous Countercurrent Extraction with Reflux 332

11. LEACHING .............................................................................. 355386

12. ADSORPTION.......................................................................... 387414

Appendix I Important Conversion Factors ................................. 415–416

A chemical engineer is involved in the design and operation of a process plant.

At the outset, we wish to thank the almighty for his blessings.

1.2 CLASSIFICATION OF MASS TRANSFER

Dehumidification: Transfer of a vapour component from a gas-vapour mixture to

2.2 MOLECULAR DIFFUSION AND EDDY

2.3 DIFFUSIVITY OR DIFFUSION COEFFICIENT

Substituting Eq. (2.5) in Eq. (2.7) and on simplification

2.4 STEADY STATE MOLECULAR DIFFUSION

2.4.1 Molecular Diffusion in Gases

Now substituting Eq. (2.16) in Eq. (2.14) gives

2.4.1.1 Case 1—Steady state diffusion of gas A through a

Substituting Eq. (2.19) in Eq. (2.17) gives

Since Pt – pA2 = pB2, Pt – pA1 = pB1, pB2 – pB1 = pA1 – pA2.

È DAB Pt Ø Ë pA1  pA2 Û È pB2 Ø

2.4.1.2 Case 2—Equimolar counter diffusion

2.4.1.3 Case 3—Steady state diffusion in multicomponent mixtures

where yi is the mole fraction of component i on an A-free basis.

2.4.2 Diffusivity Prediction in Gases

Table 2.1 Diffusivities of gases at standard atmospheric pressure, 101.3 kN/m2

available in literature). In some cases, it is very difficult to determine

Fig. 2.1 Collision function.

Table 2.2 Force constants of gases as determined from viscosity data

2.4.3 Molecular Diffusion in Liquids

2.4.3.1 Case 1—Diffusion of liquid A through a stagnant liquid B

2.4.3.2 Case 2—Equimolar counter-diffusion

2.4.4 Diffusivity Prediction in Liquids

(117.3  1018 )(K M B )0.5 T

Table 2.3 Liquid diffusivities

Table 2.4 Atomic and molecular volumes

2.4.5 Pseudo Steady State Diffusion

After integration and simplification,

Equation (2.45) is of the form,

2.5 DIFFUSION IN SOLIDS

DA Sav (CA1  CA2 )

2.5.1 Types of Solid Diffusion

1. INTRODUCTION TO MASS TRANSFER ................................. 12

2. DIFFUSION ................................................................................... 341

4. EQUIPMENT FOR GASLIQUID OPERATIONS ...............7281

5. HUMIDIFICATION ................................................................... 82115

6. DRYING .................................................................................... 116158

7. CRYSTALLIZATION ............................................................... 159185

8. ABSORPTION .......................................................................... 186236

9. DISTILLATION ....................................................................... 237315

10. EXTRACTION .......................................................................... 316354

11. LEACHING .............................................................................. 355386

12. ADSORPTION.......................................................................... 387414

È DAB Pt Ø Ë pA1 pA2 Û È pB2 Ø

(117.3 1018 )(K M B )0.5 T

DA Sav (CA1 CA2 )

7.27 108 17.1 102 8314 273

Ë 0.18 10 4 1.013 10 5 Û Ë 1 0.1 Û

0.74 105 104 Ë1 0.02775 Û

(0.0323 60) (0.9677 18)

DAB [ pA1 pA2 ]

PoVo 760 22.414

0.215 10 4 1.013 105 Ë 1 0.1 Û

0.215 10 4 1.013 105

0.185 10 4 1.013 10 5 Ë 10 Û

0.0185 10 4 105 10 1.013 Ë 1 0 Û

(0.0288 60) (0.9712 18)

0.206 10 4 1.013 105 Ë 1 0.1 Û

0.206 10 4 1.013 105

0.02 × 1.013 × 105 Ë 1.013 105 0 Û

2.075 105 1.013 105 Ë 1 0.1 Û

Ë 0.198 10 4 Û È 273 Ø 3/2

2.2015 105 1.013 105 Ë 1 0 Û

0.198 104 È 273 Ø

4.403 106 5 1.013 105 Ë 1 0 Û

0.2 10 4 1.013 105 Ë 101.3 0 Û

xB2 xB1 (1 0.9246)

xB,M CA,L ( Zt2 Zt20 )

0.9613 11.81 [(80 10 3 )2 (20 10 3 )2 ]

CAL ( xB )lm ( Z t2 Z t20 )

8.913 0.962 (0.07752 0.02 2 )

[xB2 xB1 ] [1 0.629]

Area DAB C [ xA1 xA2 ]

7.85 107 0.78 10 4 0.0409 (0.8 0.25)