EEE 141 Lab Manuals

NORTH SOUTH UNIVERSITY
DEPARTMENT OF ELECTRICAL & COMPUTER ENGINEERING
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Lab 1: Ohm’s Law, KVL, and Voltage Divider Rule using Series Circuit
1.1 Objectives
• Find the resistance of a resistor from its color code.

• Measure voltage, current and resistance values using a digital multimeter.
• Verify the validity of Ohm’s Law.
• Test the voltage divider rule in a series circuit.
1.2 Introduction
The digital multimeter (DMM) is one of the most useful devices to measure voltage, current and resistance.
Most DMMs have three terminals and two probes.
(i) One black terminal - zero potential/ Ground
(ii) One red terminal - for measuring voltage
(iii) One red terminal - for measuring current
One probe is continuously connected to the black terminal and another probe connects to one of the two red
terminals depending on the measurement mode. Some advanced DMMs can also measure capacitance,
inductance, detect terminals of transistors, diodes, etc.
PRECAUTION
To avoid damage of the DMM:
• keep it switched off while not in use.
• before connecting the DMM, the measurement mode must be selected and its meter range should be placed
to its highest value.
• the red probe must be connected to the correct terminal.
1.3 Theoretical Background

Ohm’s Law
Voltage Divider
Resistor Color Code
Breadboard
DMM
Percentage Error
1.3.1 Voltage Measurement
Voltage is measured across the circuit elements / components. That is - a parallel connection is made with
DMM and the desired element. Voltage measurement requires negative and positive polarity consideration. If
the reading gives a positive value the the polarity consideration is correct.
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1.3.2 Current Measurement

Current is measured through the circuit components. So, current measurement requires series connection
with the DMM. Current measurement also requires polarity consideration. Similar to voltage measurement a
positive reading will indicate right current flow consideration.
1.3.3 Resistance Measurement

Resistances are the simplest form of circuit components. Commercially resistors come in many shapes, sizes.
Most common types of resistors are color-coded carbon composition or cabin film resistors. Color codes are
multi-colored bands that determine the resistor’s value and tolerance. To measure the resistance two probes
of DMM are connected to the two ends of the resistor. Again, resistance mode (Ohmmeter) must be selected
before starting measurement.
PRECAUTION
Do not connect an Ohmmeter to a live circuit.
Only connect the component of which the resistance is to be measured.
Another way of measuring resistance is reading color codes (printed colored rings) on the resistors. Please refer
to your textbooks of using this method.
1.4 Apparatus
i. Trainer board
ii. LED
iii. Resistors (1 KΩ, 3.3 KΩ, 4.7 KΩ, 10 KΩ)
iv. Digital Multimeter (DMM)
1.5 Breadboard (http://wiring.org.co/learning/tutorials/breadboard/)
A breadboard is a solderless device for temporary prototype with electronics and test circuit designs. Most
electronic components in electronic circuits can be interconnected by inserting their leads or terminals into the
holes and then making connections through wires where appropriate. The breadboard has strips of metal
underneath the board and connect the holes on the top of the board. The metal strips are laid out as shown
below. Note that the top and bottom rows of holes are connected horizontally and split in the middle while the
remaining holes are connected vertically.
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Fig 1
The top and bottom of a breadboard are shown below with the bottom insulation stripped off to clearly show
metal strip connections corresponding to the holes. Please note that the orientation of the boards in the
diagram below have been rotated by 90° compared to the diagram above.
Fig 2
Note how all holes in the selected row are connected together, so the holes in the selected column. The set of
connected holes can be called a node:
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Fig 3
To interconnect the selected row (node A) and column (node B) a cable going from any hole in the row to any
hole in the column is needed:
Fig 4
Now the selected column (node B) and row (node A) are interconnected:
Fig 5
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1.6 From electronic diagrams to actual circuit connections

(http://wiring.org.co/learning/tutorials/diagrams/index.html)
i. Trainer board
ii. LED
iii. 1kΩ Resistor
iv. Digital Multimeter (DMM)
A circuit diagram makes use of standardized symbols that represent electrical components or devices. It is
easier to draw these symbols than drawing the actual pictures of the components. The actual components
might change appearance as the electronics industry revises them or renders them obsolete. The diagrams
describe the way in which the components are connected together electrically. There are drawn lines that
represent wires or conductors between the appropriate connection points on the symbols; no particular type
of wire or physical distance between components is implied; two components might be separated by a few
inches or centimeters or a meter or feet.
The following tutorial translates from a circuit diagram to actually connecting components on a breadboard.
Note that the circuit diagrams are the universal way of representing circuits; books, on-line resources, and
materials use them to communicate the circuit connections. They are very useful compared with pictorial
diagrams of the connections.
Let us consider the following circuit diagram:
Fig 6
The next step would be to identify the components and their terminals:
Fig 7
Next, identify the connection nodes between components, connections between different components are
formed by putting their legs (or terminals) in a common node:
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Fig 8
Note the difference between the correct and incorrect connections. In the correct version the two legs are on
different columns (nodes), in the incorrect version the two legs are connected to the same column (node)
which is equivalent to solder or tie together the two legs of the LED.
Fig 9
The LED has two legs, from Fig 7 the leg marked as A is connected to Node N1, the leg marked C is connected
to the leg marked 1 on the resistor (Node N2) and the leg marked 2 on the resistor is connected to GROUND
(Node N3). The LED is a polarized device, which means it matters the way it is connected, the resistor is not
polarized so pins can be inverted with no effect on the circuit's behavior. To learn more about a specific
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component try to find its datasheet. Search on the Web using the component's reference number to become
familiar with its functions, terminals and specs.
Equivalent resistance:
Series:
Parallel:
Source: https://learn.sparkfun.com/tutorials/series-and-parallel-circuits
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Exp1: Verification of Ohm’s Law
Circuit Diagram:
Circuit 1
List of Components:
 Trainer board
 Resistors (3.3 KΩ, 5.6 KΩ)
 Digital Multimeter (DMM)
 Connecting Wire
Procedure:
1. Identify the given resistors using color coding and fill in the required columns in Table 1.
2. Measure the resistances of the resistors using the DMM and fill in the required column in Table 1.
3. Calculate the percentage error of the resistance values.
Percentage Error = |(Practical value – Theoretical value)| / Theoretical value
4. Build circuit 1 using the 3.3 KΩ resistor.
5. Set the voltage source to 2 V. Check the voltage across the supply using the DMM. Open circuit before
taking source voltage reading to avoid loading effect of internal resistance.
(i) Measure the current flowing through the resistor. Note it down in Table 2.
(ii) Calculate IR using the experimental values of I and R. Note it down in Table 2.
(iii) Calculate the power using the experimental values of I and R (Power = I2R).
(iv) Repeat the above steps for 2 V to 10 V in steps of 2 V (2 V, 4 V, 6 V, 8 V, 10 V).
6. Repeat step 5-7 for the 5.6K resistor. Record data in Table 3
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Data Collection for Exp1:
Lab 1: Exp1
Group No. ________
Instructor’s Signature __________
Table 1:
Resistance using colour coding

Resistance ± Resistance
Band 1 Band 2 Band 3 Band 4 tol using DMM % Error
Table 2:
Experimental readings
3.3 KΩ
Current, Voltage, Power,
Voltage I IR I2R
2
10
Table 3
Experimental readings
5.6 KΩ
Current, Voltage, Power,
Voltage I IR I2R
2
10
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Exp 2: Series Circuit

Objectives
• Learn how to connect a series circuit on a breadboard.

• Validate the voltage divider rules.
• Verify Kirchhoff’s voltage law.
List of Components:
i. Trainer board
ii. Resistors (3.3 KΩ, 4.7 KΩ, 5.6K)
iii. Digital Multimeter (DMM)
iv. Connecting Wire
Circuit Diagram:
Circuit 2
Procedure:
1. Identify the given resistors using color coding and fill in the required columns in Table 1.
Percentage Error = |(Practical value – Theoretical value)| / Theoretical value
4. Build the circuit of Fig 11.
5. Using the DMM, find the potential differences across the source VS and resistors R1, R2 and R3.
Record the readings in Table 2.
6. Fill in Table 3.
7. Measure Vab. Calculate Vab using voltage division rule. Note down values in Table 4.
8. Now, disconnect the voltage source from the circuit and measure the total load resistance, Req of the
circuit using DMM. Note down values in Table 4.
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Data Collection for Exp2:
Lab 1: Exp2
Group No. ________
Table 1:

Table 2:
Experimental readings Theoretical values
VS VR1 VR2 VR3 VS VR1 VR2 VR3
% Error
VS VR1 VR2 VR3
Table 3:
Potential rise VS Are the voltage rises and drops equal?
Potential drops
(VR1 + VR1 + VR3)
Table 4
Vab Req Vab Req
% Error
Vab Req
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Report
Experiment 1:
1. State Ohm’s law.

2. Plot V vs I graph for each resistor value in same graph.
3. Does your experimental circuit follow ohm’s law? Explain how did you figure it out.
4. Calculate the resistance of each circuit using the slope of your V vs I graphs. Compare these Rgraph
values to the measured R values using DMM. Find the percent difference.
Experiment 2:
1. State the voltage division rule.
2. State the Kirchhoff’s voltage law (KVL).
3. Showing all steps, calculate the theoretical values in Table 2. Compare theoretical values to your
experimental values and explain whether your circuit follows KVL or not.
4. Showing all the calculations, theoretically calculate Vab. Compare with the experimental value and
verify the voltage division rule at the terminal a-b.
5. Showing all the steps, calculate Req. Compare with the experimental value.
Useful Formula:
Voltage Divider Rule: VX = E RX / RT

% Error = (Theoretical value – Experimental Value) / Theoretical Value
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Lab 2: KCL, Current Divider Rule with Parallel and Ladder Circuit.
Objectives
• Learn how to connect a parallel circuit on a breadboard.
• Validate the current divider rules.
• Verify Kirchhoff’s current law.
• Verify KCL and KVL in ladder circuit.
List of Components:
 Trainer board
 Resistors (1K, 3.3 KΩ, 4.7 KΩ, 5.6K, 10K)
 Connecting Wire
Circuit Diagram:
Circuit 1
Circuit 2
Procedure:
1. Identify all the given resistors using color coding and fill in the required columns in Table 1.
4. Percentage Error = |(Practical value – Theoretical value)| / Theoretical value
5. Build the circuit 1
6. Using the DMM, measure the currents Is, I1, I2, and I3. Record the readings in Table 2.
7. Fill in Table 3.
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8. Now, disconnect the voltage source from the circuit and measure the total load resistance, Req of the
circuit using DMM. Note down values in Table 4.
9. Construct Circuit 2.
10. Using a DMM, measure the potential differences across all the resistors in circuit 2. Record all the
readings in Table 5
11. Using a DMM, measure the current through all the resistors and record in Table 5.
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Data Collection
Lab 2
Group No. ________
Table 1:

Table 2:
IS IR1 IR2 IR3 IS IR1 IR2 IR3
% Error
IS IR1 IR2 IR3
Table 3:
IS Is Total Current equal to sum individual current?
Sum of individual Current

(IR1 + IR1 + IR3)
Table 4:
Experimental Req Theoretical Req % Error

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Table 5:
Component Voltage Current
R1
R2
R3
R4
R5
R6
Report
1. State the current division rule.

2. State the Kirchhoff’s current law (KCL).
3. With the experimental data, verify Kirchhoff’s voltage law within each independent
closed loop of the circuit.
4. With the experimental data, verify Kirchhoff’s current law at nodes a and b of the circuit.
5. Showing all steps, calculate the theoretical values in Table 2. Compare theoretical values
to your experimental values and explain whether your circuit follows KCL or not.
6. Showing all the steps, theoretically calculate Req. Compare with the experimental value.
7. Calculate all the theoretical values for Table 5. Show all steps.
Useful Formula:
Current Divider Rule : IX = Is RT / RX
% Error = (Theoretical value – Experimental Value) / Theoretical Value
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Lab 3: Loading Effect of Voltage Divider Circuit

Objective:
 To analyze how the voltage divider circuit behaves when there is no load resistance
connected.
 Evaluate the performance of voltage divider circuit due to loading.
List of Equipment:
 Trainer Board
 DMM
 2 × 560Ω resistors
 1 × (0-10kΩ) variable resistor
Introduction:
Voltage Divider circuit provides a simple way to convert a DC voltage to another lower DC
voltage.
Consider the following voltage divider circuit.
The voltage drop across R2 is the output voltage, Vout. Vout is less than Vin because the total
voltage across R1 and R2 must add up to Vin. A potentiometer can also be used to change
Vout by changing the resistance R2. As the value of R2 is changed, it allows the output voltage
to be adjusted from 0 to Vin.
In Figure 1, there is no output load (𝑅𝐿 ) connected in parallel to 𝑅2 hence we call it a No-Load
circuit.
𝑹𝟐
According to Voltage Divider Rule: 𝑽𝒐𝒖𝒕 = 𝑽𝒊𝒏 (1)
𝑹𝟏 + 𝑹𝟐
 Say Vin=5v and you need Vout= 3v. How would you set the values of 𝑹𝟏 and 𝑹𝟐 ?
𝑉𝑜𝑢𝑡 𝑅2
=
𝑉𝑖𝑛 𝑅1 + 𝑅2
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𝑅1 2
Choice of resistor value should follow the ratio: =
𝑅2 3
One possible combination: 𝑅1 = 2𝑘 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑅2 = 3k
 Now say we connect an output load, 𝑹𝟑 in parallel to 𝑹𝟐 :
Figure 2: With Output Load Connected.
⟹ Do you think keeping the values of resistors same would still give Vout=3v from Vin=5v?
Let’s check:
Since you have a Load resistance parallel to 𝑅2 , your Voltage divider formula to find Vout is:
(𝑹𝟐 ∕∕𝑹𝟑)
𝑽𝒐𝒖𝒕 = 𝑽𝒊𝒏 (2)
𝑹𝟏 +(𝑹𝟐 ∕∕𝑹𝟑)
Let 𝑅3 = 10k.
𝑅2 ∕∕ 𝑅3 = 2.31k
→ 𝑉𝑜𝑢𝑡 = 2.68 𝑣
So, our Designed value was 3v, but connecting a load resistor reduced it to 2.68v.
Design Criteria:
To minimize the loading effect, choose the load resistor to be much larger than its parallel
resistor.
If 𝑅3 is much greater than 𝑅2 then 𝑅2 ∕∕ 𝑅3 (parallel combination of 𝑅2 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑅3 ) is
approximately equal to 𝑅2
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Circuit Diagram:
Procedure:
1. Construct the voltage divider circuit as shown in figure above.
2. Measure the unloaded output voltage Vout. Record the value in Table 1.
3. Connect 10 kΩ variable load resistor, parallel with R2 to the circuit. (Connect 1 middle pin of variable
resistor and one of the other pins).
4. Change the value of the variable resistor according to Table 1, and record Vout for each resistor value
in Table 1.
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Data Collection for Lab 3:

Group No. ________ Instructor’s Signature
__________
Table 1:
RL Vout Vout %Error
(Measured) (Calculated)
No resistor
1k
4k
7k
10k
Report Question:
1. Explain the loading effect of your circuit (i.e explain how does your Vout vary with
increasing Load resistor)
2. Showing all steps in details, theoretically calculate the value of Vout for each load
resistor.
3. Comparing the theoretical data to the experimental data, comment how far the loading
effect of your circuit supports the theory.
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Lab 4: Delta-Wye Conversion

Objectives:
1. To perform Delta-Wye Conversion
2. To verify the results with measured data.
3. Solve a complex circuit using Delta-Wye Conversion.
The Delta-Wye transformation is an extra technique for transforming certain resistor

combinations that cannot be handled by the series and parallel equations. This is also referred to
as a Pi - T transformation
Sometimes when you are simplifying a resistor network, you get stuck. Some resistor networks
cannot be simplified using the usual series and parallel combinations. This situation can often
be handled by trying ∆ − 𝑌 transformation, or 'Delta-Wye' transformation.
The names Delta and Wye come from the shape of the schematics, which resemble letters. The
transformation allows you to replace three resistors in a Δ configuration by three resistors in a
Y configuration, and the other way around.
The ∆ − 𝑌 drawing style emphasizes these are 3-terminal configurations. Something to notice is
the different number of nodes in the two configurations. Δ has three nodes, while Y has four
nodes (one extra in the center).
The configurations can be redrawn to square up the resistors. This is called π−T configuration,
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The π−T style is a more conventional drawing you would find in a typical schematic. The
transformation equations developed next apply to π−T as well.
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The transformed network and the original network has the same equivalent resistance (although
the individual resistors between the nodes are different). The two networks will be electrically
identical as measured from the three terminals (A, B, and C). i.e The node voltages of both the
circuits would be equal.
Circuit Diagram:
Circuit 1
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Circuit 2
List of Equipment
 Trainer Board
 DMM
 5 x 15kΩ resistor
 3 x 5 kΩ resistor
Procedure
1. Measure the resistor values with DMM and note down in Table 1.
2. Setup the circuit as shown in the circuit 1
3. Measure the voltage 𝑉𝐴𝐷 , 𝑉𝐵𝐷 , 𝑉𝐶𝐷 (D is the reference node) and note down in Table 2
4. Measure the voltage 𝑉𝐴𝐵 , 𝑉𝐵𝐶 , 𝑉𝐴𝐶 and note down in Table 2
5. Setup Circuit 2.
6. Measure the voltage 𝑉𝐴𝐷 , 𝑉𝐵𝐷 , 𝑉𝐶𝐷 (D is the reference node) and note down in Table 2
7. Measure the voltage 𝑉𝐴𝐵 , 𝑉𝐵𝐶 , 𝑉𝐴𝐶 and note down in Table 2
Group No. ________

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Table 1:
Theoretical R Measured R % Error
15k
5k
Table 2:
Readings Circuit 1 Circuit 2 % Error
𝑉𝐴𝐷
𝑉𝐵𝐷
𝑉𝐶𝐷
𝑉𝐴𝐵
𝑉𝐵𝐶
𝑉𝐴𝐶
Report:
1. The resistors in Circuit 1 are in series or in parallel combination?

2. What technique would you use to find the equivalent resistance?
3. Perform Delta-Wye conversion for ∆𝐴𝐵𝐶 (𝑢𝑝𝑝𝑒𝑟 𝑝𝑜𝑟𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛) of circuit 1. Show all your
steps to find the equivalent resistance R1, R2, R3 from Ra, Rb, Rc.
1. Redraw the equivalent the circuit after applying the Delta-Wye conversion for ∆𝐴𝐵𝐶. Is
it same as circuit 2?
2. Calculate Req.
3. Calculate the voltage of R1, R2, R3.
4. Calculate 𝑉𝐴𝐵 , 𝑉𝐵𝐶 , 𝑉𝐴𝐶 and 𝑉𝐴𝐷 , 𝑉𝐵𝐷 , 𝑉𝐶𝐷 . Do your calculated values match the
measured values for circuit 2? Find the % Error.
5. Using Table 2, analyze whether Circuit 2 is equivalent to Circuit 1? Was Delta-Wye
conversion successful?
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Lab 5: Verification of Superposition Theorem.
Objective:
 To verify Superposition Theorem.
List of Equipment
 Trainer Board
 DMM
 1 x 3.3kΩ resistor
 1 x 4.7kΩ resistor
 1 x 1KΩ resistor
Circuit Diagram
Circuit 1 Circuit 2
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Circuit 3
Procedure:
1. Set up Circuit 1.
2. Mark the polarities of each resistor.
3. With both the voltage source connected to the circuit, measure 𝐼2 , 𝑉𝑅1, 𝑉𝑅2, 𝑉𝑅3 and record the values in
appropriate tables.
4. Setup Circuit 2. Measure and record 𝐼′2 , 𝑉′𝑅1, 𝑉′𝑅2 , 𝑉′𝑅3.
5. Setup Circuit 3. Measure and record 𝐼′′2 , 𝑉′′𝑅1, 𝑉′′𝑅2, 𝑉 ′ ′𝑅3.
Group No. ________

Table 1:
I2 I’2 I”2 I’2 + I”2
Table 2:
VR1 V’R1 V’’R1 V’R1+ V’’R1
Table 3:
VR2 V’R2 V’’R2 V’R2+ V’’R2
Table 4:
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VR3 V’R3 V’’R3 V’R3+ V’’R3
Report:
1. What is Superposition Theorem?

2. Theoretically Calculate all values of Table 1 to Table 4. Show all the steps in details.
3. Using measured data, show that your circuit followed superposition theorem.
4. Find the % Error between your theoretical and experimental values.
Lab 6: Verification of Thevenin’s, Norton’s and Maximum Power

Transfer Theorem
Objectives
• Experimentally perform Thevenin’s theorem, Norton’s theorem and Maximum Power

theorem
• Perform theoretical calculations.
• Verify the experimental values with theoretical values.
List of Components:
 Trainer board
 1× 1K
 1× 5K
 2 × 10KΩ
 POT (10K)
 Connecting Wire
Theory:
Thevenin’s Theorem: Thevenin’s Theorem states that it is possible to simplify any linear
circuit, no matter how complex, to an equivalent circuit with just a single voltage source and
series resistance connected to a load. The Thévenin equivalent circuit consists of a single dc
source referred to as the Thévenin voltage (𝑉𝑇𝐻 )and a single fixed resistor called the Thévenin
resistance (𝑅𝑇𝐻 )
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Norton’s Theorem: Norton’s Theorem states that it is possible to simplify any linear circuit,
no matter how complex, to an equivalent circuit with just a single current source (𝐼𝑁 ) and
parallel resistance connected to a load (𝑅𝑁 )
Usefulness of Thevenin and Norton Theorem:
Let’s consider 𝑅2 as the load resistor. To find the voltage and current across this load resistor,
you can follow superposition theorem. Now say your load resistance is subjected to change (i.e
it varies), then each time your resistor value changes, you need to apply superposition theorem
and recalculate the current and voltages. This is time consuming.
Thevenin’s or Norton’s theorem makes this easy by temporarily removing the load resistance
from the original circuit and reducing what’s left to an equivalent circuit:
- Single voltage source and series resistance in case of Thevenin.
- Single current source and parallel resistance in case of Norton.
The load resistance can then be re-connected to this “equivalent circuit” and calculations
carried out as if the whole network were nothing but a simple series circuit:
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How to find 𝑬𝑻𝑯 ?

- Remove the load resistance, calculate the open-circuit voltage at the terminals of the load
resistance.
How to find 𝑹𝑻𝑯 ?

- With the load resistance still removed, remove the independent voltage sources (replace
them with a short circuit just like in superposition theorem) and calculate the resistance at
the terminals of the load resistor.
How to find 𝑹𝑵 ?
- Methods for finding 𝑅𝑁 is same as that for 𝑅𝑇𝐻
How to find 𝑰𝑵 ?
- With voltage sources turned on, replace the load resistance as short circuit. Measure the
short circuit current. This short circuit current is 𝐼𝑁 .
Thevenin Norton Equivalence:
𝑅𝑁 = 𝑅𝑇𝐻
𝐸𝑇𝐻 = 𝐼𝑁 𝑅𝑇𝐻
Maximum Power Theorem:
Maximum Power will be delivered to the load when that load resistance is equal to the
Thevenin/Norton resistance of the network supplying the power. If the load resistance is lower
or higher than the Thevenin/Norton resistance of the source network, its dissipated power will
be less than maximum.
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A load impedance that is too high will result in low power output. A load impedance that is too
low will not only result in low power output
𝐼𝐿 = 𝑉𝑇𝐻 / ( 𝑅𝑇𝐻 + 𝑅𝐿 )
= 𝑉𝑇𝐻 / (𝑅𝑇𝐻 + 𝑅𝑇𝐻 )
= 𝑉𝑇𝐻 / 2 𝑅𝑇𝐻
Where, Pmax = 𝐼𝐿 2 𝑅𝐿
=𝑉𝑇𝐻 2 / 4 𝑅𝑇𝐻
Circuit Diagram:
Procedure:
1. Measure the values of resistance using DMM.
2. Construct the Circuit-1
3. Measure 𝑉𝐿 and 𝐼𝐿 of 𝑅𝐿 for circuit 1. Record in Table-2.
4. Remove 𝑅𝐿 from the original circuit and measure the open circuit voltage Vth.
5. Measure the short circuit current 𝐼𝑁 by placing an Ammeter between A and B. In this manner, the
Ammeter will act as a short circuit.
6. Replace the voltage sources with short circuits. With RL removed from the circuit measure Rth using a
multimeter (place DMM across A and B)
7. Record values in Table-3.
8. Draw the Thevenin and Norton Equivalent circuit in Table-4.
9. Construct the Thevenin equivalent circuit drawn in Table-4, measure 𝐼𝐿 and 𝑉𝐿 . Record readings in
Table 2.
10. Now replace the load resistor with a POT, vary the load resistance and for each resistance value measure
𝑉𝐿 . Fill in Table-5
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Group No. ________ Instructor’s Signature __________
Table 1:
Theoretical R Measured R % Error
5K
1K
Table 2:
Value Measured R % Error
𝑉𝐿
𝐼𝐿
Table 3:
Measurement Measured Calculated % Error
𝑉𝑇𝐻
𝐼𝑁
𝑅𝑇𝐻
𝑉𝐿
𝐼𝐿
Table 4:
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Table 5:
RL (kΩ) VL (Experimental) PL (Experimental)
1.0
2.0
3.0
4.0
5.0
6.0
7.0
8.0
9.0
10
Report Questions:
1. Calculate all the theoretical values of Table 2. Show all steps
2. Comparing experimental values to theoretical values, verify Thevenin and Norton
theorem.
3. Prove Thevenin Norton equivalence.
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4. In a graph paper, draw 𝑃𝐿 vs 𝑅𝐿 .

5. From the graph state the value of 𝑅𝐿 for which maximum power is obtained.
6. Theoretically calculate the maximum power.
7. Verify the maximum power theorem
Lab 7: Charging and Discharging of RC circuits
Objective:
 To learn the use of Signal Generators and Oscilloscope.
 Investigate the behavior charging and discharging of RC circuits with changing Time
Period, T of the input Square wave.
Introduction:
Time varying signal: A signal whose values changes with time.

Peak Voltage = maximum voltage of a signal. It is often denoted by Vp
Time period: Time required to complete 1 cycle. It is denoted by T.
Frequency: No. of cycles completed in 1 second. It is denoted by f. Its unit is in Hz.
Relationship between T and f:
T= 1/f
A few examples of Time varying signals:

1. Sin wave
2. Square wave
3. Triangular wave
A typical square wave looks like below:

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V
V0
0
1 3 5 7 9 11 13 15 17 19 21 23 25 t
T
V0 = maximum voltage (amplitude)

T = Time period of the signal
Signal generator is a device that allows you to generate a time varying signal that have a
particular frequency and amplitude (Vp). You can adjust your time period by adjusting your
frequency.
RC circuits
What is a Capacitor?
Capacitor is an electronic component that stores electric charge.
Capacitor construction: The capacitor is made of 2 close conductors (usually plates) that are
separated by a dielectric material, which is a poor conductor (or a insulator).
When the two plates are connected to power supply (one connected to positive polarity, other
connected to negative polarity) An electric field is generated across the dielectric (between the
plates) due to which one plate accumulates positive charge and the other plate accumulates
negative charge. There is no direct flow of current from one plate to other.
The capacitance is the amount of electric charge that is stored in the capacitor at voltage of 1
Volt. It is measured in units of Farad (F).
The capacitor is open circuit to direct current (DC) circuits and short circuit in alternating
current (AC) circuits.
𝜖𝐴
𝐶=
𝑑
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𝑄 = 𝐶𝑉
Consider a series RC circuit with a time-varying input source (such as a square wave).
RC charging:
When the input is positive, the capacitor will charge up gradually through the resistor until the
voltage across the capacitor reaches that of the supply voltage.
The time also called the transient response, required for the capacitor to fully charge is
equivalent to about 5 time constants or 5T.
τ = R x C, in seconds, where R is the value of the resistor in ohms and C is the value of the
capacitor in Farads. This then forms the basis of an RC charging circuit were 5T can also be
thought of as “5 x RC”.
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From the graph, understand what is 𝜏
Voltage, Vc across the capacitor varies with time according to the formula:
V(t) = Vo (1 – e–t/RC),
RC Discharging:
Now, when the input signal becomes negative, the capacitor would start discharging itself back
through the resistor.
For a RC discharging circuit, the voltage across the capacitor ( Vc ) as a function of time during
the discharge period is defined as:
V(t) = Voe–t/RC
Where:
 Vc is the voltage across the capacitor

 Vs is the supply voltage
 t is the elapsed time since the removal of the supply voltage
 RC is the time constant of the RC discharging circuit
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How Does Time period, T of the input signal effects the charging-
discharging of capacitor?
When T=10RC
When T >> 5RC

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T < 5RC
2 Methods to find 𝝉
Method 1:
 Move your graph vertically up so that it is completely above the x-axis.

 Calculate the voltage 0.63Vs (or 0.63Vc)
 Put on the “cursor” and set the horizontal line at the voltage calculated.
 Observe the point the cursor cuts the graph. Measure the corresponding time
Method 2:
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An indirect method of finding the time constant, 𝜏 is by measuring the time required for the
voltage to fall to Vo /2. This time interval is called the half-life, T1/2 , and then calculate 𝜏 using
the formula below:
V
V0 10
 = T1/2 /ln2
8
=T1/2 /(0.693)
6
1/2 V0
4
0
0 2 4 6 8 10 12 14 18 20 t
T1/2
Technique to find T1/2 from oscilloscope:
• Change oscilloscope gain (volts/cm) and sweep rate (ms/cm) until you have a large pattern
on the screen. Make sure the sweep speed is in the “calibrated” position so the time can be
read off the x-axis.
• Set the ground properly so that the waveform extends equal distances above and below the
axis.
• Move the waveform to the right until the start of the discharge of the capacitor is on the
vertical axis (Figure 6b). You may find it helpful to expand, or magnify, the trace. The
sweep time is now a factor of five or ten faster than indicated on the dial.
• The half-life, T1/2 is the time where the discharging phase cuts the x-axis.
T1/2
Task 1: Using Signal Generator to generate Square Wave.
Generate a square wave with frequency 100Hz and a 5v peak. Observe the pattern in the
oscilloscope and vary the frequency until T=10ms.
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What is the frequency value?

f = _________
Task 2: Construct an RC circuit such that R = 5k, C = 0.22uF. Input is a

10v(p-p) square wave.
Procedure:
1. Calculate the value of input frequency such that T = 10RC
2. Adjust the frequency of the input signal to that calculated in part 1. Connect the Channel
1 of oscilloscope to the input signal. Adjust the input peak to peak value to 10v.Now
connect channel 2 of oscilloscope with the capacitor.
3. Measure 𝜏 from the oscilloscope (Using any 1 of the methods explained above)
4. Measure the final output voltage of the capacitor, Vc
5. Measure the time the capacitor charges up to Vc.
6. Measure the time the capacitor starts to discharge
7. Measure the time the capacitor stops discharging
8. Calculate the input frequency such that T=30RC
9. Repeat steps 2-7.
10.Calculate the input frequency such that T= 3.5ms (T<5RC)
11.Repeat steps 2-7.

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Data Collection for Lab 7
Group: ________ Instructor’s Signature: ___________
Data Table:
Measurement T=10RC T=30RC T=3.5ms
Frequency of input signal
Time constant, 𝜏
Final Output Vc
Measure the time the capacitor

charges up to Vc
Time the capacitor starts to discharge
Time the capacitor stops discharging
Report:
1. In separate graph papers, draw the charging-discharging phase for the RC circuit for 3
different values of T. The graphs should be drawn using values from Table-1.
2. Explain what is .
3. Theoretically calculate 𝜏 and compare with the measured value of 𝜏.

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4. Using the data table, explain in details the charging-discharging pattern for all the 3
cases.

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NORTH SOUTH UNIVERSITY

DEPARTMENT OF ELECTRICAL & COMPUTER ENGINEERING

• Find the resistance of a resistor from its color code.

1.3 Theoretical Background

1.3.1 Voltage Measurement

1.3.2 Current Measurement

1.3.3 Resistance Measurement

1.5 Breadboard (http://wiring.org.co/learning/tutorials/breadboard/)

1.6 From electronic diagrams to actual circuit connections

Let us consider the following circuit diagram:

Exp1: Verification of Ohm’s Law

Data Collection for Exp1:

Resistance using colour coding

Exp 2: Series Circuit

• Learn how to connect a series circuit on a breadboard.

Data Collection for Exp2:

Resistance using colour coding

Experimental readings Theoretical values

VS VR1 VR2 VR3 VS VR1 VR2 VR3

VS VR1 VR2 VR3

Potential rise VS Are the voltage rises and drops equal?

Experimental readings Theoretical values

Vab Req Vab Req

1. State Ohm’s law.

Voltage Divider Rule: VX = E RX / RT

Resistance using colour coding

Experimental readings Theoretical values

IS IR1 IR2 IR3 IS IR1 IR2 IR3

IS IR1 IR2 IR3

IS Is Total Current equal to sum individual current?

Sum of individual Current

Experimental Req Theoretical Req % Error

Component Voltage Current

1. State the current division rule.

Lab 3: Loading Effect of Voltage Divider Circuit

One possible combination: 𝑅1 = 2𝑘 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑅2 = 3k

 Now say we connect an output load, 𝑹𝟑 in parallel to 𝑹𝟐 :

Figure 2: With Output Load Connected.

Data Collection for Lab 3:

Lab 4: Delta-Wye Conversion

The Delta-Wye transformation is an extra technique for transforming certain resistor

Data Collection for Lab 4:

Group No. ________

Instructor’s Signature __________

1. The resistors in Circuit 1 are in series or in parallel combination?

Lab 5: Verification of Superposition Theorem.

Data Collection for Lab 5:

Group No. ________

I2 I’2 I”2 I’2 + I”2

VR3 V’R3 V’’R3 V’R3+ V’’R3

1. What is Superposition Theorem?

Lab 6: Verification of Thevenin’s, Norton’s and Maximum Power

• Experimentally perform Thevenin’s theorem, Norton’s theorem and Maximum Power

Usefulness of Thevenin and Norton Theorem:

How to find 𝑬𝑻𝑯 ?

How to find 𝑹𝑻𝑯 ?

Thevenin Norton Equivalence:

Maximum Power Theorem:

Data Collection for Lab 6:

Group No. ________ Instructor’s Signature __________

4. In a graph paper, draw 𝑃𝐿 vs 𝑅𝐿 .

Lab 7: Charging and Discharging of RC circuits

Time varying signal: A signal whose values changes with time.

Group No. Instructor’s Signature __

Group: Instructor’s Signature: ___