NATURAL SYSTEM OF UNITS IN GENERAL RELATIVITY

ALAN L. MYERS

Abstract. The international system (SI) of units based on the kilogram, meter, and second
is inconvenient for computations involving the masses of stars or the size of a galaxy. Papers
about quantum gravity express mass, length, and time in terms of energy, usually powers of GeV.
Geometrized units, in which all units are expressed in terms of powers of length are also prevalent
in the literature of general relativity. Here equations are provided for conversions from geometrized
or natural units to SI units in order to make numerical calculations.

1. International System of Units

The International System of Units (SI) is based on the meter-kilogram-second (MKS) system of
units. A first course in any field of science or engineering usually begins with a discussion of SI
units. Given an equation, students learn to check instinctively the units of the various terms for
consistency. For example, in SI units for Newton’s law of universal gravitation
GmM
F =
r2
m and M are the masses of the two bodies in kilograms, r is the distance between their centers in
meters, F is the force of attraction in newtons (1 N = 1 kg m s−2 ), and G = Newton’s constant
= 6.6743 × 10−11 m3 kg−1 s−2 . This equation satisfies the consistency test because the terms on
both sides of the equation have the same units (kg m s−2 ).
Cosmologists toss the SI system of units out the window so that every variable is expressed in
powers of energy. The equations are simplified by the absence of constants including Newton’s
constant (G) and the speed of light (c). However, for a person educated in the SI system of units,
the lingo of “natural units” used by cosmologists is confusing and seems (incorrectly) to display a
casual disregard of the importance of units in calculations.
First let us examine units term-by-term in the Einstein equation of general relativity

1 8πG
(1) Rµν − Rgµν + Λgµν = 4 Tµν
2 c
written in SI units. Popular articles and most textbooks on general relativity introduce this equa-
tion without discussing its units. The energy-momentum tensor Tµν has units of energy density
(J m−3 ) or, equivalently, momentum flux density (kg m−1 s−2 ). Multiplication of the units of
Tµν (kg m−1 s−2 ) by the units of G/c4 (s2 kg−1 m−1 ) yields units of m−2 for the RHS of the
equation. The terms on the LHS must have the same units (m−2 ). The metric tensor (gµν ) is
dimensionless. The Riemann tensor is the second derivative with respect to distance of the metric
tensor and therefore has units of m−2 . The index-lowered forms of the Riemann tensor, Rµν and R,
have units of m−2 so the units are the same on both sides of the equation, as required.

2. Natural units.
So-called natural units are used almost exclusively in cosmology and general relativity. In order
to read the literature, it is necessary to learn how to write equations and perform calculations in
natural units. In the version of natural units used in cosmology, four fundamental constants are set
to unity:
c = ~ = ◦ = kB = 1
1
2 ALAN L. MYERS

where
c = speed of light = 2.9979 × 108 m/s
~ = reduced Planck constant = 1.0546 × 10−34 J s
◦ = electric constant = 8.8542 × 10−12 A2 s4 kg−1 m−3
kB = Boltzmann constant = 1.3806 × 10−23 J K−1

As a consequence of these definitions, 1 s = 2.9979×108 m and 1 s−1 = 1.0546×10−34 J. Length and

time acquire the units of reciprocal energy; energy and mass have the same units. Any kinematical
variable with SI units of (kgα mβ sγ ) may be expressed in SI units:

(2) (E)α−β−γ ~β+γ cβ−2α

where E in an arbitrarily chosen energy unit. A popular choice is GeV (1 GeV = 1.6022 × 10−10 J).
Setting the constants ~ and c equal to unity gives natural units of GeVα−β−γ . Given natural units
of GeVα−β−γ , the desired SI unit can always be recovered by multiplying by the conversion factor
(~β+γ cβ−2α ).
Consider, for example, momentum with SI units of (kg m s−1 ). For α = 1, β = 1, and γ = −1,
the natural unit is GeVα−β−γ = Gev1 and the conversion factor is c−1 . Conversion from natural to
SI units gives:
E 1.6022 × 10−10 J
1 GeV = = = 5.3444 × 10−19 kg m s−1
c 2.9979 × 108 m s−1
Table 1 provides conversion factors for some of the variables encountered in cosmology. Energy,
mass, and momentum have the same natural units. Velocity, angular momentum, and charge are
dimensionless. Note that pressure (force per unit area) has the same units as energy density in both
systems of units, as it must.
In the system of natural units, the factors in Table 1 are unity by definition. To make conversions,
cosmologists multiply or divide by the factors ~ and c with appropriate exponents to obtain the units
desired. This seems like a trial-and-error procedure! Rules for converting units for SI to natural
units, and for the reverse conversion, are given in Table 1.

Table 1. Natural Units. Factor is (~β+γ cβ−2α ). To convert natural unit → SI,
multiply by factor. To convert SI → natural unit, divide by factor. For SI units of
(kgα mβ sγ ), natural units are Eα−β−γ .

Variable SI Unit Natural Unit Factor Natural unit → SI unit

mass kg E c−2 1 GeV → 1.7827 × 10−27 kg
−1
length m E ~c 1 GeV−1 → 1.9733 × 10−16 m
time s E−1 ~ 1 GeV−1 → 6.5823 × 10−25 s
energy kg m2 s−2 E 1 1 GeV → 1.6022 × 10−10 J
momentum kg m s−1 E c−1 1 GeV → 5.3444 × 10−19 kg m s−1
velocity m s−1 dimensionless c 1 → 2.9979 × 108 m s−1
angular momentum kg m2 s−1 dimensionless ~ 1 → 1.0546 × 10−34 J s
area m2 E−2 (~c)2 1 GeV → 3.8938 × 10−32 m2
−2

force kg m s−2 E2
(~c)−1 1 GeV2 → 8.1194 × 105 N
energy density kg m−1 s−2 E4
(~c)−3 1 GeV4 → 2.0852 × 1037 J m−3
charge C = A· s dimensionless 1 1 → 5.2909 × 10−19 C

The entry in Table 1 for charge requires an explanation. The dimensionless fine-structure constant
(α) is:
e2
α= = 0.0072974
4π◦ ~c
 NATURAL SYSTEM OF UNITS IN GENERAL RELATIVITY 3

The elementary charge e = 1.6022×10−19 C and the value of α is calculated from the set of constants
{e,◦ ,~,c}. In natural units, ◦ = ~ = c = 1 and the dimensionless elementary charge e is:
√
e = 4πα = 0.30282
so that
0.30282 = 1.6022 × 10−19 C =⇒ 1 = 5.2909 × 10−19 C
In natural units, Eq. (1) becomes:
1
Rµν − Rgµν + Λgµν = 8πG Tµν
2
The Planck mass is r
~c
mp = = 2.1764 × 10−8 kg
G
In natural units mp = 1.2209 × 1019 GeV. Replacement of Newton’s gravitational constant G in
Einstein’s equation with the Planck mass gives
1 8π
(3) Rµν − Rgµν + Λgµν = 2 Tµν
2 mp

Continuing with natural units, the energy-momentum tensor has units of energy density or GeV4
and the Planck mass has units of GeV. The RHS of the equation therefore has units of GeV2 . On
the LHS of the equation, the metric tensor gµν is dimensionless so the Ricci tensor Rµν , Ricci scalar
R, and the cosmological constant Λ all have natural units of GeV2 , or mass squared since energy
and mass are equivalent.
As an exercise in the manipulation of natural units, consider the cosmological constant (Λ) which
is frequently characterized with the same units as the energy-momentum tensor Gµν and called the
energy density of a vacuum (ρvac ):
ρvac ≈ 3 × 10−47 GeV4
Transfer of the quantity from the RHS to the LHS of Eq. (3) requires multiplication by the factor
of 8π/m2p :
(8π)(3 × 10−47 GeV4 )
 
8π
Λ = ρvac = = 5.06 × 10−84 GeV2
m2p (1.2209 × 1019 GeV)2
These natural units for Λ may be converted to the SI unit of m−2 using the conversion factor in
Table 1:
1 GeV−2
 
−84
Λ = 5.06 × 10 GeV 2
= 1.3 × 10−52 m−2
3.8938 × 10−32 m2
Conversion of the vacuum energy density from natural to SI units gives:
2.0852 × 1037 J m−3
 
−47
ρvac = 3 × 10 GeV 4
= 6.3 × 10−10 J m−3
1 GeV4
In terms of the the mc2 energy of mass, ρvac ≈ 4 hydrogen atoms per cubic meter.

3. Sign conventions
The signs in Eq. (3) depend on certain conventions. The sign convention for the flat Minkowski
metric ηµν and general metric gµν is (−, +, +, +). The other sign conventions are:
Rρσµν = + ∂µ Γρνσ − ∂ν Γρµσ + Γρµλ Γλνσ − Γρνλ Γµσ
λ
 

Rαµαν = +Rµν
Gµν = +8πGTµν
The above sign convention for the metric, the Riemann tensor, and the Einstein equation con-
forms with MTW (Misner, Thorne and Wheeler) and is widely used but other conventions such as
(+,−,−,−) for the metric can be found in textbooks.
4 ALAN L. MYERS

Cosmologists still argue about signs. The “mostly minus” metric signature is called the “West
Coast” metric and the “mostly plus” metric signature is called the “East Coast” metric, possibly be-
cause Feynman used the West Coast metric. Recent general relativity textbooks (Carroll, D’Inverno,
Hartle, Schutz) adopted the mostly plus metric but Cheng used the mostly minus metric, as did
Einstein.

4. Geometrized Units
The natural system of units prevails in 2016 because quantum gravity is at the forefront of research
in cosmology, and quantum physics is based on natural units. In the late 20th century geometrized
units were used extensively in cosmology. The tome “Gravitation” (1279 pages) published in 1973
by Misner, Thorne, and Wheeler, sometimes referred to as the “bible” of general relativity or simply
MTW, used geometrized units for which
c=G=1
where
c = speed of light = 2.9979 × 108 m s−1
G = Newton’s constant = 6.6743 × 10−11 m3 kg−1 s−2
Geometrized units are powers of length (m). For SI units of [kgα mβ sγ ], the conversion factor from
geometrized units of mα+β+γ to SI units is
(G−α c2α−γ )
Consider, for example, energy density with SI units of (kg m−1 s−2 ), for which α = 1, β = −1 and
γ = −2. The conversion to SI units from geometrized units of mα+β+γ = m−2 is
(2.9979 × 108 m s−1 )4
(1 m−2 )(G−1 c4 ) = (1 m−2 ) = 1.2102 × 1044 [kg m−1 s−2 ]
(6.6743 × 10−11 m3 kg−1 s−2 )
Other conversion factors are listed in Table 2. In the geometrized system, mass, length, time, energy,
and momentum are expressed in meters.

Table 2. Geometrized Units. Factor is (G−α c2α−γ ). To convert geometrized unit

→ SI, multiply by factor. To convert SI unit → geometrized unit, divide by factor.
For SI units of (kgα mβ sγ ), geometrized units are mα+β+γ .

Variable SI Unit Geom. Unit Factor Geometrized unit → SI unit

mass kg m c2 G−1 1 m → 1.3466 × 1027 kg
length m m 1 1m →1m
time s m c−1 1 m → 3.3356 × 10−9 s
energy kg m2 s−2 m c4 G−1 1 m → 1.2102 × 1044 kg m2 s−2
momentum kg m s−1 m c3 G−1 1 m → 4.0370 × 1035 kg m s−1
velocity m s−1 dimensionless c 1 → 2.9979 × 108 m s−1
angular momentum kg m2 s−1 m2 c3 G−1 1 m → 4.037 × 1035 kg m2 s−1
2

force kg m s−2 dimensionless c4 G−1 1 → 1.2102 × 1044 kg m s−2

acceleration m s−2 m−1 c2 1 m → 8.9875 × 1016 m s−2
−1

energy density kg m−1 s−2 m −2

c4 G−1 1 m−2 → 1.2102 × 1044 kg m−1 s−2

For geometrized units the Einstein equation takes the form:

1
Rµν − Rgµν + Λgµν = 8πTµν
2
so that the energy-momentum tensor Tµν , Ricci tensor Rµν , Ricci scalar R, and cosmological con-
stant Λ all have the same units (m−2 ). The metric tensor gµν is dimensionless. As mentioned above,
the cosmological constant Λ = 1.3 × 10−52 m−2 .
 NATURAL SYSTEM OF UNITS IN GENERAL RELATIVITY 5

The mass of the sun in geometrized units is

(1 m)
mass of sun = (1.989 × 1030 kg) = 1480 m = 1.48 km
(1.3466 × 1027 kg)
which is one-half of its Schwarzschild radius.

5. Units for special relativity.

Books and papers about special relativity commonly use a special system of units in which the
speed of light is set equal to unity (c = 1). Units of mass and length retain their SI definitions in
terms of kilograms and meters, but time is transformed into a length and velocity is dimensionless.
Let us call the system of units in which c = 1 the special relativity (SR) system. Table 3 shows the
rules for conversions between SR and SI units.
Table 3. SR Units for c = 1. Factor is c−γ . To convert SR unit → SI, multiply by
factor. To convert SI unit → SR unit, divide by factor. For SI units of (kgα mβ sγ ),
SR units are (kgα mβ+γ ).

Variable SI Unit SR Unit Factor SR unit → SI unit

mass kg kg 1 1 kg → 1 kg
length m m 1 1m →1m
time s m c−1 1m → 3.3356 × 10−9 s
energy kg m2 s−2 kg c 2
1 kg → 8.9875 × 1016 kg m2 s−2
momentum kg m s−1 kg c 1 kg → 2.9979 × 108 kg m s−1
velocity m s−1 dimensionless c 1 → 2.9979 × 108 m s−1
angular momentum kg m2 s−1 kg m c 1 kg m → 2.9979 × 108 kg m2 s−1
force kg m s−2 kg m −1
c 2
1 kg m−1 → 8.9875 × 1016 kg m s−2
acceleration m s−2 m −1
c 2
1 m−1 → 8.9875 × 1016 m s−2
energy density kg m−1 s−2 kg m −3
c 2
1 kg m → 8.9875 × 1016 kg m−1 s−2
−3

[home page, Alan L. Myers]