il O Dr. B. C. PUNMIA G ASHOK KUMAR JAIN G ARUN KUMAR JAINContents r i wi 1 12 2 wa ~ 4 ua a! i 1s. & 7 16 ~ z 1 a 8 18. a 9 1. * n ‘Lio. a 4 LiL .- - o - a CHAPTER 2. LOADS AND STRESSES au - 19 22 see 19 23, - 20 24 ” 6 2s. ~ ae 26 ~ 46 21 ~ a7 28. & 47 22 ~ 47 210. ~ 0 211 PERMISSIBLE STRESSES - 0 31. ‘TYPES OF CONNECTIONS : ~ St 32 RIVET AND RIVETING o st 33, RIVET SIZE, RIVET HOLE AND CONVENTIONAL SYMBOIS .. 52. 34 COMMON DEFINITIONS ~~ 35, WORKING STRESSES IN RIVETS ~ & 36 TYPES OF RIVETED JOINTS a6 yy 32, MODES OF FAILURE OF A RIVETED JOINT - ae 38 STRENGTH OF RIVETED JOINT -~ 2 39, DESIGN OF-RIVETED JOINT : AXIAL LOAD ~ 2 Copyrighted materiali EERE GS REREEERELEEERRRRGEBBE| ECCENTRICALLY LOADED FILLET WELDED JOINTS ECCENTRICALLY LOADED BUTT WELDED JOINTS CHAPTER 6. DESIGN OF TENSION MEMBERS = «1D «ID sie 123 BO WAL ie ua oDBUCKLING FAILURE : EULER'S THEORY IDEAL END CONDITIONS AND EFFECTIVI EREBRBESB SBBREE EEE 158 BEEBE BB BBISG 181 181 8Ba0, a2 a B14. 81h 816. B17 ‘818 819. 820. a2. BERREER SERRE RE EE BREESE gEE BEB Bee BEERERER BERERNESERRI : 8 ' 2 = ve t 2 3 Copyrighted material« BASES SUBJECTED TO BENDING ABOUT TWO AXES 119. COLUMN FOUNDATIONS INDEPENDANT GRILLAGE FOUNDATIONS 11.11. COMBINED GRILLAGE FOOTING CHAPTER 12. RIVETED BEAM CONNECTIONS 21. TYPES OF BEAM CONNECTIONS 2.2. SIMPLE BEAM END CONNECTIONS DESIGN OF FRAMED BEAM CONNECTION DESIGN OF UNSTIFFENED SEAT CONNECTIONS 125. DESIGN OF STIFFENED SEAT CONNECTIONS E E SBSB 8 7 EEE EE BE BEREEERE BESREREEEE EERBBSRBE EEE RSSES DESIGN OF FLANGES CURTAILMENT OF FLANGE PLATES CONNECTION OF FLANGE ANGLES TO WEB INTERMEDIATE VERTICAL STIFFENERS = HORIZONTAL STIFFENERS ~ EEEEEREEEERE B&B E :BEBEE BEE BSSks BERR BER REEE BSSEE FE BBER £ EB RRR BEEBE BR Copyrighted materialEERE BEEBREREEERB E MULTIPLE STIFFENED COMPRESSION ELEMENTS BASIC DESIGN STRESS (IS : 801-1975) COMPRESSION ON UNSTIFFENED ELEMENTS MAXIMUM ALLOWABLE OVERALL FLAT-WIDTH RATIOS MAXIMUM ALLOWABLE WEB DEPTH PROPERTIES OF SECTIONS AXIALLY LOADED COMPRESSION MEMEBERS LATERALLY SUPPORTED BEAMS DESIGN CONSIDERATIONS STABILITY CONSIDERATIONS DESIGN OF FOUNDATION BOLTS THICKNESS OF METAL (IS : 805-1969) BREE &BE R RREEE BRRR 7. 7 33B88 SRESE Sk8E 2 1 1 2ey) 205. STAND PIPES 633 206. | CYLINDRICAL TANKS WITH SUSPENDED BOTTOM 635 207, STRESSES IN SPHERICAL BOTTOM. 638 208. STRESSES IN CONICAL BOTTOM 639 209. STRESSES IN CONNECTION BETWEEN SIDE AND BOTTOM PLATES 640 2010. SUPPORTING RING BEAM 641 2011. STAGING FOR CYLINDRICAL TANKS 643 20.12. RECTANGULAR ELEVATED TANKS a5 2013. RECTANGULAR PRESSED STEEL TANKS 646 20.14. DESIGN EXAMPLES 650 HAPTER 21. DESIGN OF TOWERS AND MASTS 211. INTRODUCTION $81 212, LATTICE TOWER CONFIGURATIONS AND BRACINGS 683 213. LOADS ACTING ON LATTICE TOWERS 684 214, | ANALYSIS AND DESIGN OF LATTICE TOWERS 686 215. MASTS 690 216. | TRANSMISSION LINE TOWERS 691 21.7. LOADS ON TRANSMISSION LINE TOWERS 694 218. | EFFECT OF TEMPERATURE VARIATION ON CONDUCTORS AND EARTH WIRES = 699 219. ANALYSIS AND DESIGN OF TRANSMISSION LINE TOWERS 702 2110. FOUNDATIONS FOR TOWERS « 708 CHAPTER 22. INFLUENCE LINES FOR STRESSES IN FRAMES 221, INTRODUCTION 8 222 PRATT TRUSS WITH PARALLEL CHORDS no __223, PRATT. TRUSS WITH INCLINED CHORDS m2 224. WARREN TRUSS WITH PARALLEL CHORDS na 225. WAREN TRUSS WITH INCLINED CHORDS ms 226. K-TRUSS nT 227. BALTIMORE TRUSS WITH SUB-TIES : THROUGH TYPE 720 2210. PENNSYLVANIA OR PETTIT TRUSS WITH SUB-TIES ~~ 7B 2211. PENNSYLVANIA TRUSS WITH SUB-STRUTS om BI 2212, BRACED CANTILEVER WITH SUSPENDED! SPAN GIRDER. 735, CHAPTER 23. SPACE FRAMES 23.1. INTRODUCTION ~ 79233. 24, 44. o eTHoD OF ‘TENSION COEFFICIENTS APPLIED. TO. ‘SPACE RAMES ILLUSTRATIVE EXAMPLES ASTOREY BUILDINGS querer 24 MULT RODUCTION BUILDING FRANES (G FRAMES ls 244, 245. 24.6, 242, ia 249. 24.10. 41. See nG OF MULTISTOREY BUIDIN BRACING OF ‘MULTISTO! DIAPHRAGMS, SHEAR WALLS OR CORES ‘TUBE STRUCTURES SUBSTITUTE FRAMES ANALYSIS FOR VERTICAL LOADS ANALYSIS OF FRAMES sD TO HORIZONTAL FORCES PORTAL METHOD CANTILEVER METHOD EACTOR METHOD CHAPTER 25, INDUSTRIAL, BUILDINGS 25.1. 3.2 25.3. 25.4. 258. mts 256. INTRODUCTION BRACING OF INDUS BRACING OF INDUSTRIAL BENTS IN ‘TRANSVERSE DIRECTION ANALYSIS OF BRACED BENTS PLASTIC ANALYSIS AND DESIGN HAPTER St NTRODUCTION————— 26.12. CARRYING AXIAL ‘TENSION PLASTIC BENDING OF BEAMS STAGES OF BENDING OF RECTANGULAR SECTIONS EVALUATION, OF FULLY PLASTIC MOMENT EVALUATION OF SHAPE FACTOR MOMENT-CURVATURE RELATIONSHIPS 39 7a 150 51 133 155 151 158 167 1 mm296 29.7. 29.9, (wit) yur. NET sECTIC 28. w) ‘MEMBERS 329. rICHED BEAM 32.10. TIMBER COLUMNS AND 3241. ‘MEMBERS. sUBSECTE! BENDING AND ‘STRESSES 3212. MBER “TENSION MEMBERS ap13, JOINTS ‘MEMBERS 32.14. srED J0) IN TIMBER 32s. LED J TIMBER 32.16. DO' :p JOINT WN ‘TIMBER CHAPTER 3° DESIG RY gTRUCTURES 33. YUCTION 332. GENERAL CONDITION oF S AN SEABILITY OF NRY 333. sTERAL EAR! PRESSUR! RETAINING WALLS was, DESIGN ‘oF GRAVITY inc WALL 335. ‘MASONRY 33.6. MASONRY CHIMNEYS ‘APPENDIX-® DEAD ED ‘APPENDIX: UAKE FORCES ‘APPENDIX-C- PERMISSIBLE STRESS! AND LT AREA APPENDIX gi UNITS AND EQUIVALENTS ‘APPENDICES pROFE! F TURAL STEEL SECTIONS 1052 1053 1059 3061 1061 1068, 1069 1074 1085 1086 ool 1095 1102 iis 123 1130 1138 1139 4023.2. 233. ~) METHOD OF TENSION COEFFICIENTS APPLIED TO SPACE FRAMES ILLUSTRATIVE EXAMPLES CHAPTER 24. MULTI-STOREY BUILDINGS BE SEEERERE RERP INTRODUCTION : BUILDING FRAMES BRACING OF MULTISTOREY BUILDING FRAMES DIAPHRAGMS, SHEAR WALLS OR CORES TUBE STRUCTURES SUBSTITUTE FRAMES ANALYSIS FOR VERTICAL LOADS METHODS OF COMPUTING BM. ANALYSIS OF FRAMES SUBJECTED TO HORIZONTAL FORCES PORTAL METHOD CANTILEVER METHOD FACTOR METHOD | 2B BB MAJOR COMPONENTS OF AN INDUSTRIAL BUILDING BRACING OF INDUSTRIAL BUILDING BRACING OF INDUSTRIAL BENTS IN TRANSVERSE DIRECTION ANALYSIS OF BRACED BENTS CHAPTER 26, PLASTIC ANALYSIS AND DESIGN 26.6. 26.7. 268. 26.9. 26.10. 26.11. 26.12. INTRODUCTION THE DUCTILITY OF STEEL ULTIMATE LOAD CARRYING CAPACITY OF MEMBERS CARRYING AXIAL TENSION PLASTIC BENDING OF BEAMS STAGES OF BENDING OF RECTANGULAR SECTIONS EVALUATION OF FULLY PLASTIC MOMENT EVALUATION OF SHAPE FACTOR MOMENT-CURVATURE RELATIONSHIPS PLASTIC HINGE LOAD FACTOR CONDITIONS AND BASIC THEOREMS OF PLASTIC ANALYSIS DETERMINATION OF COLLAPSE LOAD FOR SOME STANDARD CASES OF BEAMS BRE E@ 51 RE 1ST B aRBa 81826.13. PORTAL FRAMES 834 26.14. DESIGN RECOMMENDATIONS. 240 CHAPTER 27. BRIDGES 1 : GENERAL 21.1.__ INTRODUCTION 857 27.2. __ SOME DEFINITIONS a 858 27.3. ___ CLASSIFICATION OF STEEL BRIDGES : is 859 27.4. ECONOMICAL SPAN LENGTH: ~ 863 27.5. | CLEARANCE REQUIREMENTS = 865 27.6. DIMENSIONS OF ROLLING STOCK ~ 867 27.1. WIDTH OF ROADWAY AND FOOTWAY 867 | 28.5. LIVE LOAD ON COMBINED RAIL-ROAD BRIDGES ~ 286.__IMPACT EFFECT 282.__WIND LOAD 288. | LATERAL LOADS : RACKING FORCE 289. LONGITUDINAL FORCES BERRE | 28.15. PRIMARY, SECONDARY AND DEFORMATION STRESSES 899 28.16. PERMISSIBLE STRESSES = 900 29.1. INTRODUCTION : SOLID WEB GIRDERS 9 293,___HALF-THROUGH PLATE GIRDER BRIDGE FOR RAILWAYS _.. 915 ee 296. DESIGN OF PLATE GIRDERS FOR DECK TYPE RAILWAY BRIDGES NT DESIGN OF LOAD BEARING ELEMENTS OF THROUGH AND HALF THROUGH TYPE RAILWAY BRIDGES 6 29.8. | WIND LOAD ON PLATE GIRDER BRIDGES FOR RAILWAYS .. 299. OVERTURNING EFFECTS DUE TO WIND LOAD ~ 29. 88S210 29.11 29.12. 309. 30.10. 30.11. 30.12. 30.13. CHAPTER 31. BRIDGES V : END BEARINGS 3 coi HORIZONTAL TRUSS EFFECT GENERAL ARRANGEMENT FOR HIGHWAY PLATE GIRDER BRIDGES IRC_RECOMMENDATIONS FOR THE DESIGN OF PLATE GIRDER BRIDGES TYPES OF TRUSS GIRDERS ECONOMIC PROPORTIONS OF TRUSS BRIDGE SELF WEIGHT OF TRUSS GIRDER DESIGN OF COMPRESSION MEMBERS. DESIGN OF TENSION MEMBERS WIND LOAD AND WIND EFFECTS ON TRUSS GIRDER BRIDGES OVERTURNING EFFECT TOP LATERAL BRACING BOTTOM LATERAL BRACING ANALYSIS OF PORTAL BRACING SWAY BRACING INTRODUCTION : FUNCTIONS 31.2. LS. CODE REQUIREMENTS FOR BEARINGS 313 TYPES OF BEARINGS 314. SLIDING BEARINGS OR PLATE BEARINGS 31.5. | ROCKER BEARINGS 31.6. ROLLER BEARING 31.7. KNUCKLE PIN BEARING 31.8. | RAILWAY BOARD ROLLER BEARING 31.9. PERMISSIBLE STRESSES ON BEARINGS (IS : 1915-1961) 310 ELASTOMERIC BEARINGS CHAPTER 32, TIMBER STRUCTURES 321, INTRODUCTION KNOTS, WANES, CHECKS AND SHAKES SLOPE OF GRAIN CLASSIFICATION AND GRADING OF TIMBER FACTORS OF SAFETY PERMISSIBLE STRESSES32.12. 3213. 3214. 325. 32.16. evi) TIMBER TENSION MEMBERS JOINTS IN TIMBER MEMBERS BOLTED JOINTS IN TIMBER NAILED JOINTS IN TIMBER DISC-DOWELLED JOINT IN TIMBER CHAPTER 33. DESIGN OF MASONRY STRUCTURES 33.1. 332, 333. 33.4, 33.5. 33.6, APPENDIX-A APPENDIX-C. APPENDIX-D. APPENDIC-E. INTRODUCTION GENERAL CONDITIONS OF STRENGTH AND STABILITY OF MASONRY STRUCTURES LATERAL EARTH PRESSURE ON RETAINING WALLS DESIGN OF GRAVITY RETAINING WALL MASONRY DAMS MASONRY CHIMNEYS DEAD AND IMPOSED LOADS EARTHQUAKE FORCES PERMISSIBLE STRESSES AND BOLT STRESS AREA SI_UNITS AND METRIC/IMPERIAL EQUIVALENTS PROPERTIES OF STRUCTURAL STEEL SECTIONSSYMBOLS A = Area of cross-section. Ae = Equivalent area. Ag = Gross-area of cross-section. B = Width a,b = Respectively the greater and lesser projections of the plate beyond the column. = Width bo = Width of steel flange in encased member C =The distance centre to centre of battens ; constant Cn = Coefficient ¢ = Distance between vertical stiffeners. c1,¢2 = Respectively the lesser and greater distances from the N.A. to the extreme fibers. D = Overall depth. d =Depth of web a’ = Depth of girder -to be taken as the clear distance between flange angles or where there arc no flange the clear distance between the flanges ignoring fillets. d. = Effective depth of Plate girder. do meter of the reduced end of the column. d, = (i) For the web of a column without horizontal stiff- eners- the clear distance ‘between the flange, neglecting fillets or the clear distance between the inner toes ‘of the flange angles as appropriate. (ii) For the web of a beam with horizontal stiffeners — the clear distance between the horizontal stiffener and the toes of the tension flange angles as appropriate. d, = Twice the clear distance from the N.A. of a beam to the compression flanges, neglecting fillets or the inner toes of the flange angles as appropriate. E = The modulus of elasticity for steel, taken as 2 x 10° N/mm? (MPa) in this book. e = Eccentricity. f = Yield stress fs = Elastic critical stress in bending See = Elastic critical stress in compression, also known as Euler critical stress. fe = Crushing stress 'g = Gauge ; distance, h = Outsiand of the stiffener ; depth of section = Depths I =Moment of inertia. Kp or K. = Flexural stiffnesses. ki ,ke = Coefficients k = Distance from outer face of flange to web toe of filler of member to be stiffened. L =Spanflength of member. 1 = Effective length of member M = Bending moment. N n P = No. of parallel planes of battens = Coefficient in the Merchant Rankine formula, assumed as 1.4. = Axial force (compressive or tensile) P.< = Calculated maximum load capacity of a strut (ix)T t Yy w w Zz B BiB a do Cee Oat Oe Oe % oe oF oe, eat et.al Fhe , cal Ft, cat wo Ten wy ¥ o (=) Calculated maximum load capacity as tension member. ler load. eld strength of axially loaded section. = Ultimate load for a strut = Actual soil pressure Reaction ; Radius of gyration of the section. staggered pitch. = Mean thickness of compression flange. Thickness of web. ‘Transverse shear = Longitudinal shear = Total toad = Pressure of loading on the underside of the base = Section modulus. = Ratio of the smaller to the larger moment. stiffness ratio = Slenderness ratio of the member ; ratio of effective length (/) to the appropriate radius of gyration (7) Characteristic slendemess ratio = VP,/Pe Max. permissible compressive stress in an axially loaded strut not subjected 10 ing = Max. permissible tensile stress on an axially loaded tension member not subjected to bending, Max. permissible bending stress in slab base. = Max. permissible compressive sireas duc to bending in a member not subjected to axial force. = Max. permis force, = Max. permissible stress in concrete in compression. Max. permissible equivalent stress. Max. permissible bearings stress in a member. = Max. permissible bearings stress in a fastener. = Max. permissible stress in steel in compression. = Max. permissible stress in axial tension in fastener. = Calculated average axial compressive stress. = Calculated average stress in a member due to an axial tensile force. = Calculated compressive stress in a member due to bending about a principal axis. = Calculated tensile stress in a member due to bending about both principal axes. = Max. permissible average shear stress in a member = Max. permissible shear stress in a member. = Max, permissible shear stress in fastener. = Ratio of total area of both the flanges at the point of least bending moment to the corresponding area at the point of greatest bending moment. = Ratio of moment of inertia of the compression flange alone to that of the sum of the moments of inertia of the flange each calculated about its own axis parallel to the y-y axis of the girder, at the point of maximum bending moment. ible tensile stress due to bending in a member not subjected to axialIntroduction 1.1. STRUCTURAL DESIGN A structure is a body, composed of several structural elements so assembled that it can set up resistance against deformation caused due to application of external forces. Structural Engineering is that branch of Civil Engineering which deals with both the structural analysis as well as structural design. The various sructural elements that may be present in a structure are: (i) tension members (i) compression members (iii) flexural members (iv) torsional members, and_(v) foundation elements. The structural analysis deals with the determination of internal stresses in these members as well as the determination of reaction components, when the structure is subjected to external forces. The methods of analysis and principles involved in structural analysis do not normally depend upon the type of material used for various structural components. Structural design is taken up after the structural analysis is over. The design of a structure fas two aspects: (i) functional aspect, and (i) strength aspect. In the first aspect of design, called the functional design, a structure is so proportioned and constructed that it serves the needs efficiently for which it is constructed. In the second aspect, called structural design, the structure should be strong enough to resist external forces to which it is subjected during its entire period of service. The following are the requirements that govern the structural design : () It should have adequate strength. (i) It should have adequate stability and rigidity. (iii) It should be durable, (iv) It should not interfere with the functional requirements. (%) It should be economical. (vi) It should be readily adaptable to future extension. The aim of the structural designer is to produce a safe and economical structure to meet certain functional and esthetic requirements. Structural design is to a great extent an art based on creative ability, imagination and experience of the designer. The designer must have a thorough knowledge of structural behavior, of structural analysis and of correlation between the layout and the function of a structure, along with the appreciation of esthetic values. The structural designer uses his knowledge of structural mechanics, the codes of practice and practical experience to produce a safe design. o2 DESIGN OF STEEL STRUCTURES. ‘The general design procedure consisis of the following steps. (@® Selection of type of structure. (i) Layout of the structure. (ii) Determination of forces on the structure in the elements (or components) of the ._ structure, and (v) Checking the performance of the structure under service con: 12. TYPES OF STRUCTURES Structures may be classified in many ways, based on size, shape or geometry, support system, type of material used and methods used in their analysis and design. When a structure is subjected to external forces, the elements of the structure are subjected to internal stresses set in them. If the internal stresses and the reaction components can be determined by the application of equations of statics alone, the structure is said to be a statically determinate structure, If however, additional equations, formulated on the basis of consistent deformations Of the elements, are required along with the equations of statics, the structure is known as statically indeterminate structure. Depending upon supporting system, structures may be of three types: @ Line structures having one dimensional supporting system. (i) Surface structures having the two dimensional supporting system. (ii) Space structures having three dimensional supporting system. In the line structure, having one dimensional supporting system, the structure is large in one dimension in comparison to the other two dimensions. In such a structure, the material of the element remains concentrated in one line which may be either straight or curved. Flexible cable is a typical example under this category. A surface structure, which may be either plane or curved, is large in two dimensions and very small in the third dimension. A surface structure may also be composed of 2 number of continuously connected line structures. The common examples of surface structures are shell structures (such as water tanks, chimneys, roofs etc.) having rigid curved surfaces and framed or skeletal structures such as root trusses, bridge girders industrial shades etc. Space siructures or three dimensional structures are targe in three dimensions. ‘The common examples of this type are multistoryed buildings, exhibition pavilions, transmission tower, television masts etc. Depending upon the shape and geomeny, structures may be of three types: @ Shell structures (ii) Framed structures or skeletal structures. (ii) Solid structures. Shell structure are surface structures, mostly made up of plates and sheets. In such structures, loads are resisted by the plates which also serve as covering material. Common examples of this type are: tanks, chimneys, air planes, shell roof coverings of buildings, rail road cars, ship hulls, bins, bunkers etc. Framed structures or skeletal structures are composed of elongated members assembled together. A skeletal structure is the one in which the members may be represented by a line (consisting of line elements) and the intersections of the lines correspond to joints of the structure. The resulting framed structure may be two dimensional (such as roof trusses, bridge trusses, etc) or three dimensional (such as building frames, transmission towers, television masts, trestles, crane girders etc). A solid structure consists of one single linear structural element, such as flexible cable, circular column etc. ions.INTRODUCTION 3 Structures may also be classified on the basis of materials used for construction, as follows: @ = (i) (i) @) (9) i) (vit) Steel structures Aluminum structures Timber structures Plastic structures Masonry structures Concrete structures Composite structures. Another classification that applies to buildings, made wholly or in part, of steel is in accordance with the type of structural framework: 1 2 3. ‘Wall-bearing structure Beam and column structure Long-span framing (a) Plate girders (b) Trusses and mill building frames. (©) Rigid frames. (d) Arches. (e) Suspension systems. In the case of wall- bearing construction, Asa columns are avoided, and the roof structure is sup- ported directly on the wails. Wall-bearing con- masonery WALL = struction has been almost (a) BEARING WALL (b) STEEL GIRDER OR PLATE completely superseded by CONSTRUCTION GIRDER BRIDGE the skeleton frame in al large or heavily loaded a buildings. Wall bearing buildings normally are fee not highly resistant to seismic loading. Almost JcoluMe- all multi-storey skeleton- frame steel buildings (‘ier building) are of beam and (c ) SKELETON BUILDING (4) RIGID BUILDING FRAME FRAME column framing. Long span industrial buildings may employ girders or trusses supported on stanchions, or may use hoor Tass rigid frames. Long-span framing is used to obtain wide, unobstructed floor areasor to carry loads that (el INDUSTRIAL BUILDING (f) STEEL ARCH BRIDGE are too heavy for rolled sections. FIG. 11. TYPES OF STEEL STRUCTURES4 DESIGN OF STEEL STRUCTURES 1.3, STRUCTURAL ELEMENTS A building structure, consisting of a steel frame work skeleton is made up of the following structural elements or members : (® Flexural members: beams or girders. @ Tension members : ties. (i) Compression members : columns, stanchions, struts. (jv) Torsional members. and (vy) Elements of foundation structure. Some elements or members may be subjected to combined bending and axial loads. The members of steel frame are jointed together by riveted, bolted, pinned or welded connections or joints. No matter how complicated a structure may appear to be, it must consist of some combination of the basic members mentioned above. However, flexural members, (or beams) may, in some cases, appear as extremely heavy built-up girders, and the compression members (or columns) and tension members (or ties) may be combined to form heavy trusses in an extensive frame work. Fig. 1.2 shows typical details of framing for multistorey building while Fig. 1.3 shows the components of an industrial building. The structural elements are made up of the following commonly used structural shapes and built-up sections shown in Fig. 1.4. FLoor cinDER FLOOR BEAM (01ST) FIG. 1.2. FRAMING FOR MULTISTOREYED BUILDINGINTRODUCTION o w@ (iii) (wv) 0) i) (vii) (uti) @&) (i) 1.4. BEAMS AND GIRDERS FIG. 13. FRAMING FOR AN INDUSTRIAL BUILDING Angle section 5 Channe! section I-section (Q)ANGLE (2) TEE (¢)CHANNEL (4) I~ (eo) 2€E Z-section Solid square section 7 square tube. e © ry Circular section (solid) (E)CIRCULAR (9 HOLLOW th) PLATE (i) SQUARE’ (j) HOLLOW ie eee Hollow circular section Plate section. Compound and built-up sections, | (4) COMPOUND AND BUILT-UP SECTIONS FIG. 14, COMMONLY USED STRUCTURAL SHAPES. ‘A beam is a structural member the primary function of which is to support loads normal to its axis. The word beam and the word girder are used more or less interchangeably. However, the word girder may mean either a built-up member (usually a heavy one) or a main beam6 DESIGN OF STEEL STRUCTURES (single rolled shaped or built-up) which supports other beams. In a beam, loads are resisted by bending and shear, but local stress conditions and deflection are also important considerations. Beams in structures may also be referred to by typical names that suggest their function in the structure, as given below: @ — Girder Usually indicate a major beam frequently at wide spacing that supports small beams. (i) Joists : Closely spaced beams supporting the floors and roofs of buildings. (iii) Purlins —_—: Roof beams usually supported by trusses. (i) Rafters: Roof beams usually supporied by purlins. () Lintet : Beam over window or door openings that support the wall above. (i) Girts : Horizontal wall beams used to support wall covering on the side of an industrial building (vit) Spandrelbeam —: Beam around the outside perimeter of a floor that support the exterior walls and the outside edge of the floor. The term beam-column is used for that structural element that supports both transverse and axial loads. Fig. 1.5 shows some of the commonly used beams sections. The optimum section for flerural resistance is the one in which the material is located as far as possible from the neutral axis. The angle section (Fig. 1.5 a) is not an efficient beam shape, though it may be good for short, lightly loaded spans where the flat leg may be used to support some other element of the structure, such as floor or roof deck. The channel section (Fig. 1.5 b) is also used for light loads, such as for purlins and girs. The I-section (Fig. 1.5 c), known as universal beam, is most commonly used for wall supported structures. Fig. 1.5 (¢) shows a composite section, made of I-section with thin web and with flat plates attached to flanges. This gives higher percentage of material concentrated in the flange, resulting in higher elastic section modulus for the same mass per unit length. Fig. 15 (@) shows composite beam section commonly used as gantry girders for cranes, The bar joist shown in Fig. 1.5 (f) is a light, trussed beam very widely used for floor and roof framing in lightly loaded buildings. The flanges or chords of such a section can be commonly scen on railway platforms. Fig. 1.5 (g) shows a plate-girder used for heavy loads in buildings and bridges. Fig. 1.5 (h) shows double-wev box girders particularly use- ful for heavy, flexural members subjected also to torsion or direct stress. Fig. 15 () shows a castellated beam giving «1 eaR vo1st {GD PLATE ORDER m BOMOLE WED an increased depth of the rolled beam by castellating. To obtain such a section, a zig-zag line is cut along the beam web by an automatic flame cutting machine, The two halves thus produced are rearranged so that the teeth match up and the teeth are then welded together. (a) ANGLE. (©) CHANMEL (c)T-J01ST (4) COMPOSITE (4) COMPOSITE, (1) CASTELLATED BEAM FIG. 1.5. BEAM SECTIONS.INTRODUCTION 7 15, TENSION MEMBERS A tension member is the one which is intended to resist axial tension. Tension members are also called ties or hangers. The cross-sectional arrangement of material in axially stressed tension members is structurally unimportant. Cross-sections of some common tension members are shown in Fig. 1.6. Fig. 1.6 (a) shows an ordinary G roditewentiyusedasisionmenser @ @ | E few wa in bracing buildings, and as tension “a member in timber trusses. Wires,ropes, 9) (BP tea bridge strand and cables, shown in Fig. a tw w ce 1.6 (b) are extremely versatile, mostly f used for suspension structures. Fig 1.6 (c) shows a flat or rectangular & bar once used extensively as eyebars (with enlarged head containing a hole through which pin may pass) in pin FIG. 16. TYPICAL TENSION MEMBERS. connected bridges. Fig. 1.6 (d) and (€) show single angle and double angle members extensively used in single-plane (single gusset) trusses. Fig. 1.6. (f) and (g) show fvo angle and four angle members frequently used in light double plane (double gusset) rivetted trusses. Fig 1.6 (h) shows a form of tension member sometimes used for single plane trusses when bending must also be resisted in addition to axial tension. Form shown in Fig. 16 (® is used for heavier trusses, with their open sides provided with intermittent tie plates or lattice bars as shown by horizontal dotted lines. Structural Tee shown in Fig 1.6 (j) make excellent chord members for lightly loaded welded trusses, since the stem may serve as a gusset for the attachment of single-angle or double angle web members. The L-members (Fig. 1.6 k) are used as tension members in heavier building or bridge trusses with double-plane construction. 1.6. COMPRESSION MEMBERS Compression members, also called columns, struts, posts or stanchions are intended primarily to resist compressive siress. The requirements for compression members are more demandin’, than those for tension members, since in this case the carrying capacity is a function of sha as well as of area and material properties. The buckling of the column in any possible direct: becomes a governing criterion. Some of the commonly used compression sections are shown in Fig 1.7. Fig. 1.7 (a) shows solid circular sec- tion, which is used as compression mem @ ° bo : fi 1 = te ber in machines and special structures such as legs of tall, guyed transmission towers. The cylindrical ube (or hollow le circular section) shown in Fig. 1.7 (6) =3-; is the optimum section for a column [ F j with equal unbraced lengths in each direction. Such sections are extensively 7 r oI used in tubular trusses. However, there i= are connection problems in such a sec- w tion. Fig. 1.7 (¢) shows a square or rec- FIG. 1.7. TYPICAL COMPRESSION MEMBERS.8 DESIGN OF STEEL STRUCTURES tangular tube, where the efficiency of a circular tube may be approached and at the same time the connection problem can be made simpler. The single angle section, shown in Fig. 1.7 (d) are useful only for truss members and compression legs of towers. The double angle section (Fig 1.7 e) is commonly used in trusses, while the cruciform arrangement of the double angles (Fig 1.7 f) gives approximately equal radii of gyration in two directions. The I-section shown in Fig 1.5 (g) is commonly used in buildings because of its easy availability in different sizes and ease with which it can be spliced and connected. If the requirement of area is in excess of available section, additional plates can be attached to the flanges as shown in Fig 1.7 (A). Fig. 1.7 (i), () and (k) show built-up column sections, to carry heavy loads. 1.7. STRUCTURAL STEEL Steel is probably the most versatile commonly used structural material. Not only is its versatility apparent in great variety of structures for which it is used but also in many different forms possible in a single building structure or a complex of structures. Many of the properties of structural steel of interest to the designer can be described by the behavior of steel during a simple tension test. The essential elements in steel are metallic iron and the element non-meiallic carbon, with small quantities of other elements such as silicon, nickel, manganese, chromium and copper. It is thus an alloy. Though steel is usually more than 98% iron, with other elements present in small quantities, these other elements have pronounced effect on the properties of steel. Various iron-carbon alloys, used as structural material are of three types: (i) cast iron, (ii) wrought iron, and (iii) steel. Cast iron has a low carbon content, while wrought iron has high carbon content. In many ways, steels are intermediate in carbon content, between cast iron and wrought iron. The approximate limits for carbon in stee! are between 0.04 to 2.25 percent, though the limits for carbon in structural steel are between 0.15 to 1.7 percent. Cast iron: Cast iron has low carbon percentage, which makes it very brittle. The first use of cast iron as structural material was ona 100 ft. span bridge over Severn River at Coolbrookdate, England built in 1779, and which is stilt in service. During the period 1780 to 1820, many more cast iron bridges were built. However its use declined thereafter, because of (i) failures due to brittle facture in tension, and (ii) availability of wrought iron shapes commercially. Wrought iron : Wrought iron has high carbon content, imparting it the ability to permit large deformations without fracture. Due to this quality, it replaced cast iron. The wrought iron could be formed into plates which can, in turn, be cut and shaped into structural members. The early example of use of wrought iron was the Britannia Bridge across the Menai straits in Wales completed in 1850. Steel : Steel has carbon content intermediate between cast iron and wrought iron. With the development of Bessemer process in 1856 and open-hearth steel-making furnace in 1864, large quantities of steel became available for the first time, Many rolled sections, such as rolled bars and I-shapes were made available by 1870. This resulted in the replacement of wrought iron by steel, in construction industry, by 1890. Depending upon the chemical composition, different types of steels are classified as (i) mild steel (i) medium carbon steel (iii) high carbon steel (iv) low alloy steel and (v) high alloy steel. Out of these, the first three types of stecls are known as siructural steel, commonly used in steel structures. Indian standard IS:800-1984 (Code of practice for general construction in steel) is applicable to the types of structural steels covered by the following Indian Standards:INTRODUCTION 9 1. IS: 226-1975 Structural steel (Standard quality) 2, IS: 1977-1975 Structural steel (ordinary quality) 3. IS: 2062-1984 Weldable structural steel 4 IS: 961-1975 Structural steel (high tensile) 5. IS: 8500-1977 Weldable structural stcel (medium and high strength qualities) Structural Stee! (standard quality) IS : 226-1975 Steel in this quality is known as mild steel, designated as St 44-S while the one in copper bearing quality is designated as St 44-SC with copper content varying from 0.2 to 0.35%. Mild steel is used for manufacture of rolled steel sections, rivets and bolts. Steel conforming to IS: 226-1975 is suitable for all types of structures subjected to static, dynamic and cyclic loading, and is suitable for welding upto 20 mm thickness. The chemical composition of this steel is given in Table 1.1. TABLE 11 CHEMICAL COMPOSITION OF STEEL IS:226-1975 Constituents Carbon (for thickness/dia upto 20 mm) Carbon ( for thickness/dia. over 20 mm) Sulphur Phosphorus The physical properties of mild steels are as under: (Mass : 7.85 kg/cm’ (7850 kg/m’) (ii) Young's modulus of elasticity (E): 2.04% 10° MPa (or N/mm’) (iii) Modulus of Rigidity (G): 0.785 x 10° MPa (or N/mm’) (iv) Poisson's Ratio (sx) : 0.3 (in elastic range) (iv) Coefficient of thermal expansion or contraction : 12x10~* per® Cor 6.7x 10-* per °F 18, STRUCTURAL STEEL SECTIONS Structural steel is rolled into a variety of shapes and sizes. The shapes are designated by the shape and size of their cross-section. Following are various types of rolled structural steel sections commonly used: () Rolled steel beam sections (I-section) (ii) Rolled steel channel sections (iit) Rolled steel angle sections, (iv) Rolled steel T-sections. (v) Rolled steel bars (vi) Rolled steel plates. (vii) Rolled steel! sheets and strips. (viii) Mild steel flats. The dimensions and properties of all these sections are given in ‘ISI Hand Book for Structural Engineers’, Vol. 1, Strucuural Steel Sections’. 1. Rolled Steel Beam Sections ISI hand book gives five series of beam sections: (®) Junior beams, designated as ISJB (Indian Standard Junior Beams)10 DESIGN OF STEEL STRUCTURES (i) Light Beams designated as ISLB (Indian Standard Light Beams) (ii) Medium Beams, designated as ISMB (indian Standard Medium Weight Beams) (iv) Wide Flange Beams, designated as ISWB (Indian Standard Wide-Flange Beams) and (v) H-Beams or column beams designated as ISHB (indian Standard H-Beams) Each beam section is designated by the series to which it belongs followed by the depth (in mm) of the section. For example, ISMB 400 means a beam section of medium weight, and of depth equal to 400 mm. In some cases of wide flange beams and H-beams, more than one section is available for the same depth. For example, there are two sections of IS WB 600; these two sections are differentiated by. writing the mass of the beams per m run. Thus, we have ISWB a 500 @ 133.7 kgim and ISWB 600 @ 145.1 kg/m, both of these Hr wioTH= b —a being two different sections having different properties. Similarly, we have ISHB 300 @ 58.8 kg/m and ISHB 300 @ 63.0 kg/m giving"! dean onan two different sections having different geometrical properties. 2 Rolled Steel Channel Sections ISI hand book gives the following four scrics of channel sections: @ Junior channels designated by ISIC (indian Standard Junior channels) (i) Light channels designated by ISLC (Indian Standard Light Channels) (iii) Medium channels designated by ISMC (Indian Standard Medium Weight Channels) (iv) Special channels designated by ISSC (Indian Standard Special Channels) Each rolled steel channel is designated by the series to which it belongs, followed by its depth (in mm) and then its mass per metre length. Thus, we have ISLC 400 @ 45.7 kg/m, meaning thereby that it is a light channel, having depth equal to 400 mm and mass equal to 45.7 kg/m. A channel section has only one axis of symmetry. DEPTH h Due to this, it is subjected to twisting or torsion, along with bending, F when used as a beam. few bof 3. Rolled Steel Angle Sections FIG. 19. ROLLED STEEL - CHANNEL SECTION ISI hand book gives three series of angle sections: () Equal angles section designated by ISA (Indian Standard Equal Angles) (i) Unequal angles section designated by ISA (Indian Standard Unequal Angles) (ii) Bulb angle section designated by ISBA (Indian Standard Bulb Angles) Since the equal angle section and unequal angle section are designated by the same scries, the width and height of the legs of the angle are also mentioned along with the series. Thus,