Declaration: Liquid Detergent Production From Castor Seed

LIQUID DETERGENT PRODUCTION FROM CASTOR SEED
Declaration
We hereby declare that the thesis is based on our original work except for flotation’s and
citations which have been duly acknowledged .We also declare that it has not been previously or
currently submitted for any other department at Debre Berhan University.
Approved by board of examiner:
Advisor name signature date
Examiner signature date
DEBRE BERHAN UNIVERSITY DEPARTMENT OF CHEMICAL ENGINEERING 5t h Page i

Acknowledgement
First of all we would like to thanks our GOD who helps us and give strength for completing
our project for a given period. Secondly, we would like to thanks the department of chemical
engineering staffs to full fill the necessary chemicals and equipments to complete our final thesis
project. Thirdly, we would like to express our great thanks for our advisor instructor Endayehu
Gebeyehu. He sacrifices his time and giving different advice (information’s) and guidance of
how to be done and prepare the project works as well as different technical skills during
when we face different challenging problems. More over we would to acknowledge chemical
engineering department laboratory technician Mr. Getahun, Mr. Ayalew Mrs. Damenech and
others for their guide in the laboratory. Finally, we like to thank all persons that evaluate and
give sufficient data in the sensory evaluation of liquid detergent. Generally, the above and the
like person give the high hot important information’s and knowledge for us to complete our
project work. Finally we acknowledged that our family for their ultimate support for every
aspects of our life.
DEBRE BERHAN UNIVERSITY DEPARTMENT OF CHEMICAL ENGINEERING 5t hPage

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Acronyms and Notations

FFAs free fatty acids
Sp.gr Specific gravity
AV acid value
XMt Mole fraction of the total mass
FCI Fixed Capital Investment
TPC Total Product Cost
DF Discount Factor
NPV Net present value
PV Present value
LABS linear alkyl benzene sulphonates
FDA Food and Drug Administration
TAED Tetra acetyl ethylene diamine
E thickness
Cp specific heat capacity
RC crown radius and
Rk knuckle radius.
J joint efficiency
TCI total capital investment
ROR rate of return
ROI rate of investment
BEP breakeven point
WC working capital
DC direct cost
ID indirect cost
POH plant overhead cost
PI profitability index
MC manufacturing cost

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RA ricinoilic acid
Table of Contents page

Declaration........................................................................................................................................i
Acknowledgement...........................................................................................................................ii
Acronyms and Notations................................................................................................................iii
List of figures...............................................................................................................................viii
List of tables...................................................................................................................................ix
Abstract............................................................................................................................................x
1. Introduction..................................................................................................................................1
1.1. Background...........................................................................................................................1
1.2. Statement of the problem......................................................................................................5
1.3. Objectives of the project.......................................................................................................6
1.3.1.General objectives..........................................................................................................6
1.3.2. Specific objectives of the project...................................................................................6
1.4. Significance of the project....................................................................................................6
1.5. Scope of the project..............................................................................................................7
1.6. Limitation.............................................................................................................................7
2. Literature review..........................................................................................................................8
2.1. Castor Bean, Ricinus communis...........................................................................................8
2.2. Castor plant and its seed.....................................................................................................10
2.3. Factors affecting chemical composition of seeds...............................................................12
2.4. Castor oil.............................................................................................................................14
2.4.1. The castor oil Properties..............................................................................................15
2.4.2. Chemistry of castor oil.................................................................................................16

iv
2.5. Raw materials used in detergent-making............................................................................17
2.5.1. Reason for selection of castor seed..............................................................................17
2.6. Uses of castor oil................................................................................................................19
2.6.1. Industrial castor oil......................................................................................................19
2.6.2. Castor oil in food.........................................................................................................19
2.3.3. Medicinal use of castor oil...........................................................................................20
2.3.4. Castor oil as biodiesel and biofuel...............................................................................20
2.6.5. Castor meal..................................................................................................................20
2.7. Chemistry of detergents/soaps............................................................................................20
2.7.1. Classification of synthetic detergents..........................................................................21
2.7.2. Use of additives in detergent industry.........................................................................24
2.8. Process description.............................................................................................................26
2.8.1. Oil production process description..............................................................................26
2.8.2. Seed preparation (Pre-treatment of castor seeds)........................................................26
2.8.3. Extraction of castor oil.................................................................................................28
2.8.4. Castor oil refining........................................................................................................30
3. Materials and Chemicals............................................................................................................35
3.1. Raw materials.....................................................................................................................35
3.2. Materials.............................................................................................................................35
3.3. Chemicals...........................................................................................................................36
3.4. Methodology.......................................................................................................................36
3.4.1. Pre-treatment of castor seeds.......................................................................................37
3.4.2. Extraction of castor oil.................................................................................................38
3.5. Experiment..........................................................................................................................38
3.5.1. Experiment one: extraction of castor oil......................................................................38
DEBRE BERHAN UNIVERSITY DEPARTMENT OF CHEMICAL ENGINEERING 5t hPage v

3.5.2. Refining of castor oil...................................................................................................40
3.5.3. Production of detergent................................................................................................40
3.5.4. Experiment two: Detergent production (Saponification)............................................41
4. Result and discussion.................................................................................................................43
4.1. Results.................................................................................................................................43
4.1.1. Determination of the moisture content of castor seed.................................................43
4.1.2. Characterization of the castor oil.................................................................................43
4.1.2. Characterization of detergent.......................................................................................47
4.2. Discussion...........................................................................................................................54
5. Market study and plant capacity................................................................................................55
5.1. Past Supply and Present Demand.......................................................................................55
5.2 Demand projection...............................................................................................................56
5.3. Plant Capacity.....................................................................................................................57
5.3.1. Production Program.....................................................................................................57
5.4. Material and energy balance...............................................................................................57
5.4.1. Mass balance on major unit operations in laboratory scale.............................................58
5.4.2. Material balance on industrial scale................................................................................60
5.5. Energy balance....................................................................................................................64
6. Design of process equipment.....................................................................................................67
6.1. Selection of pump for soap production...............................................................................67
6.2. Specification and Sizing of the main processing equipments............................................73
7. Engineering Economics.............................................................................................................75
7.1. Investment costs..................................................................................................................76
7.1.1. Capital investment.......................................................................................................76
7.1.2. Working capital...........................................................................................................81

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7.1.3. Production cost (TPC).................................................................................................82
7.2. Financial analysis................................................................................................................84
7.3. Projected cash flow of liquid detergent production factory PLC.......................................87
7.3.1. Net present value.........................................................................................................89
7.2.2. Discount cash flow rate of return (DCSRR or IRR)....................................................89
8. Plant location, Plant layout and Environment...........................................................................91
8.1. Plant location......................................................................................................................91
8.2. Plant Layout........................................................................................................................92
8.2.1. Principles of plant layout.............................................................................................92
8.3. Economic and Social benefits.............................................................................................93
8.3.2 Environmental impact and effluent disposal................................................................93
9. Conclusion and recommendations.............................................................................................97
9.1 Conclusion...........................................................................................................................97
9.2. Recommendation....................................................................................................................98
Reference.......................................................................................................................................98

vii
List of figures
Figure 1: Castor seed flowers and fruits..........................................................................................9
Figure 2: Castor seed.....................................................................................................................10
Figure 3: The castor plant..............................................................................................................11
Figure 4: Components of castor oil...............................................................................................18
Figure 5: The chemistry of detergent production..........................................................................21
Figure 6: Classification of synthetic detergent (source:''InfoMine''based on the review of the
technical literature)........................................................................................................................24
Figure 7: Soxhlet extractor............................................................................................................29
Figure 8: Sub-sections of oil refining treatment............................................................................31
Figure 9: Process flow diagram of liquid detergent production....................................................37
Figure 10: Shelling........................................................................................................................37
Figure 11: Extraction of castor oil.................................................................................................39
Figure 12: Refining process of castor oil.......................................................................................40
Figure 13: Liquid detergent...........................................................................................................41
Figure 14: Yield of castor oil.........................................................................................................44
Figure 15: Effect of temperature on viscosity of detergent...........................................................48
Figure 16: Effect of reaction time on detergent.............................................................................49
Figure 17: Effect of reaction time on PH of detergent..................................................................50
Figure 18: Effect of temperature on PH value of detergent...........................................................51
Figure 19: Effect of concentration on foam ability of detergent...................................................52
Figure 20: Effect of temperature on foam ability of detergent......................................................53
Figure 21: Effect of reaction time on foam ability of detergent....................................................54
Figure 22: Mixing tank..................................................................................................................64
Figure 23: Plant layout...................................................................................................................93

viii
List of tables
Table 1: Physical properties of castor oil......................................................................................15
Table 2: The components of synthetic detergents, in %................................................................25
Table 3: Moisture content of castor seed.......................................................................................43
Table 4: Total % yield of castor oil extraction..............................................................................43
Table 5: Viscosity determination...................................................................................................45
Table 6: Physical and chemical properties of castor oil................................................................46
Table 7: Effect of temperature and time on viscosity of detergent production [60min, 30℃ ¿....47
Table 8 : Effect of temperature and time on viscosity of detergent production [90min,35℃].....48
Table 9 : E effect of temperature and time on viscosity of detergent production [120min, 60℃ ¿
.......................................................................................................................................................49
Table 10: Effect of concentration of lye on foam ability of detergent..........................................51
Table 11: Effect of temperature on foam ability of detergent.......................................................52
Table 12: Effect of time on foam ability of detergent...................................................................53
Table 13: Past imported and present demand of liquid detergent.................................................55
Table 14: projected demand for the future of liquid detergent......................................................56
Table 15: Production program of liquid detergent........................................................................57
Table 16: Marshal and swift installed equipment index................................................................77
Table 17: Purchased equipment cost.............................................................................................78
Table 18 : Direct cost.....................................................................................................................80
Table 19 : Indirect cost..................................................................................................................81
Table 20: Total direct production cost...........................................................................................82
Table 21: Fixed charges.................................................................................................................83
Table 22: General expenses...........................................................................................................83

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Table 23: Projected cash flow of liquid detergent production.......................................................87
Abstract
This project work was to carry out with the objective of extraction of oil from castor seeds and
its utilization to produce a synthetic detergent. The detergent production was obtained from
castor seeds by using pretreatment of castor seed, extraction of castor oil, neutralization and
sulphation methods. The extraction and refining of castor oil using stage wise equipment was
carried out. Vegetable oils, either edible or non-edible, are widely used in huge number
of applications in industry. Ricinus communis (castor plant) is one of the non-edible
vegetable oil and its usage in many industries as a raw material and additives is rapidly
growing. In this project, the castor seeds are extracted and the castor oil is characterized. The
castor oil that is obtained from extraction is refined and modified for liquid detergent production.
Detergent is a cleaning agent that helps to remove dirt and grease from porous surfaces such as
fabrics, clothes, and/or non-porous surface such as metal plastics. All detergents are made
principally of soap or surfactants. Detergent was produced from fat of animals, but we are
proposing to produce from castor seeds by extracting using hexane and with saponification of
castor oil in batch reactor using NaOH as catalyst. We were considering other variables like
residence time, concentration, and reaction temperature. The effect of these variables on the
viscosity, PH, and foam ability of detergent will study. We are also study the raw material,
methods, material and energy balance, equipment selection, and techno- economic feasibilities of
the project.
A feasibility study for the design and construction of a pilot plant for the extraction of castor oil
in Ethiopia will conducted. The study emphasized the four critical aspects of project feasibility
analysis, namely technical, financial, market and managerial aspects. The technical aspect
DEBRE BERHAN UNIVERSITY DEPARTMENT OF CHEMICAL ENGINEERING 5t hPage x
involved research on existing oil extraction technologies, namely: mechanical pressing and
solvent extraction, as well as assessment of the proposed production site for both short and long-
term viability of the project.

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1. Introduction
1.1. Background
Castor is originated in Africa and grows wild in East and North Africa, the Yemen and the near
and Middle East. It was cultivated in ancient Egypt as long as 400 B.C[ CITATION Geo84 \l
1033 ]. Castor requires a warm climate and is killed by frost[ CITATION Dav02 \l 1033 ].
At least 140 - 180 growing season is required before the first killing frost. It can be grown over a
wide altitude range in the tropics and with both low and medium rainfall. Heavy rainfall and
water logging should be avoided. At sustained temperatures above 100℉ seed may fail to set.
The best soils for its cultivation are rich well-drained sandy or clayey loams. Up to the beginning
of the 20th Century, the main use of castor was to extract castor oil to use it in the machine
manufacturing, mainly as a purgative[ CITATION 2 \l 1033 ]. Now the bulk of crop is utilized
in industry. It is water resistant and is used for waiting fabrics and their protective coverings. It is
used in the manufacture of high - grade lubricants, soap and printing inks, on textile dying and
for preserving leather[ CITATION cas \l 1033 ]. The dehydrated oil is an excellent drying
agent which compares favorably with tung oil and is used in paints and varnishes. The
hydrogenated oil is used in the manufacture of waxes, plastics, carbon paper, candles and
crayons[ CITATION Veg \l 1033 ]. They are also used for plastics, ointments and cosmetics.
Castor plant grows optimally in tropical summer rainfall areas. It grows well from the wet tropics
to the subtropical dry regions with an optimum temperature of 20°C–25°C. The high content of
the oil in the seeds can be attributed to the warm climate conditions, but temperatures over 38°C
can lead to poor seed setting. Additionally, temperatures low enough to induce the formation of
frost is known to kill the plant.[ CITATION Bas13 \l 1033 ]
The vegetable fats or vegetable oils have an essential function in the industrial economy of
a developing country as the seed oil provide a huge use in human daily life in order to
complete and make the nowadays life more easier. The seed oils are one of the vegetable oil
family members. Vegetable oils or vegetable fats are the lipid materials that been derived from
the natural plants which physically oil are in liquid state in the room temperature whereas the fat
exists in solid state.
Castor oil is a vegetable oil obtained from the castor bean (or castor seed) that has a
characteristic structure and many uses. It is obtained by pressing and solvent extracting the seeds

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of the castor plant, Ricinus communis. Sometimes called castor bean oil, this plant is not a
member of the bean family. The castor-oil plant is easy to grow and is resistant to drought,
which makes it an ideal crop for the extensive semiarid regions globally. That area holds about
twenty million hectares of appropriate land that could yield up to 1.5 tons of castor beans per
hectare, compared to the global average of 0.750 tons per hectare. Castor beans could become a
farming alternative, providing income for over one hundred million people who suffer hunger in
the poorest regions globally in the room temperature[ CITATION KAs \l 1033 ].
The castor seed contains ricin a toxic protein. Heating during the oil extraction process
denatures and inactivates the protein. However, harvesting castor seeds may not be without risk.
Allergenic compounds found on the plant surface can cause permanent nerve damage,
making the harvest of castor beans a human health risk. India, Brazil, and China are the
major crop producers, and the workers suffer harmful side effects from working with
these plants. These health issues, in addition to concerns about the toxic byproduct (ricin) from
castor oil production, have encouraged the quest for alternative sources for hydroxyl fatty
acids. Alternatively, some researchers are trying to genetically modify the castor plant to
prevent the synthesis of ricin. With the world becoming more environment conscious and with
increasing replacement of synthetic products with naturally derived products , castor oil
based derivatives could find increasingly attractive markets worldwide .So because of this it
needs to be treated and environmentally friendly[ CITATION JMo15 \l 1033 ].
Cleaning agents traditionally include synthetic detergents and soap, as well as materials to
supplement their action: bleaches, conditioners, washing salts, restorers of color, soaking
materials, and stain removers. The main purpose of detergents is the cleaning of objects,
surfaces, fabrics and articles made of textile and non-woven fabrics from pollutions of different
nature. Synthetic detergents are multicomponent compositions and they may be liquid, paste-like
and powdery. They comprise surface-active agents (surfactants) and other organic and inorganic
substances, which increase the efficiency of the surfactants. First detergents were soaps, derived
from naturally occurring substances[ CITATION 1Ah84 \l 1033 ]. However, fatty soaps have
some drawbacks. Their detergent effect is manifested only in an alkaline medium; with calcium
and magnesium salts, contained in hard water, they form insoluble salts, which deposit on the
fabrics and contaminate them. Alkali compounds, contained in the soap, weaken the strength of

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wool and silk fabrics, and fabrics made of polyester fibers, especially at elevated temperatures,
and may discolor fabrics. In addition, fatty raw materials for soaps are valuable food products,
which are in a low supply.
All this leads to the relevance of the production and use of synthetic detergents, which have the
following advantages:
1. Production of synthetic detergent is based on a cheap raw material base - the products of
processing of petroleum and gas. The calculations show that the cost of production of synthetic
detergents is not more than 65-70% of the cost of production of the 47% common soap.
Implementation of a broad program for the production of detergents allows to free up a large
amount of a dietary fat.
2. Synthetic detergents do not interact with the salts of hard water or the reaction yields products,
which are easily removed from the fabric. Many synthetic detergents equally well clean in soft
and hard water, and some even in seawater.
3. Synthetic detergents, depending on their composition, can wash well fabrics not only in an
alkaline environment, but also in the neutral and acidic media.
4. Synthetic detergents exhibit the cleaning action not only in hot water but also in water at
relatively low temperatures, which is very important when washing products made of chemical
fibers, etc. In turn, synthetic detergents have a number of inherent shortcomings: a not always
sufficient detergency action; lower foam stability; a difficult bioavailability; they cause a dry
skin of hands when washing.
The first synthetic detergents were created in Germany during the First World War, due to a
large deficit of dietary fat, and after the war the synthetic detergents industry flourished in the
United States, Japan and some European countries. In this case, the development of the world
detergent industry was strongly influenced by the limiting factors, such as the availability of raw
materials. In different countries, synthetic detergents were produced from various raw materials.
For example, in the United States sodium oleyl taurate began to be actively used, Germany -
aliphatic sulfates (sulfates of fatty alcohols), in the United Kingdom - a secondary olefin sulfate,
derived from petrochemical sources, which is released in England in large quantities.
Thus, synthetic detergents finally were established on the market. Therefore, in the years 1940-
1972 the demand for synthetic detergents in the United States increased 1000-fold to 4.5 million

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tons per year, the demand for soap fell by almost a factor of 3, which was associated with an
increase in the use of washing machines. Production of detergents in the world was developed
due to both a displacement of fatty soaps, and due to the increase of the total consumption of
detergents. Currently, the world production of synthetic detergents amounts to tens of millions of
tons per year. However, most of them (70%) are consumed only by residents of the most
developed countries, constituting about 20% of the population[ CITATION EMu12 \l 1033 ].
About 70% of detergents, consumed by the population, are spent on the so-called common
laundry (in the U.S. and the UK it is called "heavy"), which is done once in 3-7 days. This wash,
where bedding, table linen and underwear are washed, is carried out most frequently in washing
machines. About 20% of synthetic detergents are spent on a "light" wash of less-polluted
products from fine fabrics by hand in warm water. Currently, synthetic detergents are used for
washing textiles, cleaning household items, vehicles and equipment. In addition, in the industry
they facilitate technological processes in the bleaching and dyeing of fabrics, furs and skins. A
range of cleaning agents includes cleaners for dishwashing, cleaners for bathrooms, toilets, glass,
household and specialty cleaners[ CITATION AMO10 \l 1033 ].
The washing industry, usually known as soap industry, however, among the many chemical
process industries, none has experienced such a fundamental change in raw material. However,
after a time different technologies are applies for the production of soap among these are
vegetable oil, like olive oil, palm oil, coconut oil and castor oil are basic raw materials for the
production of detergent. Among these vegetable oil castor bean is a fast growing evergreen shrub
that produces seeds with high oil content (35-55%)[ CITATION VRP12 \l 1033 ].
Scientifically, the term detergent covers both soap and synthetic detergent, but it is widely used
to indicate synthetic cleaning compounds as distinguished from soap. Detergent differs from
soap in their action in hard water. Although soaps are excellent cleansers, they do have
disadvantages. As salts of weak acids, mineral acids into free fatty acids convert them. These
fatty acids are less soluble than the sodium or potassium salts and form precipitate or soap scum.
Because of this, soaps are ineffective in acidic water. In addition, soaps form insoluble salt in
hard water such as water containing magnesium, calcium or iron. Synthetic detergents, however,
may be soluble in both acidic and alkaline solutions and do not form insoluble precipitate in hard
water. The detergent and soap making industries are no exceptions, for while they provide us

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with cleansing agents, their processing and by-products are a cause of public nuisance. For
instance, detergents, unlike soaps, have proved very effective cleansing agents in hard and cool
water whereas soap is often wholly ineffective under such condition[ CITATION Mut10 \l
1033 ].
About 75 percent of detergents used in the early 1960s were for the most part made with alkyl
benzene, made from propylene tetramer coupled to benzene. Research into the bacteria
decomposition of alkyl-based detergents showed that branched molecules are indigestible to the
bacteria that must decompose the detergents when they reach the ground. To be biodegradable, a
detergent should be based on straight chain alkyl molecule examples of straight chain alkyl
molecules are the linear alkyl benzene sulphonates (LABS) and ricinoleic acid obtained from the
castor bean. This project work is aimed at studying the replacement made to the non-
biodegradable detergents[ CITATION Bur42 \l 1033 ].
Detergents are anionic surfactants used in conjunction with water for washing and cleaning, but
they are also used in textile spinning and are important components of lubricants. Detergents for
cleansing are obtained by treating vegetable or animal oils and fats with a strongly alkaline
solution. Fats and oils are composed of triglycerides; three molecules of fatty acids are attached
to a single molecule of glycerol. It consist of sodium or potassium salts of fatty acids and is
obtained by reacting common oils or fats with a strong alkaline solution in a process known as
saponification. Soap belongs to the family of detergents, which is a substance, which improves
the cleaning properties of water. In saponification, the oil is first hydrolyzed into free fatty acids,
which then combine with the alkali to form crude soap. Glycerol (glycerin) is liberated and is
either left in or washed out and recovered as a useful byproduct, depending on the process
employed[ CITATION Spi96 \l 1033 ].
1.2. Statement of the problem
Synthetic detergents and soaps are produced from edible fats and oils. However, non-edible oils
cannot be used for the production of detergents most of the time in our country Ethiopia.
Therefore, we substitute and produce liquid detergent from non-edible castor seeds. Ethiopia,
endowed with varied agro ecological zone and diversified natural resources, have been known as
the homeland and domestication of several crop plant. Castor seeds have been cultivated in large

5
quantities in Ethiopia for several years without proper or planed way of cultivation but the
country has not been using this resource.
Those reasons were main point of interest for this project is instead of wasting , processing
into useful products like liquid detergents will minimize the foreign currency and creates
job opportunity for the citizens of our society. Unfortunately, not all the castor seeds that
obtain in our country are used industrially for the production of useful products. Based on these
situations happen, we are proposing to extract the castor oil from castor seeds for the production
of liquid detergent.
1.3. Objectives of the project

1.3.1.General objectives
The general objective of this project is production of detergent from castor seeds and to
designing of the main equipments.
1.3.2. Specific objectives of the project

To characterize the extracted castor oil (yield, viscosity, PH value, free fatty acid value and
specific gravity).
To determine the effect of parameters on detergent production (concentration, residence
time and temperature).
To characterize the detergent (viscosity and foam ability).
To evaluate economic feasibility of detergent production from castor seed.

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1.4. Significance of the project

Due to the importance of the vegetable oils in the industrial, pharmaceutical, food industries, and
also medical, there is an urgent need to produce more oil from the natural plant. The significance
of this project is to show the directions for the community how to produce liquid detergent from
castor seed in the laboratory scale and another significance of the project is to create a great
awareness for the society that is castor seed contains poisons chemical. For the country like
Ethiopia in which 85% of its people follow agriculture based way of life, such type of project is
going to upgrade the society economic status. This type of product will minimize using mineral-
based detergents by replacing them with biodegradable and renewable synthetic detergent, which
has better important for textile, fabrics and toilet washes.
1.5. Scope of the project
The primary scope of the project will be started from with preliminary identification of feedstock
i.e. the raw material used for detergent manufacturing buying from the market, extraction of
castor oil, characterizing of castor oil , characterizing the detergent ,determining effect of
parameters on saponifiction reaction, determining the material and energy balance, designing
the main processing equipments and evaluate economic feasibility of the project and finally until
we will get the desired product that is detergent with in laboratory scale.

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1.6. Limitation
It was obvious that our University has a big problem on Internet access and unfortunately, our
department has no Laboratory instruments and equipment’s. Nowadays without these two
utilities, to do this thesis was very difficult. For examples chemical used for liquid detergent
production was not found in the right time and other related things were not measured due to
unavailability of material in laboratory.
2. Literature review
2.1. Castor Bean, Ricinus communis
With oversized, tropical-looking leaves and bizarre seedpods, castor bean is an exotic addition to
the ornamental garden. The only member of the genus, Ricinus communisis in the spurge family
(Euphorbiaceous). The word ricinus is Latin for “tick”, used for this plant name because of the
superficial resemblance of the seeds to a particular species of European tick. Castor bean is
native to tropical east Africa around Ethiopia, but has naturalized in tropical and subtropical
areas around the world to become a weed in many places, including the southwestern U.S. Plants
are typically found in moist, well-drained soils in disturbed areas, such as along river beds and
roadsides, and in fallow fields or at the edges of cultivated lands. Castor bean is an evergreen
herbaceous, semi woody large shrub, or small tree. This robust tender perennial can grow to 40
feet tall, developing woody stems over a few years in frost-free climates. Because of its rapid,
vigorous growth, it is easily grown as a warm season annual in temperate climates, but it rarely
exceeds 6-10 feet in a single growing season. This fast growing plant tends to grow straight up at
first, developing branches later in the season to form a well-proportioned shrub with sturdy stems
and a dense canopy. The plant is killed when the temperature drops below 32℉. Unlike many
members of the euphorbia family, this plant does not have milky latex sap, but has a watery
sap[ CITATION Baj95 \l 1033 ].
The alternate, star-shaped leaves on long petioles can grow over 2½ feet across. Each palmate
leaf has 5 to11 deeply incised lobes, with serrated edges and prominent central veins. The

8
species has glossy green leaves, but cultivated selections may have black-purplish, dark red
metallic, bronze-green, or maroon leaves, or bright green leaves with white veins. Flowers are
produced in dense inflorescences 8-18” tall at the tops of the stems. The monoecious plants
produce male flowers below the terminal female flowers. The flowers do not have petals and are
not particularly showy. The ½-inch male flowers each have a cluster of many cream or yellow
stamens that shed large amounts of wind-borne pollen. They senesce soon after shedding their
pollen. The three conspicuous, star-shaped stigma lobes of the female flowers are bright red with
feathery branches[ CITATION Che \l 1033 ].
Figure 1: Castor seed flowers and fruits

Castor (Ricinus Communis L.) is cultivated around the world because of commercial importance
of its oil. Castor grows best under tropical conditions. It is extensively cultivated in a few
states in India namely, Rajasthan, Gujarat and Andhra Pradesh which have suitable
climatic conditions. India produces on an average, around 800,000 tons of castor seeds
annually, accounting for about 75% of the total world production. Brazil and China constitute the
balance global castor seed production. In recent years however, Brazil and China have
experienced stagnation in castor crops. In India, castor is planted during July/August and

9
harvesting commences around December/ January. The castor seed and its oil can be stored for
long time without affecting its quality. The Indian variety of castor oil has an oil content of
about 48%.The castor seed products are oil and cake, where the oil has large industrial uses
like paints, lubricants, pharmaceuticals, textiles, plastics etc. and the cake is used as organic
manure in agriculture field. The castor bean contains 50-55% oil. The oil itself contains a
number of fatty acids similar to those in cooking oils, such as oleic acid, linoleic acid, stearic
acid and palmitic acid. However, among vegetable oils, castor oil is contains so high a proportion
of fatty hydroxyacids. Castor oils unsaturated bond, high molecular weight (298), low melting
point(5℃) and very low solidification point (-12℃ to -18℃) make it industrially useful, most
of all for the highest and most stable viscosity of any vegetable oil[ CITATION Wei83 \l 1033 ].
2.2. Castor plant and its seed
The castor plant is a robust annual that may grow 6 to 15 feet (2-5 meters) in one season with full
sunlight, heat and adequate moisture. In areas with mild, frost-free winters, it may live for many
years and become quite woody and tree-like. The large, palmate lobed leaves may be over 20
inches (50 cm) across and resemble a tropical aralia. There are several cultivated varieties with
strikingly different foliage colorations, including black-purplish, dark red metallic, bronze-green,
maroon, bright green with white veins, and just plain green. The spiny seedpod or capsule is
composed of three sections or carpels, which split apart at maturity. Each section (carpel)
contains a single seed, and as the carpel dries and splits open, the seed is often ejected with
considerable force[ CITATION Sal41 \l 1033 ].
Figure 2: Castor seed

10
Castor plant (Recinus Communis) from which castor beans and oil are subsequently derived
grows naturally over a wide range of geographical regions and may be activating under a variety
of physical and climatic regimes. The plant is however essentially a tropical species, although it
may grow in temperate regions[ CITATION Dol50 \l 1033 ].
Figure 3: The castor plant

Synthetic detergents were initially developed to replace soap in an economy that was running
short of edible fats and oils. It was soon discovered that the synthetic compounds were more
resistant to hard water ions and provided improved wetting and detergency over soap. Over the
years, the term “synthetic detergent” has been shortened to “syndets” to describe detergent
compositions comprising synthetic detergents, hard water control agents (builders), and other
detergent additives. The term “surface active agent” has been shortened to “surfactant” to
describe the surface-active ingredients[ CITATION Jan \l 1033 ].

11
The first detergent to be utilized by man was soap, an innovation traditionally attributed
to ancient Egyptian culture. However, when the word detergent is used today, it is
assumed to refer to the synthetic detergents (ten side, syndets or surfactants), which have
assumed increasing chemical and economic importance in the post- world war periods.
The Germans developed the first synthetic detergents during the First World War period. In the
late nineteen - twenties and early thirties long - chained sulphonate- alcohols were sold as
neutralized sodium salts. This metamorphosed to the long- chain alkyl aryl sulphonates sodium
salts with benzene as the aromatic nucleus. The alkyl portion was from the kerosene fraction
produced from petroleum industries. In the United Kingdom, Teepol a secondary Olefin
sulphate from petrochemical sources was produced and still being produced in England
and Western Europe to this day. The worldwide manufacture of synthetic detergents has
increased from the 1949 level of 30,000 tons to an estimated 1.5 to 2 million tons per year.
Cleaning agents traditionally include synthetic detergents and soap, as well as materials
to supplement their action: bleaches, conditioners, washing salts, restorers of color,
soaking materials, and stain removers. The main purpose of detergents is the cleaning of
objects, surfaces, fabrics and articles made of textile and non- woven fabrics from
pollutions of different nature. There are different types of feed stocks that are used for
the production of synthetic detergent. These include linseed oil, palm seed oil, castor seed
oil, sunflower seed oil, jatropha seed oil and animal fats. Oilseed plants are used for the
production of synthetic detergent through the process called saponification reaction which
is a process by which any ester converted to an alcohol and salt by alkaline hydrolysis
process in the presence of other additives chemicals. Oils that are extracted from plants
have been used in this world since the ancient times and already used in many cultures.
As an example the castor plant has been known to man for ages. Castor beans have been
found in ancient Egyptian tombs dating back to 4000 B.C and during that time, the castor
oil was used thousands of years ago in the wick lamps for lighting[ CITATION Soa81 \l
1033 ] . In Ethiopia the castor plant found in Easter and Western Oromiya, Amahara,
Arba Minch, Harar, Gambella and Tigray with different varieties (i.e. in color red brown,
and white).

12
2.3. Factors affecting chemical composition of seeds

We have seen that seed chemical composition varies among different species and cultivars.
Additionally, chemical composition within seeds from the same genotype can vary significantly
depending on the maternal plant environment and/or the position of the seed within the plant or
inflorescence. The reason for this variation is that the microenvironment in which each seed
develops can affect the availability of resources and the growing period for the developing seed.
3.2.1. Position in the mother plant
The variation in seed chemical composition in seeds from the same plant is caused by
competition for nutrients among seeds. In general, seeds that grow closer to the source of
nutrients are favored in this competition. In oilseed rape, the proportion of seven fatty acids
varies depending on the position of the pod in the inflorescence.
2.3.2. Season effects
Seed chemical composition can also be affected by the season that the seed experiences during
maturation. For example, late season soybean seeds have higher protein concentration. In
sunflower, seed oil quality tends to improve gradually over the season, with seeds produced in
late summer having the best quality. In this case, it is believed that the differences in oil
composition are related to differences in temperature or photoperiod throughout the growing
season.
2.3.3. Temperature
There are several reports that link higher temperatures during seed growth with production of
smaller seeds. Although this temperature effect has been studied by measuring seed mass, it can
be concluded that smaller seeds have a lower accumulation of storage reserves, especially
carbohydrates. In most cases, the temperature effect on seed size is the consequence of changes
in seed growth rate and seed filling period. The effect of temperature on seed oil and protein
composition has also been studied. In the case of oils, temperature influences the quantity of
polyunsaturated linoleic acid compared to monounsaturated oleic acid. Oil extracted from seeds
that mature at cooler temperatures had higher linoleic: oleic acid ratios, which is considered
better quality oil. These effects have been observed in commercial and wild sunflower
genotypes. Similar changes in oil quality by temperature have also been reported in flax and
cocoa seeds. In general, seeds produced under higher temperatures have a higher protein

13
concentration in wheat and soybean. It may be that the higher protein concentration of seeds
produced at higher temperatures is a result of lower carbohydrate accumulation during
development.
2.3.4. Nutrients
Evidence about the effects of nutrient supply on seed size and composition comes from several
fertilization experiments. These experiments showed that the mineral nutrient supply to the
mother plant is one of the most important external factors affecting seed chemical composition.
In general, addition of a particular mineral nutrient to the mother plant causes increases in the
concentration of that nutrient to the seed. This effect has been reported in several species for both
macro- and micro-nutrients. For example, addition of nitrogen resulted in higher protein content
in wheat, rice, maize, and cottonseeds. Addition of phosphate resulted in higher phosphorous
concentration in pea, soybean, wheat, and common bean seeds. Additionally, increased presence
of trace elements in seeds after fertilization has been observed for manganese and boron in
soybean, copper in wheat, and zinc in soybean, cobalt in lupin, and cadmium and selenium in
lettuce seeds. With respect to the influence of mineral nutrient supply to the parent plant on
protein content, not only is the protein concentration affected, but also the amino acid
composition of these proteins. From several experiments, it has been shown that the balance of
nitrogen and Sulphur availability affects the relative content of some amino acids. For instance,
the portion of methionine and cysteine (S-containing amino acids) is lower in proteins from
seeds that grow under conditions of low Sulphur availability. In oil- rich seeds, such as soybean
and sunflower the increase in nitrogen availability resulted in more seed protein and less oil
content.
2.3.5. Water stress
Water stress causes an increase in seed protein concentration in winter wheat, perennial ryegrass,
maize, spring wheat, soybean, and common bean. In maize, plants subjected to water stress
during seed filling produced seeds with 33% higher protein concentration and 18% lower oil
concentration. In general, the magnitude of water stress effects depends on the timing that it
occurs during seed development[ CITATION Gup90 \l 1033 ].

14
2.4. Castor oil

The trade in castor oil as an item of commerce goes back to antiquity. The castor oil is obtained
from the extracting method or pressing the castor seed which known with botanical name
Ricinus Communis. This oil is inexpensive, environmentally friendly and a naturally occurring
resource. The oil that comes from castor is a viscous, pale yellow color, non-volatile, and non-
drying oil with a bland taste and sometimes used as a purgative. Furthermore, the oil has a slight
characteristic odor while the crude oil tastes slightly acrid with a nauseating after-taste. The oil is
one of the relative in the vegetable oil family, which has a good shelf life, and it does not turn
rancid unless the oil subjected to excessive heat. The largest exporter of castor oil is India and
the other major producers of castor oil are China and Brazil. The total world production of the
extracted castor oil is about 500000 tons and the productions of seeds are estimated at one
million tones. The standard physicochemical characteristics of castor oil were listed as follow.
These characteristics are moisture content, PH, specific gravity, viscosity, percentage of yield oil
and their values are; 5-7%, 6-7, 0.959, 332 Pc, 35-55 respectively. Also the standard
physicochemical characteristics of castor oil detergent were PH (7-8.5), foam ability (2.6 cm),
viscosity (120 pc) specific gravity (0.961)[ CITATION Swe1 \l 1033 ].
2.4.1. The castor oil Properties
Relative to other vegetable oils, castor oil has different physical and chemical properties, which
vary with the method of extraction the oil. The castor oil that obtain from the cold pressing has
low acid value with low iodine value and has slightly higher saponification value compared to
the solvent-extracted oil, and the oil is lighter in color. The chemistry of castor oil is focused on
its high content of ricin oleic acid and the other three points of function that exist in the castor
molecule. One of the molecule functions is the carboxyl group that can give a huge and wide
range of the esterification. Second, one is the single points of instauration, which can be altered
using the hydrogenation process or the epoxidation process or the vulcanization process. The last
one is the hydroxyl group in the castor oil can be acetylated or alkylated maybe can be remove
from the oil molecule by using the dehydration process to increase the instauration of the oil
compound to provide the semi-drying castor oil. By high-temperature pyrolysis and by caustic
fusion, the hydroxyl position of oil, which is so reactive the molecule, can be split at that point to
yield useful product with shorter chain length. Actually, the presence of the hydroxyl group on

15
the castor oil is adding the extra stability to the castor oil and preventing the formation of hydro
peroxides.
Table 1: Physical properties of castor oil
Physical properties Value
Viscosity (centistokes) 889.3
Density (g/ml) 0.959
Thermal conductivity(W/m°C) 4.727
Specific heat (kJ/kg/K) 0.089
Flash point (°C) 145
Pour point (°C) 2.7
Melting point (°C −2 to −5
Refractive index 1.480
FFA (%) 0.264
The unique structure of castor oil offers interesting properties, making it appropriate for various
industrial applications. Castor oil is known to consist of up to 90% ricinoleic, 4% linoleic, 3%
oleic, 1% stearic, and less than 1% linolenic fatty acids. Castor oil is valuable due to the high
content of ricinoleic acid (RA), which is used in a variety of applications in the chemical
industry. The hydroxyl functionality of RA makes the castor oil a natural polyol providing
oxidative stability to the oil, and a relatively high shelf life compared to other oils by preventing
peroxide formation. The presence of the hydroxyl group in RA and RA derivatives provides a
functional group location for performing a variety of chemical reactions including halogenations,
dehydration, alkoxylation, esterification, and sulfation. As a result, this unique functionality
allows the castor oil to be used in industrial applications such as paints, coatings, inks, and
lubricants.
2.4.2. Chemistry of castor oil
Plants oils are typically composed of triglyceride molecules (technically called esters)
composed of a 3- carbon alcohol (glycerol) plus three 18- carbon (or 16- carbon) fatty
acids. Unlike the saturated fatty acids of animal fats which are solid at room temperature,
plant fatty acids are typically unsaturated and liquid at room temperature, with one or
more double bonds between the carbon atoms (monounsaturated and polyunsaturated).
Relative to other vegetable oils, castor oil has different physical and chemical properties
which vary with the method of extraction the oil. The castor oil that obtain from the

16
cold pressing has low acid value with low iodine value and has slightly higher
saponification value compared to the solvent- extracted oil, and the oil is lighter in color.
CasChem supplies a variety of castor oil grades whose uses are dictated by acid value,
moisture level, color and purity. Castor oil also known as ricinus oil is a triglyceride of
fatty acids which occurs in the seed of the castor plant. The ricinoleic acid comprises
over 84% of the total fatty acid composition. Other fatty acids present were linoleic
(7.3%), oleic (5.5%), palmitic (1.3%), stearic (1.2%) and linolenic (0.5%). For the purpose
of this study free fatty acid, iodine value, acid value and saponification value matter were
reviewed.
2.4.2.1. Free fatty acid
High concentrations of free fatty acids are undesirable in crude oils because they result
in large losses of the neutral oil during refining. In crude fat, free fatty acids estimate the
amount of oil that will be lost during refining steps designed to remove fatty acids. High
levels of free fatty acids especially linolenic acids are undesirable in finished oils because
they can cause off favors and shorten the shelf life of oils. The quantity of free fatty acid
in oil is an indicator of its overall quality. They may be formed through hydrolysis or
in the advanced stages of oxidation. An excessive amount of free fatty acids lowers the smoke
point of oil and will cause „popping‟ of the oil during cooking. High quality oils are low
in free fatty acids.
2.4.2.2. Acid Value
Acid value is the number of milligrams of potassium hydroxide necessary to neutralize
the free acids in one gram of oil sample. The samples that contain virtually no free
acids other than fatty acids, the acid value may be directly converted by means of a
suitable factor to percent free fatty acids. Where vegetable oils are used as lubrication
products, the acid value can affect the properties of the lubrication oil, if larger quantities
reach the oil sump. [ CITATION Max \l 1033 ]
2.5. Raw materials used in detergent-making
2.5.1. Reason for selection of castor seed
Several feedstock’s from vegetable source such as vegetable oil, like olive oil, palm oil, coconut
oil and castor oil and Japtropha and castor seeds have been studied as an alternative to oil

17
candidate. Among these sources, castor seeds are a potentially promising feedstock since among
vegetable oils, castor oil is distinguished by its high content (over 90%) of ricin oleic acid. There
is no other vegetable oil contains so high a proportion of fatty hydroxyl acids and castor oil is the
most stable viscosity of any vegetable oil. With the world becoming more environment
conscious and with increasing replacement of synthetic products with naturally derived products,
castor oil based derivatives could find increasingly attractive markets worldwide .So because of
this it needs to be treated and environmentally friendly. In addition, by product of the extraction,
process can be serving as fertilizer but mainly we are decided to prepare liquid detergent from
the castor seed. The castor-oil plant is easy to grow and is resistant to drought, which makes it
an ideal crop for the extensive semi-arid regions globally. Even if the seed can be cultivated in
such away, the seed has no value directly. In most parts of Ethiopia now a day, it is assumed
useless plant. This opportunity gives us to obtain the seed cheaply. Some of the raw materials
used in detergent making are:
A. Fats and Oils
Fats and oils used to make detergent must come from animal or vegetable sources. Detergent can
be made by using only one kind of fat or oil, by blending animal and vegetable oil or blending
more than one vegetable oil. Animal fats are hard fats. A mixture of the two or more types of fats
or oils brings out the best qualities of both. Other oils that can be used are olive, castor seed,
cottonseed, maize, soybean, groundnut, safflower, sesame, linseed, etc.[ CITATION Roi01 \l
1033 ]
B. Castor oil
Castor oil is a vegetable oil obtained by extracting seeds of the Castor plant (Ricinus
communis). The common name "castor oil" probably comes from its use as a replacement for
castoreum, a perfume base made from the dried perinea glands of the beaver (castor in Latin).
Castor oil and its derivatives are used in the manufacturing of detergents, lubricants, hydraulic
and brake fluids, paints, dyes, coatings, inks, cold resistant plastics, waxes and polishes, nylon,
pharmaceuticals and perfumes.
Structure of the major component of castor oil

18
Figure 4: Components of castor oil
Castor oil is famous as a source of ricinoleic acid, a monounsaturated, 18-carbon fatty acid.
Among fatty acids, ricinoleic acid is unusual in that it has a hydroxyl functional group on the
12th carbon. This functional group causes ricinoleic acid (and castor oil) to be more polar than
most fats. The chemical reactivity of the alcohol group also allows chemical derivatization that is
not possible with most other seed oils. Because of its ricinoleic acid content, castor oil is a
valuable chemical in feedstock, commanding a higher price than other seed oils.
2.6. Uses of castor oil
Although the castor oil is not edible oil, it is more versatile than other vegetable oils as the castor
oil is widely used as a starting material for many industrial chemical products because of its
unique structure. The castor oil is one of those vegetable oils that have found usage in many
chemical industries. It is the raw material for many chemical products and as the additives in
drugs. The usage of castor oil can be divided into industrial, soaps and detergent, food, medicine
and also biodiesel and biofuel industries[ CITATION Sou80 \l 1033 ].

19
2.6.1. Industrial castor oil

As the castor oil is non-edible oil, it is very useful to replace the edible that used in industries.
The castor oil has numerous uses in transportation, cosmetics and pharmaceutical and
manufacturing industries. For example, the castor oil is used as the adhesives, brake and
hydraulic fluids, caulks, dyes, electrical liquid dielectrics, lubricating greases, machining
oils, paint, pigments, polyurethane adhesives, refrigeration lubricant, washing powder, sealants,
textiles, waxes, leather treatment, and lacquers. The vegetable oils are very interesting due to
their good lubricity, biodegradability as they are attractive alternatives for petroleum-derived
lubricants, but the vegetable oils has the weakness as oxidative stability, and low temperature
performance limits their widespread uses. Not like the other natural vegetable oils, the castor oil
has better low temperature viscosity properties and also high temperature lubrication than
most of vegetable oils. So, the castor oil is very useful as the lubricant in jet, diesel and race
car engines. Castor oil also used in the industries as the raw material for the production of a
number of chemicals such as notably sebacic acid which is used in plasticizer and manufacture
of dioctyl sebacate (a jet lubricant), undecylenic acid (perfume formulation) and also nylon-11.
2.6.2. Castor oil in food
Castor oil is used in the food industry as the food additives, flavorings, candy like chocolate, as a
mold inhibitor and in packaging. The castor oil is known as the non-edible oil, which means the
castor oil is not save to eat. By using the cold press process, the castor oil that obtain is safe to
eat as the cold press oil contain low acidic and iodine value. The polyoxyethylated castor oil is
also used in the foodstuff industries.
2.3.3. Medicinal use of castor oil
The castor oil is categorized as ‘generally recognized as safe as effective’ (GRASE) by
the United States Food and Drug Administration (FDA), for over the counter use as a laxative,
with its major site of action the small intestine. However, although it may be used for
constipation, it is not a preferred treatment. Undecylenic acid, a castor oil derivative, is also FDA
approved for over the counter use on skin disorders or skin problems. Nowadays, the modern
drugs are rarely given in a pure chemical state, so, the most active content of the medicine
combined with the additives. The castor oil or the castor oil derivative is added to many modern
drugs..

20
2.3.4. Castor oil as biodiesel and biofuel

The extracted castor oil which is called the crude castor oil, is refined and the biofuel and
biodiesel is produced through the process of esterification and transesterification. The
transesterification process is hugely eliminates the tendency of the castor oils and fats to undergo
the polymerization and auto-oxidation process. This process also reduces the viscosity of the
castor oil so that the castor oil viscosity about the same as the petroleum diesel viscosity.
2.6.5. Castor meal
The castor meal or the castor cake waste is the excellent bio-fertilizer as it contains optimal
composition of nutrients especially N-P-K. The toxic called ricin in the castor meal makes the
castor meal unsuitable for animal feed. This situation makes the price for castor meal is
lower compared to the prices of soy meal and rapeseed meal as both type of the meal
can be used as animal feed. The high fertilizer value in the castor meal with the lower
price in the market makes the demand for the castor meal increase from the organic fertilizer
market[ CITATION Dun12 \l 1033 ].
2.7. Chemistry of detergents/soaps
Detergents use a synthetic surfactant in place of the metal fatty acid salts used in soaps. They are
made in both powder and liquid form. Most detergents have soap in their mixture of ingredients,
but it usually functions more as a foam depressant than as a surfactant. Detergents are the
product of the reaction between a fat/oil and sodium hydroxide:
Fat/oil +3NaOH → glycerin + 3 soap/detergents

21
Fi
gure 5: The chemistry of detergent production
2.7.1. Classification of synthetic detergents
Synthetic detergents are classified by the aggregate state (consistency), the composition and
method of application.
1. The aggregate state (consistency)
The worldwide production of powdered agents exceeds 80% of the total release of synthetic
detergents. Those are the most concentrated agents. They are suitable for administration to the
supporting components and for packaging. By the composition they are usually a mixture of
anion - active (for washing and soaking of articles of cotton and linen), nonionic (for synthetic
fabrics) surfactants and auxiliary components. However, powdered synthetic detergents are
often potent allergens, and traditional surfactants used in them, have the ability to accumulate.
2. Solid (lump)
Cleaners work well for washing in conditions of scarce water resources, recreation, travel,
tourism and everyday life, as they allow an efficient processing of washed items. Washing by
hand a small amount of product in a small volume of cleaning solution is still relevant, despite
the rapid increase in production of washing machines and improving their designs. For hand
washing exceptionally effective are synthetic detergents in a lump form. Solid detergents can be
released as tablets. Such agents are convenient and easily dosed; there is no allergic reaction to
them.
3. Liquid detergents
Its production uses less energy and it is simpler, because they do not require drying. Liquid
detergents do not cause allergic reactions, and more economical in dosing. The fact that their
production is not sufficiently developed; can be explained only by the lack of an effective

22
cleaning action for all kinds of fabrics, because they do not contain chemical bleaches, alkali
metal salts and enzymes. Therefore, exhibit detergency only in soft water and mainly for wool
and silk.
4. Paste-like
Compositions contain up to 40% of water. Their composition can include almost all
supplements, except unstable chemical bleaches.
5. Composition:
There are synthetic detergents without peroxide compounds and biological additives, with
peroxide compounds and biological additives, for wool, fine fabrics and baby clothes, for
colored fabrics (the name of such agents include the designation "Color"), and their use
requires special temperature conditions.
6. Purpose
There are five groups of detergents. Agents for the washing of articles made of cotton and linen
fabrics contain up to 25% of surfactants, up to 20% of alkaline electrolytes, up to 35%
of polyphosphates, alkylolamides, carboxymethyl cellulose, and sometimes bleach. These
agents should not be used for washing wool products as a high alkalinity (pH 10- 11.5)
destroys the protein substance keratin, from which fibers of wool fabrics are composed.
Detergents for the washing of articles of wool, silk and synthetic fabrics do not contain
sodium perborate and create a softer environment (pH of 8.0 - 9.5).
7. Universality of synthetic detergents
The presence of alkaline salts in such compositions (pH - 9- 10) has no negative effect
on products from the protein and synthetic fibers, as at 30 - 40°C the activity of the
alkaline substance is low. Products made of cotton and linen fabrics are washed using
universal detergents at a higher temperature (60- 80°C). Approximately 45% of all synthetic
detergents for the household use are universal detergents, the same amount is represented
by agents for cotton and linen fabrics, and only 10% of output is accounted for by
detergents, used for the washing of articles from wool, silk and chemical fibers.
8. The method of application
The following detergents are distinguished: with high (non- specified) foaming (for hand
washing and washing machines of the agitator type) and with reduced foaming (for

23
washing in automatic and semi - automatic washing machines). Among agents, enhancing the
action of detergents, we note bleaches, conditioners; anti - static agents. 90% of the total
release of bleaches is accounted for chlorinated bleaches due to their low cost and
versatility. Modern bleaches have lower concentrations of active chlorine, may be used at
lower temperatures and with a short time of bleaching.
9. Softeners (conditioners):
Liquids represent making the fabric soft and velvety. The most in demand in the market are
multi - functional means, which in addition to softening and providing a pleasant smell,
contribute to improving the sliding of an iron, reduce creasing when washing, facilitate the
smoothing of fabrics with iron, contribute to the color retention, protect against stains,
help keep the shape of the product, and increase the absorbability of fabrics.
10. Antistatic agents:
These are used to reduce the static- charge accumulation on fabrics of synthetic fibers.
They contain surfactants, which form a thin film on the fabric, retaining water, thus
improving the electrical conductivity and decreasing the static characteristic of fibres. The
stiffeners make the fabric denser; provide hardness, attractive appearance, and a better
ability to launder[ CITATION Cla \l 1033 ].
Figure 6.Below shows the general classification synthetic detergent.

24
Synthetic detergent
By aggregate state By composition By purpose By method of

application
Solid Without peroxide Universal For hand

cpds & biological washing and
additives machines of
the
Powdered For cotton and agitator type
With peroxide linen fabrics
Compounds and and
biological their products For automatic
Paste-like
additives washing
machines
For soaking
Liquid For colored clothes and
fabrics household needs
Flavoured For special

purposes
Figure 6: Classification of synthetic detergent (source:''InfoMine''based on the review of the

technical literature).
2.7.2. Use of additives in detergent industry
Synthetic detergents are formulated from six groups of substances:
2.7.7.1. Surfactants: Are organic chemicals, obtained through complex chemical reactions, from
oil or fat raw materials. They have wetting, emulsifying and dispersing properties, enabling the

25
removal of dirt ("soil") from fabrics and keeping the soil suspended in the washing water.
Detergents usually contain several types of surfactants such as soaps (anionic), alkyl benzene
sulphonate (anionic), ethoxylated fatty alcohols (non-ionic). The mixture is carefully balanced to
control foaming and provide the appropriate washing efficiency (for the required washing
temperatures, types of fabric and water hardness); at a price, the consumer is willing to pay.
2.7.2.2. Builders: - Builders are key detergent components, which remove the calcium and
magnesium ions presents in hard water and in soils, thus lowering the concentration of
surfactants necessary to perform the detersive action. Sodium silicate and sodium sulphate are
alkali builders commonly used in detergent making.
2.7.2.3. Bleaching agents: - Bleaching agents eliminate stubborn stains and ensure hygiene by
killing bacteria through a chemical oxidation performed by a per-oxygen generator, usually
sodium perborate. The latter is usually active only above 60°C and so, for lower washing
temperatures, an activator is added: e.g. tetra acetyl ethylene demine (TAED).
2.7.2.4. Enzymes: - In particular, proteases, lipases and amylases. Catalyze the degradation of
some stains and thus facilitate their elimination. The main components of synthetic detergents
are represented by anionic (about 70% of the total use of surfactants), cationic, amphoteric or
ampholytic (developed recently, so far very expensive and not widely used) and nonionic
surfactants. Modern detergents use surfactants, which have a degree of biodegradation of at
least 90%. The number of surfactants of various types in synthetic detergents reaches 35% by
weight.
Table 2: The components of synthetic detergents, in %
Material For cotton For synthetic For wool and For soaking and
with fabrics silk fabrics pre-washing
whitening
Surfactant 20-18 25 30-35 15

Sodium tripolyphosphate 35-40 50 5 40
Sodium perborate 10-20 - - -

Sodium silicate 5-7 5 1-5 -
Soda 15-20 - 15-20 -

26
Sodium carbonate 10 10 - -
Sodium sulfate up to 10 up to 8 up to 8 upto 25
Perfumes 0.1-0.3 0.1-0.3 0.1-0.3 0.1-0.3
Water Up to 8 Up to 8 Up to 5 Up to 8
Source: www.InfoMine
Virtually all powder detergents contain mineral salts, of which phosphates are most widely used:
sodium tripolyphosphate, trisodium phosphate, tetra potassium pyrophosphate, and others,
capable of forming complexes with polyvalent cations. Liquid formulations preferably use
trisodium phosphate, chlorinated sodium tripolyphosphate and trisodium phosphate, in enzyme-
containing detergents small amounts of Ca or Mg salts are used.
The use of effective substitutes for phosphates in synthetic detergents is very important in
connection with the pollution of water bodies with nutrients. The number of complexing agents
in synthetic detergents reaches 40% by weight. Synthetic detergents by 15-20% consist of soda
ash, which is a water softener, and used for the grease removal and as a cleaning agent.
Proportions of the remaining components do not exceed 10% by weight. Thus, the basic
components of synthetic detergents are surfactants, water softeners, chemical and optical
brighteners, foam stabilizers and perfumes.
2.8. Process description
2.8.1. Oil production process description
The process of extracting castor oil from castor beans is a very simple separation process by
means of a mechanical oil-seed expeller, but before the castor beans go through the expeller, the
beans pass through several conditioning processes first. Mainly the oil production process from
oil seeds such as castor seed passes through three stages namely seed preparation, oil extraction
and refining.
2.8.2. Seed preparation (Pre-treatment of castor seeds)
Upon receipt at the processing plant, oleaginous materials require varying degrees of seed
preparation prior to the oil extraction process. Seed cleaning, seed drying, size reduction, hull
removal, heating/drying, flaking, and extruding are all potential unit processes involved in seed
preparation.

27
2.8.2.1. Deshelling
The harvested castor beans will be de-hulled to remove the seeds from the capsules. Deshelling
machine will be used for the process. It operates on the principle of rolling or rubbing the
capsules in such a manner that the seeds are freed from the hulls. This is done by suction with
screening to complete the separation of the seeds from the hulls. The capsules are fed through a
hole in the center of fixed disk and passed onward between two rubber surfaces – one stationary
and the other revolving – that roll of or rub the hulls. The seeds and hulls are conveyed through
an air separator that separates the hulls and dust from the seeds, leaving the latter. Here, around
25% of the total mass of the beans is deshelled.
2.8.2.2. Seed cleaning
Good quality oleaginous materials entering a processing plant will contain up to 2% foreign
material. Foreign material is generally removed twice, once prior to storage and again as the
oleaginous material enters the continuous process. The foreign material to be removed may
consist of a combination of weed seeds, sticks, pods, dust, soil, sand, stones, and tramp metal.
Tramp metal is generally the first foreign material to be removed to protect all downstream
equipment from damage. Tramp metal is separated using magnetic force to pull the iron-based
materials from the oleaginous materials. Magnetic devices commonly used are plate magnets,
drum magnets, and magnets suspended over a conveyor. Plate magnets allow the oleaginous
materials to pour across their surface and rely on the metallic material sticking to the magnetic
surface. Plate magnets are relatively inexpensive but require stopping the process occasionally to
clean the magnetic surface and suffer from high wear rates[ CITATION Riv43 \l 1033 ].
2.8.2.3. Seed drying
The moisture of oleaginous materials often needs to be reduced to minimize degradation in
storage and to enhance the effectiveness of downstream unit operations. For example, soybeans
are often received at 13% moisture and need to be dried to 10% moisture to facilitate hull
removal. Oleaginous materials are generally dried in large, vertical, open-flame grain dryers.
These dryers have multiple columns of oleaginous materials that slowly migrate downward in a
plugged flow. The oleaginous materials are dried in the upper portion of the column and cooled
in the lower portion of the column. Cool air is pulled laterally through the lower portion of the
column to cool the oleaginous materials and warm the air. The warm air is further heated with

28
open flame and pushed laterally through the upper portion of the column to heat and dry the
oleaginous materials. Many regional manufactures of cereal grain dryers are used to supply this
equipment[ CITATION Akp68 \l 1033 ].
2.8.2.4. Size reduction
Most oleaginous materials require size reduction prior to further processing or expeller.
Exceptions are, rapeseed, and corn germ, which are already sufficiently small. For most
oleaginous materials, they need to be broken into pieces 2 to 3 mm across to enhance the
downstream unit processes of hull removal, heating/drying, and flaking. Soybeans, groundnut
(peanuts), and copra are typically reduced in size using an apparatus known as a cracking mill.
These mills generally consist of two sets of cylindrical corrugated rolls in series. The rolls
operate at differential speeds to assist in breaking the oleaginous materials apart. The first set of
rolls often has a coarser corrugation, and the second set of rolls has a finer corrugation to reduce
the particle size in two steps. Modern cracking mills can process up to 1000 tons per day of
oleaginous materials each[ CITATION Lew \l 1033 ].
2.8.3. Extraction of castor oil
Castor oil seed contains about 30%–50% oil (m/m). Castor oil can be extracted from castor beans
by mechanical pressing, solvent extraction, or a combination of pressing and extraction. After
harvesting, the seeds are allowed to dry so that the seed hull will split open, releasing the seed
inside. The extraction process begins with the removal of the hull from the seeds. This can be
accomplished mechanically with the aid of a castor bean dehuller or manually with the hands.
When economically feasible, the use of a machine to aid in the dehulling process is more
preferable.
After the hull is removed from the seed, the seeds are then cleaned to remove any foreign
materials such as sticks, stems, leaves, sand, or dirt. These materials can usually be removed
using a series of revolving screens or reels. Magnets used above the conveyer belts can remove
iron. The seeds can then be heated to harden the interior of the seeds for extraction. In this
process, the seeds are warmed in a steam-jacketed press to remove moisture, and this hardening
process will aid in extraction. The cooked seeds are then dried before the extraction process
begins. A continuous screw or hydraulic press is used to crush the castor oil seeds to facilitate
removal of the oil. The first part of this extraction phase is called prepressing. Prepressing

29
usually involves using a screw press called an oil expeller. The oil expeller is a high-pressure
continuous screw press to extract the oil[ CITATION Jan1 \l 1033 ].
Although this process can be done at a low temperature, mechanical pressing leads to only about
45% recovery of oil from the castor beans. Higher temperatures can increase the efficiency of the
extraction. Yields of up to 80% of the available oil can be obtained by using high-temperature
hydraulic pressing in the extraction process. The extraction temperature can be controlled by
circulating cold water through a pressing machine responsible for cold pressing of the seeds.
Cold-pressed castor oil has lower acid and iodine content and is lighter in color than solvent-
extracted castor oil.
Following extraction, the oil is collected and filtered and the filtered material is combined back
with new, fresh seeds for repeat extraction. In this way, the bulk-filtered material keeps getting
collected and runs through several extraction cycles combining with new bulk material as the
process are repeated. This material is finally ejected from the press and is known as castor cake.
The castor cake from the press contains up to approximately 10% castor oil content. After
crushing and extracting oil from the bulk of the castor oil seeds, further extraction of oil from the
leftover castor cake material can be accomplished by crushing the castor cake and by using
solvent extraction methods. A Soxhlet or commercial solvent extractor is used for extracting oil
from the castor cake. Use of organic solvents such as hexane, heptanes, or a petroleum ether as a
solvent in the extraction process then results in removal of most of the residual oil still
inaccessible in the remaining seed bulk[ CITATION Mag80 \l 1033 ].

30
Figure 7: Soxhlet extractor

2.8.3.1. Solvent extraction
The solvent used in the majority of oilseed solvent extraction plants around the world is
commercial hexane, a mixture of hydrocarbons generally boiling in the temperature range of 65–
69°C. Most commercial hexane available contains approximately 65% normal hexane, with the
remaining 35% of the composition consisting of cyclopentane and hexane isomers. As hexane
vapor is three times heavier than air and slight amounts of hexane mixed in air can create an
explosive mixture, special care must be taken in constructing and operating solvent extraction
plants. Because of special safety considerations, the solvent extraction process is constructed in a
separate facility from the seed preparation process. The solvent extraction process consists of
five closely interrelated unit processes: solvent extraction, meal desolventizing, meal drying and
cooling, miscella distillation, and solvent recovery[ CITATION Veg1 \l 1033 ].
2.8.3.2. Settling or desolventizing of miscilia
The expelled oil contains residues, around 0.05 - 0.1%. To remove these particles, the expelled
oil must pass through a settling tank to separate the solid particles from the oil. The particulate
matters are then sent to the autoclave for steam sterilization. In the other case, if the oil is
extracted with solvent the solvent is removed by evaporation.
2.8.3.3. Castor oil filtration/purification
Following extraction of the oil with a press, there remain impurities in the extracted oil. To aid in
the removal of the remaining impurities, filtration systems are usually employed. The filtration
systems are able to remove large and small size particulates, any dissolved gases, acids, and even

31
water from the oil. The filtration system equipment normally used for this task is the filter press.
Crude castor seed oil is pale yellow or straw colored but can be made colorless or near colorless
following refining and bleaching. The crude oil also has a distinct odor but can also be
deodorized during the refining process[ CITATION Car76 \l 1033 ].
2.8.4. Castor oil refining
After filtration, the crude or unrefined oil is sent to a refinery for processing. During the refining
process, impurities such as colloidal matter, phospholipids, excess free fatty acids (FFAs), and
coloring agents are removed from the oil. Removal of these impurities facilitates the oil not to
deteriorate during extended storage. The refining process steps include degumming,
neutralization, bleaching, and deodorization. The oil is degummed by adding hot water to the oil,
allowing the mixture to sit, and finally the aqueous layer is removed. This process can be
repeated. Following the degumming step, a strong base such as sodium hydroxide is added for
neutralization. The base is then removed using hot water and separation between the aqueous
layer and oil allows for removal of the water layer. Neutralization is followed by bleaching to
remove color, remaining phospholipids, and any leftover oxidation products. The castor oil is
then deodorized to remove any odor from the oil. The refined castor oil typically has a long shelf
life about 12 months as long as it is not subjected to excessive heat. The steps involved in crude
castor oil refining are further discussed in the next section[ CITATION Cas \l 1033 ].
Unrefined castor oil leads to rapid degradation due to the presence of impurities as mentioned in
“Castor oil refining” section, making it less suitable for most applications. Hence, a refining
process has to be conducted prior to the derivatization of the oil. The order of the steps
performed in the refining process, which includes degumming, neutralization, bleaching,
deodorization, and sometimes winterization, should be taken into consideration for efficient oil
refining (Fig. 6) and are described extensively and specifically in a castor oil industry setting in
“Degumming”, “Neutralization”, “Bleaching”, “Deodorization”, and “Winterization” sections.

32
Figure 8: Sub-sections of oil refining treatment

2.8.4.1. Degumming
The first step in the castor oil refining process, called degumming, is used to reduce the
phosphatides and the metal content of the crude oil. The phosphatides present in crude castor oil
can be found in the form of lecithin, cephalin, and phosphatidic acids. These phosphatides can be
classified into two different types: hydratable and nonhydratable, and accordingly, a suitable
degumming procedure (water degumming, acid degumming, and enzymatic degumming) has to
be performed for efficient removal of these phosphatides. In general, crude vegetable oil contains
about 10% of nonhydratable phosphatides. However, the amount may vary significantly
depending on various factors such as the type of seed, quality of seed, and conditions applied
during the milling operation. While hydratable phosphatides can be removed in most part by
water degumming, nonhydratable phosphatides can only be removed by means of acid or
enzymatic degumming procedures[ CITATION Dij10 \l 1033 ].

33
2.8.4.2. Water degumming

Water degumming is a relatively simple, inexpensive process to remove as much gums as
possible in the initial stages of oil refining. In this process, the crude oil is heated to
approximately 60°C–70°C. Water is then added to the crude oil and the resulting mixture is
stirred well and allowed to stand for 30 minutes during which time, the phosphatides present in
the crude oil become hydrated and thereby become oil-insoluble. The hydrated phosphatides can
be removed either by decantation or by centrifugation. Water degumming allows the removal of
even small amounts of non-hydra table phosphatides along with the hydratable phosphatides.
The extracted gums can be processed into lecithin for food, feed, or technical purposes.
2.8.4.3. Neutralization
Good quality castor seeds stored under controlled conditions produce only low FFA content of
approximately 0.3%. Occasionally, oil seeds that are old or stored for more than 12 months with
high moisture content produce a high FFA content of about 5% level. This excess FFA present in
the castor oil does not provide the same functionality as the neutral oil and has the ability to alter
its reactivity with different substances. Hence, it is highly essential to remove the high FFA
content to produce a high-quality castor oil. This process of removal of FFA from the degummed
oil is referred to as neutralization.
In general, the refining process can be divided into two methods: chemical and physical refining.
Physical refining is usually done by maintaining a high temperature above 200°C with a low
vacuum pressure. Under these processing conditions, the low boiling point FFA is vacuum
distilled from the high boiling point triglycerides. However, physical refining is not
recommended in the case of castor oil, due to its sensitivity to heat as it normally starts
disintegrating above 150°C, which can result in the hydrolysis of the hydroxyl groups. On the
other hand, chemical refining is based on the solubility principle of triglycerides and soaps of
fatty acids. FFAs (acid) react with alkali (strong base) to form soaps of fatty acids. The formed
soap is generally insoluble in the oil and, hence, can be easily separated from the oil based on the
difference in specific gravity between the soap and triglycerides. The specific gravity of soap is
higher than that of triglycerides and therefore tends to settle at the bottom of the reactor. Most of
the modern refineries use high-speed centrifuges to separate soap and oil mixture.

34
Alkali neutralization or chemical refining reduces the content of the following components:
FFAs, oxidation products of FFAs, residual proteins, phosphatides, carbohydrates, traces of
metals, and a part of the pigments. The degummed castor oil is first treated with an alkali
solution (2% caustic soda) between 85°C and 95°C with constant stirring for approximately 45–
60 minutes. At this stage, the alkali reacts with FFAs and converts them into soap stock. The
obtained soap has a higher specific gravity than the neutral oil and tends to settle at the bottom.
The oil can be separated from the soap either by gravity separation or by using commercial
centrifuges. Small-scale refiners use gravity separation route, whereas large capacity plants
utilizes commercial vertical stack bowl centrifuges. The separated oil is then washed with hot
water to remove soap, alkali solution, and other impurities. Typically, batch neutralization of
castor oil requires about four to six hot water washes to bring down the soap level to below 100
ppm. The oil, thus obtained, is vacuum dried and is transferred to the next process, bleaching.
Castor oil neutralization is a high loss-refining step. This loss is presumably due to the small
difference in specific gravity of the generated soap and neutral viscous castor oil.
2.8.4.4. Bleaching
Castor oil is used for many applications where the final product’s appearance is extremely
important. For instance, cosmetics formulations, lubricant additives, and biomaterial
manufacturing all demand the final product’s color to be within a certain limit. Although castor
oil obtained after degumming and neutralization processes yield a clear liquid by appearance, it
may still contain colored bodies, natural pigments, and antioxidants (tocopherols and
tocotrienols), which were extracted along with the crude oil from the castor beans. The color
pigments are extremely small ranging from 10 to 50 nm, which cannot be removed from the oil
by any unit operation. However, an adsorption process called “bleaching” can be used to remove
such colored pigments and remaining phospholipids, using activated earths under moderate
vacuum conditions between 50 and 100 mmHg. The reduction in the oil color can be measured
using an analytical instrument, called a tintometer. Activated earths are clay ores that contain
minerals, namely, bentonite and montmorillonite. These types of clay are generally found on
every continent generated through unique geographical movements millions of years ago. The
efficiency of bleaching earth, also called the bleach ability, depends on the ability to adsorb color
pigments and other impurities on its surface. Normally, unprocessed clay has lower bleach

35
ability than acid-activated or processed clays. The unprocessed clays when activated by
concentrated acid followed by washing and drying acquire more adsorptive power to adsorb
color pigments from the oil[ CITATION Lis091 \l 1033 ].
Bleaching of castor oil can be done under vacuum at around 100°C while constantly stirring the
oil with an appropriate amount of activated earths and carbon. The bleaching process requires
around 2% bleaching earth and carbon to produce desirable light colored oil. Under these
processing conditions, colored bodies, soap, and phosphatides adsorb onto the activated earth
and carbon. The activated earth and carbon are removed by using a commercial filter. The spent
earth-carbon, thus obtained, retains around 20%–25% oil content. Bleaching castor oil containing
higher phosphate and soap content often leads to high retention of oil due to the large amount of
activated earth used and thus causes filtration issues[ CITATION Lis09 \l 1033 ].
2.8.4.4. Deodorization
Deodorization is simply a vacuum steam distillation process that removes the relatively volatile
components that give rise to undesirable flavors, colors, and odors in fats and oils. Unlike other
vegetable oils, castor oil requires limited or no deodorization, as it is a non-edible oil where
slight pungent odor is not an issue for most of its applications, with the only exception being
pharmaceutical grade castor oil. Deodorization is usually done under high vacuum and at high
temperature above 250°C to remove undesirable odors caused by ketones, aldehydes, sterols,
triterpene alcohols, and short-chain fatty acids. Pharmaceutical grade castor oil is deodorized at
low temperatures, approximately 150°C–170°C under high vacuum for 8–10 hours to avoid
hydrolysis of hydroxyl group of RA.
2.8.4.5. Winterization
The majority of vegetable oils contain high concentrations of waxes, fatty acids, and lipids.
Hence, it is subjected to the process of winterization before its final use. Winterization of oil is a
process, whereby waxes are crystallized and removed by a filtering process to avoid clouding of
the liquid fraction at cooler temperatures. Kieselguhr is the generally used filter aid and the filter
cake obtained at the end can be recycled to a feed ingredient. In certain cases, a similar process
called “dew axing” can also be utilized as a means to clarify oil when the amount of cloudiness
persists[ CITATION Dij11 \l 1033 ].

36
3. Materials and Chemicals

3.1. Raw materials
 Castor seed: used as raw material for the production of detergent
 Water: used to dilute the ingredients and act as the reaction media
3.2. Materials
 Test tubes:-used to measure the liquid ingredients
 soxhlet: used to extract the castor oil from castor bean
 Beakers:-used to mix the ingredients
 Stand:-used to carry the stirrer motor
 Indicator:-used to identify the pH media of the product weather it is acidic or basic.
 Mixer: - used to mix the ingredients and reduced the amount of unconverted ingredient by
producing perfect mixing.
 Thermometer: -used to measure to the temperature.
 Ball viscometer:-used to measure the viscosity of the product
 Analytical balance:- used to measure the required amount of ingredient that used to produce
the product
 PH meter: used to measure the acidity of the detergent.
 Oven: used to drying the castor seed
 Plate: washing and sorting of the raw materials
 Thimble: used for sample handling
 Beaker: Measurement and handling of chemicals sample
 Simple distillation: used to separate hexane from castor oil
 Measuring cylinder: volume measurement
 Spatula: take up the sample for weight and removal of cake
 Flasks: To handle product and solvent
 Mortar :used for size reduction of castor seed
 Heater: to supply heat
3.3. Chemicals
 Sodium silicate: used to adjust the viscosity of the product, to adjust the pH of the product
because it is strong basic chemical, and used to increase the brightness of the product.
37
 Sodium hydro oxide: is also strong base but the main important of these chemical is to
neutralize the fatty acid.
 Sodium chloride: is used to increase the brightness of the product and change the product to
semi solid.
 Sulphuric acid: used to produce the detergent by lowering the PH
 Perfume: used to give a good odor to the product
 Colorant: used to attract the customer need
 Hydrogen per oxide: used as bleaching agent
 Hexane: used as solvent in the oil extraction.
 Phenolphthalein: used for acidity test
3.4. Methodology
The castor seeds (or beans) are harvested from the local area. The seeds are collected when ripe
as the capsules dry, they open and discharge the seeds. The seeds are then cleaned, decorticated,
cooked and dried prior to extraction. Cooking is done in order to coagulate protein, which is
necessary to permit efficient extraction, and to free the oil for efficient pressing. It is done at
80°C, under airtight conditions. After cooking, the material is dried at 100°C, to reach a moisture
content of approximately 5-7percent.

38
Figure 9: Process flow diagram of liquid detergent production

3.4.1. Pre-treatment of castor seeds
The pre-treatment involved the preliminary preparations of the seeds in the following:
A. Shelling: this involves the removal of the shells to obtain the seeds. It will do manually.

39
Figure 10: Shelling

B. Clearing: this involves the removal of foreign matter introduced during the sun drying and
any unshelled seed.
C. Drying: the moisture content of the seed will reduce using the electric oven. The oven may
operate at 80℃ for about 5 hours.
D. Crushing: Mortar and pestle are used to reduce the sizes of the dry seeds to increase the
interfacial area between the solvent and the seeds. This helps to weaken the cell walls to release
castor fat for extraction.
3.4.2. Extraction of castor oil
The soxhlet extraction is normally used when the desired product or compound has a
limited solubility in a solvent, and the impurity is insoluble in that solvent. The simple
filtration can be used to separate the compound from the insoluble substance if the desired
compound has a significant solubility in a solvent. The material that containing some of the
desired product will be placed inside the thimble that made from the thick filter paper, which is
placed, into the main chamber of the soxhlet extractor. Then, the soxhlet extractor is placed onto
a flask which containing the extraction solvent and equipped with a condenser. During the
extraction process, the flask that contains the solvent is heated to reflux. The solvent will
vaporize up to distillation arm, and then flood into the chamber housing the thimble of
the material. The used of condenser is to make sure that the solvent vapor that already cools
drips back down into the chamber housing the material. The chamber slowly fills with
warm condensate solvent. Some of the desired compounds will the dissolve in the solvent. As
the extractor is almost full, the chamber will automatically emptied by a siphon side arm, with
the solvent running back down to the distillation flask and the cycle will be allowed to repeat
many times.

40
3.5. Experiment
Experiments were conducted in a laboratory-scale setup developed at Debre Berhan University-
Department of Chemical engineering laboratories. To produce detergent we follow two
experiments. The first experiment is extraction of castor oil from castor seed and the second is
saponification of castor oil to produce liquid detergent.
3.5.1. Experiment one: extraction of castor oil
Procedure:
300ml of n-hexane was poured into the round bottom flask. 150g of castor seed is placed in the
thimble and inserted in the center of the soxhlet extractor. The extractor will heat at 60℃when
the solvent is boiling; the vapor rises through the vertical tube into the condenser at the top. The
liquid condensate drips into the filter paper thimble in the center, which contains the solid sample
to be extracted. The extract sips through the pores of the thimble and fills the siphon tube where
it flows back down into the round bottom flask. This will allowed for 5hours and above to extract
one sample, after which the sample will remove from the tube, dried in the oven, cooled in
the desiccators and weighed to determine the amount of oil extracted.
The experiment will repeat by placing different amount of the sample into the thimble again, and
after every 5hours, the samples are withdrawn for drying and weighing. The miscella (extracted
oil mixed with solvent) was dried in the oven dryer to reduce the moisture content of the castor
oil at the end of the extraction and to recover the solvent from the castor oil we used simple
distillation. The solvent free oil will then refined for further use.

41
a. Extraction b.distilation
Figure 11: Extraction of castor oil
3.5.2. Refining of castor oil
The refining will need to remove gum from the extracted oil. Boiling water will add to the oil
and the mixture stirred for 2minutes and allowed to stand in the separating funnel. The aqueous
layer is then removed. The procedure will repeated to ensure removal of most gums. The
degummed oil will collected and stored for use.

42
Figure 12: Refining process of castor oil

3.5.3. Production of detergent
Sodium hydroxide solution would prepared by weighing 40g of NaOH pellets into a beaker
containing 200ml of water and shaking vigorously. The electric hot plate would switch on; 30ml
of castor oil in a stainless steel plate is placed on it and heated at 35℃ for about 120 minutes.
Caustic soda will add and the mixture stirred with a glass rod. 18M sulphuric acid will then add
with constant stirring, and the reaction allowed to completion after which hydrogen peroxide
(Bleaching agent) is introduced into the reaction mixture. Finally, perfume was added and the
system would allow cool. The liquid detergent formed was subjected to foam ability test to
ensure the effectiveness of the process. The same steps are followed, but this time castor oil
will use as the base material. The resulting liquid detergent formed is again collected and
tested as above.

43
a. castor oil b. detergent

Figure 13: Liquid detergent
3.5.4. Experiment two: Detergent production (Saponification)
We perform three experiments to determine the effects of oil to sodium hydroxide ratio,
residence time and temperature on the production of liquid detergent.
Experiment 2.1: Effect of concentration on saponification process
Procedure:
1. During the implementation of this experiment we should protect our hands with gloves and
with eyeglasses.
2. Obtain three glass blenders or mixers and set the blenders properly
3. Sodium hydroxide solution will prepare by weighing 30g, 40g, and 50g of NaOH Pellets into a
beaker containing 200ml of water and shaking vigorously.
4. Heat 90 ml of castor oil to 35°c and add 30 ml of the hot castor oil to each mixture, for
blender1, 2 and 3 respectively

44
5. Heat the solution and let it boil during 1 hr with perfectly mixing at 35℃. (You should be
careful because the solution is very alkaline. If during the ebullition there are some drops outside
the beaker, they should be immediately clean with a wet cloth).
6. Pour the mixture into a wide-mouthed glass container. Allow the mixture to sit. The mixture
should separate into two layers detergent and glycerin.
7. Allow the mixture to sit for several hours. Dispose of the glycerin properly and add 20 ml of
sodium silicate with 10ml of hydrogen peroxide until the desired PH is satisfied. Add perfumes.
Experiment 2.2: To determine effect of residence time and temperature
Procedures:
1. Obtain three glass blenders or mixers and set the blenders properly.
2. Add 200 ml water to each glass blenders or mixers.
3. Add 40 gram of sodium hydroxide to each glasses. Try to weigh the sodium hydroxide
quickly, as it absorbs moisture from the air.
4. Allow the sodium hydroxide to completely dissolve in the water. The process should take
about two minutes. So proceed to the next step as soon as the sodium hydroxide is completely
dissolved.
5. 90 ml of castor oil add 30 ml of the castor oil to each mixture. Allow the new mixtures to
blend for [60min, 30°c], [90min, 35°c] and [120min, 60°c] for blender 1, 2 and 3 respectively.
As the reaction proceeds, the product detergent is formed.
6. Pour the mixture into a wide-mouthed glass container. Allow the mixture to sit. The mixture
should separate into two layers detergent and glycerin.
7. Allow the mixture to sit for several hours.
8. Dispose of the glycerin properly and add 20 ml of sodium silicate with 10ml of hydrogen
peroxide until the desired PH is satisfied.
9. Add perfumes.
4. Result and discussion

4.1. Results
The results obtained for the moisture content, percent volume of oil extracted and its physical
and chemical properties, determination of viscosity and other characteristics as well as the foam
ability tests of the detergent produced are showed below.

45
4.1.1. Determination of the moisture content of castor seed

Table 3: Moisture content of castor seed
Time (hr) 0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7
Weight (g) 300 295.3 292.65 288.94 287.12 283. 282.2 282.1
6 2 1
The moisture content of the castor seed can be calculated as:

Initial mass of castor seed before drying−mass of castor seed after drying
Moisture content =
Initial mass of castor oil
*100%
300−282.1
Moisture content = *100% = 4.3%
300
4.1.2. Characterization of the castor oil

4.1.2.1. Determine the amount of extracted oil (yield)
Table 4: Total % yield of castor oil extraction
Experiments Time in hour sample used volume (ml) Yield %
in (g)
Run 1 2 150 25 15.2
Run 2 2.3 150 28 17.1
Run 3 3 150 30 18.3
Run 4 4 150 50 30.5
Run 5 5 150 52 31.7
Run 6 6 150 58 35.3
Run 7 8 150 60 36.6

46
40
35
30
25
20
15
10
5
0
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9
Figure 14: Yield of castor oil

The maximum extraction of castor oil was 36.6% for the extraction time of 8hrs and and
the minimum yield obtained was 15.2% for minimum extraction time of 2hrs and solvent.
mass of castor oil
Percent of extracted oil = *100%
mass of sample used
54.84 g
Percent of extracted oil = *100% = 36.6%
150 g
4.1.2.2. Determination of oil viscosity
1. Fill the falling ball viscometer with castor oil sample.
3. Measure the distance of the viscometer and record the length.
4. Take the temperature of the castor oil at room temperature (in °C) and record in the data table.
5. Use a stopwatch to time the Teflon ball as it drops through the castor oil. Drop the Teflon ball
into the oil and measure the time it takes the ball to travel from the top line to the bottom line of
oil. Try to drop the ball as close to the liquid’s surface as you can. Conduct three trials and
record the times in seconds in the data table.
6. Calculate the viscosity using the following formula, which correlates density and ball
diameter.
g∗d2
µ = K* (ρs-ρf)*t, where K =
18∗l
Where µ = viscosity, ρs= density of solid (falling ball), ρf= density of liquid (oil) d=ball
diameter of viscometer, t=time taken and l= length of viscometer
47
Table 5: Viscosity determination

Mass of oil (g) 56
Volume of oil (ml) 63.1
920
Density of oil at 20 ℃ (kg/m3)
Density of the ball (kg/m3) 7820
Diameter of the ball (m) 0.01272
Time taken (Sec) 16
µ = K* (ρs-ρf)*t, where K = g∗d 2 /18 *l

9.81 m/s 2 −4 m 2
k= *(0.012m) 2= 2.672*10
18∗0.33 m s2
0.0002672m 2 7820 m2 920 kg
μ= *( - )*16.27sec. =30.82pas
s2 m3 m3
4.1.2.3. Determination of pH Value
Procedure:
▪ 2g of the sample was poured into a clean dry 25ml beaker and 13ml of hot distilled water
was added to the sample in the beaker and stirred slowly.
▪ It was then cooled in a cold-water bath to 25°C. The pH electrode was standardized with
buffer solution, the electrode immersed into the sample, and the pH value was read and
recorded. The pH value of the oil which was found to be 6.0
4.1.2.4. Determination of free fatty acid Value
Procedure:
 25ml of diethyl ether and 25ml of ethanol was mixed in a 250ml beaker.
 The resulting mixture was added to 10g of oil in a 250ml conical flask and few drops of
phenolphthalein were added to the mixture.
 The mixture was titrated with NaOH to the end by shaking for which a dark pink colour
was observed and the volume of NaOH (V0) was noted.
 Free Fatty Acid (FFA) was calculated as.
vo−v
Free Fatty Acid (FFA) = ( ) NaoH*4*100)
mass of sample

48
Where 100ml of NaOH = 2.83g of oleic acid, W o = sample weight

The volume of NaOH to titrate the solution to dark pink color is 2ml.
2ml∗4∗100
Free fatty acid= *100% =80%
10 g
4.1.2.5. Determination of acid value
Acid Value = FFA*2 = 0.8*2 = 1.6
4.1.2.6. Determination of specific gravity
A tube (Pycnometer) of known weight (W) filled was first with castor oil and then with water
and the respectively weight w1 and w2 was determined. Then, the specific gravity was calculated
using the following formula:
w1−w
sp . gr =
w2−w
Weight of Pycnometer (W) at 25 = 22.75 gram
Weight of Pycnometer with castor oil (W1) at 25 = 69.3 gram
Weight of Pycnometer with eucalyptus water (W2) at 25 = 73.3 gram
69.3−22.75
sp . gr = =0.95
73.3−22.75
Table 6: Physical and chemical properties of castor oil
Properties Characterized values of castor oil
Moisture content of castor seed (%) 4.3%
Yield of oil (%) 36.6%
Specific gravity 0.95
Viscosity at 25°C [pc] 300
PH 6
Acid Value (mg) 1.6

Free fatty acid value (%) 80
Color Orange

49
4.1.2. Characterization of detergent

4.1.2.1. Determination of effect of concentration
Detergent produced at concentration of 30g NaOH in experiment 2.1. When the concentration
lowers than the normal lye solution is the detergent produced would be greasy detergent.
Detergent produced at concentration of 40g in 2.1. When it is at normal lye concentration, it will
give a good detergent. Detergent produced at concentration of 50g in 2.1. When the
concentration higher than the normal lye solution is would be very viscous almost change
to solid soap.
4.1.2.2. Determination of viscosity
Viscosity is the resistance of a fluid to flow. It is often referred to as fluid friction and
commonly thought of as the thickness of a fluid. A falling ball viscometer was used to determine
the viscosity of detergent.
Procedures:
1. Fill the falling ball viscometer with detergent sample.
3. Measure the distance of the viscometer and record the length.
4. Take the temperature of the detergent at room temperature (in °C) and record in the data table.
5. Use a stopwatch to time the Teflon ball as it drops through the detergent. Drop the Teflon ball
into the detergent and measure the time it takes the ball to travel from the top line to the bottom
line of detergent. Try to drop the ball as close to the l liquid’s surface as you can. Conduct three
trials and record the times in seconds in the data table.
6. Calculate the viscosity using the following formula, which correlates density and ball
diameter.
2
μ=k∗(ρ s−ρf )*t, where k = g∗d
18∗l
Viscosity, ƿs = density of solid (falling ball) and ƿf = density of liquid (detergent)
D=diameter of viscometer, t=time, l=length of viscometer and g=gravity.
4.1.2.3. The effect of reaction time and temperature
A. Viscosity of detergent produced at residence time of 60min and 30℃in experiment 2.2.
Table 7: Effect of temperature and time on viscosity of detergent production [60min, 30℃ ¿
Mass of detergent sample taken (g) 17

50
Volume of detergent sample taken (ml) 18

Density of detergent at room temp (kg/m3) 940
Time taken (Sec) 8
2
18∗l
9.81 m m2
K= ∗¿ )/18*0.33m =2.672*10−4
s2 s2
μ=0.0002672m 2/s 2*(7820kg /¿m 3−940 kg/¿ ¿ ¿ )*8sec=14.1pa.s
m3
The PH value can be read from the PH meter =7.5
20
18
16
14
12
10
8
6
4
2
0
0.5 1 1.5 2 2.5 3 3.5 4 4.5
Figure 15: Effect of temperature on viscosity of detergent

o
B. Viscosity of detergent produced at residence time of 90min and 35 c in experiment 2.2:
Table 8 : Effect of temperature and time on viscosity of detergent production [90min,35℃]

Mass of detergent taken to determine density (g) 17
Volume of detergent at room temperature (ml) 20

51

Time taken (Sec) 10
2
18∗l
9.81 m m2
K= ∗¿ )/18*0.33m =2.672*10−4
s2 s2
μ=0.0002672m 2/s 2*(7820kg /¿m 3−940 kg/¿ ¿ ¿ )*10 sec=18.12pa.s
m3
20
18
16
14
12
10
8
6
4
2
0
50 60 70 80 90 100 110 120 130
Figure 16: Effect of reaction time on detergent

o
C. Viscosity of detergent produced at residence time of 120min and 60 c in experiment 2.2:
Table 9 : E effect of temperature and time on viscosity of detergent production [120min, 60℃ ¿
Mass of detergent taken (g) 17
Volume of detergent (ml) 19

52

Time taken (Sec) 12
2
18∗l
9.81 m m2
K= K= ∗¿ )/18*0.33m =2.672*10−4
s2 s2
μ=0.0002672m 2/s 2*(7820kg /¿m 3−940 kg/¿ ¿ ¿ )*12 sec=18.5pa.s
m3
8.8
8.6
8.4
8.2
8
7.8
7.6
7.4
7.2
7
6.8
50 60 70 80 90 100 110 120 130
Figure 17: Effect of reaction time on PH of detergent

53
8.8
8.6
8.4
8.2
8
7.8
7.6
7.4
7.2
7
6.8
25 30 35 40 45 50 55 60 65
Figure 18: Effect of temperature on PH value of detergent

Therefore, PH value was read from the pH meter as 8.3 and viscosity of detergent produced at
residence time of 90min and 35℃from the experiment was 18.12pa.s.
4.1.2.4. Foam ability tests on detergents produced
About 60ml of the detergent was added to a 500ml measuring cylinder containing 100ml
of distilled water. The mixture was shaken vigorously so as to production of detergent from
castor oil generates foams. After shaken for about 2mins, the cylinder was allowed to stand for
about10mins. The height of the foam in the solution was measured and recorded. The same steps
were followed using the detergent produced with the castor oil so that the foam ability of the two
could be compared. The results obtained were recorded in the result section of this work.
Therefore, we can characterize all the experimental data of their formability:
Table 10: Effect of concentration of lye on foam ability of detergent
Time (min) Temperature(℃) Amount of lye(g) Foam ability (cm)
60 35 30 2.20
60 35 40 2.3
60 35 50 2.35

54
2.4
2.35
2.3
2.25
2.2
2.15
2.1
25 30 35 40 45 50 55
Figure 19: Effect of concentration on foam ability of detergent

Table 11: Effect of temperature on foam ability of detergent
90 30 40 2.40
90 35 40 2.57
90 60 40 2.45

55
2.6
2.55
2.5
2.45
2.4
2.35
2.3
25 30 35 40 45 50 55 60 65
Figure 20: Effect of temperature on foam ability of detergent

Table 12: Effect of time on foam ability of detergent
60 35 40 2.3
90 35 40 2.57
120 35 40 2.4

56
2.6
2.55
2.5
2.45
2.4
2.35
2.3
2.25
2.2
2.15
50 60 70 80 90 100 110 120 130
Figure 21: Effect of reaction time on foam ability of detergent
4.2. Discussion
The results obtained for the percentage moisture content, 4.3% shows a variation from the
reported in the literature [12] who reported a moisture content of the range of 5 to7 percent. The
result obtained from the percentage of oil content 36.6% fall within the range of the percentage
oil content (35-55%) of castor seeds found in literature [12], depending on the variety.
Though, something close to 100% yield (basing on 55% oil content of the castor seed) would
have been expected, the mode of extraction is a very important parameter affecting the yield.
[12]. It is the best available method for extraction of castor oil at present is by the use of
hydraulic pressing but ,in our laboratory there is no hydraulic pressing so, instead of this we use
soxhlet extractor. From the above the results that we have listed formerly, the pH 7.9 of the
detergent was less but consistent with the normal pH range for detergent 7-8.5[24]. This less
value is due to incomplete alkali hydrolysis resulting from the saponification process. As we
have been observed from laboratory result of table above as the temperature of the
saponification reaction increases reaction rate would increases faster. Almost all chemical or
physical properties of the laboratory that we have been conducted using castor oil as a feedstock
is in the range of the standard detergent.

57
All experimental results what we have been conducted previously can be discussed as follows
Since experiment of at 900min, 35℃and 40g concentration of NaOH, the detergent had higher
solubility, higher formability, good PH, higher % free fatty acid as we are clearly put
qualitatively as well as quantitatively in the above table.
5. Market study and plant capacity

Liquid detergents are the most common available in the market. Liquid detergent is used as an
important that used in every aspects in the world for cleaning purpose. Many manufacturing
industry in the modern technology to the most sophisticated and complex occasions enhancing
and accompanying a wide range of stylish events. Liquid detergent in Ethiopia is not available
in many manufacturing industry so, the last decades up to now be imported a high cost. Starting
from past up to now the imported quantity from foreign country is rapidly increasing year to
year because there is small detergent manufacturing industry in Ethiopia. Therefore our project
have been reduced the imported quantity of liquid detergent by 10% when the plant have been
started production. We say the plant is assumed to have a production capacity of 800,000
liter/year of assorted liquid detergent products from castor seeds based on 320 working days.
Based on the market study and period required for project implementation and full capacity
attainment, the envisaged plant will have annual production capacity of 800,000 liter/year.
5.1. Past Supply and Present Demand

Liquid detergent is widely employed in the washing preparation industry for remove the dirt
and grease and keeps the environment clean and health. The current demand for activated
carbon is met through import. Import data covering the years 2008-2018 is provided in Table 13
Table 13: Past imported and present demand of liquid detergent
Year Quantity in kg/year
2008 5,678,426
2009 7,247,942
2010 9,800,751
2011 9,878,691
2012 10,728,533
2013 9,478,171

58
2014 9,798,633
2015 8,109,713
2016 8,167,672
2017 7,018,040
2018 7,845,612
Source: - Ethiopian Revenues and Customs Authority.
As could be seen from Table 4, the imported quantity during year 2008--2012 has been
consistently increasing from year to year. The imported quantity which was 5,678,426 kg
during year 2008 has increased to 7,247,942 kg and 9,800,751 kg by the years 2009 and
2010. By the years 2010 and 2011 the annual average has reached to 9,839,721 kg, which is an
increase of 35.76% compared to year 2009. The volume of import during year 2012 was
exceptionally very high, which stood at 10,728,533 kg. Compared to the previous year of
2011 the imported quantity is higher than by 1.086 fold. However, during the period 2013-2017
the annual average quantity imported has declined to 8,514,445.8 kg. The trend, which is
observed with sharp increases of import in some years and a sudden decline in other years, could
be due to stock carry over from a period in which import was high to the following years. Based
on the trend observed in the past eleven years, the present demand for liquid detergent is
estimated at about 7,925,872kg.
5.2 Demand projection

Liquid detergent in its different form is used as for the cleaning purpose. Hence, the demand for
liquid detergent depends mainly on the growth of the manufacturing sector particularly in the
washing industry. Considering the growth of population and the increasing number of
manufacturing enterprises demand is projected by applying a 10% annual growth rate see Table
14.
Table 14: projected demand for the future of liquid detergent
Year Quantity in kg/year
2019 7,925,872,
2020 7,956,890
2021 8,000,000

59
5.3. Plant Capacity

Based on the market study and period required for project implementation and full capacity
attainment, the envisaged plant will have annual production capacity of 800,000 liter per year.
5.3.1. Production Program

Production will commence at 80%, and then will grow to 90% and 100% in the second year and
third year and then after, respectively. Detail of the production program is shown in table below.
Therefore, in this project we recovered 10% of imported liquid detergent i.e. 8, 0000, 000Lit/yr.
Plant capacity=10%*8,000,000=800,000 liter/year.
Basis: one operation day/24hr Production capacity: 800,000 lit/year of liquid detergent with
plant operation of 320 calendar days per year.
Table 15: Production program of liquid detergent
Year 1 2 3-10
Capacity utilization (%) 80 90 100
Production (tons) 800,000 liter/year
5.4. Material and energy balance

Material and energy quantities, as they charge and discharge into and from process operations,
can be described by material and energy balances. Such balances are statements on the
conservation of mass and energy. If there is no accumulation, what goes into a process must
come out. This is true for continuous operation. If no input and output during the operation
carried out the process is batch process. Material and energy balances are very important in
an industry. Material balances are fundamental to the control of processing, particularly in the
control of yields of the products. The first material balances are determined in the exploratory
stages of a new process, improved during pilot plant experiments when the process is being
planned and tested, checked out when the plant is commissioned and then refined and maintained
as a control instrument as production continues. When any changes occur in the process the
material, balances need to be determined again. The energy balance determinations are also
made to determine the energy requirements of the process, the heating, cooling and power
required. In this plant operation, it is thought that an energy balance (energy audit) on the plant
will show the pattern of energy usage and suggest areas for conservation and savings.

60
5.4.1. Mass balance on major unit operations in laboratory scale

Note: All material balances had performed based on the experimental work in the laboratory.
From practical laboratory, point of view for quality detergent production the ratio of oil to
sodium hydroxide to be 30ml oil to 40 gm caustic soda.
5.4.1.1. Balance on oven/Drier
Basis: 300gram of fresh castor seed. Weight of the flesh from the fresh seed = 6% of moisture
content.
The general formula of overall material balance is:
Accumulation=output + consumption – input – generation
However there is no reaction, the generation and consumption terms are zero, no accumulation,
since input = output
Taking bases: 300gram of castor seed
Oven
M 1=¿¿Mass of castor seed M 2=Mass of dried castor seed
drier
6% moisture content
M 3 =Amount of water removed
300gram of fresh wet castor seed contains:
1) 300 x 0.06gram water = 18gram moisture and
2) 300 -18gram = 282gram dried castor seed
The final product contains 6% moisture, the moisture in the product is 18/ (6-1) =
3.6gram. So the moisture removed = 18gram-3.6gram=14.4gram
5.4.1.2. Balance on decorticating machine
In chemical engineering laboratory room there is no decorating machine so, we were removed
the flake manually. From literature review, weight of castor flake= 4.5% of castor seed. To
determine the amount of flake =0.045*282gram=12.69gram of flake.
Decoratin
M 3=282 gram
g machine
M 4 =269.31gram of castor seed
M 5=12.69gram castor seed flake

61
Therefore, the mass of pure castor seed is 282 gram-12.69gram castor flake=269.31 gram.
5.4.1.3. Balance on size reduction machine
Here there was 1% of castor bean that less than 2.55mm size was loss, then = 2.6931gram of
castor seed was lost. Then, the amount of raw material left to the extraction vessel with
particle size ranges from 2.55- 4mm will be M 6 = 266.62gram.
5.4.1.4. Balance on soxhlet extractor
In the laboratory, for 150gram of castor seed, the amount of solvent required should be
2 times. Thus, 300ml of solvent was used, therefore, for 266.62gram of castor seed
533.24ml of n - Hexane solvent will be required which is:
Mass of solvent = Density of solvent * Volume of solvent
Density of hexane at 20℃ is 0.66g/mL
Therefore: Mass of solvent = 0.66g/ml *533.24ml = 351.94gram of solvent was required. Now;
from the optimum point of the laboratory castor oil extraction by soxhlet extractor: 150gram of
the castor bean with an oil content of 35-55wt% are contacted with 300ml (198gram) of
fresh hexane.
M 7 =351.94gram (amount of solvent)
M
Soxhlet extractor 9= extracted oil + solvent
M 6=266.62g
M 8=castor seed cake
Input=Output
M 6+ M =¿ M 8 + M 9 ,266.62gram + 351.94gram =271gram + M 9
7
M 9=618.56gram-271gram=347.56gram (extracted oil+solvent)

The amount of solvent in the oil would be separated by simple distillation and the
solvent will recycle for another extraction process.
5.4.1.5. Balance on simple distillation
Simple
M 9=347.56g 120gram or 120ml of pure extracted oil
distillation

62
Finally, the solvent to be recovered is 227.36gram or 227.56ml.

5.4.1.6. Balance on separating funnel
During separating process, we were prepared 120ml of oil and 100ml of hot water and stirred for
5 minutes. 300ml of hot water
120ml of oil Separator 92%pure oil
Impurities
From the extracted oil 92% is pure castor oil and the remaining 8% are impurities.
Pure castor oil= 0.92*120ml =110.4ml and impurities=0.08*120ml of castor oil=9.6ml.
5.4.1.7. Balance on mixing
During mixing, we were taken:
20ml of sodium silicate
10ml of hydrogen peroxide
7ml of perfumes
110.4ml of oil
200ml of water+40gram sodium hydroxide of solution
10ml of sulpheric acid with 50ml of water
110.4ml of oil
200ml of oil+40-gram Mixer liquid detergent

Of NaOH solution
20ml of sodium silicate
Volume of liquid detergent= (20+10+7+110.4+200+50) ml=400ml.
5.4.2. Material balance on industrial scale

In this project we recovered 10% of imported liquid detergent i.e. 8, 0000, 000Lit/yr.
Plant capacity=10%*8,000,000=800,000 liter/year.
Basis: one operation day/24hr Production capacity: 800,000 lit/year of liquid detergent with
plant operation of 320 calendar days per year.

63
Scaling factor =
The amount of detergent wanted ¿ produced ∈industrial scale ¿

The amount of detergent produced∈laboratory scale
800,000
= =2,000,000
0.4
In order to determine the input and output quantity multiply each input and out by scaling factor.
Density of oil = 914kg/m3
Density of NaOH =2130Kg/m3
5.4.2.1. Material balance on dryer
Drye
M 1=1,875kg /¿day ¿ M 2=?
r
M 3 =?
Accumulation=output + consumption – input – generation
However there is no reaction, the generation and consumption terms are zero, no
accumulation , since
Input = output
M 1=M 2+ M 3
1,875kg /¿day ¿ of fresh wet castor seed contain:
M 3 =1,875kg /¿day ¿ * 0.06 = 112.5kg /¿day ¿ moisture and
M 2=¿¿1,875kg /¿day ¿ – 112.5kg /¿day ¿ =1,762.5 kg /¿day ¿ dried castor seed
So, moisture removed / hr = 73.45kg/hr
Where:
M 1=mass of castor seed
M 2=Mass of dried castor seed contains 6% moisture content
M 3 =Amount of water removed
5.4.2.2. Material balance on decorticating machine
From literature review, weight of castor flake= 4.5% of castor seed. To determine the amount of
flake =0.045*1,762.5kg/day =79.3kg/day of flake.
Decoratin
g machine
64
M 4 =¿1,762.5 kg /¿day ¿ M 5=1,683.2kg/day castor seed
M 6=79.3kg/day of flake
Therefore, the mass of pure castor seed is 1,762.5kg/day-79.3kg/day castor flake=1,683.2kg/day.
5.4.2.3. Material balance on size reduction machine
Here there was 1% of castor bean that less than 2.55mm size was loss, then 0.01*1,683.2kg/day
= 16.832kg/day of castor seed was lost. Then, the amount of raw material left to the
extraction vessel with particle size ranges from 2.55- 4mm will be M 7 = 1,683.2kg/day-
16.832kg/day=1,666.4kg/day of castor seed.
M 8 = 1,683.2kg/day Size reduction M 9=¿ 1,666.4kg/day of castor seed

machine
Mass of loss=16.832kg/day
5.4.2.4. Material balance on soxhlet extractor
In the laboratory, for 0.15kg of castor seed, the amount of solvent required should be 2
times. Thus, 300ml of solvent was used, therefore, for industrial scale1,666.4kg/day of
castor seed 3,332,800ml n - Hexane solvent will be required which is:
Mass of solvent = Density of solvent * Volume of solvent
Density of hexane at 20℃ is 0.66g/mL
Therefore: Mass of solvent = 0.00066kg/ml *3,332,800ml = 2200kg of solvent was required.
Now; from the optimum point of castor oil extraction by soxhlet extractor: 150gram of the
castor seed with an oil content of 35-55wt% are contacted with 300ml (0.198kg) of fresh
hexane.
M 11=2,200kg/day
Extractor
M 10=1,666.4kg/day M 12=?
Mass of cake=25% of castor seed

Input=output
M 10+ M 11= M 12+mass of cake

65
1,666.4kg/day of castor seed+2,200kg/day= M 12+0.25*1,666.4kg/day of castor seed

3,866.4kg/day=416.6kg/day+ M 12 , M 12=3,866.4kg/day-416.6kg/day
M 12=3,450kg/day (extracted oil+solvent)
5.4.2.5. Material balance on distillation unit
Mole fraction of solvent at feed = 0.85, Mole fraction of top product = 0.97 and Mole
fraction of bottom product = 0.03
3,450kg/day X solv = 0.97

X solv = 0.85 X oil = 0.00194, X other = 0.02806
X oil = 0.11 B
X other = 0.04 X solv = 0.03, X oil= 0.9506, X other = 0.0194
Oil balance around the column

0.11*3,450 = 0.9506*B + 0.00194* D …………….. (1)
Solvent balance
0.85*3,450 = 0.03*B + 0.97* D …………………… (2)
From these two equations using simultaneous method of calculation the bottom and top products
are B=3,011.4kg/day of oil and D=393.3kg/day of solvent
Finally we will be recovered 393.3 kg/day of n-hexane and used for the next process.
5.4.2.6. Material balance on separating funnel
During the separation of pure oil from impurities, we use hot water.
Assume: hot water used=5000ml
1 m3 =106 ml
Density of water=1000kg /m3
Mass of water =density of water*volume of water

66
1 m3
Mass of water =1000kg /m3*5000ml* =5kg/day
106 ml
5kg/day
Separato
3,011.4kg/day of oil r pure oil
8% (impurities)
Amount of impurities =0.08*3,011.4kg/day=240.9kg/day
Mass of pure oil=3,011.4kg/day+5kg/day-240.9kg/day= 2,775.5kg/day
5.4.2.7. Material balance on mixing
During mixing, the ingredients are scaled up by scaling factor i.e. 2,000,000
125 kg/day of sodium silicate
62.5kg/day of hydrogen peroxide
43.75kg/day of perfumes
690kg/day of oil
1,250kg/day of sodium hydroxide solution
65.2kg/day of sulpheric acid
Volume of liquid detergent production= (125+62.5+43.75+690+1,250+62.5)kg/day
=2,233.75kg/day=2,233.75liter/day.
Finally, the liquid detergent production is 2,233.75liter/day*320day/1year=714,800liter/year

67
Figure 22: Mixing tank
5.5. Energy balance

5.5.1. Energy balance on the extractor
Energy added by the heater +Energy added in the thimble after condensation=Energy taken up
by the condenser.
Assumption
The soxhlet extractor is fully insulated, but from conservation of energy
Energy added to the thimble after condensation=energy taken up by the condenser
M ( Hex+oil)*C p*(T 2−T ) = M W ∗C (Thw -TC w) + mλ
1 p
mass of oil 3,011 kg /day

Mass fraction of oil in the extractor = = = 0.4
mass of oil∧solvent 3,450 kg/day
Mass fraction of hexane = 0.6
C p of hexane at 25℃ =1.712kJ/kg. k
C p of oil at 25℃ = 1.8kJ/kg.k
C p of the mixture = 0.6*1.712kJ/Kg. k + 0.4*1.8kJ/kg.k= 1.75kJ/kg. k
E = M ( Hex+oil )*C p*(T 2−T ) 1
= M ( Hex+oil )*C p*(T 2−T ) = M W ∗C (Thw -TC w) + mλ

1 p
= 0.158kg*1.75kJ/kg. K*(323 -298) k = 9.7kJ

M w = 2Kg
Energy added to the hexane oil mixture by the heater
E ¿ M w*C p*(T ¿-T o ut) + mλ
= 2kg*4.12kJ/ kg .k *(333 – 298) k +0.981kg*365 kJ/kg = 346.07 kJ
68
Energy added in the thimble = M mix∗C p∗¿ ¿¿ )= 0 assume the castor seed and condensed hexane is at
the same temperature inside the thimble.
5.5.2. Energy balance on the reactor
In the production of detergent, the equipment, which much amount of energy involved and
removed takes place on the reactor. Then it better to determine the amount of energy on it.
Detergent is produced from saponification reactions of triglycerides of a fat molecule and caustic
soda. So, the amount of heat evolved during reaction and the heat removed by the jacket can be
calculated as follows.
Heat transfer coefficient in the order of 170 W/ m 2k to jackets is typically obtained.
Space between jacket and the reactor will depend on the size of the vessel, but will typically
range from 50mm for small vessel to 300mm for large vessel. So we have to select 50mm space
between the two.
Diameter of jacket = Do + (2 *0.050) = 1.72 +0.1 = 1.9m; r = 0.92m
Cooling fluid used is Cooling Water.
Cooling Jacket area available (A) = π∗r 2= 2*Π*(0.92)2, A = 5.4m 2
C w(Cooling water) inlet temp = 25℃
C wOutlet temp = 35℃
Approaches minimum temperature differences of the cooling jacket and the reactor;
∆ T 1=90 – 25= 65℃
∆ T 2= 90 – 35= 55℃
∆ T 1−∆ T
LMTD ¿ 2
ln ⁡¿ ¿
LMTD = 54.95℃ = 327.95k
Heat of Reaction;
Q = ∆ H r = 1.1∗10 6 kJ/hr, this is the maximum amount of heat load removed from the reactor for
most stirred tank reactor from literature.
Design Overall Coefficient = U D= 170 W/ m2.k
Now; Heat Removable by Jacket;
Q j= U D* A * LMTD = 170 W/ m 2.k *5.4 m 2*327.95k=301058.1w = 301058.1J/hr*3600 =
1083809.16kJ/hr=1.08*106 k J/hr

69
Therefore the heat of reaction (1.1 * 106 kJ/hr) > heat removable by jacket (1.08*106 kJ/hr) our
design is satisfied.
Amount of heat evolved in the reactor can be calculated as follows
Heat of reaction
∆ H rxn =∑ n HP-∑ n Hr
Where n is the stoichiometric coefficient of the chemical reaction, Hp and Hr enthalpy of
product and the reactant respectively.
The oil, which is initially used, for saponification reaction is 25℃ and for complete conversion
of the oil triglycerides in to fat the reactor temperature must set at 90℃=363k within a short
period of time. The relation between specific heat capacity and temperature is Cp=A+ BT +CT 2+
DT 3, but for calculation purpose the value of C and D are negligible
CP=A+ BT
CP (oil) = 13.5+ 47.8*10−2 (363) = 187.014j/kg
CP (NaOH) =20.43+56.502*10−2 (*363) = 225.53226j/kg
CP (glycerol) =-8.42+0.44422*(363) = 152.83186j/kg
CP (soap)=-6.45+0.8723*363=310.1949j/kg
Therefore the total amount of sensible heat emitted to the environment is
Q sensible=∑in*cpi=187.014*44+225.53226*3+152.83186*3+310.1949*3
=8228.616+676.59678+458.49558+930.5847
=10294.29306j/hr =10.294293kJ/hr
70
6. Design of process equipment
6.1. Selection of pump for soap production

Pump selection depends on the capacity of the flowing fluid and total head loss along the pipe
including the head loss due to the friction in the pipe and head loss due to the pipefitting. For
this project, carbon steel centrifugal and positive displacement pump are chosen. Positive
displacement pump is selected to drive tallow, lye (NaOH solution). Because, positive
displacement pump is used to drive viscous or small amount fluids. For processes after
saponification vessel, centrifugal pump is chosen due to its simplicity, low capital cost, uniform
flow, small floor space, low maintenance cost, quiet operation and adaptability for use the motor
or turbine drive.
6.1.2. Design of castor oil storage tank

Capacity (volume) with 15% allowance = 3.06m 3. One
tanker is required. For cylindrical shape
V = ΠD2/4 H, take H/D = 1.5
Rearranging the above equation,
D = (4*v/Π*1.5) 1/3 = (4*3.06/3.14*1.5) 1/3
D = 1.37m = 1,370mm H= 2.05m
P = pa + ρ*g*h
P = 101325 N/m2 + 914kg/m3*9.8m/s2*2.05m
P = 119,705.6 N/m2
Considering 5% corrosion allowance
P = p*0.05= 0.05*119,705.6 N/m2
P = 5,985.3 N/m2
P i = P + (0.05*P)
Pi =119,705.6 N/m2+ 5,985.3 N/m2
125,691N/m2 = 0.12569N/mm2
The design stress for carbon steel in a temperature range of 0 0C to 50 0C is 135 N/mm2.
Thickness = pi*di/2f-pi = (0.125691N/mm2*1,370mm)/ (2*135N/mm2 – 0.125691N/mm2)
Thickness = 0.64mm

71
Adding 2mm for corrosion allowance

Thickness of storage tank for castor oil =2.64mm
Design of top cover for castor oil storage tank
P = Pa = 101325 N/m2, because the pressure exerted on the top of the storage tank is only
atmospheric pressure.
Thickness = pi*di/2f-pi = (0.101325N/mm2*1,370mm)/ (270 N/mm2 – 0.101325N/mm2)
Thickness = 0.5mm
Considering 2mm corrosion allowance
Thickness of top cover for storage tank = 2.5mm
6.1.3. Design of lye storage tank
Capacity (volume) with 15% allowance = 0.58m3
For cylindrical shape,
V = ΠD2/4 *H, take H/D = 1.5
D=√3 4∗v /1.5∗π
D=√3 4∗0.58 /1.5∗π
D = 0.79m
H = 1.5*D, H = 1.18m
P = pa + ρ*g*h
P = 101,325 N/m2 + 2,130kg/m3*9.8m/s2*1.18m
P = 125,981.5N/m2
Assume 5% corrosion allowance
P = 0.05*125,981.5 N/m2
P = 6,299 N/m2
Pi = p + (0.05*p)
Pi = 125,981.5 N/m2 + 6,299 N/m2 = 132,280.6N/m2= 0.13228 N/mm2
Design stress for stainless steel in temperature range of 0 0C to 50 0C is 165 N/mm2.
Thickness = pi*di/2f-pi
Thickness = (0.13228N/mm2*1180mm)/ (330N/mm2- 0.13228N/mm2)
Thickness = 0.473mm
Adding 2mm as safety factor

72
Thickness of lye storage tank = 2.473mm

Top cover of lye storage tank
P = Pa = 101325N/m2
Thickness = pi*di/2f-pi = (0.101325N/mm2*1180mm)/ (330N/mm2-0.132280N/mm2)
Thickness = 0.36mm
With 2mm corrosion allowance
Thickness of top cover for lye storage tank = 2.36mm
6.1.4. Design of separator
For conical shape,
V = ΠD2/4 *(H-2a/3) where H/D =1.5
a= -3/2 *H
Rearranging the above equation,
D= = 3.36362m = 3363.62mm
H = 1.5* 3.36362 = 5m
P = pa + 𝜌𝑔ℎ
P = 101325N/m2 + 920kg/m3 *9.8m/s2*5m
P = 146,451N/m2
Take 5% corrosion allowance
P = 0.05*146,451N/m2
P = 7,322.55N/m2
Pi = p + (0.05*p)
Pi =146,451N/m2 +7,322.55 N/m2 =153773.55 N/m2 = 0.15377355 N/mm2
The design stress for carbon steel at 70 0C is 131N/mm.2
Pi∗di
T= = (0.15377355N/mm2*3363.62mm)/ (262N/mm2- 0.15377355N/mm2)
2 f − pi
T = 1.975mm
Corrosion allowance = 2mm
Thickness of static separator = 3.975mm
Design of top cover for separator

73
P = pa =101325N/m2 =0.101325N/mm2
Pi∗di
T= = (0.101325N/mm2*3363.62mm)/ (262N/mm2-0.101325N/mm2)
2 f − pi
T= 1.3mm
Corrosion allowance =2mm
T = 3.3mm
6.1.5. Design of liquid detergent storage tank
V = ΠD2/4* H take H/D =1.5
Rearranging,
D = √3 4∗v /1.5∗π
D= √3 4∗10.6 /1.5∗π
D= 2.08
H = 1.5*2.08m = 3.12m
Density of detergent @ 25℃ = 914 kg/m3
P = pa + 𝜌𝑔ℎ
P = 101,325N/m2 + 914kg/m3*9.8m/s2*3.120m
P = 129,300N/m2 = 0.1293N/mm2
P = 0.05*0.1293N/mm2
P = 0.00646 N/mm2
Pi = p + (0.05*p)
Pi = 0.1293N/mm2+0.00646 N/mm2 = 0.1357N/mm2
Design stress for carbon steel at a temperature of 80 0C is 129N/mm2.
Pi∗di
T= = [(0.1357N/mm2 * 2080mm)]/ [(2*129N/mm2- 0.1357N/mm2)]
2 f − pi
T = 1.1mm
Adding 2mm for safety factor
Thickness of liquid detergent tank= 3.1 mm
6.1.6. Design of neutralization vessel

74

V = ΠD2/4* H, take H/D = 1.5
Rearranging,
D = √3 4∗3.4 /1.5∗π
D = √3 4∗3.4 /1.5∗π
D = 1.42m = 1,420mm
H = 2.14m
P = pa + ρgh
P = 101325N/m2 + 2,130kg/m3*9.81m/s2*2.14m
P = 146040 N/m2 = 0.146 N/mm2
Assuming 10% allowance because, since there is a reaction inside the vessel, the probability
of getting corrode is high.
P = 0.1*146040N/m2
P = 14604N/m2
Pi = p + (0.1*146040)
Pi = 146040 N/m2+14604 N/m2= 0.1606 N/mm2
Design stress for stainless steel @ 70 0C is 159 N/mm2
Pi∗di
T= = (0.1606N/mm2*1,420mm)/ (318N/mm2-0.1606N/mm2)
2 f − pi
T = 0.7mm
Corrosion allowance =2mm
Thickness of neutralizing vessel = 2.7mm
Design of top cover of neutralizing vessel
P = Pa + ρ*g*h
Because, the inside reaction has a probability to exert on the top cover. Therefore, cover
thickness will be the same as wall thickness.
6.1.7. Design of mixer

Capacity (volume) to be stirred = 4.5m3
Diameter of the impeller should be 1/3 of tank diameter.

75
Diameter of tank = 0.358m

Diameter of impeller = 0.11933m H/D = 2
H = 0.23866m
Reynolds number should also be calculated.
Re=𝜌 ∗ 𝑁 ∗ 𝐷I/𝜇
Where DI=impeller diameter, µ=viscosity, N=rotational speed of the fluid
Where 𝜌=3,044Kg/m3, DI=0.11933m, N=200rpm=200/60=3.36rps, 𝜇 = 2.45 pa/sec
Re = (3,044kg/m3*3.36*0.11933)/ (2.45)
Re = 498.2
Determination of Power
NP=P/D5N3ρ
P=shaft power, D=mixer diameter, N=mixer speed, ρ=fluid density
From the graph of power versus Reynolds number, the power number is 3.5
Pnd=P*g/ 𝜌N3DI5
P delivered = p*ρ N3 Di5/g = [3.5*3,044*(3.36)3*(0.11933)5]/ (9.81)
P = 0.9 HP
Mixer thickness
Density of sodium hydroxide =2,130kg /m3
Density of oil = 914kg /m3
P= pa+ρ*g*h
P=101,325 N/𝑚2+3,044kg /m3∗9.81 m/s 2∗¿0.23866m
P=108,451.8N/𝑚2 =0.108N/mm2
P =0.05*0.108N/mm2 = 0.0054 N/mm2
Pi = (0.108+0.0054)N/m𝑚2
Pi=0.1134N/m𝑚2
Pi∗di 0.1134∗358
T= =
2 f − pi 2∗165−0.1134
t= 0.123mm
Corrosion allowance=2mm

76
Minimum thickness of mixer=0.123mm+2mm= 2.123mm
Design temperature
Strength of metal decrease with temperature increase so maximum allowable design stress will
depend on the material temperature.
Therefore, by taking 30% of safety factor.
Design temperature = Operating +Allowance. Design temperature = 0.3*90+90 = 117℃
Material of construction
Selection of a suitable material must take in to account the suitability of the material for
fabrication (particularly welding) as well as the compatibility of the material with the process
environment. In our case we select carbon steel because of minimum amount of financial
investment.
6.2. Specification and Sizing of the main processing equipments

Assumption:
All Equipment’s are 85% full or 15% safety factor.
Sizing of equipment is depending on the material balance calculated on the
above section.
6.2.1. Sizing of drier
Assume the diameter of the drum rotary dryer is 1.78m,
Area of dryer= πd 2/4=3.14∗( 1.78)2 /4 =2.5m 2
6.2.3. Sizing of decorating machine
Decorticating machine size: The crushing rolls, which may vary from a 1m up to about
1.85 m in diameter, are suitable for effecting a small size reduction. Taking this average:
diameter =1.5m.
Area of dryer= πd 2/4=3.14∗( 1.5)2 /4 =1.85m 2
6.2.4. Sizing of size reduction machine
Assume the diameter of the drum rotary dryer is 1,500mm,
Area of dryer= πd 2/4=3.14∗( 1.87)2 / 4=3.52 m2
6.2.5. Sizing of castor oil storage tank
Required mass of castor oil 2,775.5kg/day

77
Density of castor oil at 20℃=914kg¿ m3

V oil =mass of castor oil/density of castor oil
2,775.5 kg/day
V oil = 3 =3.036m3as per day
914 kg/m
V oil =3.036m3/0.85=3.6m3, 15% for safety factor.
6.2.6. Sizing of sodium hydroxide tank
Required mass of NaoH 1,250kg/day
Density of sodium hydroxide at 25℃=2,130kg¿ m3
V NaoH =mass of NaoH/density of NaoH
1,250 kg/day
V NaoH = 3
3 =0.58m as per day
2,130 kg /m
V NaoH =0.58m3/0.85=0.69m3, 15% for safety factor.
6.2.7. Sizing of solvent storage tank
Required mass of NaoH 2,200kg/day
Density of sodium hydroxide at 25℃=660kg¿ m3
V hexan=mass of hexane/density of hexane
2,200 kg/day
V hexan= =3.33m3as per day
660 kg /m3
V hexan=3.33m3/0.85 = 4.02m3, 15% for safety factor.
6.2.8. Sizing of mixing tank
It is vertical cylindrical tank
For safety, operation of mixing with a safety factor of 15% and stored for 2 days.
The amount of ingredients needed for mixing containing 2,233.75 liter/day.
V mixing =2,233.75 liter/day*1 m3 /1000liter=2.23m3/day*2day=4.5m3/0.85 = 5.3m3
6.2.9. Sizing of extractor
Amount of castor seed to be extract=1,666.4 kg/day
Amount of hexane used to extract=2,200kg/day
Amount of material used in extraction
=3,866.4 liter/day*1 m3 /1000liter=3.8664m3/day*2day=7.7m3/0.85=9.09m3
6.2.10. Sizing of pump

78
The type of pump is centrifugal pump; because of it is not viscous, low-pressure drop and low
velocity. So that, the volumetric flow rate of water is 96m3/day. The pump capacity of the water
becomes. Capacity of pump = 96m3 /day*1day/24hr*1hr/60min*1000L/m3 *1gal/3.785L =
17.6gpm
7. Engineering Economics
Before initiating the development of a process, at various stages in its development and before
attempts the design of a process and plant it is the responsibility of the chemical engineer to
make economic evaluation. The evaluation determines whether one should undertake the
project, abandon it, continue with it (but with further research) or take it to the pilot plant stage.
Even if insufficient technical information is available to design a plant completely, we must still
make and economic evaluation to determine if it is economically and financially feasible. A
project economically feasible when it is more profitable than other competing project and
financially feasible when management can raise the capital for its implementation.
This design project aims to present a process that is capable of operating under conditions,
which will yield profit. As a necessity, the economic viability of this manufacturing business
must be addressed considering the society and government with which it will operate. The
primary concern of an investors lies in the rate of return (ROR) based on accurate cost estimates
and sound data, Since the profit equals total income minus all expenses, it is essential that all
the costs involved in manufacturing process are considered. A capital investment is required for
any industrial process and determination of the process consists of fixed capital investment of
physical equipment and facilities in the plant plus necessary investment is an important part
design project. The total investment for any working capital which must be available to pay
salaries, keep raw materials and products on hand and handle other special items requiring a
direct cash outlay. Using payback period, rate of return and unit product cost a profitability
analysis will be conducted to see the viability of this plant design.
7.1. Investment costs

7.1.1. Capital investment
The total capital investment (TCI) is an economic term, which involves the sum of the fixed
capital investment (FCI) and other outlays (working capital investment). The fixed-capital
investment consists on the capital needed to provide all the depreciable facilities such as

79
purchased equipment, piping, instrumentation, etc. -excepting the costs associated with land,
which is not depreciated- and it is divided into the costs which are always permanent in a plant,
known as direct costs (DC), and the costs which momentarily remain during plant construction,
known as indirect costs (IC). By using a checklist of items, we are going to estimate fixed
Capital investment (FCI) and total capital investment (TCI) based on purchased equipment cost.
Since our process is solid -solid processing plan.
The total capital investment is sum of the following:
 Fixed capital investment (FCI) is the capital needed to supply all manufacturing and
facilities. This includes
 Direct (manufacturing) fixed capital investment is the amount of money necessary for the
installed process equipment with all auxiliaries needed for a complete process operation.
 Indirect (non-manufacturing) fixed capital investment is construction overheads and all plant
components, which are directly related to the process operation.
Total Capital Investment = Fixed Capital Investment + Working Capital Investment For this
case, capital investment items are calculated based on the purchased equipment cost of the
plant. Fixed capital cost = ƒ (purchased equipment cost)
To estimate total capital investment of the plant, first find the cost of each purchased equipment
cost is important.
7.1.1.1. Purchase equipment cost
The installation of equipment involves costs for labor, foundations, supports, platforms,
construction expenses, and other factors directly related to reelection of purchased
equipment. There is general range of installation cost as a percentage of the purchased
equipment cost for various types of equipment. Installation labor cost as a function of
equipment size shows wide variations when scaled from previous installation estimates. Before
attempts the design of a process and plant it is the responsibility of the chemical engineer to
make economic evaluation. It is essential that the chemical engineer be aware of the
many different types of costs involved in design processes. Even if insufficient technical
information is available to design a plant completely, we must still make and economic
evaluation to determine if it is economically and financially feasible. The ultimate purpose for
developing such a detailed process design and cost estimate is to determine the economics of

80
wine production. The cost indexes obtained from literatures are as follows:-The Marshal and
Swift installed equipment index obtained is shown in the following table.
Table 16: Marshal and swift installed equipment index
Year Annual index
2009 521.9
2010 550.8
2011 585.7
2012 584.6
2013 567.3
2014 576.1
2015 556.8
2016 541.7
2017 535.3
Present cost = original cost*
Present cost = original cost at 2014*

535.3
1. Cost of drier = 21,505* = 20,000birr
576.1
535.3
2. Cost of decorating machine= 10,752.6* =10,000 birr
576.1
535.3
3. Cost of mixing tank= 54,516* =50,700 birr
576.1
535.3
4. Cost of size reduction machine=16,344* =15,200 birr
576.1
535.3
5. Cost of extractor= 20,080.6* =18,675 birr
576.1
535.3
6. Cost of distillation column = 27,446* = 25,525 birr
576.1
535.3
7. Cost of separator machine=22,580* =21,000 birr
576.1
535.3
8. Cost of liquid detergent tank = 17,420* =16,200 birr
576.1

81
535.3
9. Cost of castor oil tank=18,387* =17,100 birr
576.1
535.3
10. Cost of castor seed storage tank =21,183 * = 19,700 birr
576.1
535.3
11. Cost hexane storage tank= 19,785* =18,400 birr
576.1
535.3
12. Cost of sodium silicate tank=12,688* =11,800 birr
576.1
535.3
13. Cost of sodium hydroxide tank = 13,333* = 12,400 birr
576.1
535.3
14. Cost of colorant tank =10,538* = 9,800 birr
576.1
535.3
15. Cost of sulpheric acid storage tank= 14,624* = 13,600 birr
576.1
535.3
16. Cost of hydrogen peroxide= 13,010* =12,100 birr
576.1
535.3
17. Cost of perfume storage tank =10,538* = 9,800 birr
576.1
535.3
18. Cost of sodium chloride storage tank = 11,613** =10,800 birr
576.1
535.3
19. Cost of pump =8,870* = 8,250 birr
576.1
535.3
20. Cost of conveyor = 9,087* = 8,451 birr
576.1
Table 17: Purchased equipment cost
Numb Equipment Quantity Parameter Size or Material of Unit Total cost
er capacity constructio cost (birr)
n (birr)
2
1 Oven/drier 2 Area 2.5 m Carbon 20,000 40,000
steel
2 Decorating 2 Area 1.85m 2 Carbon 10,000 20,000
machine steel
3 Size reduction 2 Area 3.52m 2 Carbon 15,200 30,400
machine steel

82
4 Extractor 2 Area 2.85m 2 Carbon 18,675 37,350

steel
5 Distillation 2 Diameter 2.5m length Carbon 25,525 51,050
and 0.75m steel
6 2 Area 2.15m 2 Carbon 21,000 42,000
Separator steel
7 Mixing tank Volume 5.3 m 3 Carbon 50,700 101,400
steel
3
8 NaoH storage 1 Volume 0.69m Carbon 12,450 12,450
tank steel
9 Sodium 1 Volume 2.5m3 Carbon 11,800 11,800
silicate storage steel
tank
10 Hydrogen 1 Volume 1.25m3 Carbon 12,100 12,100
peroxide steel
storage tank
11 Sulpheric acid 1 Volume 0.75m3 Stainless 13,600 13,600
storage tank steel
3
12 Detergent 1 Volume 12.5m Carbon 16,200 16,200
storage tank steel
13 Colorant 1 Volume 0.5m3 Cast iron 9,800 9,800
storage tank
14 Perfume 1 Volume 0.5m3 Cast iron 9,800 9,800
storage tank
15 Nacl storage 1 Volume 1.5m3 Carbon 10,800 10,800
tank steel
3
16 Castor oil 2 Volume 3.6m Carbon 17,100 34,200
storage tank steel
3
17 Hexane 2 Volume 4.02m Carbon 18,400 36,800
storage tank steel
18 Castor seed 2 Volume 25m3 Carbon 19,700 39,400
storage tank steel
19 Conveyor 8 Length 6 inch W/D Cast iron 8,451 67,608
and
Diameter
20 Pump 6 Gallon 17.6gpm Cast iron 8,250 49,500

83
Total 646,258
Source: www. Matche. Com
7.1.1.2. Fixed capital investment

Fixed capital investment is the total amount of expense needed to supply the necessary
plant (indirect cost) and manufacturing facilities (direct cost) plus the amount of expense
required as working capital for operation of the facilities.
A. Direct cost
Direct cost is the type of fixed capital investment costs that directly applicable for plant
erection. Before we are going to estimate the direct cost first identifies the process type (solid
processing plant, solid-fluid processing plant and fluid processing plant). Therefore, our
processing plant is solid-fluid processing plant.
Table 18 : Direct cost
No. Direct cost (DC) Solid liquid Cost(birr)
process %
1 Purchased equipment (including 100 % PEC 646,258
fabricated equipment and process
machinery)
2 Purchased equipment installation 39% PEC 252,040.6
3 Instrumentation and controls 13% PEC 84,013.5

4 Piping (installed) 31% PEC 200,340
5 Electrical( installed) 10% PEC 64,625.8
6 Building(including service) 29% PEC 187,414.8
7 yard improvement 10% PEC 64,625.8
8 Service facilities(installed) 55% PEC 355,442
9 Land 6%PEC 38,775.5
Total direct cost= 1,893,536
B. Indirect cost

84
Indirect costs are expenses, which are not directly involved with material and labor or actual
installation of complete facility.
Table 19 : Indirect cost

No. Indirect cost (IDC) Solid liquid Costs(birr)
process %
9 Engineering and supervision 32% PEC 206,803
10 Construction and expense 34% PEC 219,728
11 Contractors fee 18% PEC 116,326
12 Contingency 36% PEC 232,653
Total indirect cost = ΣIDC 775,510
Fixed Capital investment (FCI) = Direct cost + Indirect cost

FCI = DC + IC
FCI = (1,893,536 + 775,510) birr
FCI = 2,669,046 birr
Total capital investment (TCI) =Fixed capital investment (FCI) +working capital (WC)
TCI= FCI + WC but WC = (10-20) % TCI, taking 15%
TCI= FCI + 0.15 TCI
TCI – 0.15TCI = FCI
TCI (1-0.15) = FCI
0.85TCI = FCI
FCI 2,669,046
TCI = = =3,140,055 birr/year
0.85 0.85
7.1.2. Working capital

Working capital is the capital needed for the daily running of the plant. This consists of the total
amount of money invested in.
 Raw material and supply carried in stock

85
 Accounts receivable and

 account payable
 Cash kept on hand for monthly payment of operating expense
 Taxes payable
 Finished product in stock
 Semi finished product in stock
The working capital is 10-20 % total capital investment (TCI), assume 15%
WC = 0.15 *TCI
WC = 0.15*3,140,055 birr
WC = 471,008 birr/year
7.1.3. Production cost (TPC)

Determination of the necessary capital investment is only one part of a complete cost estimate.
Another equally important part is the estimation of costs for operating the plant and selling the
Products. These costs can be grouped under the general heading of total product cost. The latter,
in turn, is generally divided into the categories of manufacturing costs and general expenses.
Manufacturing costs are also known as operating or production costs. Further subdivision of the
Manufacturing costs is somewhat dependent upon the interpretation of direct and indirect costs.
 Total product cost = manufacturing cost + general expense
 Manufacturing cost = direct production cost + fixed charge + plant-overhead cost
 General expense =administrative +distribution and selling costs+ interest
7.1.3.1. Manufacturing cost
Manufacturing cost consists of direct production cost, fixed charges and plant overhead costs.
A. Direct production cost
Table 20: Total direct production cost
N Parameters Range in % Assumed % Equation
o taken
1 Raw materials costs 10----50% of TPC 15% 0.15*TPC
2 Operating labor costs 10----30% of TPC 15% 0.15*TPC
3 Direct supervisory and 10----25% of operating 15% 0.0225*TPC
clerical labor costs labor
4 Utilities costs 10----20% TPC 15% 0.15*TPC

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5 Maintenance and repair 2----10% of FCI 5% 133,452.3 birr

costs
6 Operating supplies costs 0.5----1% of FCI 0.75% 20,017.8 birr
7 Laboratory charges 10----20% OF operating 15% 0.0225*TPC
labor
8 Patents royalties 0----6% of TPC 2% 0.02*TPC
From the above table the total direct production costs can be determined:
Direct production cost (DPC) =TPC (0.15*3+0.0225*2+0.02) + (133,452.3 +20,017.8) birr
DPC=0.515*TPC+153,470.1 birr………………………………………………………… (1)
B. Fixed charges
Table 21: Fixed charges
N Parameters Range in% Assumed % equation
o taken
1 Depreciatio 10% of FCI 10% 0.1*FCI=0.1*2,669,046=266,904.6 birr
n
2 Local taxes 1----4% of 2% 0.02*FCI=0.02*2,669,046=53,381 birr
FCI
3 Insurance 0.4----1% of 0.5% 0.005*FCI=0.005*2,669,046=13,345.23
FCI birr
Note: Rent (8-12) % of value rented land and buildings – for the safe of promoting local
investors, in Ethiopia provide land free from taxes and rents.
From the above table the fixed charges can be determined:
Fixed charges (FC) = (266,904.6+53,381+13,345.23) birr =333,630.8 birr
FC= 333,630.8 birr…………………………………………………………………………. (2)
C. Plant overhead costs (POH)
5-15% of total product cost: includes cost for the following: general plant upkeep and overhead,
payroll over head, packaging, medical services, safety and protection, restaurants, recreation,
salvage, laboratories, and storage facilities.
Therefore, POH=0.1*TPC……………………….. .……………………………………….. (3)
From equation 1, 2 and 3 the manufacturing costs are:
Manufacturing cost (MC) = direct production cost (DPC) + fixed charge (FC) + plant
overhead cost (POH).

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MC=0.515*TPC+153,470.1 birr+0.1*TPC+333,630.8 birr

MC=0.615*TPC+487,100.9 birr……………………………………………………………. (4)
7.1.3.2. General expense
A general expense consists of administrative costs, distribution costs, and selling costs, research
and development costs and financing (interest).
Table 22: General expenses
N Parameters Range in % Assumed % taken equations
o
1 Administrativ 2----6% of TPC 3% 0.03*TPC
e costs
2 Distribution 2----20% of TPC 3% 0.03*TPC
and selling
costs
3 Research and 5% of TPC 5% 0.05*TPC
development
costs
4 Financing or 0----10% TCI 1% 1%*TCI=0.01*3,140,055
interest =31,400.6 birr
From the above table the general expense costs can be determined:
General expense (GE) =administrative (AC) +distribution and selling costs+ interest (I)
+Research and development costs
GE=0.03*TPC+0.03*TPC+0.05*TPC+31,400.6 birr
GE= 0.11*TPC+31,400.6 birr……………………………………………………………….. (5)
From equation, 4 and 5 we can determined total production costs: Therefore,
Total production cost (TPC) =manufacturing cost (MC) +general expense (GE)
TPC=0.615*TPC+487,100.9 birr +0.11*TPC+31,400.6 birr
TPC=0.725*TPC+518,501.5 birr
(1-0.725)*TPC= 518,501.5 birr
0.275*TPC=518,501.5 birr
TPC=1,885,460birr/year
From equation 1, direct production cost (DPC) =0.515*TPC+153,470.1 birr
Direct production cost (DPC) = 0.515*971,012 birr/year + 153,470.1 birr
Direct production cost (DPC) = 1,124,482 birr/year.

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From equation 3, the plant over head cost (POH) =0.1*TPC= 0.1*1,885,460 birr=188,546 birr/yr
From equation 4, the manufacturing cost (MC) =0.615*TPC+487,100.9 birr
Manufacturing cost (MC) = 0.615*1,885,460 birr/year+487,100.9 birr=1,646,658.8birr/year.
From equation 5, the general expense (GE) = 0.11*TPC+31,400.6 birr
General expenses (GE) =0.11*1,885,460 birr/year+31,400.6 birr= 238,801.2 birr/year
7.2. Financial analysis

7.2.1. Annual gross earning (gross profit)
Gross profit = Total sale revenue (TSR)-Total production cost (TPC)
But, total sale revenue (TSR) =selling price*total production capacity
The price of liquid detergent has been growing at an estimated annualized rate of 1.9% in the
three years to 2018 to reach 5 birr/liter. Increasing demand derived from growth in industrial
production coupled with rising input costs.
Therefore, Total sale revenue (TSR) =Selling price*total production capacity
Total sale revenue (TSR) =5 birr/liter*800,000 liter/year= 4,000,000birr/year
Gross profit=Total sale revenue (TSR) –Total production cost (TPC)
Gross profit= 4,000,000 birr/year-1,885,460 birr/year=2,114,540 birr/year
7.2.2. Profitability
Based on the projected profit and loss statement, the project will generate a profit throughout its
operation life. Moreover, at the end of the project life the accumulated cash flow amounts is
(10% TCI) to birr 314,000. Gross earning/ income and net profit worth calculation (if the
product is to selling purpose) the following analysis is required for the feasibility of the
project.
7.2.2.1. Net profit
Net profit= Gross profit – Income tax = Gross profit – 35% Gross profit
Net profit= 2,114,540 birr/year-0.35*2,114,540 birr/year= 1,374,451 birr/year
Based on the projected profit and loss statement, the project will generate a profit throughout its
operation life. The annual net profit after taxes is 1,374,451 birr/year birr/year during the life of
the project.
7.2.2.2. Percent profit

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net profit 1, 374 , 451birr / year

%profit = *100 = *100
t otal productioncost 1, 885 , 460 birr / year
% profit = 0.73*100% = 73%
7.2.2.3. Break-even point analysis (BEP)
The break-even analysis establishes a relationship between operation costs and revenues. It
indicates the level at which costs and revenue are in equilibrium. To this end, the break-
even point of the project including cost of finance when it starts to operate at full capacity
(9months) is estimated by using income statement projection.
Breakeven point is the production volume at which there is no loss or profit. At that point, any
revenue obtained will be sufficiently to cover only the fixed cost.
The break-even analysis establishes a relationship between operation costs and revenues. It
indicates the level at which costs and revenue are in equilibrium. To this end, the break-even
point for capacity utilization and sales value estimated by using income statement projection are
computed as followed.
P=TSR-TPC, since TSR=Q*S and TPC=fixed cost+ variable cost
P=Q*S-(fixed cost variable cost), since variable cost=Q*U
P=Q*S-(fixed cost*U)
At Break-even point: Profit=0
Total production cost = Total sale revenue
Fixed cost + variable cost = Total sale revenue
Fixed cost + U*Q = s*Q
Where: U = unit production cost
S=unit selling price
Q= plant capacity
S*Q-U*Q=Fixed cost
Q (S-U) =Fixed cost
¿ cost
Q= , at this level of production there is no loss or profit.
S−U
Fixed cost = Fixed charge+ Plant overhead cost+ General expense
Fixed cost =333,630.8 birr/year +188,546 birr/yr+238,801.2 birr/year = 760,978 birr/year
Unit cost (U) = Total production cost (TPC)/ total production capacity

90
Total production cost 1,885,460birr / year

Unit cost (U) = = = 2.35 birr/liter
Total pr oductioncapacity 800,000 liter/ year
760,978 birr / year
Q= = 287,162 liter/year =35.89 % breakeven point capacity
5 birr/liter−2.35 birr /liter
7.2.2.3 Pay-back Period
The payback period, also called pay – off period is defined as the period required for
recovering the original investment outlay through the accumulated net cash flows earned by the
project. Accordingly, based on the projected cash flow it is estimated that the project’s initial
investment will be fully recovered within approximately 4months.
¿ capital investment
Payback period =
net cash accural
Net cash accrual= Net Profit + Depreciation
Net cash accrual = 1,374,451 birr/year +266,904.6 birr/year
¿ capital investment 2,669,046 birr / year
Payback period = = = 1.6 year.
net cash accural 1,374,451birr / year +266,904.6 birr / year
7.2.2.4 Rate of return or Rate on investment
Rate of return or rates on investment indicating us in how much percentage the plant return its
investment cost.
Net profit 1,374,451birr / year
ROR/ROI = *100% = =0.934*100% = 44%
Total capital investment 3,140,055birr / year
7.3. Projected cash flow of liquid detergent production factory PLC
The feasibility study for a chemical process design investigates both the technical and economic
feasibility of the proposed project. This feasibility study is only an introductory assessment, at
this stage the process route has not yet been finalized although a preferred route may be
apparent. Part of the work in preparing the feasibility study is to obtain information regarding the
alternative process routes, and to provide an assessment of the suitability of these routes for the
particular project. The technical part of the feasibility study considers the alternative processes,
and the equipment that constitutes the chemical plant in each case. At this stage, it is necessary to
identify any items of equipment that pose particular or unusual design problems, or which are
very expensive or hazardous. The feasibility study should determine whether it is possible to
design and build a chemical plant for a particular manufacturing process. Any external factors

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that may influence the operation of the plant should be noted, e.g. discharge levels, stability of
raw materials supply, etc.
The economic feasibility of the process should be established at this stage. Again, this is only an
introductory assessment performed more to establish that the plant is not definitely a loss-maker,
rather than deciding that it is a particularly attractive proposition. A full and detailed economic
evaluation of the plant and process is performed later in the design study after the process route
has been finalized, a detailed equipment listing prepared, and preliminary equipment designs
have been performed.
The investment of the factory is based on 70% from bank loan payable in 5 years of operation
bearing an interest rate of 12% and the other 30% of the investment cost is from shareholder, in
one-year construction period.
Therefore, loan from bank = 70% (total capital investment) = 0.7*3,140,055 birr/year =
2,198,038.5 birr/year
A. Loan repayment calculation
2,198,038.5birr / year
Loan repayment = = 439,607.7birr/year
5
B. Interest rate calculation
We are taking the interest rate as 12%
1st Year = 12%*TCI loan from bank = 0.12*2,198,038.5birr/year = 263,764.6birr/year
2nd Year = 12 %*( 2,198,038.5- 439,607.7) = 211,011.6 birr/year
3rd Year = 12% *(2,198,038.5- 2*439,607.7) = 158,258.7birr/year
4 thYear = 12% *(2,198,038.5-3*439,607.7) =105,505.8birr/year
5thYear = 12 %*( 2,198,038.5-4*439,607.7) = 52,752.9 birr/year
*1000
Table 23: Projected cash flow of liquid detergent production
Year 0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10
Capacity - 80% 90% 100% 100% 100% 100% 100% 100% 100% 100%
y
utilizatio
n on

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Cash in - 3,200 3,600 4,000 4000 4,000 4,000 4,000 4,000 4,000 4,314
flow
Revenue 3,200 3,600 4,000 4,000 4,000 4,000 4,000 4,000 4,000 4,000
Salvage - - - - - - - - - - 314
Cash out 3,140.0 1,611 1,615 1,618 1,566 1,513 1,021 1,021 1,021 1,021 1,021
flow 55 .3 .8 .1 .3
Investm 3,14.05 - - - - - - - - - -
ent cost 5
Raw - 226.3 254.5 282.8 282.8 282.8 282.8 282.8 282.8 282.8 282.8
material l
cost
Utilities - 226.3 282.8 282.8 282.8 282.8
254.5 282.8 282.8 282.8 282.8
- 188.5 188.5 188.5 188.5 188.5 188.5 188.5
POH 188.5 188.5 188.5
Depreci - 266.9 266.9 266.9 266.9 266.9 266.9 266.9 266.9 266.9
ation 266.9
Capital - 439.6 439.6 439.6 439.6 439.6 - - - - -
charge
Interest - 263.7 211 158.2 105.5 52.7 - - - - -
Gross -3,140 1,588 1,985 2,381 2,434 2,487 2,979 2,979 2,979 2,979 3,293
profit .7 .2
Net profit -2,041 1,032 1,290 1,547 1,582 1616. 1,936 1,936 1,936 1,936 2,140
.6 .3 .8 4 .4 .4 .4 .4 .5
Discount 1 0.89 0.797 0.711 0.636 0.567 0.506 0.452 0.404 0.361 0.322
factor
(DF) at
(r=12%)

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PV=CF* -3,140 1,414 1,582 1,693 1,548 1,410 1,507 1,346 1,203 1,075 1,060
DF .4 .5 .5 .4 .3
7.3.1. Net present value

Net present value (NPV) is defined as the total present ( discounted) value of a time
series of cash flows. NPV aggregates cash flows that occur during different periods of time
during the life of a project in to a common measuring unit i.e. present value. It is a standard
method for using the time value of money to appraise long-term projects. NPV is an indicator of
how much value an investment or project adds to the capital invested. In principal, a project is
accepted if the NPV is non-negative.
Present Value (PV) = Cash flow (CF) *Discount factor (DF)
NPV=∑PV=(3,140+1,414+1,582+1,693+1,548+1,410+1,507.4+1,346.5+1,203.5+1,075.4+1,060
.3) =10,700,100 birr/year
NPV 10,700,100
NPVR or PI = = = 3.4
TCI 3,140,055
Since the net present value is positive and the net present value ratio is greater than 1
the project is acceptable and viable for implementation.
7.2.2. Discount cash flow rate of return (DCSRR or IRR)

The internal rate of return (IRR) is the annualized effective compounded return
rate that can be earned on the invested capital, i.e., the yield on the investment.
Put another way, the internal rate of return for an investment is the discount rate
that makes the net present value of the investment's income stream total to zero.
Annual cash flow (Net cash accrual)
Cash Flow calculation Cash Flow (CF) = Net Gross Earning Cost + Depreciation
Net cash accrual = 1,374,451 birr/year +266,904.6 birr/year = 1,641,355.6 birr/year
Where, CF = cash flow per year (net cash accrual)
Determination of internal rate of return (IRR)

= CF [(1+i1) n -1]/i1 (1+i1) n -TCI

94
Where, i1 = internal rate of return

= Total Capital Investment
At internal rate of return (IRR) the net present value is zero (NPV= 0)
n
CF[ ( 1+i 1) −1]
n -TCI=0
i ( 1+i 1 )
CF ( ( 1+i )n−1)
n = TCI
i (1+i )
10
[ ( 1+i 1) −1]
1,641,355.6 birr/year * 10 = 3,140,055birr/year
i ( 1+i1 )
 This formula used for determining an internal rate of return, but difficult to solve
hence we use the method of iterating the equation.
10
[ ( 1+i 1) −1]
10 = 1.92
i ( 1+i1 )
Using try and error, Iterate between a number of 0.2 and 0.4 that makes the NPV
becomes zero.
10
i [ ( 1+i 1) −1]
10 =result
i ( 1+i1 )
0.2 4.186
0.4 2.413
0.5 1.965
0.51 1.929
0.53 1.86
0.55 1.796
0.6 1.652
IRR is i*100%=0.51*100%= 51%

Therefore, the discount cash flow rate of return (DSRR) is 51%; DSRR (51%) is
greater than minimum acceptable rate (12%) so, the project is feasible and
profitable.
Payback period also can be calculated based on gross profit (cash flow)

95
Year 0 1 2
Cumulative cash flow -3,140 -1,551.3 433.7
Yearly cash flow -1,588.7 1,985

1,551.3
Payback period =1year + = 1.78 years or 1 years and 9months.
1,985
Payback period of the plant is 1year and 9months based on gross profit. But based on the net
profit the Payback period of the plant is 1years, 6 months. Therefore, in both cases the factory
satisfies the feasibility condition. So our project can be implemented because it is feasible,
acceptable and profitability.
Generally if the factory or the plant is implemented it must be full fill the following
conditions.
Net present value must be positive (NPV) i.e. It is positive the project is accepted.
Net present value ratio or profitability index (NPVRor PI)>1, i.e. 7.5>1 the project is
accepted.
Payback period must be less than 5 years i.e. 2.4year <5 years
The internal rate of return is 37% this is greater than the minimum interest (12%).
Therefore the factory can be implemented because it is feasible and profitability
8. Plant location, Plant layout and Environment

8.1. Plant location
Site criteria should be identified and ranked in terms of importance. These criteria provide
guidance in the selection of a specific plant site and are helpful when evaluating competing
locations. Feedstock and energy costs are typically among the highest input costs but other
factors are important in determining production cost estimates, profitability and competitiveness
of the plant. Proper siting of liquid detergent production plant, including the optimum location of
the plant on the site itself, is among the most important aspects of project development. The
location of the plant can have a crucial effect on the profitability of a project, and the scope for
future expansion. Many factors must be considered when selecting a suitable site, and only a
brief review of the principal factors will be given in this section. The principal factors to be
considered are:
▪ Source and raw material cost
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▪ Market
▪ Location with respect to the marketing area
▪ Construction cost
▪ Raw material supply
▪ Transport facilities
▪ Availability of labor
▪ Availability of utilities water, fuel, power
▪ Availability of suitable land
▪ Environmental impact and effluent disposal
▪ Local community considerations
▪ Climate condition
▪ Political strategic considerations
Plant location may be selected based on orientation towards the market or towards resources
(raw materials). We select the location of the plant proximity to the raw material rather than
proximity to the market that is west gojjam specifically around finoteselam because there
is enough amount of castor seed as a raw material.
8.2. Plant Layout

Plant layout is a plan of optimum arrangement of facilities including personnel, operating
equipment, storage spaces material handling equipment and all other supporting services
among with the density of best structures to contain all these facilities. The overall objectives of
plant layout are to design a physical arrangement that meet the required output quality and
quantity most economically. The main objective consists of organizing and working areas with
most efficient way and at the same time satisfactory and safe for the personnel doing the work.
8.2.1. Principles of plant layout

The main principles of plant layout are listed below as follows.
Overall integration of factor
Minimum movement
Unidirectional flow

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Effective use of available place

Maximum visibility
Figure 23: Plant layout
8.3. Economic and Social benefits

The project can create employment for many persons. The project will generate 3,140,055 birr in
terms of tax revenue. The establishment of such factory will have a foreign exchange saving
effect to the country by substituting the current imports. The project will also create forward and
backward linkage with the manufacturing sector and generates income for the Government in
terms of payroll tax.
8.3.2 Environmental impact and effluent disposal

Soap is designed as a product to be used once and then flushed down the drain, so as expected,
the environmental implications of soap manufacturing process are not nearly as important as its
several other chemical processes. The two prime areas of concern include
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Safe transport and containment of the raw materials

Minimization of losses during production
Therefore, it becomes a prime responsibility of all soap & detergents manufacturers that not only
they use natural and/or such ingredients that are not harmful to environment but also take care
while transporting these raw materials as well as minimize their ill effects during soap
manufacturing process
8.3.2.1. Steps for Environment Safety during Soap Manufacturing
The three prime soaps detergents ingredients by volume & cost are perfumes, caustic and oil.
Oils & perfume are insoluble in water and if spilled can create problems, although the oils do
solidify at room temperature. These products are transported through trained carriers, and the
equipment and systems for pumping from the truck are designed carefully. Perfumes are bought
in lined steel drums that are adequately robust, and flammable perfumes are not used in the
manufacturing of soaps.
All the storage tanks are surrounded by bunds to catch the contents of the tank, in case it ruptures
or valve is failed. When the storage systems are designed, the different safety features (like
access to tank and valve) are designed in, as well as processes to deal with the product in case it
end up in the bunded area.
Inside the plant, all the process and operational areas are also bunded, and the trade waste is
piped to an interception tank before draining to the council's trade waste system. The contents of
the interception tank are consistently monitored for alkalinity or acidity, and are designed to
maintain solids or light phase chemicals in right amount. If in the case, a spill is observed in the
plant itself, a part of the interception tank can be isolated off and the consequences of the spill
neutralized before the waste is dumped.
In various cases and applications, however, potential problems can be detected and stopped
before they actually happen. At times, an off-spec product can be recycled and blended rather
than dumped, and even the wastewater can be reprocessed minimize the discharges from the
plant. In some cases, the manufacturing method itself can be closely monitored to ensure that any
losses or wastes are kept to a minimum. Consistent measurement of key characteristics, like -
electrolytic levels and the moisture both assure that the product is being designed to
specifications and the technique is functioning properly as it was designed to. Hence, by

99
following these simple tips, losses in the plant can indirectly be minimized by monitoring the
process.
8.3.2.2. Environmental implications of detergents
The manufacturing of detergent powders has some specific environmental issues, which are not
associated with other industries. These critical environmental issues of detergent manufacturing,
include -
Dust control
Volatile organic emissions
Dust present during production and transfer of the bulk powdered detergent (and powdered raw
materials) can be a serious problem. Dry and wet cyclones are used to separate out most of the
dust and all the emissions are carefully monitored. If the level of dust exceeds the acceptable
limits, suitable remedial action should be taken. Dust levels in emissions should be kept below
50 mg m-3.
8.3.2.3. Eco friendly soaps and detergents
Many soap and detergents manufacturers now make environmental friendly products, thanks to
the rising awareness of the general population as well as safety norms introduced by
governments of many countries. Apart from natural soaps, there are biodegradable soaps and
detergents that can be called eco friendly cleaning products.
8.3.2.4. Biodegradable Soaps & Detergents:
In recent times, there has been seen a strong move among the soap and detergent manufacturers
to use biodegradable ingredients in place of environmentally hazardous biologically stable
detergents used in the past. The sulphonic acid and nonionic detergents that are used to produce
both liquid and powder detergents have found to be completely biodegradable and comply with
the relevant environmental standards and guidelines. The nonionic surfactants are ethoxylated
long chain alcohols and the sulphonic acid is produced from linear alkyl benzene, primarily
dodecylbenzene.
8.3.2.5. Eco-friendly household cleaning products
Eco-friendly soaps and detergents are ones that make lesser use of chemical ingredients. The
non-addition of additives, like perfumes, color and brightening agents decreases the toxicity of
detergents. Minimal packaging also helps in reducing the harm to environment. Non-petroleum

100
surfactants or vegetable oil soaps can be used to replace synthetic surfactants; Sodium citrate and
sodium bicarbonate can be used to replace builders like phosphates; and the use of dyes and
fragrances can be reduced or eliminated.
The use of detergents can never be a completely non-polluting activity. The consumers need to
understand that the small detergent products can also be the least polluting ones and must press
for the implementation of labeling standards and regulations so that they can avail of
environmentally friendly cleaning products. The use of detergents free from non-essential
additives like perfumes, color and brightening agents in minimal packaging will go a long way in
assuring healthier and cleaner environment.
8.3.2.6. Environmental/Health sustainability
The Soap and Detergent manufacturers can contribute to the enhancement of human health and
quality of life by adopting responsible formulations and through the production and sale of
environment friendly cleaning products & ingredients. Some initiatives, which soap and
detergent manufacturers can take for environment / health sustainability, are -
 To only market products, which have proved to be safe for humans and the environment
 While production, the manufacturers should carefully consider the potential health and
environmental effects, exposures and releases, which will be associated with the
production, transportation, use and disposal of different cleaning products.
 To encourage and promote transparent communication of safety and handling
information.
 To facilitate basic research to resolve uncertainties around human and environmental
safety when they arise
 To follow the spirit and intent of all national laws and regulations
8.3.2.7. Environmental Conditions
The major environmental issues are odor, noise, air pollution, generation of hazardous
waste and effluent disposal and the following conditions shall be observed:
1. All electric motors such as stand-by generator and air- conditioning devices shall be housed
in soundproof enclosures to keep noise level within permissible limits as per the Environment
Protection (Environmental Standards for Noise) .

101
2. Flue and odorous gases shall be channeled through ducts connected to a chimney stack
which shall be designed as per good engineering practices.
3. All gaseous emissions from the plant shall be within permissible limits as per the environment
protection (Standards for Air).
4. Wastewaters shall be collected, treated and disposed of.
5. All hazardous wastes shall be collected and disposed of as per environment protection
(Standards for Hazardous Wastes)
6. Operational procedures shall be established for handling, storage of chemicals in order to
minimize accidents, risk of pollution and waste.
7. All solid wastes generated from the factory shall be collected and disposed of packaging
wastes including plastic and carton boxes shall be reused or recycled.
8. All petroleum products and other chemicals shall have secondary containment. Areas enclosed
by secondary containment shall be maintained, and all accumulated water within secondary
containment areas should be disposed of. The secondary containment shall have a storage
capacity of 110 % of the capacity of the storage tank.
9. No nuisance by way of noise dust, air pollution shall be caused to the public and surrounding
environment during site preparation, infrastructural works and during operation of the activity.
9. Conclusion and recommendations

9.1 Conclusion
The result obtained for the extraction showed average percent oil extracted was 36.6%.This
value is low relative to the literature; using N-hexane 35% up to 55%, oil was extracted. The low
yield was attributed to the nature of the seeds and difference in solvent. Moreover, the sulphation
and neutralization gave a powered detergent of high enough efficiently as seen from the result of
the foam ability test. Usually, the efficiency of washing power was assessed through the amount
of foam its capability of producing. The presence of persistent foam exemplifies a good
detergent. The foam height of 2.5cm persisted for about 4 minutes and this is good relative to the
literature 2.6cm with the standard value. The detergent formed was the result of esterification of
the castor oil. When castor oil was treated with concentrated H2SO4, it gave a complex mixture
consisting of hydrogen sulphate of ricin oleic acid in which the hydroxyl group is esterifies and a
compound in which the H2SO4 has added to the double bond. The product is known as

102
sulphated castor oil. Neutralization of this NaoH gave a detergent plus water .The reaction
proceeds at temperatures between 35-40°C. The bleaching agent (H2O2) added helped to bleach
the color of the castor oil so that semi milk color detergent was produced. PH tests showed that
the detergent exhibited basic property. This project has been under taken to extract castor oil
from its seed, refined this and used to produce a detergent. The extraction was done using hexane
as a solvent. The oil was refined by degumming to remove most gums. Sulphating and
neutralization of the refined oil gives a detergent. Other operations like bleaching where
performing to improve color, scent and texture of the detergent. The production of synthetic
detergent from castor oil was successively done. The desirable intrinsic quantities of castor oil
made it very useful in the industry, thus castor oil could serve as a good cleaning agent.
9.2. Recommendation
The oil was extracted using soxhlet extraction method; though, solvent extraction through
this method was difficult; Because t o install small scale Castor oil extraction industry,
solvent extraction method requires high investment cost due to the requirement of equipment
with well designed control system, instrumentation to recover the solvent and the need of
high electrical power to separate the solvent from the oil. For this reason, high efficiency of
mechanical pressing must be good for the oil extraction.
Liquid detergent was produced using castor oil, NaOH, sodium silicate, hydrogen peroxide
and perfumes. Consequently, using other ingredients like optical brightness and enzymes was
recommended for more good quality of synthetic detergents.
To manufacture highly qualified and demandable toilet detergent in the whole part of the world
as well as in our country Ethiopia with a minimum amount of initial financial investment is in
the hand of the person who is interested with. The selection of raw material is the first criterion,
i.e. castor seed is as a source of oil. Extraction technology and removal of the toxic chemicals by
is an excellent ways to meet these objectives.
In the first phase of the project, one should first design appropriately the production plant i.e.
which type of reactor is best for maximum conversion and which type of equipment is used for
the refining stage for detergent. In our case we are highly recommended that using stirred thank
reactor is best for maximum conversion of triglyceride in to detergent.

103
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106

Declaration: Liquid Detergent Production From Castor Seed

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LIQUID DETERGENT PRODUCTION FROM CASTOR SEED

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DEBRE BERHAN UNIVERSITY DEPARTMENT OF CHEMICAL ENGINEERING 5t h Page i

DEBRE BERHAN UNIVERSITY DEPARTMENT OF CHEMICAL ENGINEERING 5t hPage

Acronyms and Notations

DEBRE BERHAN UNIVERSITY DEPARTMENT OF CHEMICAL ENGINEERING 5t hPage

Table of Contents page

Acronyms and Notations................................................................................................................iii

1.2. Statement of the problem......................................................................................................5

1.3. Objectives of the project.......................................................................................................6

1.3.2. Specific objectives of the project...................................................................................6

1.4. Significance of the project....................................................................................................6

1.5. Scope of the project..............................................................................................................7

2.1. Castor Bean, Ricinus communis...........................................................................................8

2.2. Castor plant and its seed.....................................................................................................10

2.3. Factors affecting chemical composition of seeds...............................................................12

2.4. Castor oil.............................................................................................................................14

2.4.1. The castor oil Properties..............................................................................................15

2.4.2. Chemistry of castor oil.................................................................................................16

DEBRE BERHAN UNIVERSITY DEPARTMENT OF CHEMICAL ENGINEERING 5t hPage

2.5. Raw materials used in detergent-making............................................................................17

2.5.1. Reason for selection of castor seed..............................................................................17

2.6. Uses of castor oil................................................................................................................19

2.6.1. Industrial castor oil......................................................................................................19

2.6.2. Castor oil in food.........................................................................................................19

2.3.3. Medicinal use of castor oil...........................................................................................20

2.3.4. Castor oil as biodiesel and biofuel...............................................................................20

2.6.5. Castor meal..................................................................................................................20

2.7. Chemistry of detergents/soaps............................................................................................20

2.7.1. Classification of synthetic detergents..........................................................................21

2.7.2. Use of additives in detergent industry.........................................................................24

2.8. Process description.............................................................................................................26

2.8.1. Oil production process description..............................................................................26

2.8.2. Seed preparation (Pre-treatment of castor seeds)........................................................26

2.8.3. Extraction of castor oil.................................................................................................28

2.8.4. Castor oil refining........................................................................................................30

3. Materials and Chemicals............................................................................................................35

3.1. Raw materials.....................................................................................................................35

3.4.1. Pre-treatment of castor seeds.......................................................................................37

3.4.2. Extraction of castor oil.................................................................................................38

3.5.1. Experiment one: extraction of castor oil......................................................................38

DEBRE BERHAN UNIVERSITY DEPARTMENT OF CHEMICAL ENGINEERING 5t hPage v

3.5.2. Refining of castor oil...................................................................................................40

3.5.3. Production of detergent................................................................................................40

3.5.4. Experiment two: Detergent production (Saponification)............................................41

4. Result and discussion.................................................................................................................43

4.1.1. Determination of the moisture content of castor seed.................................................43

4.1.2. Characterization of the castor oil.................................................................................43

4.1.2. Characterization of detergent.......................................................................................47

5. Market study and plant capacity................................................................................................55

5.1. Past Supply and Present Demand.......................................................................................55

5.2 Demand projection...............................................................................................................56

5.3. Plant Capacity.....................................................................................................................57

5.3.1. Production Program.....................................................................................................57

5.4. Material and energy balance...............................................................................................57