Communication

How did humans develop the ability to communicate? Are humans the only creatures on
earth that communicate? What purpose does communication serve in our lives? Answers to
these historical, anthropological, and social-scientific questions provide part of the diversity
of knowledge that makes up the field of communication studies.

Communication has been called the most practical of the academic disciplines. Even the most
theoretical and philosophical communication scholars are also practitioners of
communication.

Some Definitions-of Communication

1) Communication is an exchange of facts, ideas, opinions or emotions by two or more

persons.

2) Communication is giving, receiving or exchanging ideas, information, signals or

messages through appropriate media, enabling individuals or groups to persuade, to seek
information, to give information or to express emotions.

3) A process by which information is exchanged between individuals through a common

system of symbols, signs, or behaviour.

4) communication as the process of generating meaning by sending and receiving verbal and
nonverbal symbols and signs that are influenced by multiple contexts.

Types of Communication vary in terms of participants, channels used, and contexts.

Intrapersonal, Interpersonal, Group, Organizational, Mass Communication.

• Intrapersonal communication is communication with oneself and occurs only inside

our heads.
• Interpersonal communication is communication between people whose lives
mutually influence one another and typically occurs in dyads, which means in pairs.
Involves communication between 2 people, both verbal and non verbal
communication plays an important role in receiving and sending messages.
Feedback in this kind of communication is immediate.
• Stages of interpersonal communication - Phatic. Personal. Intimate.
Phatic Stage: this is the initial, introductory or exploratory stage of communication.
It begins with greeting someone and the conversation in this stage is patterned on
 beliefs, cultural norms and values of the communicator.
Personal stage: Followed by phatic stage, the communication in the second stage is
more personal e.g., discussions involving one’s family, profession, health etc. Most of
the formal communications end at this stage only.
Intimate stage: This stage is often reserved for close friends or family, where
communication is informal and involves revelation of various emotions.
• Group communication occurs when three or more people communicate to achieve a
shared goal.
• Mass communication occurs when messages are sent to large audiences using print
or electronic media.

Non Verbal Communication

Communicating non-verbally involves

• Visual cues (visual acuity)

• Kinesics (Body language) involves body posture, facial expressions, body contact,
outward appearance. Gestures (body language), The word kinesics comes from the
root word kinesis, which means “movement,” and refers to the study of hand, arm,
body, and face movements.
• Oculesics (study of eye movement)- Eye contact serves several communicative
functions ranging from regulating interaction to monitoring interaction, to conveying
information, to establishing interpersonal connections. In terms of regulating
communication, we use eye contact to signal to others that we are ready to speak or
we use it to cue others to speak.
• Chronemics (study of role of time in communication),
• Haptics (communication through touch)
• Proxemics (study the use of space in communication). Proxemics is a theory of non-
verbal communication that explains how people perceive and use space to achieve
communication goals. Introduced by anthropologist Edward T. Hall in the 1960s.
Hall believed that proxemics could not only help illuminate relationships and
communication goals, but also explain other cultural and anthropological
phenomena, such as the organization of towns and living spaces,
 • Haptics Non-verbal communication develops a social-emotional development from
a childhood haptics, a non-verbal communication method that communicates
through the sense of touch in humans and animals in the real world. Communicating
through non-verbal haptics involves handshake, pat, kiss, slap, hug, massage, hit,
kick, embrace, tickle etc. Each touch communicates a unique message like fear,
disgust, love, encouragement, gratitude, sympathy, anger, sex, pain, violence etc.
Moreover, haptic communication depends on environment and interpretations such
as on who, why, when and differs with setting and purpose as professional,
friendship, guide, punishment, sympathy, arousal, attention, greeting, seeking, etc.

• Paralanguage - It refers to the non-verbal elements of communication used to modify

meaning and convey emotion. Paralanguage may be expressed consciously or
unconsciously, and it includes the pitch, volume, and, in some cases, intonation of
speech. Para Language includes the voice & tonal qualities which accompany speech
e.g., volume, voice pitch, range, tempo, resonance, etc.

Models of Communication

Communication is a complex process, and it is difficult to determine where or with whom a

communication encounter starts and ends. Models of communication simplify the process
by providing a visual representation of the various aspects of a communication encounter.
Some models explain communication in more detail than others, but even the most complex
model still doesn’t recreate what we experience in even a moment of a communication
encounter. Models still serve a valuable purpose for students of communication because
they allow us to see specific concepts and steps within the process of communication, define
communication, and apply communication concepts.

The transmission model of communication describes communication as a linear, one-way

process in which a sender intentionally transmits a message to a receiver This model focuses
on the sender and message within a communication encounter. Although the receiver is
included in the model, this role is viewed as more of a target or end point rather than part of
an ongoing process. We are left to presume that the receiver either successfully receives and
understands the message.

David Berlo’s SMCR Model of Communication represents the process of communication in

its simplest form. The acronym SMCR stands for Sender, Message, Channel, and Receiver.
Berlo’s SMCR Model of Communication (1960) describes the different components that form
the basic process of communication. Because this communication tool also emphasises the
coding and decoding of the message, it can be used for more efficient communication.

Criticism of Berlo’s SMCR model of communication:

1. There is a lack of feedback. The effects are practically unknown.
2. It does not mention the barriers to communication.
3. There is no room for noise.
4. It is a rather complex model.
5. It is a linear model of communication.
6. It requires people to be on the same level for effective communication to happen.
However, that rarely happens in everyday life.

Rhetorical triangle.

Aristotle taught that a speaker’s ability to persuade an audience is based on how well the
speaker appeals to that audience in three different areas: logos, ethos, and pathos.
Considered together, these appeals form what later rhetoricians have called the rhetorical
triangle.
Logos appeals to reason. Logos can also be thought of as the text of the argument, as well as
how well one has argued his/her point.
Ethos appeals to the ones character. Ethos can also be thought of as the role of the speaker in
the argument, and how credible his/her argument is.
Pathos appeals to the emotions and the sympathetic imagination, as well as to beliefs and
values. A compelling argument, sales pitch, speech, or commercial ideally uses elements of
all three strategies.

Lasswell Model of Comm.

Harold Dwight Lasswell, the American political scientist states that a convenient
way to describe an act of communication is to answer the following questions.

The Model: Who - Says What -In Which Channel -To Whom- With what effect?

Advantage of lasswell model- It is Easy and Simple, It suits for almost all types of
communication, the concept of effect is highlighted

Disadvantage of lasswell model- Feedback not mentioned, Concept of Noise not mentioned,
Linear Model

Example:

CNN NEWS – A water leak from Japan’s tsunami-crippled nuclear power station resulted in
about 100 times the permitted level of radioactive material flowing into the sea, operator
Tokyo Electric Power Co said on Saturday.

Who – TEPC Operator

What – Radioactive material flowing into sea

Channel – Television medium

Whom – Public

Effect – Alert the people of japan from the radiation.

Shannon-Weaver model of communication”.

In 1948, Shannon was an American mathematician, Electronic engineer and Weaver was an
American scientist both of them join together to write an article in “Bell System Technical
Journal” called “A Mathematical Theory of Communication” and also called as “Shannon-
Weaver model of communication”.

The model deals with various concepts like Information source, transmitter, Noise, channel,
message, receiver, channel, information destination, encode and decode.

Sender : The originator of message or the information source selects desire message
Encoder : The transmitter which converts the message into signals
Decoder : The reception place of the signal which converts signals into message. A reverse
process of encode
Receiver : The destination of the message from sender
Noise: The messages are transferred from encoder to decoder through channel. During this
process the messages may distracted or affected by physical noise like horn sounds, thunder
and crowd noise or encoded signals may distract in the channel during the transmission
process which affect the communication flow or the receiver may not receive the correct
message
Noise is anything that interferes with a message being sent between participants in a
communication encounter. Even if a speaker sends a clear message, noise may interfere with
a message being accurately received and decoded.
 Communication noise means any barrier to the effective communication process. Noises bar
the effective communication process between senders and receivers. Noise bars the
effectiveness of the communication process; therefore, it is also known as the barrier to
communication. Five Types of noises in communication are:

1. Physical Noise
2. Physiological Noise
3. Psychological Noise
4. Syntactical Noise
5. Cultural Noise

1. Physical Noise in Communication

Physical noise is the external and unnecessary sound that obstacle to effective
communication. It is also a communication disturbance created by the environment.
Therefore, physical noise is also known as environmental noise in the communication
process. Physical noise - is any external or environmental stimulus that distracts us from
receiving the intended message sent by a communicator

Physiological noise is a barrier created by the communicator’s physical condition. Usually,

physical illness and weakness produce physical noise, and this noise obstacle to effective
communication.

Psychological noise is a communication barrier created from the

communicator’s psychological factors, for example, values, beliefs, attitudes, and behaviors.
This type of noise interrupts our minds to concentrate on listening. People don’t like to listen
or talk about those topics that make them down or not interesting.

Semantic Noise in Communication

Semantic noise is a communication barrier created from confusion over the meaning of
words. Semantic noise occurred because of different meanings of the message between the
sender and receiver. It also refers to the wrong grammatical sentence that makes the receiver
unable to understand the meaning. Communication scholars term it as a syntactical barrier
or noise.
Syntactical noise is a grammatically wrong sentence in the receiver unable to accomplish
the proper meaning. Using difficult language during computer programming is an example
of syntactical noise.

Cultural Noise -

Cultural noise is a communication barrier created from the wrong explanation of another
person’s behaviors. Actually, cultural noise is produced due to the wrong meaning of
messages; therefore, it is a little similar to semantic noise. Especially, cultural noise is created
from nonverbal communication cues, for example, posture, gesture, eye contact, space,
touch, and dress-up. The meaning of nonverbal cues is not the same in every culture and
society. Conflicting messages are part of the cultural noises in communication.

Magic Bullet Theory

The Hypodermic needle theory or magic bullet theory is one of the earliest theories on
media. The theory was developed during the WW II and is a reflection of the fear generated
by media propaganda during those times. The hypodermic needle theory states that media
has a direct, immediate and powerful effect on the audiences. The theory is a linear
communication theory which postulates that media messages are directed injected into the
brains of the audiences. The theory suggests that mass media could directly influence a large
number of people by ‘shooting’ or ‘injecting’ them with the information. The theory
graphically suggests that the message in media is the bullet fired from media gun straight
into the viewer’s head. Or the hidden messages in media are injected into the individual
passive audiences.

The Cultivation Theory

Was proposed by George Gerbner. It is one of the core theories of media effects. According
to the theory, people who watch television frequently are more likely to be influenced by the
messages from the world of television. The influence goes to such an extent that their world
view and perceptions start reflecting what they repeatedly see and hear on television.

Television offers a plethora of ideas and conceptions on a variety of social and cultural
dynamics like race, gender, sexuality, etc. This constant exposure to the media content
cultivates specific values, beliefs, attitudes and desires in people.
George Gerbner placed television viewers into three categories: light viewers (less than 2 hours a
day), medium viewers (2–4 hours a day), and heavy viewers (more than 4 hours a day). He
found that heavy viewers held beliefs and opinions similar to those portrayed on television,
which demonstrated the compound effect of media influence

Mean world syndrome

Is a hypothesized cognitive bias wherein people may perceive the world to be more
dangerous than it actually is, due to long-term moderate to heavy exposure to violence-
related content on mass media. The belief that the world is more violent and brutal than it
really is. In most of the surveys conducted by Gerbner, the results revealed a small but
statistically significant relationship between television consumption and fear of becoming
the victim of a crime.

Proponent of the syndrome—Was coined by communications professor George Gerbner in

the 1970s—assert that viewers who are exposed to violence-related content can experience
increased fear, anxiety, pessimism and heightened state of alert in response to perceived
threats. This is because media (namely television) consumed by viewers has the power to
directly influence and inform their attitudes, beliefs and opinions about the world.

Agenda setting theory

Maxwell McCombs and Donald L. Shaw
The influence of media affects the presentation of the reports and issues made in the news
that affects the public mind. The news reports make it in a way that when a particular news
report is given importance and attention than other news the audience will automatically
perceive it as the most important news and information are given to them. The priorities of
which news comes first and then the next are set by the media according to how people
think and how much influence will it have among the audience.

Priming - the media gives the utmost importance to a certain event such that it gives people
the impression that that particular news is the most important one. This is done on a daily
basis. The selected news report is carried on as a heading or covered regularly for months.

Framing - Framing is a process of selective control. It has two meanings.The way in which
news content is typically shaped and contextualized within the same frame of reference.
Audience adopts the frames of reference and to see the world in a similar way. This is how
people attach importance to a piece of news and perceive its context within which an issue is
viewed.

The Propaganda Model of Media

It was introduced by Edward. S. Herman and Noam Chomsky in their book ‘Manufacturing
Consent – The Political Economy of the Mass Media’. This theory states how propaganda
works in a mass media. The model tries to understand how the population is manipulated,
and how the social, economic, political attitudes are fashioned in the minds of people
through propaganda. Herman and Chomsky mostly concentrated on American population
and media for their research but this theory is universally applicable.

Herman and Chomsky call the factors which misshape news as filters. The news is being
filtered by each of these factors before they reaches its audience or general public. The five
filters are.

• Size, Ownership and Profit orientation of mass media

• Advertising
• Sourcing
• Flak
• Anti-Communism and fear

The Uses and Gratification theory discusses the effects of the media on people. It explains
how people use the media for their own need and get satisfied when their needs are
fulfilled. In other words, it can be said that the theory argues what people do with media
rather than what media does to people. Also, this theory is in contradiction to the Magic
Bullet theory, which states that the audience is passive. This theory has a user/audience-
centered approach. Unlike other theoretical perspectives, UGT holds that audiences are
responsible for choosing media to meet their desires and needs to achieve gratification.
There are several needs and gratification for people. They are categorized into five needs.

▪ Cognitive needs
▪ Affective needs
▪ Personal Integrative needs
▪ Social Integrative needs
▪ Tension free needs
Media Selectivity Theory
The studies of American researcher Carl Hovland in particular concluded that people are
very selective in how they use media; in the topics they expose themselves to, in how they
interpret information, and in how they retain information obtained through the media.
Thus, the theory points out that people are selective about their use of media.
Selective Exposure theory Selective Exposure means that people expose themselves and
access only those communications which are in accordance with their established beliefs and
convictions. They tend to avoid those messages which are against their point of view.

Selective Perception theory Selective perception observes that people often interpret facts to
suit their existing biases. Once the individuals have selectively exposed themselves to the
messages in accordance with their preference, they tend ‘read into’ the message whatever
suits their needs. This process is called selective perception.

Selective retention notes that people remember messages that support their opinion longer
than they remember opposing messages, which often unconsciously are forgotten and set
aside. As with selective exposure and selective perception, selective retention is likely to
reinforce existing beliefs and attitudes.

The knowledge gap hypothesis

Explains that knowledge, like other forms of wealth, is often differentially distributed
throughout a social system. Specifically, the hypothesis predicts that "as the infusion of mass
media information into a social system increases, segments of the population with higher
socioeconomic status tend to acquire this information at a faster rate than the lower status
segments, so that the gap in knowledge between these segments tends to increase rather
than decrease".

Phillip J. Tichenor, George A. Donohue, and Clarice N. Olien, first proposed the
knowledge gap hypothesis in 1970.

In simple words , as the access to mass media increases those particular segments of
population inevitable gain information faster and hence the wide gap increases with the
lower economic status of the population.
In this theory knowledge is treated as any other commodity which is not distributed equally
throughout the society and the people at the top of the ladder has more easy access to it. The
knowledge gap can result in an increased gap between people of lower and higher
socioeconomic status. The attempt to improve people’s life with information via the mass
media might not always work the way this is planned. Mass media might have the effect of
increasing the difference gap between members of social classes.
Good Morning
Welcome ! !
• Verbal communication refers to the production of spoken
language to send an intentional message to a listener.

• Anything and everything used to express in a construct

language is verbal communication

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 • Aoccdrnig to a rscheearch at
Cmabrigde Uinervtisy, it deosn't
mttaer in waht oredr the ltteers in a
wrod are, the olny iprmoetnt tihng is
taht the frist and lsat ltteer be at the
rghit pclae. The rset can be a toatl
mses and you can sitll raed it wouthit
porbelm. Tihs is bcuseae the huamn
mnid deos not raed ervey lteter by
istlef, but the wrod as a wlohe.
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 • Some people say they eyes in the back of her head. Now,
a New Zealand Airline wants to put temporary tattoos on
the back of the heads of bald people.

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• The country’s national airline is looking for 70 bald men
or men with shaved heads to stand in lines at three
airports while wearing temporary tattoos on the back of
their heads.

• That way the people in line behind them will see the
message. The tattoos will promote a new check-in system
to reduce waiting times.

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• Shaving their heads

• Displaying the ad copy for two weeks

• Received either a round-trip ticket to New Zealand

(worth about $1,200)

• Or $777 in cash

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• 6,000 applied online

• Participants were paid 100 pounds (about $149)

• Wink at people 1,000 times

• Or 10 pence a wink

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Oral and non- oral messages expressed by other
than linguistic means
 John McEnroe
Seven Grand Slam singles titles, four US Open and 3 Wimbledon,
and nine men's Grand Slam doubles titles.
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=C8Ny
c9jzSDg
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 Certain emotions are universal to all humans, regardless of
culture: anger, fear, surprise, disgust, happiness and
sadness

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The Expression of the Emotions in
Man and Animals,1872
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 Navarasa
Shringara Hasyam

Raudram Karuna

Bibhatsam Bhayanaka

Vīra Adbhuta

Shantam
Vātsalya Bhakti
• These are love (shringaara) , laughter (haasya), kind-
heartedness or compassion (karuna), anger (roudra), courage
(veera), fear (bhayaanaka), disgust (bheebhatsya), wonder or
surprise (adbhutha) and peace or tranquility (shaantha)

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 The most crucial portion of the body is the face. And the
most important part of the face are the eyes- the eyelids, the
eyebrows and the regions around the eyes

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Being watched is as important as watching others
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 Kinesics

The study of Body language and

Gestures
Feb 2012
Movie Theatres
Micro Encapsulation
“75% of emotions are based
on what we smell rather
than what
we see
&
hear.”
Haptics
 Paralanguage

Sounds other than the linguistic means

Revels the speakers intentions and

emotions

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 Paralanguage

• Hissing

• Whistling

• Clapping

• Napping

• Crying
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 • Underlining

• ALL CAPS

• Bold Lettering

• Colouring

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 laughing
An individual’s laughter greatly mirrors their own
personality

The individual’s general attitude towards life.

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 Guffaw:

People who have this deep-belly laugh are viewed

as down to earth, and sociable

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 Giggle

• Considered to be very naughty

• They prefer to let others do it and just cheer from the side

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 Snort

Considered to be people who are shy and modest

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 Snicker
• Mischievous and witty people

• They tend to find humour on most things compared to an

average person.

• People who constantly snicker, are carefree and easy to get

along with.

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 Mirthless laugh
• Who laughs loud with their mouth open

• With a humourless expression

• Don’t want to appear rude or impolite

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Good Afternoon

Welcome !
 Choose

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Click to add text
Click to add text
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Scenario
 • Growth of media

• Availability of more media

• Content bombardment

• Greater privilege to select the

medium and media contents

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Selective Exposure
Some are exposed to certain media
messages while others are not
Tendency is to expose themselves to
messages
that are consistent with their
preexisting attitudes and belief
 Attitude:
A hypothetical construct that
represents an individual's degree of
like or dislike for an item

Belief:
Psychological state in which an
individual holds a proposition or
premise to be true

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Other Factors
Reach
Accessibility

Click to add text

Affordability
Age
Cultural Acceptability, Taboos, etc.
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 Classroom discussion

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Individuals prefer exposure to
arguments supporting their
position over those
supporting other/opposite
positions
Selective Attention
People have distinct psychological nature
Same media different perception
 Selective Perception

The tendency to interpret messages

in line with one"s existing

attitudes and beliefs

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Values
Opinions
What if one is exposed to confronting
unsympathetic material
They do not perceive it

Or they make it fit for their existing

perception
 Example

F. Allport
&
Lepkin (1945)

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Gordon Willard Allport
 Finding
More Information

more carefully thinking

Lesser

Belief on inner impulses

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 Person has
ability
to retain
certain
messages

Ability to
ignoring &
not retain
some messages
 People tend to
remember best &
longest the info.
that is consistent
with their
preexisting
attitudes and
beliefs
 Attitude Change Research
Identifies 3 forms of Selectivity

1. Selective Exposure

3. Selective Perception

3. Selective Retention

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• "Mass-media ordinarily does not serve as a
necessary and sufficient cause of audience
effect, but rather functions through a nexus of
mediating factors and influences. These
mediating factors render mass-
communication as a contributory agent in a
process of reinforcing the existing conditions."
 Joseph Klapper (1960)

Mass Communication
do not
directly influence people,
but just
reinforce people’s predisposition

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 Harold Dwilight Lasswell

• American Political Scientist born in 1902

• Professor of Law at Yale university

• Analyzed the Nazi propaganda in World War II

• Developed the Lasswell Formula in 1948

 The background for the model

• One of the early conceptualization of communication

• Primarily concerned with mass communication and

propaganda

• Model intends us to direct the kind of research we could

conduct for further understanding. Eg – Media effect,
Control analysis

• Lasswell extensively studied propaganda techniques

through Content Analysis described in the model
Graphic Representation of the
Model
 5 Components
• Who refers the research area is called “Control
Analysis”

• Says what →“Content Analysis”

• In which channel → “Media Analysis”

• To Whom →“Audience Analysis”

• With What Effect →“Effect Analysis”

 Explanation
• Who – Source. Therefore, the Controlling factor. What are
they hidden agendas, vested interests?

• What – Analyze the Content message. Should emphasize

on:
• Representation of the subject matter .Eg-women on
TV
• Frequency
• Intensity

• Which – Channel. Media – TV channels, Radio stations etc

• Whom – Receiver - Audience/Readership

• What effect – Impact of the communication

 EXAMPLE , APPLICATION
• Example:
• CNN NEWS – A water leak from Japan’s tsunami-crippled nuclear
power station resulted in about 100 times the permitted level of
radioactive material flowing into the sea, operator Tokyo Electric
Power Co said on Saturday.

• Who – Electric Company

• What – Radioactive material flowing into sea
• Channel – CNN NEWS (Television medium)
• Whom – Public
• Effect – people’s response to the message
 Advantages
• It is Easy and Simple

• It suits for almost all types of

communication
 Limitations
 Noise not mentioned

 Feedback not mentioned

 One way process

 Linear Model assumes that there is clear cut beginning

and end to communication

 Purpose of communication undefined. Also, the

circumstances under which the communication was
done has been ignored. These have been incorporated
by Philip Braddock in his works
Good Afternoon
Welcome
 Decline of hypodermic needle
theory led to the emergence
stalagmite theories

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 Stalagmite theories
Mediated experiences

Induce long term effects

Very difficult to measure

Effects - like stalagmite drippings

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Dr. George Gerbner
• Born on August 8, 1919 in Budapest, Hungary .

• Bachelor’s degree in journalism from

the University of California, Berkeley in 1942.
•
• He was a Professor and head of the Annenberg
School of Communications, in the University of
Pennsylvania.

• He developed the Cultivation Theory

 Cultural Indicators research

• Monitored TV program

• Analyzed viewer perceptions

• Made cultivation analysis

• Mainstreaming and Resonance

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 Factors
• TV has become the main source of storytelling

• TV shows -mainstream entertainment

• Easy 2 access, and easy 2 understand

• Regularly TV viewers tend to see the world in the way

television portrays it

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 What are WE

• How Many hours we watch TV

• 4 or more hours - heavy TV viewers

• More than 2 less than 4 hours – Moderate

• Less than 2 hours - light viewers.

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 Mainstreaming

• People who viewed more television

• Despite their race or socioeconomic class

• Had more mainstreamed and homogenous

views

• Perceptions are converged with those

represented on TV

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 Resonance
• Pertinent ideas and themes on TV that hold relevance
for viewers

• “resonate” and “reinforce”

• “double dose” - strengthens perceptions

• Relating experience 2TV- stronger cultivation

• Believe that this experience is a very real and common

one
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 • Compared to actual demographics

• Women

• Minorities

• lower social class

• Are under-represented on television shows

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 Mean World Syndrome
• Idea that the world is worse than it actually is

• Believe that the world is a dangerous, scary

place where others can't be trusted

• The overuse of television is creating a

homogeneous and fearful populace.

• It blurs distinctions between social groups

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 No Effect

• Not everyone is successfully cultivated

• Who watch little TV are not affected

• People who talk about what they see

• Less likely to alter their view of reality

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 Criticism

• What is consider violence

• Assigning numerical value to viewing

• Definition of ‘heavy’ needs to be reexamined

• Only recognizes dramatic daytime and prime-time

television shows overlooks other genre

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 Summary
The television creates

new and

reinforces

old perceptions

of social reality
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 Catharsis Theory

Greek word katharsis, which literally

translated means "a cleansing or purging

Aristotle – Tragedy Plays

Sigmund Freud- Watching Fights

Feshbach and Singer- Experiment

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Feshbach and Singer- Experiment

• A sample of boys aged from 8 to 18 chosen

• They were observed over six weeks.

• They were drawn from three private schools and two boys' homes.

• TV viewing was prescribed for them.

• The boys were assigned at random to groups, some of whom saw

only 'aggressive' programmes, others only 'non-aggressive'
programmes.
• The conclusion from the research was that those who watched
aggressive TV seemed to come out of the experiment with reduced
aggression. This finding suggested that violent media output might
have a cathartic effect.

• The large amount of violence in the mass media is often justified by

the concept of catharsis.
• Watching aggressive media output, it is proposed, does not make

viewers more aggressive; quite the contrary - since the vicarious

aggression experienced through the media purges the viewer of

aggression, the result of watching violence is less aggression.

 Numbing Effect

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• Bushman and Anderson demonstrated that exposure to violent
media produces physiological desensitization—lowering heart rate
and skin conductance—when viewing scenes of actual violence a
short time later.

• Two new studies conducted by University of Michigan professor Brad

Bushman and Iowa State University professor Craig Anderson.
Study 01
• 320 college students chosen for the study

• Divided them into two groups-

• One group played a violent and the other group played a nonviolent
video game

• For approximately 20 minutes.

• A fight was staged that ended with the "victim" sustaining a sprained
ankle and groaning in pain.

• People who had played a violent game took 73 seconds to help the
victim

• People who had played a non- violent game took 16 seconds to help
the victim

• People who had played a violent game took significantly longer to

help the victim than those who played a nonviolent game
Study 02
• The participants were 162 adult moviegoers.

• The researchers staged a minor emergency outside the theatre.

• A young woman with a bandaged ankle and crutches "accidentally"

dropped her crutches and struggled to retrieve them.

• The researchers timed how long it took moviegoers to retrieve the

crutches.
• Half were tested before they went into the theater, to establish the
helpfulness of people and half were tested after seeing the movie.

• Participants who had just watched a violent movie took over 26

percent longer to help than either people going into the theater or
people who had just watched a nonviolent movie.
• The current research demonstrates that consumption of violent media also affect
one's willingness to offer help to an injured person

• Violent video games and movies make people numb to the pain and suffering of
others.

• "People exposed to media violence are less helpful to others in need because they
are 'comfortably numb' to the pain and suffering of others.” - Numbing Effect
• "Violent Media Numb Viewers To The Pain Of Others." ScienceDaily.
20 February 2009.
• <www.sciencedaily.com/releases/2009/02/090219202831.htm>.
Any Questions

Thank You
Good afternoon
Welcome !!
 Agenda-setting
• It describes the "ability of the news media to
influence the importance placed on the topics of
the public agenda.
•
• The study of agenda-setting describes the way media
attempts to influence the media consumers, and
establish a hierarchy of news prevalence.
•
• The idea of Agenda Setting began in 1922 with Walter Lippmann’s Public Opinion.
•
• "The World Outside And The Pictures In Our Heads”
•

• Our perception of reality was skewed.

• The media’s portrayal of current events was only that of the media’s; viewers do
not experience these events first hand.

• Therefore the opinion of media becomes or own opinions.

History
The Theory developed by Maxwell McCombs and Donald Shaw in the
late 1960s

• “Mass media have the ability to transfer the salience of items on their
news agendas to the public agenda.”
•
• “We judge as important what the media judge as important.”
•
Political Scientist Bernard Cohen states ..

• “The press may not be successful much of the time in telling people
what to think, but it is stunningly successful in telling them what to
think about.”
• Agenda setting is a social science theory
•

• The theory also suggests that media has a great influence to their

audience by instilling what they should think about, instead of what

they actually think.

Two distinct consequences of agenda setting effects

1. Forming opinions
2.
3.
2. Priming opinions through an emphasis on particular issues.
• Nations with more political power receive higher media exposure.

• The agenda-setting by media is driven by the Media Bias on things

such as Politics Econnomy and culture, etc

• News media have a large influence on audiences in terms of which

stories are considered newsworthy and how much prominence and

space and time are given to them.

•
•
 Priming
• The media gives the utmost importance to a certain event such that it gives
people the impression that that particular news is the most important one.
•
• This is done on a regular basis.
•
• The selected news report is carried on as a heading or covered regularly for
months.
•
• For example, terms such as headlines, special news features, discussions,
expert opinions are used.
•
• Media primes news by repeating the news and giving it more importance.
FRAMING

• The basis of framing theory is that the media focuses attention on

certain events and then places them within a field of meaning.

 Framing
• Choosing the news angle
•
• Selecting the sources (and avoiding others)
•
• Formulating the headline
•
• The lead of a news story and selecting the visual image
• The media do not reflect reality; they filter and shape it.
•
• Media concentration on a few issues and subjects leads the public to
perceive those issues as more important than other issues.
•
 Criticism

• Media users are not ideal. The people may not pay attention to details.

• The effect is weakened for people who have made up their mind.

• Media cannot create problems. They can only alter the level of awareness,

priorities, importance, etc.

•
Any Questions

Thank You !!
Good Afternoon
Welcome
 Quick Recap
•
• Stalagmite Theories
•
• George Gerbner - Cultural Indicators Research
•
• Monitored and did a content analysis of TV and as well Analyzed viewer
perceptions

• Mainstreaming and Resonance

•
• Mean World Syndrome
•
• Catharsis - Cleansing or purging -Feshbach and Singer- Experiment
•
•
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•
Numbing Effect

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• University of Michigan Professor Brad Bushman and Iowa State
University professor Craig Anderson demonstrated that exposure to
violent media produces physiological desensitization—lowering
heart rate and skin conductance—when viewing scenes of actual
violence a short time later.

• Two other new studies where conducted by Bushman and Anderson

Study 01
• 320 college students chosen for the study
•
• Divided them into two groups
•
• One group played a violent and the other group played a nonviolent
video game
•
• For approximately 20 minutes.
•
• A fight was staged that ended with the "victim" sustaining a sprained
ankle and groaning in pain.
•
• People who had played a violent game took 73 seconds to help the
victim
•
• People who had played a non- violent game took 16 seconds to help
the victim
•
• People who had played a violent game took significantly longer to
help the victim than those who played a nonviolent game
 Study 02
• The participants were 162 adult moviegoers.

• The researchers staged a minor emergency outside the theatre.

•
• A young woman with a bandaged ankle and crutches "accidentally"
dropped her crutches and struggled to retrieve them.
•
• The researchers timed how long it took moviegoers to retrieve the
crutches.
• Half were tested before they went into the theater, to establish the
helpfulness of people and half were tested after seeing the movie.

• Participants who had just watched a violent movie took over 26

percent longer to help than either people going into the theater or
people who had just watched a nonviolent movie.
•
• The current research demonstrates that consumption of violent media also
affect one's willingness to offer help to an injured person
•
• Violent video games and movies make people numb to the pain and suffering
of others.
•
• "People exposed to media violence are less helpful to others in need because
they are 'comfortably numb' to the pain and suffering of others.” - Numbing
Effect
• "Violent Media Numb Viewers To The Pain Of Others." ScienceDaily.
20 February 2009.
• <www.sciencedaily.com/releases/2009/02/090219202831.htm>.
•

Media Dependency Theory

• Sandra Ball-Rokeach and Melvin DeFleur proposed the “Dependency
theory” in 1976.

• Media Dependency theory is one of the theories, first of its kind which
regards audience as an active part in communication process.

• Postulate- There is an internal link between media, audience and large

social system.
• The audience learning from the real life is limited.

• They consume media to get more information to fulfil their needs.

• An extensive use of media generates dependent relation in audience.

• Also Media can able to create dependence relationship with target

audiences to achieve their goals by using its media power.
• The active audience chooses the media dependence on their
individual needs and other factors such as economic conditions,
society and culture.
•

• If alternative source fulfil the audience needs, then it will reciprocally

decrease the media dependence.
Example

• During 2020-21 Covid struck the world

• Many countries went into lockdown

• Due to the pandemic communication amongst people reduced

• People information needs dramatically increased and they were all

dependent on media than any other sources.
•
• In industrialized and information-based societies, individuals tend to
develop a dependency on the media to satisfy a variety of their needs.

• Since its inception, media dependency theory has generated many cross-
disciplinary studies.

• It has also served well as a theoretical basis for research.

Domestication Theory
•
• Domestication lays emphasis on the household being a significant and
meaningful sphere of media related activity.
•
•
• The new technology undergoes a phase where it is added to everyday
routines and becomes of value to the user and his environment.
• One variant of domestication theory identified three stages of
technology being adapted by users.

• Initially marvellous and strange

• Then become capable of creating greatness and horror

• And then so ordinary as to be invisible .

• Euphoria

• Moral panic

• Domestication.
•
Example 01

• Introduction of video games into society.

• Initially, there was a euphoric response to video games as it had the potential to improve hand,
eye, and brain coordination.

• Then, moral panic set in and there was a fear of violence, addiction, and obesity.

• Lastly, there was a domestication of video games with acceptance of the technology as an
ordinary part of society.
•
Example 2
Smart Phones
• Domestication views media technologies as being defined by social

actions and negotiations rather than by their technical properties.

Any Questions
•
Thank You
Good Afternoon

Welcome !
 Media
Ability to persuade the publics

Support of 2 Comm. Theories

Uses and Gratifications Theory

Agenda- Setting Hypothesis.

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 The Agenda-Setting Hypothesis

The media does not tell people

what to think;
instead it tells them
what to think
about

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 Functionalist Approach

Probes the question

what media
does to
people

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 Uses and Gratification

Probes the question

what do people
do with
Media ?

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 The Uses and Gratifications

People Seek out

media,
in order to
gratify a specific need

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 Theorists (1958)

 ELIHU KATZ,
 JAY G. BLUMLER,
 MICHAEL GUREVITCH
 The Uses and Gratifications

• Media users are highly active

• Audience have the power to control

• Which messages to take and which to leave out

• The audience influences the media

• The media changes its message to fit the

audience

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 Classroom discussion

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Why Do You Consume Media ?
 Theory

Information

Personal Identity

Integration and Social Interaction

Entertainment

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 Information

Knowing about events, conditions

Seeking advice, opinion & decision choices

Satisfying curiosity and general interest

Learning; self-education

Sense of security through knowledge

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 Personal Identity

Reinforcement of personal values

Finding models of behaviour

Identifying with valued other

Gaining insight into oneself

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 Integration and Social Interaction

Social empathy

A basis for conversation

A substitute for real-life companionship

Help to carry out social roles

Enabling one to connect with family, friends

and society

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 Entertainment
Escapism - diverted, from problems

Relaxing

Getting inherent cultural or aesthetic

enjoyment

Filling time

Emotional release

Sexual arousal
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 Example

TV Quiz
Programmes

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 Self-Rating Appeal
I
 Compare myself with the experts

 Imagine that I am on the programme

 Pleased that the side I favour has won

 Reminded of when I was in school

 Laugh at the contestants’ mistakes

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 Excitement Appeal
I

Like the excitement of a close finish

Like to forget my worries for a while

Like trying to guess the winner

Feel Good if I got the answer right

Get involved in the competition

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 Basis for Social Interaction
I
Look forward to talking about it with others

Like competing with other people

Like working together with family on Ans.

It brings the family together

It is a topic of conversation afterwards

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 Educational Appeal
I

Find I know more than I thought

Find I have improved myself

Think over some of the questions afterwards

It’s educational

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 Criticism: James Luss
 Questioned the assumption of theory

 Audiences don’t always accept the content

 Not all media is meant for gratification

 Viewers don’t always benefit from the

content

 User do not take content willingly or

independently
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 Ien Ang
Takes only individual needs

Discarded social needs

No clue to how people perceive the content

What they can get form it

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 Critic

Viewers may know about their choice

May not be able to explain fully

Media use is often habitual, ritualistic and

unselective

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