SOCIAL SCIENCE RESEARCH:

PRINCIPLES, METHODS, AND PRACTICES

ANOL BHATTACHERJEE

Global Text Project

 SOCIAL SCIENCE RESEARCH:
PRINCIPLES, METHODS, AND PRACTICES

Anol Bhattacherjee, Ph.D.

University of South Florida
Tampa, Florida, USA
abhatt@usf.edu

Second Edition
Copyright © 2012 by Anol Bhattacherjee

A free textbook published under the Creative Commons Attribution 3.0 License
The Global Text Project is funded by the Jacobs Foundation, Zurich, Switzerland
 Table of Contents

Preface.................................................................................................................................................................................. 2

Introduction to Research

1. Science and Scientific Research ..................................................................................................................... 4

2. Thinking like a Researcher ............................................................................................................................ 12

3. The Research Process ...................................................................................................................................... 19

4. Theories in Scientific Research .................................................................................................................... 27

Basics of Empirical Research

5. Research Design ................................................................................................................................................. 37

6. Measurement of Constructs .......................................................................................................................... 44

7. Scale Reliability and Validity ........................................................................................................................ 56

8. Sampling ................................................................................................................................................................ 66

Data Collection

9. Survey Research................................................................................................................................................. 74

10. Experimental Research................................................................................................................................... 84

11. Case Research ..................................................................................................................................................... 94

12. Other Qualitative Research ........................................................................................................................ 104

Data Analysis

13. Qualitative Analysis ...................................................................................................................................... 113

14. Quantitative Analysis: Descriptive Statistics ...................................................................................... 117

15. Quantitative Analysis: Inferential Statistics ........................................................................................ 125

Epilogue

16. Research Ethics ............................................................................................................................................... 132

Appendix ........................................................................................................................................................................ 138

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 Preface

This book is designed to introduce doctoral and graduate students to the process of
scientific research in the social sciences, business, education, public health, and related
disciplines. This book is based on my own lecture materials developed over a decade of
teaching the doctoral-level class on Research Methods at the University of South Florida.

The first and most important question a potential reader or instructor should have
about this book is how is it different from other text books in the market? Well, there are four
primary differences. First, unlike other text books, this book is not just about “research
methods” but about the entire “research process” from start to end. Research method is one
phase in that research process, and possibly the most structured and the simplest one. Most
text books cover the research method section in depth, but leave out less structured, more
challenging, and probably more important topics such as theorizing and thinking like a
researcher, which are often prerequisites of empirical research. In my experience, most
doctoral students become fairly competent at research methods during their course work, but
struggle to generate interesting or useful research questions or build scientific theories. To
address this deficit, I have devoted entire chapters to topics such as “Thinking Like a
Researcher” and “Theories in Scientific Research”, which are essential skills for a junior
researcher.

Second, the book is succinct and compact by design. While writing the book, I decided
to focus only on the “essence” of research, and not fill pages with clutter that can divert the
students’ attention to less relevant or tangential issues. Most doctoral-level seminars include a
fair complement of “readings” drawn from the respective discipline. This book is designed to
complement those readings by summarizing all essential research concepts in one compact
volume, rather than to burden students with a large text book on top of their assigned readings.

Third, this book is free in its download version. Not just the current edition but all
future editions in perpetuity. The book will also be available in Kindle e-Book and Apple iBook
format, as well as in an on-demand paperback version, at a nominal cost. Many people have
asked me why I’m giving away something for free when I can make money selling it? Well, not
just to stop my students from constantly complaining about the high price of text books, but
also because I believe that scientific knowledge should not be constrained by access barriers
such as price and access. Scientific progress can only occur if students and academics across
the world have affordable access to the best that science can offer, and this free book is my
humble effort to that cause. However, free should not imply “lower quality” – some of the best
things in life, such as air, water, and sunlight are free, as are some of the most sophisticated
software programs like Linux and Apache, and this book is no different.

Fourth, I hope to make local-language versions of this book available in due course of
time, and those local language versions will also be free. So far, I have a commitment to
translate this book into the Korean language, and I’m looking for qualified researchers or

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professors willing to translate it into Chinese and Arabic. Translations in other languages are
possible too if there is demand for a textbook on research in those languages and if there is a
qualified volunteer willing to do the translation. If you are a prospective translator, please note
that I’m unable to provide any financial remuneration for your translation effort, because this
book must remain free, but I’ll be glad to include you as a coauthor on the local-language
version.

The book is structured into 16 chapters for a 16-week semester. However, professors
or instructors can add and drop topics as they see fit to customize the book to the specific needs
of their curriculum. For instance, I don’t cover Chapters 14 and 15 in my own class, because we
have a dedicated class on statistics that covers those materials. Instead, I devote one week to
discussing and practicing reviews for academic journals and keep one week for a finals exam.
Nevertheless, I felt it necessary to include these two chapters for programs that may not have a
dedicated class on statistical analysis for research. A sample syllabus that I use for my own
class in the business Ph.D. program is provided in the appendix.

Lastly, I plan to continually update this book based on emerging trends in scientific
research. If there are any new or interesting content that you wish to see in future versions,
please drop me a note, and I will try my best to accommodate them. Corrections or criticisms to
any of the existing content will also be gratefully appreciated.

Anol Bhattacherjee
E-mail: abhatt@usf.edu

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Chapter 1

Science and Scientific Research

What is research? Depending on who you ask, you will likely get very different answers
to this seemingly innocuous question. Some people will say that they routinely research
different online websites to find the best place to buy goods or services of their interest.
Television news channels supposedly conduct research in the form of viewer polls on topics of
public interest such as forthcoming elections or government-funded projects. Undergraduate
students research the Internet to find the information they need to complete assigned projects
or term papers. Graduate students working on research projects for a professor may see
research as collecting or analyzing data related to their project. Businesses and consultants
research different potential solutions to remedy organizational problems such as a supply chain
bottleneck or mining customer data to identify their purchase patterns. However, none of the
above can be considered “scientific research” unless: (1) it contributes to a body of science, and
(2) it follows the scientific method. This chapter will examine what these terms mean.

Science
What is science? To some, science refers to difficult high school or college-level courses
such as physics, chemistry, and biology meant only for the brightest students. To others,
science is a craft practiced by scientists in white coats using specialized equipment in their
laboratories. Etymologically, the word “science” is derived from the Latin word scientia
meaning knowledge. Science refers to a systematic and organized body of knowledge in any
area of inquiry that is acquired using “the scientific method” (the scientific method is described
further below). Science can be grouped into two broad categories: natural science and social
science. Natural science is the science of naturally occurring objects or phenomena, such as
light, objects, matter, earth, celestial bodies, or the human body. Natural sciences can be further
classified into physical sciences, earth sciences, life sciences, and others. Physical sciences
consist of disciplines such as physics (the science of physical objects), chemistry (the science of
matter), and astronomy (the science of celestial objects). Earth sciences consist of disciplines
such as geology (the science of the earth). Life sciences include disciplines such as biology (the
science of human bodies) and botany (the science of plants). In contrast, social science is the
science of people or collections of people (such as, groups, firms, societies, economies), and
their individual or collective behaviors. Social sciences can be classified into disciplines such as
psychology (the science of human behaviors), sociology (the science of social groups and
societies), and economics (the science of firms, markets, and economies).

The natural sciences are different from the social sciences in several respects. The
natural sciences are very precise, accurate, deterministic, and independent of the person

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making the scientific observations. For instance, a scientific experiment in physics, such as
measuring the speed of sound through a certain media or the refractive index of water, should
always yield the exact same results, irrespective of the time or place of the experiment, or the
person conducting the experiment. If two students conducting the same physics experiment
obtain two different values of these physical properties, then it generally means that one of
those students or both must be in error. However, the same cannot be said for the social
sciences, which are much less accurate, deterministic, or unambiguous. For instance, if you
measure a person’s happiness using the same measuring instrument, you may find that the
same person is more happy or less happy (or sad) on different days and sometimes, at different
times on the same day. One’s happiness may vary depending on the news that person received
that day or on the events that transpired earlier during that day. Furthermore, there is not a
single instrument or metric that can accurately measure a person’s happiness. Hence, one
instrument may calibrate a person as being “more happy” while a second instrument may find
that the same person is “less happy” at the same instant in time. In other words, there is a high
degree of measurement error in the social sciences and there is considerable uncertainty and
little agreement on social science policy decisions. For instance, you will not find many
disagreements among natural scientists on the speed of light or the speed of the earth around
the sun, but you will find numerous disagreements among social scientists on how to solve a
social problem such as reduce the problem of global terrorism or rescue an economy from a
recession. Any student studying the social sciences must be cognizant of and comfortable with
handling higher levels of ambiguity, uncertainty, and error that come with such sciences, which
merely reflects the high variability of social objects.

Sciences can also be classified based on their purpose. Basic sciences, also called pure
sciences, are those that explain the most basic objects and forces, relationships between them,
and laws governing them. Examples include physics, mathematics, and biology. Applied
sciences, also called practical sciences, are sciences that apply scientific knowledge from basic
sciences in a physical environment. For instance, engineering is an applied science that applies
the laws of physics and chemistry for building practical applications such as building stronger
bridges or fuel efficient combustion engines, while medicine is an applied science that applies
the laws of biology for solving human ailments. Both basic and applied sciences are required
for human development. However, applied sciences cannot stand on their own right, but
instead relies on basic sciences for its progress. Of course, the industry and private enterprises
tend to focus more on applied sciences given their practical value, while universities study both
basic and applied sciences.

Scientific Knowledge
The purpose of science is to create scientific knowledge. Scientific knowledge refers to
a generalized body of laws and theories to explain a phenomenon or behavior of interest that
are acquired using the scientific method. Laws are observed patterns of phenomena or
behaviors, while theories are systematic explanations of the underlying phenomenon or
behavior. For instance, in physics, the Newtonian Laws of Motion describe what may happen if
an object is in a state of rest or motion (Newton’s First Law), what force is needed to move a
stationary object or stop a moving object (Newton’s Second Law), and what may happen when
two objects collide (Newton’s Third Law). Collectively, the three laws constitute the basis of
classical mechanics – a theory of moving objects. Likewise, the theory of optics explains the
properties of light and how it behaves in different media, electromagnetic theory explains the
properties of electricity and how to generate it, quantum mechanics explains the properties of
subatomic particles, astronomy explains the properties of stars and other celestial bodies, and

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thermodynamics explains the properties of energy and mechanical work. An introductory high
school or college level textbook in physics will likely contain separate chapters devoted to each
of these theories. Similar theories are also available in social sciences. For instance, cognitive
dissonance theory in psychology explains how people may react when their observations of an
event is inconsistent with their previous perceptions of that event, general deterrence theory
explains why some people engage in improper or criminal behaviors, such as downloading
music from illegal web sites or committing software piracy, and the theory of planned behavior
explains how people make conscious reasoned choices in their everyday lives.

The goal of scientific research is to discover laws and postulate theories that can explain
natural or social phenomena, or in other words, build scientific knowledge. It is important to
understand that this knowledge may be imperfect or sometimes quite far from the truth.
Sometimes, there may not be a single universal truth, but rather an equilibrium of “multiple
truths.” We must understand that the theories, upon which scientific knowledge is based, are
only explanations of a particular phenomenon, as suggested by a scientist. As such, there may
be good or poor explanations, depending on the extent to which those explanations fit well with
reality, and consequently, there may be good or poor theories. The progress of science is
marked by our progression over time from poorer theories to better theories, through better
observations using more accurate instruments and more informed logical reasoning.

We arrive at scientific laws or theories through a process of logic and evidence. Logic
(theory) and evidence (observations) are the two, and only two, pillars upon which scientific
knowledge is based. In science, theories and observations are interrelated and cannot exist
without each other. Theories provide meaning and significance to what we observe, and
observations help validate or refine existing theory or construct new theory. Any other means
of knowledge acquisition, such as beliefs, faith, or philosophy cannot be considered science.

Scientific Research
Given that theories and observations are the two pillars of science, scientific research
also operates at two levels: a theoretical level and an empirical level. The theoretical level is
concerned with developing abstract concepts about a natural or social phenomenon and
relationships between those concepts (i.e., build “theories”), while the empirical level is
concerned with testing the theoretical concepts and relationships to see how well they match
with our observations of reality, with the goal of ultimately building better theories. Over time,
a theory becomes more and more refined (i.e., fits the observed reality better), and the science
gains maturity. Scientific research involves continually moves back and forth between theory
and observations. Both theory and observations are essential components of scientific
research; for instance, relying solely on observations for making inferences and ignoring theory
is not considered acceptable scientific research.

Depending on a researcher’s training and interest, scientific inquiry may take one of two
possible forms: inductive or deductive. In inductive research, the goal of a researcher is to
infer theoretical concepts and patterns from observed data. In deductive research, the goal of
the researcher is to test concepts and patterns known from theory using new empirical data.
Hence, inductive research is often loosely called theory-building research, while deductive
research is theory-testing research. Note here that the goal of theory-testing is not just to test a
theory, but also to refine, improve, and possibly extend it. Figure 1.1 depicts the
complementary nature of inductive and deductive research. Note that inductive and deductive
research are two halves of the research cycle that constantly iterates between theory and

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observations. You cannot do inductive or deductive research if you are not familiar with both
the theory and data components of research. Naturally, a complete researcher is one who is
able to handle both inductive and deductive research.

It is important to understand that theory-building (inductive research) and theory-

testing (deductive research) are both critical for the advancement of science. Elegant theories
are not valuable if they do not match reality. Likewise, mountains of data are also of no value
unless they can contribute to the construction to new theories (representations of knowledge).
Rather than viewing these two processes in a circular relationship, as shown in Figure 1.1,
perhaps they can be better viewed as a helix, with each iteration between theory and data
contributing to better explanations of the phenomenon of interest and better theories. Though
both inductive and deductive research are important for the advancement of science, it appears
that inductive (theory-building) research is more valuable in areas where there are few prior
theories or explanations, while deductive (theory-testing) research is more productive when
there are many competing theories of the same phenomenon and researchers are interested in
knowing which theory works best and under what circumstances.

Figure 1.1. The Cycle of Research

Theory building and theory testing are particularly difficult in the social sciences, given
the imprecise nature of the theoretical concepts, inadequate tools to measure them, and the
presence of many unaccounted factors that can also influence the phenomenon of interest. It is
also very difficult to refute theories that do not work. For instance, Karl Marx’s theory of
communism as an effective means of economic production withstood for decades, before it was
finally discredited as being inferior to capitalism in promoting economic growth and social
welfare. Erstwhile communist economies like the Soviet Union and China eventually moved
toward more capitalistic economies characterized by profit-maximizing private enterprises.
However, the recent collapse of the mortgage and financial industries in the United States
demonstrates that capitalism also has its flaws and is not as effective in fostering economic
growth and social welfare as previously presumed. Unlike theories in the natural sciences,
social science theories are rarely perfect, which provides numerous opportunities for
researchers to improve those theories or build their own alternative theories.

Conducting scientific research, therefore, requires two sets of skills: theoretical and
methodological skills that are needed to operate in the theoretical and empirical levels
respectively. Methodological skills ("know-how") are relatively standard, invariant across
disciplines, and easily acquired through doctoral programs. However, theoretical skills ("know-
what") is considerably harder to master, requires years of observation and reflection, and are
tacit skills that cannot be “taught” but rather learned though experience. All of the greatest

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scientists in the history of mankind, such as Galileo, Newton, Einstein, Neils Bohr, Adam Smith,
Charles Darwin, and Herbert Simon, were master theoreticians, and they are remembered for
the theories they postulated that transformed the course of science. Methodological skills are
needed to be an ordinary researcher, but theoretical skills are needed to be an extraordinary
researcher!

Scientific Method
In the preceding sections, we described science as knowledge acquired through a
scientific method. So what exactly is the “scientific method”? Scientific method refers to a
standardized set of techniques for building scientific knowledge, such as how to make valid
observations, how to interpret results, and how to generalize those results. The scientific
method allows researchers to independently and impartially test preexisting theories and prior
findings, and subject them to open debate, modifications, or enhancements. The scientific
method must satisfy four characteristics:

 Replicability: Others should be able to independently replicate or repeat a scientific

study and obtain similar, if not identical, results.

 Precision: Theoretical concepts, which are often hard to measure, must be defined with
such precision that others can use those definitions to measure those concepts and test
that theory.

 Falsifiability: A theory must be stated in a way that it can be disproven. Theories that
cannot be tested or falsified are not scientific theories and any such knowledge is not
scientific knowledge. A theory that is specified in imprecise terms or whose concepts
are not accurately measurable cannot be tested, and is therefore not scientific. Sigmund
Freud’s ideas on psychoanalysis fall into this category and is therefore not considered a
“theory”, even though psychoanalysis may have practical utility in treating certain types
of ailments.

 Parsimony: When there are multiple explanations of a phenomenon, scientists must

always accept the simplest or logically most economical explanation. This concept is
called parsimony or “Occam’s razor.” Parsimony prevents scientists from pursuing
overly complex or outlandish theories with endless number of concepts and
relationships that may explain everything but nothing in particular.

Any branch of inquiry that does not allow the scientific method to test its basic laws or
theories cannot be called “science.” For instance, theology (the study of religion) is not science
because theological ideas (such as the presence of God) cannot be tested by independent
observers using a replicable, precise, falsifiable, and parsimonious method. Similarly, arts,
music, literature, humanities, and law are also not considered science, even though they are
creative and worthwhile endeavors in their own right.

The scientific method, as applied to social sciences, includes a variety of research

approaches, tools, and techniques, such as qualitative and quantitative data, statistical analysis,
experiments, field surveys, case research, and so forth. Most of this book is devoted to learning
about these different methods. However, recognize that the scientific method operates
primarily at the empirical level of research, i.e., how to make observations and analyze and

8
interpret these observations. Very little of this method is directly pertinent to the theoretical
level, which is really the more challenging part of scientific research.

Types of Scientific Research

Depending on the purpose of research, scientific research projects can be of three types:
exploratory, descriptive, and explanatory. Exploratory research is often conducted in new
areas of inquiry, where the goals of the research are: (1) to scope out the magnitude or extent of
a particular phenomenon, problem, or behavior, (2) to generate some initial ideas (or
“hunches”) about that phenomenon, or (3) to test the feasibility of undertaking a more
extensive study regarding that phenomenon. For instance, if the citizens of a country are
generally dissatisfied with governmental policies regarding during an economic recession,
exploratory research may be directed at measuring the extent of citizens’ dissatisfaction,
understanding how such dissatisfaction is manifested, such as the frequency of public protests,
and the presumed causes of such dissatisfaction, such as ineffective government policies in
dealing with inflation, interest rates, unemployment, or higher taxes. Such research may
include examination of publicly reported figures, such as estimates of economic indicators, such
as gross domestic product (GDP), unemployment, and consumer price index, that are archived
by third-party sources, interviews of experts or stakeholders such as eminent economists or
key government officials, and/or study of historical practices in dealing with similar problems.
This research may not lead to a very accurate understanding of the target problem, but may be
useful and worthwhile in scoping out the nature and extent of the problem and a precursor to
more in-depth research.

Descriptive research is directed at making careful observations and detailed

documentation of a phenomenon of interest. These observations must be based on the
scientific method (i.e., must be replicable, precise, etc.), and therefore, are more reliable than
casual observations by untrained people. Examples of descriptive research are tabulation of
demographic statistics by the United States Census Bureau or employment statistics by the
Bureau of Labor, who use the same or similar instruments for estimating employment by sector
or population growth by ethnicity over multiple employment surveys or censuses. If any
changes are made to the measuring instruments, estimates are provided with and without the
changed instrumentation to allow the readers to make a fair before-and-after comparison
regarding population or employment trends. Other descriptive research may include
chronicling ethnographic reports of gang activities among adolescent youth in urban
populations, the persistence or evolution of religious, cultural, or ethnic practices in select
communities, and the role of technologies such as Twitter and instant messaging in the spread
of democracy movements in Middle Eastern countries.

Explanatory research seeks explanations of observed phenomena, problems, or

behaviors. While descriptive research examines the what, where, and when of a phenomenon,
explanatory research seeks answers to why and how types of questions. It attempts to “connect
the dots” in research, by identifying causal factors and outcomes of the target phenomenon.
Examples include understanding the reasons behind adolescent crime or gang violence, with
the goal of prescribing strategies to overcome such societal ailments. Most academic or
doctoral research belongs to the explanation category, though some amount of exploratory
and/or descriptive research may also be needed during initial phases of academic research.
Seeking explanations for observed events requires strong theoretical and interpretation skills,
along with intuition, insights, and personal experience. Those who can do it well are also the
most prized scientists in their disciplines.

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History of Scientific Thought
Before closing this chapter, it may be interesting to go back in history and see how
science has evolved over time and identify the key scientific minds in this evolution. Although
instances of scientific progress have been documented over many centuries, the terms
“science,” “scientists,” and the “scientific method” were coined only in the 19th century. Prior to
this time, science was viewed as a part of philosophy, and coexisted with other branches of
philosophy such as logic, metaphysics, ethics, and aesthetics, although the boundaries between
some of these branches were blurred.

In the earliest days of human inquiry, knowledge was usually recognized in terms of
theological precepts based on faith. This was challenged by Greek philosophers such as Plato,
Aristotle, and Socrates during the 3rd century BC, who suggested that the fundamental nature of
being and the world can be understood more accurately through a process of systematic logical
reasoning called rationalism. In particular, Aristotle’s classic work Metaphysics (literally
meaning “beyond physical [existence]”) separated theology (the study of Gods) from ontology
(the study of being and existence) and universal science (the study of first principles, upon
which logic is based). Rationalism (not to be confused with “rationality”) views reason as the
source of knowledge or justification, and suggests that the criterion of truth is not sensory but
rather intellectual and deductive, often derived from a set of first principles or axioms (such as
Aristotle’s “law of non-contradiction”).

The next major shift in scientific thought occurred during the 16th century, when British
philosopher Francis Bacon (1561-1626) suggested that knowledge can only be derived from
observations in the real world. Based on this premise, Bacon emphasized knowledge
acquisition as an empirical activity (rather than as a reasoning activity), and developed
empiricism as an influential branch of philosophy. Bacon’s works led to the popularization of
inductive methodologies for scientific inquiry, the development of the “scientific method”
(originally called the “Baconian method”), consisting of systematic observation, measurement,
and experimentation, and may have even sowed the seeds of atheism or a rejection of
theological precepts as “unobservable.”

Empiricism continued to clash with rationalism throughout the Middle Ages, as

philosophers sought the most effective way of gaining valid knowledge. French philosopher
Rene Descartes sided with the rationalists, while British philosophers John Locke and David
Hume sided with the empiricists. Other scientists, such as Galileo Galilei and Sir Issac Newton,
attempted to fuse the two ideas into natural philosophy (the philosophy of nature), to focus
specifically on understanding nature and the physical universe, which is considered to be the
precursor of the natural sciences. Galileo (1564-1642) was perhaps the first to state that the
laws of nature are mathematical, and contributed to the field of astronomy through an
innovative combination of experimentation and mathematics.

In the 18th century, German philosopher Immanuel Kant sought to resolve the dispute
between empiricism and rationalism in his book Critique of Pure Reason, by arguing that
experience is purely subjective and processing them using pure reason without first delving
into the subjective nature of experiences will lead to theoretical illusions. Kant’s ideas led to the
development of German idealism, which inspired later development of interpretive techniques
such as phenomenology, hermeneutics, and critical social theory.

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 At about the same time, French philosopher Auguste Comte (1798–1857), founder of
the discipline of sociology, attempted to blend rationalism and empiricism using his new
doctrine of positivism. He suggested that theory and observations have circular dependence
on each other. While theories may be created via reasoning, they are only authentic if they can
be verified through observations. The emphasis on verification started the separation of
modern science from philosophy and metaphysics and further development of the “scientific
method” as the primary means of validating scientific claims. Comte’s ideas were expanded by
Emile Durkheim in his development of sociological positivism (positivism as a foundation for
social research) and Ludwig Wittgenstein in logical positivism.

In the early 20th century, strong accounts of positivism were rejected by interpretive
sociologists (antipositivists) belonging to the German idealism school of thought. Positivism
was typically equated with quantitative research methods such as experiments and surveys and
without any explicit philosophical commitments, while antipositivism employed qualitative
methods such as unstructured interviews and participant observation. Even practitioners of
positivism, such as American sociologist Paul Lazarsfield who pioneered large-scale survey
research and statistical techniques for analyzing survey data, acknowledged potential problems
of observer bias and structural limitations in positivistic inquiry. In response, antipositivists
emphasized that social actions must be studied though interpretive means based upon an
understanding the meaning and purpose that individuals attach to their personal actions, which
inspired Georg Simmel’s work on symbolic interactionism, Max Weber’s work on ideal types,
and Edmund Husserl’s work on phenomenology.

In the mid-to-late 20th century, modifications have been suggested to account for the
criticisms to positivist and antipositivist thought. British philosopher Sir Karl Popper suggested
that human knowledge is based not on unchallengeable, rock solid foundations, but rather on a
set of tentative conjectures that can never be proven conclusively, but only disproven.
Empirical evidence is the basis for disproving these conjectures or “theories.” This
metatheoretical stance, called postpositivism (or postempiricism), critiques and amends
positivism by suggesting that it is impossible to verify the truth although it is possible to reject
false beliefs, though it retains the positivistic notion of an objective truth and its emphasis on
the scientific method.

Likewise, antipositivists have also been criticized for trying only to understand society
but not critiquing and changing society for the better. The roots of this thought lie in Das
Capital, written by German philosophers Karl Marx and Friedrich Engels, which critiqued
capitalistic societies as being social inequitable and inefficient and recommended resolving this
inequity through class conflict and proletarian revolutions. Marxism inspired social revolutions
in countries such as Germany, Italy, Russia, and China, but generally failed to accomplish the
social equality that it aspired. Critical research (also called critical theory) propounded by
Max Horkheimer and Jurgen Habermas in the 20th century, retains similar ideas of critiquing
and resolving social inequality, and adds that although people can consciously act to change
their social and economic circumstances, their ability to do so is constrained by various forms
of social, cultural and political domination. Critical research attempts to uncover and critique
the restrictive and alienating conditions of the status quo by analyzing the oppositions, conflicts
and contradictions in contemporary society, and seeks to eliminate the causes of alienation and
domination (i.e., emancipate the oppressed class). More on these different research
philosophies and approaches will be covered in future chapters of this book.

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Chapter 2

Thinking like a Researcher

Conducting good research requires first retraining your brain to think like a researcher.
This requires visualizing the abstract from actual observations, mentally “connecting the dots”
to identify hidden concepts and patterns, and synthesizing those patterns into generalizable
theories that apply to other contexts beyond the domain where the initial observations were
conducted. Research involves constant moving back and forth from an empirical plane where
observations are conducted to a theoretical plane where these observations are abstracted into
generalizable laws and theories. This is a skill that takes many years to develop, is not
something that is taught in undergraduate or graduate programs or acquired in industry
training, and is by far the biggest deficit in most Ph.D. students. Some of the mental
abstractions needed to think like a researcher include unit of analysis, constructs, hypotheses,
operationalization, theories, models, induction and deduction, and so forth, which we will
examine in this chapter.

Unit of Analysis
One of the first decisions in any social science research is the unit of analysis of a
scientific study. The unit of analysis refers to the person, collective, or object that is the target
of the investigation. Typical unit of analysis include individuals, groups, organizations,
countries, technologies, objects, and such. For instance, if we are interested in studying people’s
shopping behavior, their learning outcomes, or their attitudes to new technologies, then the
unit of analysis is the individual. If we want to study characteristics of street gangs or teamwork
in organizations, then the unit of analysis is the group. If the goal of research is to understand
how firms can improve profitability or make good executive decisions, then the unit of analysis
is the firm (even though decisions are made by individuals in these firms, these people are
presumed to be representing their firm’s decision rather than their personal decisions). If
research is directed at understanding differences in national cultures, then the unit of analysis
becomes a country. Even inanimate objects can serve as units of analysis. For instance, if a
researcher is interested in understanding how to make web pages more attractive to its users,
then the unit of analysis is a web page (and not users). If we wish to study how knowledge
transfer occurs between two organizations, then our unit of analysis becomes the dyad (the
combination of organizations that is sending and that is receiving the knowledge).

Understanding the units of analysis may sometimes be fairly complex. For instance, if
we wish to study why certain neighborhoods have high crime rates, then our unit of analysis
becomes the neighborhood, and not crimes or criminals committing such crimes. This is
because the object of our inquiry is the neighborhood and not criminals. However, if we wish to

12
compare different types of crimes in different neighborhoods, such as homicide, robbery,
assault, and so forth, our unit of analysis becomes the crime. If we wish to study why criminals
engage in illegal activities, then the unit of analysis becomes the individual (i.e., the criminal).
Like, if we want to study why some innovations are more successful than others, then our unit
of analysis is an innovation. However, if we wish to study how some organizations innovate
more consistently than others, then the unit of analysis is the organization. Hence, two related
research questions within the same research study may have two entirely different units of
analysis.

Understanding the unit of analysis is important because it shapes what type of data you
should collect for your study and who you collect it from. If your unit of analysis is a web page,
you should be collecting data about web pages from actual web pages, and not surveying people
about how they use web pages. If your unit of analysis is the organization, then you should be
measuring organizational-level variables such as organizational size, revenues, hierarchy, or
absorptive capacity. This data may come from a variety of sources such as financial records or
surveys of Chief Executive Officers (CEO), who are presumed to be representing their
organization (rather than themselves). Some variables such as CEO pay may seem like
individual level variables, but in fact, it can also be an organizational level variable because each
organization has only one CEO pay at any time. Sometimes, it is possible to collect data from a
lower level of analysis and aggregate that data to a higher level of analysis. For instance, in
order to study teamwork in organizations, you can survey individual team members in different
organizational teams, and average their individual scores to create a composite team-level
score for team-level variables like cohesion and conflict. We will examine the notion of
“variables” in greater depth in the next section.

Concepts, Constructs, and Variables

We discussed in Chapter 1 that although research can be exploratory, descriptive, or
explanatory, most scientific research tend to be of the explanatory type in that they search for
potential explanations of observed natural or social phenomena. Explanations require
development of concepts or generalizable properties or characteristics associated with objects,
events, or people. While objects such as a person, a firm, or a car are not concepts, their specific
characteristics or behavior such as a person’s attitude toward immigrants, a firm’s capacity for
innovation, and a car’s weight can be viewed as concepts.

Knowingly or unknowingly, we use different kinds of concepts in our everyday

conversations. Some of these concepts have been developed over time through our shared
language. Sometimes, we borrow concepts from other disciplines or languages to explain a
phenomenon of interest. For instance, the idea of gravitation borrowed from physics can be
used in business to describe why people tend to “gravitate” to their preferred shopping
destinations. Likewise, the concept of distance can be used to explain the degree of social
separation between two otherwise collocated individuals. Sometimes, we create our own
concepts to describe a unique characteristic not described in prior research. For instance,
technostress is a new concept referring to the mental stress one may face when asked to learn a
new technology.

Concepts may also have progressive levels of abstraction. Some concepts such as a
person’s weight are precise and objective, while other concepts such as a person’s personality
may be more abstract and difficult to visualize. A construct is an abstract concept that is
specifically chosen (or “created”) to explain a given phenomenon. A construct may be a simple

13
concept, such as a person’s weight, or a combination of a set of related concepts such as a
person’s communication skill, which may consist of several underlying concepts such as the
person’s vocabulary, syntax, and spelling. The former instance (weight) is a unidimensional
construct, while the latter (personality) is a multi-dimensional construct (i.e., one which
consists of multiple underlying concepts). The distinction between constructs and concepts are
clearer in multi-dimensional constructs, where the higher order abstraction is called a construct
and the lower order abstractions are called concepts. However, this distinction tends to blur in
the case of unidimensional constructs.

Constructs used for scientific research must have precise and clear definitions that
others can use to understand exactly what it means and what it does not mean. For instance, a
seemingly simple construct such as income may refer to monthly or annual income, before-tax
or after-tax income, and personal or family income, and is therefore neither precise nor clear.
There are two types of definitions: dictionary definitions and operational definitions. In the
more familiar dictionary definition, a construct is often defined in terms of a synonym. For
instance, attitude may be defined as a disposition, a feeling, or an affect, and affect in turn is
defined as an attitude. Such definitions of a circular nature are not particularly useful in
scientific research for elaborating the meaning and content of that construct. Scientific research
requires operational definitions that define constructs in terms of how they will be
empirically measured. For instance, the operational definition of a construct such as
temperature must specify whether we plan to measure temperature in Celsius, Fahrenheit, or
Kelvin scale. A construct such as income should be defined in terms of whether we are
interested in monthly or annual income, before-tax or after-tax income, and personal or family
income. One can imagine that constructs such as learning, personality, and intelligence can be
quite hard to define operationally.

Figure 2.1. The theoretical and empirical planes of research

A term frequently associated with, and sometimes used interchangeably with, a

construct is a variable. Etymologically speaking, a variable is a quantity that can vary (e.g., from
low to high, negative to positive, etc.), in contrast to constants that do not vary (i.e., remain
constant). However, in scientific research, a variable is a measurable representation of an
abstract (and unmeasurable) construct. As abstract entities, constructs are not directly
measurable, and hence, we look for proxy measures called variables. For instance, a person’s
intelligence is often measured as his or her IQ (intelligence quotient) score, which is an index
generated from an analytical and pattern-matching test administered to people. In this case,
intelligence is a construct, and IQ score is a variable intended to measure the intelligence

14
construct. Whether IQ scores truly measures one’s intelligence is anyone’s guess (though many
believe that they do), and depending on whether how well it measures intelligence, the IQ score
may be a good or a poor measure of the intelligence construct. As shown in Figure 2.1, scientific
research proceeds along two planes: a theoretical plane and an empirical plane. Constructs are
conceptualized at the theoretical (abstract) plane, while variables are operationalized and
measured at the empirical (observational) plane. Thinking like a researcher implies the ability
to move back and forth between these two planes.

Depending on their intended use, variables may be classified as independent,

dependent, moderating, mediating, or control variables. Variables that explain other variables
are called independent variables, those that are explained by other variables are dependent
variables, those that are explained by independent variables while also explaining dependent
variables are mediating variables (or intervening variables), and those that influence the
relationship between independent and dependent variables are called moderating variables.
As an example, if we state that higher intelligence causes improved learning among students,
then intelligence is an independent variable and learning is a dependent variable. There may be
other extraneous variables that are not pertinent to explaining a given dependent variable, but
may have some impact on the dependent variable. These variables must be controlled for in a
scientific study, and are therefore called control variables.

Figure 2.2. A nomological network of constructs

To understand the differences between these different variable types, consider the
example shown in Figure 2.2. If we believe that intelligence influences (or explains) students’
academic success, then a measure of intelligence such as an IQ score is an independent variable,
while a measure of academic success such as grade point average is a dependent variable. If we
believe that the effect of intelligence on academic success also depends on the effort invested by
the student in the learning process (i.e., between two equally intelligent students, the student
who puts is more effort achieves higher academic success than the one who puts in less effort),
then effort becomes a moderating variable. Incidentally, one may also view effort as an
independent variable and intelligence as a moderating variable. If academic success is viewed
as an intermediate step to higher income potential, then income potential is the dependent
variable for the independent variable of academic success, and academic success becomes the
mediating variable in the overall relationship between intelligence and income potential.
Hence, no variable can be predefined as an independent, dependent, moderating, or mediating
variable. Variable types are based on the nature of association between the different
constructs. The overall network of relationships between a set of related constructs is called a
nomological network (see Figure 2.2). Thinking like a researcher implies not only the ability

15
to abstract constructs from observations, but also the ability to mentally visualize a nomological
network linking these abstract constructs.

Propositions and Hypotheses

Figure 2.2 shows how theoretical constructs such as intelligence, effort, academic
achievement, and earning potential are related to each other in a nomological network. Each of
these relationships is called a proposition. In seeking explanations to a given phenomenon or
behavior, it is not adequate just to identify key concepts and constructs underlying the target
phenomenon or behavior. We must also identify and state patterns of relationships between
these constructs. Such patterns of relationships are called propositions. A proposition is a
tentative and conjectural relationship between constructs that is stated in a declarative form
(e.g., an increase in student intelligence causes an increase in their academic achievement).
This declarative statement must be empirically testable (at least indirectly), and can be judged
as true or false, based on empirical observations. Propositions are generally derived based on
logic (deduction) or empirical observations (induction).

Like constructs, propositions are also stated at the theoretical plane, and cannot be
tested directly. Instead, they are tested indirectly by examining the corresponding relationship
between measurable variables of those constructs. The empirical formulation of propositions,
stated as relationships between variables, is called hypotheses (see Figure 2.1). In the above
example, since IQ scores and grade point average are respectively operational measures of
intelligence and academic achievement. Proposition is the relationship between mental ability
and academic achievement, while hypothesis is the relationship between IQ score and grade
point average. Hypotheses are designed to be empirically testable, and may be rejected if not
supported by empirical observations. Of course, the goal of hypothesis testing is to infer about
the validity of the corresponding propositions.

Hypotheses can be strong or weak. “Students’ IQ score is related to their academic

achievement” is an example of a weak hypothesis, since it indicates neither the directionality of
the hypothesis (i.e., whether the relationship is positive or negative), nor its causality (i.e.,
whether intelligence causes academic achievement or academic achievement causes
intelligence). A stronger hypothesis will be “students’ IQ score is positively related to their
academic achievement”, which indicates the directionality but not the causality. The signs in
Figure 2.2 indicate the directionality of the respective hypotheses. A still better hypothesis is
“students’ IQ score has a positive effect on their academic achievement”, which specifies both
the directionality and the causality (i.e., intelligence causes academic achievement, and not the
reverse).

Also note that scientific hypotheses should clearly specify independent and dependent
variables. In the preceding hypothesis, it is clear that intelligence is the independent variable
(the “cause”) and academic achievement is the dependent variable (the “effect”). Further, it is
also clear that this hypothesis can be evaluated as either true (if higher intelligence leads to
higher academic achievement) or false (if higher intelligence has no effect on or leads to lower
academic achievement). Later on in this book, we will examine how to empirically test such
cause-effect relationships. Statements such as “students are generally intelligent” or “all
students can achieve academic success” are not scientific hypotheses because the independent
and dependent variables are unclear, and they do not specify a directional relationship between
two variables that can be evaluated as true or false.

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Theories and Models
A theory is a set of systematically interrelated constructs and propositions that are
advanced to explain and predict a certain phenomenon or behavior within certain boundary
conditions and assumptions. Essentially, a theory is a systematic aggregation of theoretical
propositions. While propositions connect two or three constructs at most, theories represent a
system of multiple constructs and propositions. Hence, theories can be substantially more
complex and abstract and of a larger scope than propositions or hypotheses.

I must note here that people not familiar with scientific research often view a theory as
a speculation or the opposite of fact. For instance, we often hear that teachers need to be less
theoretical and more practical in their classroom teaching. However, fact and practice are not
the opposites of theory, but in a scientific sense, are essential components needed to test the
validity of a theory. A good scientific theory should be well supported using observed facts and
should also have practical value, while a poorly defined theory tends to be lacking in these
dimensions. Famous organizational research Kurt Lewin once said, “Theory without practice is
sterile; practice without theory is blind.” Hence, both theory and facts (or practice) are
essential for scientific research.

Theories provide explanations of social or natural phenomenon. As emphasized in

Chapter 1, there may be good or poor explanations. In other words, there may be good or poor
theories. Chapter 3 describes some criteria that can be used to evaluate how good a theory
really is. Nevertheless, it is important for researchers to understand that there is nothing
sacrosanct about any given theory, all theories should not be accepted just because they were
proposed by someone, and poorer theories are eventually replaced in the course of scientific
progress by better theories with higher explanatory power. The essential challenge for
researchers is to build better and more comprehensive theories that can explain a target
phenomenon better than alternative theories.

A term often used in conjunction with theory is a model. A model is a representation of

a system that is constructed to study a part or all of the system. Models differ from theories in
that a theory’s role is in explanation, while a model’s role is in representation. Examples of
models include mathematical models, network models, and path models. Models may be
descriptive, predictive, or normative. Descriptive models are frequently used for complex
systems, in order to visualize numerous variables and relationships in such systems. Predictive
models (e.g., a regression model) allow forecast of future events, such as weather patterns
(based on parameters such as wind speeds, wind direction, temperature, and humidity) or
outcomes of a basketball game (based on current forms of the competing teams, how they
match up face to face, and so forth). Normative models are used primarily to guide us on what
actions should be taken to follow commonly accepted practices. Models may also be static, or
representing the state of a system at any given point in time, or dynamic, representing a
system’s evolution over time.

The process of model development may include inductive and deductive reasoning.
Recall from Chapter 1 that deduction is the process of drawing conclusions about a
phenomenon or behavior based on theoretical or logical reasons based on an initial set of
premises. As an example, if a certain bank enforces a strict code of ethics for its employees
(Premise 1) and Jamie is an employee at that bank (Premise 2), then Jamie can be trusted to
follow ethical practices (Conclusion). In deduction, the conclusions must be true if the initial
premises and reasons are correct.

17
 In contrast, induction is the process of drawing conclusions based on one or more facts
or observed evidence. For instance, if a firm spent a lot of money on a promotional campaign
(Observation 1), but the sales did not increase (Observation 2), then possibly the promotion
campaign was poorly executed. However, there can be rival explanations for poor sales, such as
economic recession or the emergence of a competing product or brand or perhaps a supply
chain bottleneck hurt production. Inductive conclusions are therefore only a hypothesis, and
may be disproven. Hence, deductive conclusions that are stronger than inductive conclusions.

As shown in Figure 2.3, inductive and deductive reasoning go hand in hand in model
building. Induction occurs when we observe a fact and ask, “Why is this happening?” In
answering this question, we advance one or more tentative explanations (hypotheses). We then
use deduction to narrow down the explanations to the most plausible one based on logic and
premise (our understanding of the domain of inquiry). Researchers must be able to move back
and forth between inductive and deductive reasoning if they are to post extensions or
modifications to a given theory, or craft better theories, which are the essence of scientific
research. The result of this process is a model (extended or modified from the original theory)
that can be empirically tested. Models are therefore an important means of advancing theories
as well as helping decision makers make important decisions based on a given set of inputs.
Theories and models serve slightly different roles in understanding a given phenomenon, and
are therefore both useful for scientific research.

Figure 2.3. The model-building process

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Chapter 3

The Research Process

In Chapter 1, we saw that scientific research is the process of acquiring scientific

knowledge using the scientific method. But how is such research conducted? This chapter
delves into the process of scientific research, and the assumptions and outcomes of the research
process.

Paradigms of Social Research

Our design and conduct of research is shaped by our mental models or frames of
references that we use to organize our reasoning and observations. These mental models or
frames (belief systems) are called paradigms. The word “paradigm” was popularized by
Thomas Kuhn (1962) in his book The Structure of Scientific Revolutions, where he examined the
history of the natural sciences, but similar ideas are applicable to social sciences as well. In
particular, the same social reality can be viewed by different people in different ways, which
may constrain their thinking and reasoning process. For instance, conservatives and liberals
tend to have very different perceptions of the role of government in people’s lives, and hence,
have different opinions on how to solve social problems. For examples, conservatives may
believe that lowering taxes is more effective in stimulating a stagnant economy because it
increases people’s disposable income and their spending, which in turn expands business
output and employment. In contrast, liberals may believe that governments should invest more
directly in job creation programs such as hiring people in public works and infrastructure
projects. Likewise, Western societies place greater emphasis on individual rights, such as one’s
right to privacy, right of free speech, and right to bear arms. In contrast, Asian societies tend to
balance the rights of individuals against the rights of families, organizations, and the
government, and therefore tend to be more communal and less individualistic in their policies.
Such differences in perspective often lead Westerners to criticize Asian governments for
violation of human rights, while Asians criticize Western societies for personal greed, high
crime rates, and the “cult of the individual.” Our personal paradigms are like “colored glasses”
that govern how we view the world, what we believe is the best way to study the world, and
how we structure our thoughts and our observations.

Paradigms are often hard to recognize, because they are implicit, assumed, and taken
for granted. However, recognizing these paradigms are key to making sense of and reconciling
differences people’ varying perception of the same social phenomenon. For instance, why do
liberals believe that the best way to improve secondary education is to hire more teachers, but
conservatives believe that privatizing education (using such means as school vouchers) are
more effective in achieving the same goal? Because conservatives place more faith in

19
competitive markets (i.e., free competition between schools competing for education dollars),
while liberals believe more in labor (i.e., more teachers and schools). Likewise, in social science
research, if one were to understand why a certain technology was successfully implemented in
one organization but failed miserably in another, a researcher looking at the world through a
“rational lens” will look for rational explanations of the problem such as inadequate technology
or poor fit between technology and the task context where it is being utilized, while another
research looking at the same problem through a “social lens” may seek out social deficiencies
such as inadequate user training or lack of management support, while those seeing it through a
“political lens” will look for instances of organizational politics that may subvert the technology
implementation process. Hence, their respective paradigms will constrain the concepts that
researchers would attempt to measure, their observations, and their subsequent
interpretations of the problem. However, given the complex nature of social phenomenon, it is
possible that each of the above paradigms are partially correct, and that a fuller understanding
of the problem may require an understanding and application of multiple paradigms.

Two popular paradigms today among social science researchers are positivism and
post-positivism. Positivism, based on the works of French philosopher Auguste Comte (1798-
1857), was the dominant scientific paradigm until the mid-20th century. It holds that science or
knowledge creation should be restricted to what can be observed and measured, and tends to
rely exclusively on theories that can be directly tested. Though positivism was originally an
attempt to separate scientific inquiry from religion (where the precepts could not be objectively
observed), positivism led to a blind faith in empiricism or the idea that observation and
measurement are the core of scientific research, and a rejection of any attempt to extend or
reason beyond observable facts. For instance, since human thoughts and emotions could not be
directly measured, there were not considered to be legitimate topics for psychology.
Frustrations with the positivist philosophy led to the development of post-positivism (or
postmodernism) during the mid-late 20th century, which takes a position that one can make
reasonable inferences about a phenomenon by combining empirical observations with logical
reasoning. Post-positivists view science as not certain but probabilistic, based on many
contingencies, and often seek to explore these contingencies as a way of understand social
reality better. The post-positivist camp has further fragmented into subjectivists, who view the
world as a subjective construction of our subjective minds rather than as an objective reality,
and critical realists, who believe that there is an external reality that is independent of a
person’s thinking but we can never know such reality with any degree of certainty.

Burrell and Morgan (1979), in their seminal book Sociological Paradigms and
Organizational Analysis, suggested that the way social science researchers view and study social
phenomena is shaped by two fundamental sets of philosophical assumptions: ontology and
epistemology. Ontology refers to our assumptions about how we see the world, i.e., does the
world consist mostly of social order or constant change. Epistemology refers to our
assumptions about the best way to study the world, i.e., should we use an objective or
subjective approach to study social reality. Using these two sets of assumptions, we can
categorize social science research as belonging to one of four categories (see Figure 3.1).

If researchers view the world as consisting mostly of social order (ontology) and hence
seek to study patterns of ordered events or behaviors, and believe that the best way to study
such a world is using objective approach (epistemology) that is independent of the person
conducting the observation or interpretation (such as by using standardized data collection
tools like surveys), then they are adopting a paradigm of functionalism. However, if they
believe that the best way to study social order is though the subjective interpretation of

20
different actors involved in the social reality (such as, by interviewing different participants and
reconciling differences among their responses using their subjective perspectives), then they
are employing an interpretivism paradigm. If researchers believe that the world consists of
radical change and seek to understand or enact change using an objectivist approach, then they
are employing a radical structuralism paradigm. If they wish to understand social change
using the subjective perspectives of the actors involved, then they are following a radical
humanism paradigm.

Figure 3.1. Four paradigms of social science research

(Source: Burrell and Morgan, 1979)

The majority of social science research, emulating the natural sciences, has followed the
functionalist paradigm. Functionalists believe that social order or patterns can be understood
in terms of their functional components, and therefore attempt to understand a social problem
by breaking down the problem into small components and studying one or more components in
detail using objectivist techniques such as surveys and experimental research. However, with
the emergence of post-positivistic thinking, a small but growing number of social science
researchers are attempting to understand social order using subjectivist techniques such as
interviews and ethnographic studies. Radical humanism and radical structuralism continues to
represent a negligible proportion of social science research, because scientists are primarily
concerned with understanding generalizable patterns of behavior, events, or phenomena,
rather than idiosyncratic or changing events. Nevertheless, if you wish to study social change,
such as why democratic movements are increasingly emerging in Middle Eastern countries, or
why this movement was successful in Egypt, took a longer path to success in Libya, and is still
not successful in Syria, then perhaps radical humanism is the right approach to such a study.
Social and organizational phenomena generally consists elements of both order and change.
For instance, organizational success depends on clearly-defined and formalized business
processes, work procedures, and job responsibilities, while also being constrained by
constantly changing mix of competitors, competing products, suppliers, and customer base in
the business environment. Hence, a holistic and more complete understanding of social
phenomena (such as why are some organizations more successful than others), require an
appreciation and application of a multi-paradigmatic approach to research.

21
Overview of the Research Process
So how do our mental paradigms shape social science research? At its core, all scientific
research is an iterative process of observation, rationalization, and validation. In the
observation phase, we observe a natural or social phenomenon, event, or behavior that
interests us. In the rationalization phase, we try to make sense of or explain the phenomenon,
event, or behavior by logically connecting the different pieces of the puzzle that we observe,
which in some cases, may lead to the construction of a theory. Finally, in the validation phase,
we test our theories using a scientific method through a process of data collection and analysis,
and in doing so, we may modify or extend our initial theory. However, research designs vary
based on whether the researcher starts at observation and attempts to rationalize the
observations (inductive research), or whether the researcher starts at an ex ante rationalization
or a theory and attempts to validate the theory (deductive research). Hence, the observation-
rationalization-validation cycle is very similar to the induction-deduction cycle of research
discussed in Chapter 1.

Most traditional research tends to be deductive and functionalistic in nature. Figure 3.2
provides a schematic view of such a research project. This figure depicts a series of activities to
be performed in functionalist research, categorized into three phases: exploration, research
design, and research execution. Note that this generalized design is not a roadmap or flowchart
for research; it can and should be modified to fit the needs of a specific project.

Figure 3.2. Functionalistic research process

The first phase of research is exploration. This phase includes exploring and selecting
research questions for the study, examining the published literature on the area of interest to
understand the current state of knowledge in that area, and identifying theories that may help
answer the research questions of interest. The first step in research is identifying one or more
research questions dealing with a specific behavior, event, or phenomena of interest. Some

22
examples of research questions are: what factors motivate consumers to purchase goods and
services online without seeing or experiencing such goods or services, how can we make high
school students more creative, and why do some people commit terrorist acts. Research
questions can delve into issues of what, why, how, when, and so forth. More interesting
research questions are broad questions that appeal to a broader audience (e.g., “how can firms
innovate” is a more interesting research question than “how can Chinese firms in the service-
sector innovate”), addresses real and complex problems (as opposed to hypothetical or “toy”
problems), and where the answers are not obvious. Narrowly focused research questions
(often with a binary yes/no answer) tend to be less useful and less interesting, while broad
research questions are better suited to capturing the subtle nuances of social phenomenon.
Note that uninteresting research questions will eventually lead to uninteresting research
findings.

The next step of research is to conduct a literature review of the domain of interest.
The purpose of a literature review is three-fold: (1) to survey the current state of knowledge in
the area of inquiry, (2) to identify key authors, articles, theories, and findings in that area, and
(3) to identify gaps in knowledge in that research area. Computerized of online databases using
keywords related to the area of interest can be used to shortlist articles for literature review.
The researcher must then manually browse through each article (at least, the abstract section of
each article) to determine its suitability for inclusion in the literature review. The review
should be reasonably complete, and not restricted to a few journals, a few years, or a specific
methodology. Reviewed articles may be summarized in the form of a table, and can be further
structured using an organizing framework (such as a concept matrix). A well-conducted
literature review should indicate whether the initial research questions have already been
addressed in the literature (which would obviate the need to study them again), may identify
new and more interesting research opportunities, and the original research questions may be
modified or changed in light of these findings. The review can also provide some intuitions or
potential answers to the questions of interest and/or help identify theories that have previously
been used to address similar questions.

Since deductive research involves theory-testing, the next step is to identify one or more
theories that may be relevant to addressing the targeted research questions. While the
literature review may uncover a wide range of concepts or constructs potentially related to the
phenomenon of interest, a theory will help identify which of these constructs may be logically
relevant to the target phenomenon and how. Forgoing theories may result in measuring a wide
range of less relevant, marginally relevant, or irrelevant constructs, while also minimizing the
chances of obtaining results that are meaningful and not by pure chance. In functionalist
research, theories can be used as the logical basis for postulating hypotheses for empirical
testing. Obviously, not all theories are well-suited for studying all social phenomena. Theories
must be carefully selected based on their fit with the target problem and the extent to which
their assumptions are consistent with that of the target problem. We will examine theories and
the process of theorizing in detail in the next chapter.

The next major in the research process is research design. This is a blueprint for
fulfilling the research objectives and answering the research questions. This phase includes
selecting a research method, operationalizing constructs of interest, and devising an
appropriate sampling strategy. Operationalization is the process of designing precise
measures for abstract theoretical constructs. This is a major problem given that many
constructs used in social science research, such as prejudice, alienation, and liberalism are hard
to define, let alone measure accurately. The first step in operationalization is to define and

23
specify the meaning of the concepts and variables to be studied (which is often called
“conceptualization” of constructs). Next, the researcher can search the literature to see if there
are existing prevalidated measures of similar constructs that may be modified to fit the current
research context. If such measures are not available for some of the constructs of interest or if
existing measures are poor or reflect a different conceptualization than that intended by the
researcher, new instruments may have to be designed for those constructs. This means
specifying exactly how exactly the desired construct will be measured (e.g., how many items,
what items, and so forth). This can easily be a long and laborious process, with multiple rounds
of pretests and modifications before the newly designed instrument can be accepted as
“scientifically valid.” We will discuss operationalization of constructs in a future chapter on
measurement.

Simultaneously with operationalization, the researcher must also decide what research
method they wish to employ for collecting data to address the research questions of interest.
Such methods may include quantitative methods such as experiments or survey research or
qualitative methods such as case research or action research, or possibly a combination of both.
If an experiment is desired, then what is the experimental design? If survey, do you plan a mail
survey, telephone survey, web survey, or a combination? For complex, uncertain, and multi-
faceted social phenomena, multi-method approaches may be more suitable, which may help
leverage the unique strengths of each research method and generate insights that may not be
obtained using a single method.

Researchers must also choose their target population from which they wish to collect
data, and a sampling strategy to select a sample from that population. For instance, should
they survey individuals or firms or workgroups within firms, and what types of individuals or
firms they wish to target? Sampling strategy is closely related to the unit of analysis in a
research problem. While selecting a sample, reasonable care should be taken to avoid a biased
sample (e.g., sample selected by researcher based on convenience) that may generate biased
observations. Sampling is covered in depth in a later chapter.

At this stage, it is often a good idea to write a research proposal detailing all of the
decisions made in the preceding stages of the research process and the rationale behind each
decision. This multi-part proposal should address what research questions you wish to study
and why, the prior state of knowledge in this area, theories you wish to employ along with
hypotheses to be tested, how to measure constructs, what research method to be employed and
why, and desired sampling strategy. Funding agencies require properly documented research
proposals so that they can select the best proposals for funding. Even if funding is not sought
for a research project, the proposal may serve as a vehicle for seeking feedback from other
researchers and identifying potential problems with the research project (e.g., whether some
important constructs were missing from the study) before data collection begins. This initial
feedback is invaluable because it is often too late to correct critical problems after data
collection is completed.

Having decided who to study (subjects), what to measure (concepts), and how to collect
data (research method), the researcher is now ready to proceed to the research execution
phase. This includes pilot testing the measurement instruments, data collection, and data
analysis. Pilot testing is extremely important to detect potential problems in your research
design and/or instrumentation (e.g., whether the questions asked is intelligible to the targeted
sample), and to ensure that the measurement instruments used in the study are reliable and
valid measures of the constructs of interest. The pilot sample is usually a small subset of the

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target population. After a successful pilot testing, the researcher may then proceed with data
collection using the sampled population. The data collected may be quantitative or qualitative,
depending on the research method employed.

Once data is collected, the data can be analyzed and interpreted for the purpose of
drawing conclusions regarding the research questions of interest. Depending on the type of
data collected (quantitative or qualitative), data analysis may take the form of quantitative
analysis of quantitative data using statistical techniques such as regression or structural
equation modeling, quantitative analysis of qualitative data such as coding, or qualitative
analysis of qualitative data such as content analysis.

The final stage of research involves preparing the final research report documenting
the entire research process in the form of a research paper, dissertation, or monograph. This
report should outline in complete detail all the choices made during the research process (e.g.,
theory used, constructs selected, measures used, research methods, sampling, etc.) and why, as
well as the outcome of each phase of the research process. The research process must be
described in sufficient detail so as to allow other researchers to replicate your study, test the
findings, or assess whether the inferences derived are scientifically acceptable. Of course,
having a ready research proposal will greatly simplify and quicken the process of writing the
finished report. Note that research is of no value unless the research process and outcomes are
documented for future generations, and such documentation is essential for the incremental
progress of science.

Common Mistakes in Research

The research process is fraught with problems and pitfalls, and it is often possible for a
novice researcher to invest substantial amount of time and effort into the research, only to find
out after completion that research questions were not sufficiently answered or that the
research was not of “acceptable” scientific quality (e.g., for journal publications). Some of these
common mistakes are described below.

Insufficiently motivated research questions. Often times, we choose our “pet”

problems that are interesting to us but not to the scientific community at large. Recall that the
purpose of research is to generate new knowledge or insight about social or natural
phenomena. Because the research process involves a significant investment of time and effort
on the researcher’s part, the researcher must be certain (and be able to convince others) that
the research questions they seek to answer in fact deal with real problems (and not
hypothetical problems) that affect a substantial portion of a population and has not been
adequately addressed in prior research.

Pursuing research fads. Another common mistake is pursuing “popular” topics with
limited shelf life. A typical example is studying technologies or practices that are popular today.
Because research takes several years to complete and publish, it is possible that popular
interest in these fads may die down by the time the research is completed and submitted for
publication. A better strategy may be to study “timeless” topics that have always persisted
through the years, yet no one seems to have reasonable answers or solutions for these
problems.

Unresearchable problems. Some research problems may not be answered adequately

based on observed evidence alone, or using currently accepted methods and procedures. Such

25
problems are best avoided. However, it is possible that some unresearchable, ambiguously
defined problems may be modified or fine tuned into well-defined researchable problems.

Favored research methods. Many researchers have a tendency to recast a research

problem so that it is amenable to their favorite research method (e.g., survey research). This is
an unfortunate trend. Research methods should be chosen to best fit a research problem, and
not the other way round.

Blind data mining. Some researchers have the tendency to collect data first (using
instruments that are already available), and then figure out what to do with it. Note that data
collection is only one step in a long and elaborate process of planning, designing, and executing
research. In fact, multiple steps need to be completed in a research process prior to data
collection. If researchers jump into data collection without such elaborate planning, the data
collected will likely be irrelevant, imperfect, or useless, and their data collection efforts may be
entirely wasted. An abundance of data cannot make up for deficits in research planning and
design, and particularly, for the lack of interesting research questions.

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Chapter 4

Theories in Scientific Research

As we know from previous chapters, science is knowledge represented as a collection of

“theories” derived using the scientific method. In this chapter, we will examine what is a
theory, why do we need theories in research, what are the building blocks of a theory, how to
evaluate theories, how can we apply theories in research, and also presents illustrative
examples of five theories frequently used in social science research.

Theories
Theories are explanations of a natural or social behavior, event, or phenomenon. More
formally, a scientific theory is a system of constructs (concepts) and propositions (relationships
between those constructs) that collectively presents a logical, systematic, and coherent
explanation of a phenomenon of interest within some assumptions and boundary conditions
(Bacharach 1989).1

Theories should provide explanations of why things happen, rather than just describe or
predict. Note that it is possible to predict events or behaviors using a set of predictors, without
necessarily explaining why such events are taking place. For instance, market analysts predict
fluctuations in the stock market based on market announcements, earnings reports of major
companies, and new data from the Federal Reserve and other agencies, based on previously
observed correlations. Prediction requires only correlations. In contrast, explanations require
causations, or understanding of cause-effect relationships. Establishing causation requires
three conditions: (1) correlations between two constructs, (2) temporal precedence (the cause
must precede the effect in time), and (3) rejection of alternative hypotheses (through testing).
Scientific theories are different from theological, philosophical, or other explanations in that
scientific theories can be tested and possibly disproven using scientific methods.

Explanations can be idiographic or nomothetic. Idiographic explanations are those

that explain a single situation or event in idiosyncratic detail. For example, you did poorly on an
exam because: (1) you forgot that you had an exam on that day, (2) you arrived late to the exam
due to a traffic jam, (3) you panicked midway through the exam, (4) you had to work the
previous day until late in the night and could not study for the exam, or even (5) your dog ate
your text book. The explanations may be detailed, accurate, and valid, but they may not apply
to other similar situations, even involving the same person, and hence not generalizable. In

1Bacharach, S. B. (1989). “Organizational Theories: Some Criteria for Evaluation,” Academy of

Management Review (14:4), 496-515.

27
contrast, nomothetic explanations seek to explain a class of situations or events rather than a
specific situation or event. For example, students who do poorly in exams do so because they
did not spend adequate time preparing for exams or that they suffer from nervousness,
attention-deficit, or some other medical disorder. Because nomothetic explanations are
designed to be generalizable across situations, events, or people, they tend to be less precise,
less complete, and less detailed. However, they explain economically, using only a few
explanatory variables. Because theories are also intended to serve as generalized explanations
for patterns of events, behaviors, or phenomena, theoretical explanations are generally
nomothetic in nature.

While understanding theories, it is also important to understand what theory is not.

Theory is not data, facts, typologies, taxonomies, or empirical findings. A collection of facts is
not a theory, just as a pile of stones is not a house. Likewise, an ad hoc collection of constructs
(a typology) is not a theory, because theories must go well beyond constructs to include
propositions, explanations, and boundary conditions. Data, facts, and findings operate at the
empirical or observational level, while theories operate at a conceptual level and are based on
logic rather than observations.

There are many benefits to using theories in research. First, theories provide the
underlying logic of the occurrence of natural or social phenomenon by explaining what are the
key drivers and key outcomes of the target phenomenon and why, and what underlying
processes are responsible driving that phenomenon. Second, they aid in sense-making by
helping us synthesize prior empirical findings within a theoretical framework and reconcile
contradictory findings by discovering contingent factors influencing the relationship between
two constructs in different studies. Third, theories provide guidance for future research by
helping identify constructs and relationships that are worthy of further research. Fourth,
theories can contribute to cumulative knowledge building by bridging gaps between other
theories and by causing existing theories to be reevaluated in a new light.

However, theories can also have their own share of limitations. As simplified
explanations of reality, theories may not always provide adequate explanation of the
phenomenon of interest based on a limited set of constructs and relationships. Theories are
designed to be simplified and parsimonious explanations, while the reality may be significantly
more complex. Furthermore, theories may impose blinders or limit researchers’ “range of
vision,” causing them to miss out on important concepts that are not defined by the theory.

Building Blocks of a Theory

David Whetten (1989) suggests that there are four building blocks of a theory:
constructs, propositions, logic, and boundary conditions/assumptions. Constructs capture the
“what” of theories (i.e., what concepts are important for explaining a phenomenon),
propositions capture the “how” (i.e., how are these concepts related to each other), logic
represents the “why” (i.e., why are these concepts related), and boundary
conditions/assumptions examines the “who, when, and where” (i.e., under what circumstances
will these concepts and relationships work). Though constructs and propositions were
previously discussed in Chapter 2, we describe them again here for the sake of completeness.

Constructs are abstract concepts specified at a high level of abstraction that are chosen
specifically to explain the phenomenon of interest. Recall from Chapter 2 that constructs may
be unidimensional (comprise of a single concept), such as weight or age, or multi-dimensional

28
(comprise of multiple underlying concepts), such as personality or culture. While some
constructs, such as age, education, and firm size, are easy to understand, others, such as
creativity, prejudice, and organizational agility, may be more complex and abstruse, and still
others such as trust, attitude, and learning, may represent temporal tendencies rather than
steady states. Nevertheless, all constructs must have clear and unambiguous operational
definition that should specify exactly how the construct will be measured and at what level of
analysis (individual, group, organizational, etc.). Measurable representations of abstract
constructs are called variables. For instance, intelligence quotient (IQ score) is a variable that
is purported to measure an abstract construct called intelligence. As noted earlier, scientific
research proceeds along two planes: a theoretical plane and an empirical plane. Constructs are
conceptualized at the theoretical plane, while variables are operationalized and measured at
the empirical (observational) plane. Furthermore, variables may be independent, dependent,
mediating, or moderating, as discussed in Chapter 2. The distinction between constructs
(conceptualized at the theoretical level) and variables (measured at the empirical level) is
shown in Figure 4.1.

Figure 4.1. Distinction between theoretical and empirical concepts

Propositions are associations postulated between constructs based on deductive logic.

Propositions are stated in declarative form and should ideally indicate a cause-effect
relationship (e.g., if X occurs, then Y will follow). Note that propositions may be conjectural but
MUST be testable, and should be rejected if they are not supported by empirical observations.
However, like constructs, propositions are stated at the theoretical level, and they can only be
tested by examining the corresponding relationship between measurable variables of those
constructs. The empirical formulation of propositions, stated as relationships between
variables, is called hypotheses. The distinction between propositions (formulated at the
theoretical level) and hypotheses (tested at the empirical level) is depicted in Figure 4.1.

The third building block of a theory is the logic that provides the basis for justifying the
propositions as postulated. Logic acts like a “glue” that connects the theoretical constructs and
provides meaning and relevance to the relationships between these constructs. Logic also
represents the “explanation” that lies at the core of a theory. Without logic, propositions will be
ad hoc, arbitrary, and meaningless, and cannot be tied into a cohesive “system of propositions”
that is the heart of any theory.

Finally, all theories are constrained by assumptions about values, time, and space, and
boundary conditions that govern where the theory can be applied and where it cannot be

29
applied. For example, many economic theories assume that human beings are rational (or
boundedly rational) and employ utility maximization based on cost and benefit expectations as
a way of understand human behavior. In contrast, political science theories assume that people
are more political than rational, and try to position themselves in their professional or personal
environment in a way that maximizes their power and control over others. Given the nature of
their underlying assumptions, economic and political theories are not directly comparable, and
researchers should not use economic theories if their objective is to understand the power
structure or its evolution in a organization. Likewise, theories may have implicit cultural
assumptions (e.g., whether they apply to individualistic or collective cultures), temporal
assumptions (e.g., whether they apply to early stages or later stages of human behavior), and
spatial assumptions (e.g., whether they apply to certain localities but not to others). If a theory
is to be properly used or tested, all of its implicit assumptions that form the boundaries of that
theory must be properly understood. Unfortunately, theorists rarely state their implicit
assumptions clearly, which leads to frequent misapplications of theories to problem situations
in research.

Attributes of a Good Theory

Theories are simplified and often partial explanations of complex social reality. As such,
there can be good explanations or poor explanations, and consequently, there can be good
theories or poor theories. How can we evaluate the “goodness” of a given theory? Different
criteria have been proposed by different researchers, the more important of which are listed
below:

 Logical consistency: Are the theoretical constructs, propositions, boundary conditions,

and assumptions logically consistent with each other? If some of these “building blocks”
of a theory are inconsistent with each other (e.g., a theory assumes rationality, but some
constructs represent non-rational concepts), then the theory is a poor theory.

 Explanatory power: How much does a given theory explain (or predict) reality? Good
theories obviously explain the target phenomenon better than rival theories, as often
measured by variance explained (R-square) value in regression equations.

 Falsifiability: British philosopher Karl Popper stated in the 1940’s that for theories to
be valid, they must be falsifiable. Falsifiability ensures that the theory is potentially
disprovable, if empirical data does not match with theoretical propositions, which
allows for their empirical testing by researchers. In other words, theories cannot be
theories unless they can be empirically testable. Tautological statements, such as “a day
with high temperatures is a hot day” are not empirically testable because a hot day is
defined (and measured) as a day with high temperatures, and hence, such statements
cannot be viewed as a theoretical proposition. Falsifiability requires presence of rival
explanations it ensures that the constructs are adequately measurable, and so forth.
However, note that saying that a theory is falsifiable is not the same as saying that a
theory should be falsified. If a theory is indeed falsified based on empirical evidence,
then it was probably a poor theory to begin with!

 Parsimony: Parsimony examines how much of a phenomenon is explained with how

few variables. The concept is attributed to 14th century English logician Father William
of Ockham (and hence called “Ockham’s razor” or “Occam’s razor), which states that
among competing explanations that sufficiently explain the observed evidence, the

30
 simplest theory (i.e., one that uses the smallest number of variables or makes the fewest
assumptions) is the best. Explanation of a complex social phenomenon can always be
increased by adding more and more constructs. However, such approach defeats the
purpose of having a theory, which are intended to be “simplified” and generalizable
explanations of reality. Parsimony relates to the degrees of freedom in a given theory.
Parsimonious theories have higher degrees of freedom, which allow them to be more
easily generalized to other contexts, settings, and populations.

Approaches to Theorizing
How do researchers build theories? Steinfeld and Fulk (1990) recommend four such
approaches. The first approach is to build theories inductively based on observed patterns of
events or behaviors. Such approach is often called “grounded theory building”, because the
theory is grounded in empirical observations. This technique is not only difficult but is also
subject to researchers’ biases and may sometimes lead to spurious correlations. Furthermore,
note that observing certain patterns of events will not necessarily make a theory, unless the
researcher is able to provide consistent explanations for the different observed patterns. We
will discuss the grounded theory approach in a later chapter on qualitative research.

The second approach to theory building is to build a follow a bottom-up conceptual

analysis of different sets of predictors potentially relevant to the target phenomenon using a
predefined framework. For instance, one such framework may be a simple input-process-
output (IPO) framework, where the researcher may look for different categories of inputs, such
as individual, organizational, and/or technological factors potentially related to a given
phenomenon of interest (the output), and describe the underlying processes that link these
factors to the target phenomenon. This is also an inductive approach that may be based on
empirical observations and/or prior knowledge, and relies heavily on the inductive abilities of
the researcher.

The third approach to theorizing is to extend or modify existing theories to explain a

new context, such as by extending theories of individual learning to explain organizational
learning. While making such an extension, certain concepts, propositions, and/or boundary
conditions of the old theory may be retained and others modified to fit the new context. This
deductive approach leverages the rich inventory of social science theories developed by prior
theoreticians, and is an efficient way of building new theories by building on existing ones.

The fourth approach is to apply existing theories in entirely new contexts by drawing
upon the structural similarities between the two contexts. This approach relies on reasoning by
analogy, and is probably the most creative way of theorizing using a deductive approach. For
instance, Markus (1987) used analogic similarities between a nuclear explosion and
uncontrolled growth of networks or network-based businesses to propose a critical mass
theory of network growth. Just as a nuclear explosion requires a critical mass of radioactive
material to self-sustain a nuclear explosion, Markus suggested that a network requires a critical
mass of users to self-sustain its growth, and without such critical mass, a network may fizzle
and eventually wind down.

Examples of Social Science Theories

In this section, we present brief overviews of a few illustrative theories from different
social science disciplines. These theories explain different types of social behaviors, using a set

31
of constructs, propositions, boundary conditions, assumptions, and underlying logic. Note that
the following represents just a simplistic introduction to these theories; readers are advised to
consult the original sources of these theories for more details and insights on each theory.

Agency Theory. Agency theory (also called principal-agent theory), a classic theory in
the organizational economics literature, was originally proposed by Ross (1973)2 to explain
two-party relationships (such as those between an employer and its employees, between
organizational executives and shareholders, and between buyers and sellers) whose goals are
not congruent with each other. The goal of agency theory is to specify optimal contracts and the
conditions under which such contracts may help minimize the effect of goal incongruence. The
core assumptions of this theory are that human beings are self-interested individuals,
boundedly rational, and risk-averse, and the theory can be applied at the individual or
organizational level.

The two parties in this theory are the principal and the agent; the principal employs the
agent to perform certain tasks on its behalf. While the principal’s goal is quick and effective
completion of the assigned task, the agent’s goal may be working at its own pace, avoiding risks,
and seeking self-interest (such as personal pay) over corporate interests. Hence, the goal
incongruence. Compounding the nature of the problem may be information asymmetry
problems caused by the principal’s inability to adequately observe the agent’s behavior or
accurately evaluate the agent’s skill sets. Such asymmetry may lead to agency problems where
the agent may not put forth the effort needed to get the task done (the moral hazard problem)
or may misrepresent its expertise or skills to get the job but not perform as expected (the
adverse selection problem). Typical contracts that are behavior-based, such as a monthly salary,
cannot overcome these problems. Hence, agency theory recommends using outcome-based
contracts, such as a commissions or a fee payable upon task completion, or mixed contracts that
combine behavior-based and outcome-based incentives. An employee stock option plans are is
an example of an outcome-based contract while employee pay is a behavior-based contract.
Agency theory also recommends tools that principals may employ to improve the efficacy of
behavior-based contracts, such as investing in monitoring mechanisms (such as hiring
supervisors) to counter the information asymmetry caused by moral hazard, designing
renewable contracts contingent on agent’s performance (performance assessment makes the
contract partially outcome-based), or by improving the structure of the assigned task to make it
more programmable and therefore more observable.

Theory of Planned Behavior. Postulated by Azjen (1991)3, the theory of planned

behavior (TPB) is a generalized theory of human behavior in the social psychology literature
that can be used to study a wide range of individual behaviors. It presumes that individual
behavior represents conscious reasoned choice, and is shaped by cognitive thinking and social
pressures. The theory postulates that behaviors are based on one’s intention regarding that
behavior, which in turn is a function of the person’s attitude toward the behavior, subjective
norm regarding that behavior, and perception of control over that behavior (see Figure 4.2).
Attitude is defined as the individual's overall positive or negative feelings about performing the
behavior in question, which may be assessed as a summation of one's beliefs regarding the
different consequences of that behavior, weighted by the desirability of those consequences.

2 Ross, S. A. (1973). “The Economic Theory of Agency: The Principal’s Problem,” American
Economic Review (63:2), 134-139.
3 Ajzen, I. (1991). “The Theory of Planned Behavior,” Organizational Behavior and Human

Decision Processes (50), 179-211.

32
Subjective norm refers to one’s perception of whether people important to that person expect
the person to perform the intended behavior, and represented as a weighted combination of the
expected norms of different referent groups such as friends, colleagues, or supervisors at work.
Behavioral control is one's perception of internal or external controls constraining the behavior
in question. Internal controls may include the person’s ability to perform the intended behavior
(self-efficacy), while external control refers to the availability of external resources needed to
perform that behavior (facilitating conditions). TPB also suggests that sometimes people may
intend to perform a given behavior but lack the resources needed to do so, and therefore
suggests that posits that behavioral control can have a direct effect on behavior, in addition to
the indirect effect mediated by intention.

TPB is an extension of an earlier theory called the theory of reasoned action, which
included attitude and subjective norm as key drivers of intention, but not behavioral control.
The latter construct was added by Ajzen in TPB to account for circumstances when people may
have incomplete control over their own behaviors (such as not having high-speed Internet
access for web surfing).

Figure 4.2. Theory of planned behavior

Innovation diffusion theory. Innovation diffusion theory (IDT) is a seminal theory in

the communications literature that explains how innovations are adopted within a population
of potential adopters. The concept was first studied by French sociologist Gabriel Tarde, but the
theory was developed by Everett Rogers (1962) based on observations of 508 diffusion studies.
The four key elements in this theory are: innovation, communication channels, time, and social
system. Innovations may include new technologies, new practices, or new ideas, and adopters
may be individuals or organizations. At the macro (population) level, IDT views innovation
diffusion as a process of communication where people in a social system learn about a new
innovation and its potential benefits through communication channels (such as mass media or
prior adopters) and are persuaded to adopt it. Diffusion is a temporal process; the diffusion
process starts off slow among a few early adopters, then picks up speed as the innovation is
adopted by the mainstream population, and finally slows down as the adopter population
reaches saturation. The cumulative adoption pattern therefore an S-shaped curve, as shown in
Figure 4.3, and the adopter distribution represents a normal distribution. All adopters are not
identical, and adopters can be classified into innovators, early adopters, early majority, late
majority, and laggards based on their time of their adoption. The rate of diffusion also depends
on characteristics of the social system such as the presence of opinion leaders (experts whose
opinions are valued by others) and change agents (people who influence others’ behaviors).

33
 At the micro (adopter) level, Rogers (1995)4 suggests that innovation adoption is a
process consisting of five stages: (1) knowledge: when they learn about the innovation from
mass-media or interpersonal channels, (2) persuasion: when they are persuaded to use it by
prior adopters, (3) decision: their decision to accept or reject the innovation, (4)
implementation: their preliminary use of the innovation to varying degrees, and (5)
confirmation: their decision to continue using it to its fullest potential (see Figure 4.4). Five
innovation characteristics are presumed to shape adopters’ innovation adoption decisions: (1)
relative advantage: the expected benefits of an innovation relative to prior innovations, (2)
compatibility: the extent to which the innovation fits with the adopter’s work habits, beliefs,
and values, (3) complexity: the extent to which the innovation is difficult to learn and use, (4)
trialability: the extent to which the innovation can be tested on a trial basis, and (5)
observability: the extent to which the results of using the innovation can be clearly observed.
The last two characteristics have since been dropped from many innovation studies.
Complexity is negatively correlated to innovation adoption, while the other four factors are
positively correlated. Innovation adoption also depends on personal factors such as the
adopter’s risk-taking propensity, education level, cosmopolitanism, and communication
influence. Early adopters are venturesome, well educated, and rely more on mass media for
information about the innovation, while later adopters rely more on interpersonal sources
(such as friends and family) as their primary source of information. IDT has been criticized for
having a “pro-innovation bias,” that is for presuming that all innovations are beneficial and will
be eventually diffused across the entire population, and because it does not allow for inefficient
innovations such as fads or fashions to die off quickly without being adopted by the entire
population or being replaced by better innovations.

Figure 4.3. S-shaped diffusion curve

4Rogers, E. (1962). Diffusion of Innovations. New York: The Free Press. Other editions 1983,
1996, 2005.

34
 Imple-
Knowledge Persuasion Decision Confirmation
mentation

Figure 4.4. Innovation adoption process

Elaboration Likelihood Model. Developed by Petty and Cacioppo (1986)5, the

elaboration likelihood model (ELM) is a dual-process theory of attitude formation or change in
the psychology literature. It explains how individuals can be influenced to change their attitude
toward a certain object, events, or behavior and the relative efficacy of such change strategies.
The ELM posits that one’s attitude may be shaped by two “routes” of influence, the central route
and the peripheral route, which differ in the amount of thoughtful information processing or
“elaboration” required of people (see Figure 4.5). The central route requires a person to think
about issue-related arguments in an informational message and carefully scrutinize the merits
and relevance of those arguments, before forming an informed judgment about the target
object. In the peripheral route, subjects rely on external “cues” such as number of prior users,
endorsements from experts, or likeability of the endorser, rather than on the quality of
arguments, in framing their attitude towards the target object. The latter route is less
cognitively demanding, and the routes of attitude change are typically operationalized in the
ELM using the argument quality and peripheral cues constructs respectively.

Figure 4.5. Elaboration likelihood model

Whether people will be influenced by the central or peripheral routes depends upon
their ability and motivation to elaborate the central merits of an argument. This ability and
motivation to elaborate is called elaboration likelihood. People in a state of high elaboration
likelihood (high ability and high motivation) are more likely to thoughtfully process the
information presented and are therefore more influenced by argument quality, while those in
the low elaboration likelihood state are more motivated by peripheral cues. Elaboration
likelihood is a situational characteristic and not a personal trait. For instance, a doctor may
employ the central route for diagnosing and treating a medical ailment (by virtue of his or her
expertise of the subject), but may rely on peripheral cues from auto mechanics to understand
the problems with his car. As such, the theory has widespread implications about how to enact
attitude change toward new products or ideas and even social change.

5Petty, R. E., and Cacioppo, J. T. (1986). Communication and Persuasion: Central and Peripheral Routes to
Attitude Change. New York: Springer-Verlag.

35
 General Deterrence Theory. Two utilitarian philosophers of the eighteenth century, Cesare
Beccaria and Jeremy Bentham, formulated General Deterrence Theory (GDT) as both an explanation
of crime and a method for reducing it. GDT examines why certain individuals engage in deviant,
anti-social, or criminal behaviors. This theory holds that people are fundamentally rational (for
both conforming and deviant behaviors), and that they freely choose deviant behaviors based
on a rational cost-benefit calculation. Because people naturally choose utility-maximizing
behaviors, deviant choices that engender personal gain or pleasure can be controlled by
increasing the costs of such behaviors in the form of punishments (countermeasures) as well as
increasing the probability of apprehension. Swiftness, severity, and certainty of punishments
are the key constructs in GDT.

While classical positivist research in criminology seeks generalized causes of criminal

behaviors, such as poverty, lack of education, psychological conditions, and recommends
strategies to rehabilitate criminals, such as by providing them job training and medical
treatment, GDT focuses on the criminal decision making process and situational factors that
influence that process. Hence, a criminal’s personal situation (such as his personal values, his
affluence, and his need for money) and the environmental context (such as how protected is the
target, how efficient is the local police, how likely are criminals to be apprehended) play key
roles in this decision making process. The focus of GDT is not how to rehabilitate criminals and
avert future criminal behaviors, but how to make criminal activities less attractive and
therefore prevent crimes. To that end, “target hardening” such as installing deadbolts and
building self-defense skills, legal deterrents such as eliminating parole for certain crimes, “three
strikes law” (mandatory incarceration for three offenses, even if the offenses are minor and not
worth imprisonment), and the death penalty, increasing the chances of apprehension using
means such as neighborhood watch programs, special task forces on drugs or gang-related
crimes, and increased police patrols, and educational programs such as highly visible notices
such as “Trespassers will be prosecuted” are effective in preventing crimes. This theory has
interesting implications not only for traditional crimes, but also for contemporary white-collar
crimes such as insider trading, software piracy, and illegal sharing of music.

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Chapter 5

Research Design

Research design is a comprehensive plan for data collection in an empirical research

project. It is a “blueprint” for empirical research aimed at answering specific research
questions or testing specific hypotheses, and must specify at least three processes: (1) the data
collection process, (2) the instrument development process, and (3) the sampling process. The
next two chapters will discuss in detail the instrument development and sampling processes,
while this chapter is more concerned with the data collection process and will explore different
kinds of data collection techniques for exploratory, descriptive, and causal research.

Broadly speaking, the two categories of data collection techniques used in scientific
research are quantitative or a qualitative research design. Within each category are a host of
specific designs such as experiments, field surveys, case research, ethnographic studies, and so
forth. Quantitative designs and intended to collect primarily quantitative data such as numeric
scores and metrics, while qualitative designs are aimed at collective qualitative data, such as
interview or observational data. Examples of quantitative designs include survey research and
laboratory experiments, while those for qualitative designs include case research and
ethnographic research. Despite the apparent separation of these techniques, note that a
qualitative design does not necessarily exclude collection of quantitative data, or vice versa. For
instance, survey research that primarily collects quantitative data may be designed to collect
qualitative textual comments from survey respondents, just as interview techniques, aimed at
collecting qualitative data, can also seek quantitative scores and metrics. Sometimes, both
qualitative and quantitative data may be needed to generate insight into a complex social
phenomenon, and hence, “mixed-mode designs” that combine features of qualitative and
quantitative designs and collect both types of data may be desirable.

Key Attributes of a Research Design

The quality of research designs can be defined in terms of four key design attributes:
internal validity, external validity, construct validity, and statistical conclusion validity.

Internal validity, also called causality, examines whether the observed change in a
dependent variable is indeed caused by a corresponding change in hypothesized independent
variable, and not by variables extraneous to the research context. Causality requires three
conditions: (1) covariation of cause and effect (i.e., if cause happens, then effect also happens;
and if cause does not happen, effect does not happen), (2) temporal precedence: cause must
precede effect in time, (3) no plausible alternative explanation (or spurious correlation).
Certain research designs, such as laboratory experiments, are strong in internal validity by

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virtue of their ability to manipulate the independent variable (cause) via a treatment and
observe the effect (dependent variable) of that treatment after a certain point in time, while
controlling for the effects of extraneous variables. Other designs, such as field surveys, are poor
in internal validity because of their inability to manipulate the independent variable (cause),
and because cause and effect are measured at the same point in time which defeats temporal
precedence making it equally likely that the expected effect might have influenced the expected
cause rather than the reverse. Although higher in internal validity compared to other methods,
laboratory experiments are, by no means, immune to threats of internal validity, and are
susceptible to history, testing, instrumentation, regression, and other threats that are discussed
later in the chapter on experimental designs. Nonetheless, different research designs vary
considerably in their respective level of internal validity.

External validity or generalizability refers to whether the observed associations can be

generalized from the sample to the population (population validity), or to other people,
organizations, contexts, or time (ecological validity). For instance, can results drawn from a
sample of financial firms in the United States be generalized to the population of financial firms
(population validity) or to other firms within the United States (ecological validity)? Survey
research, where data is sourced from a wide variety of individuals, firms, or other units of
analysis, tends to have broader generalizability than laboratory experiments where artificially
contrived treatments and strong control over extraneous variables render the findings less
generalizable to real-life settings where treatments and extraneous variables cannot be
controlled. The variation in internal and external validity for a wide range of research designs
are shown in Figure 5.1.

Cone of Validity
Single Multiple
case study case study Field
experiment
Ethnography
Longitudinal
External
Cross-sectional field survey
validity
field survey
Simulation Multiple lab
experiment
Validity
frontier
Math Single lab
proofs experiment
Internal validity

Figure 5.1. Internal and external validity

Some researchers claim that there is a tradeoff between internal and external validity:
higher external validity can come only at the cost of internal validity and vice-versa. But this is
not always the case. Research designs such as field experiments, longitudinal field surveys, and
multiple case studies have higher degrees of both internal and external validities. As a personal
preference, I tend to prefer research designs that have reasonable degrees of both types of
validities, i.e., those that fall within the cone of validity shown in Figure 5.1. But this should not
suggest that designs outside this cone are any less useful or valuable. Researchers’ choice of
designs are ultimately a matter of their personal preference and competence, but one should be
aware of the internal and external validity implications of their choices.

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 Construct validity examines how well a given measurement scale is measuring the
theoretical construct that it is expected to measure. Many constructs used in social science
research such as empathy, resistance to change, and organizational learning are difficult to
define, much less measure. For instance, construct validity must assure that a measure of
empathy is indeed measuring empathy and not compassion, which may be difficult since these
constructs are somewhat similar in meaning. Construct validity is assessed in quantitative
research based on correlational or factor analysis of pilot test data, as described in the next
chapter.

Statistical conclusion validity examines the extent to which conclusions derived using
a statistical procedure is valid. For example, it examines whether the right statistical method
was used for hypotheses testing, whether the variables used meet the assumptions of that
statistical test (such as sample size or distributional requirements), and so forth. Because
qualitative research designs do not employ statistical test, statistical conclusion validity is not
applicable for such analysis. The different kinds of validity and where they exist at the
theoretical/empirical levels are illustrated in Figure 5.2.

Figure 5.2. Different Types of Validity in Scientific Research

Improving Internal and External Validity

The best research designs are those that can assure high levels of internal and external
validity. Such designs would guard against spurious correlations, inspire greater faith in the
hypotheses testing, and ensure that the results drawn from a small sample are generalizable to
the population at large. Controls are required to assure internal validity (causality) of research
designs, and can be accomplished in four ways: (1) manipulation, (2) elimination, (3) inclusion,
and (4) statistical control, and (5) randomization.

In manipulation, the researcher manipulates the independent variables in one or more

levels (called “treatments”), and compares the effects of the treatments against a control group
where subjects do not receive the treatment. Treatments may include a new drug or different
dosage of drug (for treating a medical condition), a, a teaching style (for students), and so forth.
This type of control is achieved in experimental or quasi-experimental designs but not in non-
experimental designs such as surveys. Note that if subjects cannot distinguish adequately

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between different levels of treatment manipulations, their responses across treatments may not
be different, and manipulation would fail.

The elimination technique relies on eliminating extraneous variables by holding them

constant across treatments, such as by restricting the study to a single gender or a single socio-
economic status. In the inclusion technique, the role of extraneous variables is considered by
including them in the research design and separately estimating their effects on the dependent
variable, such as via factorial designs where one factor is gender (male versus female). Such
technique allows for greater generalizability but also requires substantially larger samples. In
statistical control, extraneous variables are measured and used as covariates during the
statistical testing process.

Finally, the randomization technique is aimed at canceling out the effects of extraneous
variables through a process of random sampling, if it can be assured that these effects are of a
random (non-systematic) nature. Two types of randomization are: (1) random selection,
where a sample is selected randomly from a population, and (2) random assignment, where
subjects selected in a non-random manner are randomly assigned to treatment groups.

Randomization also assures external validity, allowing inferences drawn from the
sample to be generalized to the population from which the sample is drawn. Note that random
assignment is mandatory when random selection is not possible because of resource or access
constraints. However, generalizability across populations is harder to ascertain since
populations may differ on multiple dimensions and you can only control for few of those
dimensions.

Popular Research Designs

Research designs can be classified into two general categories – positivist and
interpretive – depending how their goal in scientific research. Positivist studies are those that
are used for theory (hypotheses) testing, while interpretive studies are those that are used for
theory building. Popular examples of positivist designs include laboratory experiments, field
experiments, field surveys, secondary data analysis, and case research while examples of
interpretive designs include case research, focus group, grounded theory, action research, and
ethnography (case research can be used for both theory building or theory testing, though not
at the same time). Positivist designs seek generalized patterns based on an objective view of
reality, while interpretive designs seek subjective interpretations of social phenomena from the
perspectives of the subjects involved. These subjective perspectives may contradict each other,
and hence, the researcher’s goal is to reconcile such conflicting interpretations and “make
sense” of the overall phenomenon. Following are brief descriptions of some of the more
popular research designs. Additional details are provided in future chapters.

Experimental studies are those that are intended to test cause effect relationships
(hypotheses) by separating the cause from the effect in time, administering the cause to one
group of subjects (the “treatment group”) but not to another group (“control group”), and
observing how the effects vary between subjects in these two groups. For instance, the
treatment group may be administered a drug for treating a certain medical condition, while the
control group may receive just a placebo (no drug) without their knowledge. More complex
designs may include multiple treatment groups, such as low versus high dosage of the drug,
versus a control group, multiple treatments, such as drug administration (yes versus no) and
dietary or physical therapy intervention (yes versus no). In a true experimental design,

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subjects must be randomly assigned between each group. If random assignment is not
followed, then the design becomes quasi-experimental. Experiments can be conducted in an
artificial or laboratory setting (laboratory experiments) or in field settings such as in an
organization (field experiments). Laboratory experiments allow the researcher to isolate the
variables of interest and control for extraneous variables, which may not be possible in field
experiments. Hence, inferences drawn from laboratory experiments tend to be stronger in
internal validity, but those from field experiments tend to be stronger in external validity. In
either case, data is analyzed using quantitative statistical techniques. The primary strength of
the experimental design is its strong internal validity due to its ability to isolate, control, and
intensively examine a small number of variables, while its primary weakness is limited external
generalizability since real life is often more complex (i.e., involve more extraneous variables)
than contrived lab settings. Furthermore, if the research does not identify ex ante relevant
extraneous variables and control for such variables, such lack of controls may hurt internal
validity and may lead to spurious correlations.

Field surveys are non-experimental designs that do not involve controlling for or
manipulating independent variables or treatments. Field surveys capture snapshots of
practices, beliefs, or situations from a random sample of subjects in field settings through a
survey questionnaire or less frequently, through a structured interview. Cross-sectional field
surveys, independent and dependent variables are measured at the same point in time (e.g.,
using a single questionnaire), while in longitudinal field surveys, dependent variables are
measured at a later point in time. The strength of field surveys are their external validity (since
data is collected in field settings), their ability to capture and control for a large number of
variables, and their ability to study a problem from multiple perspectives or using multiple
theories. However, because of their non-temporal nature, internal validity (cause-effect
relationships) are difficult to infer, and surveys may be subject to respondent biases (e.g.,
subjects may provide a “socially desirable” response rather than their true beliefs or feelings)
which makes internal validity even more problematic.

Secondary data analysis is an analysis of data that has already been collected and
tabulated by other sources. Such data may include data by government agencies such as
employment statistics from the U.S. Bureau of Labor Services or development statistics by
country from the United Nations Development Program, data collected by other researchers
(often used in meta-analytic studies), or publicly available third party data, such as financial
data from stock markets or real-time auction data from eBay. This is in contrast to most other
research designs where collecting primary data for research is part of the researcher’s job.
Secondary data analysis may be an effective means of research where primary data collection is
too costly or infeasible, and secondary data is already available at a level of analysis suitable for
answering the researcher’s questions. The limitations of this design are that the data might not
have been collected in a systematic or scientific manner and hence unsuitable for scientific
research, and since the data was collected for a presumably different purpose, they may not
adequately address the research questions of interest to the researcher.

Case research is an in-depth investigation of a problem in one or more real-life settings

(case sites) over an extended period of time. Data may be collected using a combination of
interviews, personal observations, and internal or external documents. Case studies can be
positivist (intended for hypotheses testing) or interpretive (for theory building). The strength
of this research method is its ability to capture the reality in great detail within field settings,
and to develop a nuanced understanding of the interlocking set of social, cultural, and political
factors that might have influenced the phenomenon of interest. However, findings from a single

41
case site may not be readily generalized to other case sites, interpretation of findings may
depend on the observational and integrative ability of the researcher, and lack of control may
make it difficult to establish causality. Generalizability can be improved by replicating and
comparing the analysis in other case sites in a multiple case design.

Focus group research is a type of research that involves bringing in a small group of
subjects (typically 6 to 10 people) at one location, and having them discuss a research problem
of interest for a period of 1.5 to 2 hours. The discussion is moderated and led by a trained
facilitator, who sets the agenda and an initial set of questions for participants, makes sure that
ideas and experiences of all participants are represented, and attempts to build a holistic
understanding of the problem situation based on participants’ comments and experiences.
Internal validity cannot be established due to lack of controls and the findings may not be
generalized to other settings because of small sample size. Hence, focus groups are not
generally used for explanatory or descriptive research, but are more suited for exploratory
research.

Action research assumes that complex social phenomena are best understood by
introducing interventions or “actions” into those phenomena and observing the effects of those
actions. In this method, the researcher is usually a consultant or an organizational member
embedded within a social context such as an organization, who initiates an action such as new
organizational procedures or new technologies, in response to a real problem such as declining
profitability or operational bottlenecks. The researcher’s choice of actions must be based on
theory, which should explain why and how such actions may cause the desired change. The
researcher then observes the results of that action, modifying it as necessary, while
simultaneously learning from the action and generating theoretical insights about the target
problem and interventions. The initial theory is validated by the extent to which the chosen
action successfully solves the target problem. Simultaneous problem solving and insight
generation is the central feature that distinguishes action research from all other qualitative
research methods, and hence, action research is an excellent method for bridging research and
practice. This method is also suited for studying unique social problems that cannot be
replicated outside that context, but it is also subject to researcher bias and subjectivity, and the
generalizability of findings is often restricted to the context where the study was conducted.

Ethnography is a qualitative research design inspired by anthropology that emphasizes

that research phenomenon must be studied within the context of its culture. The researcher is
deeply immersed in a certain culture over an extended period of time (8 months to 2 years),
and during that period, engages, observes, and records the daily life of the studied culture, and
theorizes about the evolution and behaviors in that culture. Data is collected primarily by
observation, formal and informal interaction with participants in that culture, and personal
field notes, while data analysis involves sense-making. The researcher must narrate her
experience in great detail so that readers may experience that same culture without necessarily
being there. The advantage of this approach is

Grounded theory is an inductive technique of building theories about a social

phenomenon that are based on (or “grounded in”) empirical observations of the phenomenon.
Data is collected mostly in a qualitative manner using interviews, observations, and documents,
and data interpretation is based on a system of coding techniques, consisting of open, axial, and
selective coding described in the chapter on qualitative methods. Data collection and analysis
can proceed simultaneously, and this process leads to the development of an initial theory
about the phenomenon of interest, which is iteratively refined based on additional

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observations. Theoretical refinement continues until additional data does not help improve the
extant theory, i.e., until “theoretical saturation” is reached. Care should be taken not to bias the
theory development process with the researcher’s personal biases or expectations of the
phenomenon being studied.

Selecting Research Designs

Given the above multitude of research designs, which design should researchers choose
for their research? Generally speaking, researchers tend to select those research designs that
they are most comfortable with and feel most competent to handle, but ideally, the choice
should depend on the nature of the research phenomenon being studied. Some designs such as
focus groups are more designed for exploratory studies, others such as grounded theory and
case research are best for theory building, and still others such as experiments are ideally
suited for theory testing. It is also not that quantitative designs meant for theory testing and
qualitative designs are meant for theory building. As we will see in a later chapter, case
research and action research (qualitative designs) can be used for theory testing.

In general, it seems that in the preliminary phases of research, where the researcher is
exploring alternative research problems in a certain domain of research or wants to scope out
the nature and extent of a certain research problem that she is interested in, a focus group (for
individual unit of analysis) or a case study (for organizational unit of analysis) will be an ideal
strategy for exploratory research. As one delves further into the research domain, but finds
that there are no good theories to explain the phenomenon of interest and wants to build a
theory to fill in the unmet gap in that area, grounded theory, case research, or ethnography may
be useful designs at that stage. If competing theories exist and she would like to test these
alternative theories, experimental design, survey research, case research, or possibly action
research may be useful depending on the personal proficiency of the researcher.

Regardless of the type of research design chosen, note that both quantitative and
qualitative data in any design can be collected using a variety of techniques such as
questionnaires, interviews, observations, documents (internal or external), third-party data, or
any combination thereof. For instance, a highly structured survey questionnaire, intended to
collect quantitative data, may leave some room for a few open-ended questions to collect
qualitative data that may generate unexpected insights not otherwise possible from
quantitative data alone. Likewise, while case research employ mostly face-to-face interviews to
collect most qualitative data, the potential and value of collecting quantitative data should not
be ignored. As an example, in a study of organizational decision making processes, the case
interviewer can record numeric quantities such as how many months it took to make certain
organizational decisions, how many people were involved in that decision process, and how
many decision alternatives were considered, which can provide valuable insights not otherwise
available from interviewees’ narrative responses. Irrespective of the specific research design
employed, the goal of the researcher should be to collect as much and as diverse data as
possible during the data collection stage that can generate new insights into the phenomenon of
interest.

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Chapter 6

Measurement of Constructs

Theoretical propositions consist of relationships between abstract constructs. Testing

theories (i.e., theoretical propositions) require measuring these constructs accurately, correctly,
and in a scientific manner, before the strength of their relationships can be tested.
Measurement refers to careful, deliberate observations of the real world and is the essence of
empirical research. While some constructs in social science research, such as a person’s age,
weight, or a firm’s size, may be easy to measure, other constructs, such as creativity, prejudice,
or alienation, may be considerably harder to measure. In this chapter, we will examine the
related processes of conceptualization and operationalization for creating measures of such
constructs.

Conceptualization
Conceptualization is the mental process by which fuzzy and imprecise constructs
(concepts) and their constituent components are defined in concrete and precise terms. For
instance, we often use the word “prejudice” and the word conjures a certain image in our mind;
however, we may struggle if we were asked to define exactly what the term meant. If someone
says bad things about other racial groups, is that racial prejudice? If women earn less than men
for the same job, is that gender prejudice? If churchgoers believe that non-believers will burn
in hell, is that religious prejudice? Are there different kinds of prejudice, and if so, what are
they? Are there different levels of prejudice, such as high or low? Answering all of these
questions is the key to measuring the prejudice construct correctly. The process of
understanding what is included and what is excluded in the concept of prejudice is the
conceptualization process.

The conceptualization process is all the more important because of the imprecision,
vagueness, and ambiguity of many social science constructs. For instance, is “compassion” the
same thing as “empathy” or “sentimentality”? If you have a proposition stating that
“compassion is positively related to empathy”, you cannot test that proposition unless you can
conceptually separate empathy from compassion and then empirically measure these two very
similar constructs correctly. If deeply religious people believe that some members of their
society, such as nonbelievers, gays, and abortion doctors, will burn in hell for their sins, and
forcefully try to change the “sinners” behaviors to prevent them from going to hell, are they
acting in a prejudicial manner or a compassionate manner? Our definition of such constructs is
not based on any objective criterion, but rather on a shared (“inter-subjective”) agreement
between our mental images (conceptions) of these constructs.

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 While defining constructs such as prejudice or compassion, we must understand that
sometimes, these constructs are not real or can exist independently, but are simply imaginary
creations in our mind. For instance, there may be certain tribes in the world who lack prejudice
and who cannot even imagine what this concept entails. But in real life, we tend to treat this
concept as real. The process of regarding mental constructs as real is called reification, which is
central to defining constructs and identifying measurable variables for measuring them.

One important decision in conceptualizing constructs is specifying whether they are

unidimensional and multidimensional. Unidimensional constructs are those that are expected
to have a single underlying dimension. These constructs can be measured using a single
measure or test. Examples include simple constructs such as a person’s weight, wind speed,
and probably even complex constructs like self-esteem (if we conceptualize self-esteem as
consisting of a single dimension, which of course, may be a unrealistic assumption).
Multidimensional constructs consist of two or more underlying dimensions. For instance, if
we conceptualize a person’s academic aptitude as consisting of two dimensions – mathematical
and verbal ability – then academic aptitude is a multidimensional construct. Each of the
underlying dimensions in this case must be measured separately, say, using different tests for
mathematical and verbal ability, and the two scores can be combined, possibly in a weighted
manner, to create an overall value for the academic aptitude construct.

Operationalization
Once a theoretical construct is defined, exactly how do we measure it?
Operationalization refers to the process of developing indicators or items for measuring
these constructs. For instance, if an unobservable theoretical construct such as socioeconomic
status is defined as the level of family income, it can be operationalized using an indicator that
asks respondents the question: what is your annual family income? Given the high level of
subjectivity and imprecision inherent in social science constructs, we tend to measure most of
those constructs (except a few demographic constructs such as age, gender, education, and
income) using multiple indicators. This process allows us to examine the closeness amongst
these indicators as an assessment of their accuracy (reliability).

Indicators operate at the empirical level, in contrast to constructs, which are

conceptualized at the theoretical level. The combination of indicators at the empirical level
representing a given construct is called a variable. As noted in a previous chapter, variables
may be independent, dependent, mediating, or moderating, depending on how they are
employed in a research study. Also each indicator may have several attributes (or levels) and
each attribute represent a value. For instance, a “gender” variable may have two attributes:
male or female. Likewise, a customer satisfaction scale may be constructed to represent five
attributes: “strongly dissatisfied”, “somewhat dissatisfied”, “neutral”, “somewhat satisfied” and
“strongly satisfied”. Values of attributes may be quantitative (numeric) or qualitative (non-
numeric). Quantitative data can be analyzed using quantitative data analysis techniques, such
as regression or structural equation modeling, while qualitative data require qualitative data
analysis techniques, such as coding. Note that many variables in social science research are
qualitative, even when represented in a quantitative manner. For instance, we can create a
customer satisfaction indicator with five attributes: strongly dissatisfied, somewhat dissatisfied,
neutral, somewhat satisfied, and strongly satisfied, and assign numbers 1 through 5
respectively for these five attributes, so that we can use sophisticated statistical tools for
quantitative data analysis. However, note that the numbers are only labels associated with

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respondents’ personal evaluation of their own satisfaction, and the underlying variable
(satisfaction) is still qualitative even though we represented it in a quantitative manner.

Indicators may be reflective or formative. A reflective indicator is a measure that

“reflects” an underlying construct. For example, if religiosity is defined as a construct that
measures how religious a person is, then attending religious services may be a reflective
indicator of religiosity. A formative indicator is a measure that “forms” or contributes to an
underlying construct. Such indicators may represent different dimensions of the construct of
interest. For instance, if religiosity is defined as composing of a belief dimension, a devotional
dimension, and a ritual dimension, then indicators chosen to measure each of these different
dimensions will be considered formative indicators. Unidimensional constructs are measured
using reflective indicators (even though multiple reflective indicators may be used for
measuring abstruse constructs such as self-esteem), while multidimensional constructs are
measured as a formative combination of the multiple dimensions, even though each of the
underlying dimensions may be measured using one or more reflective indicators.

Levels of Measurement
The first decision to be made in operationalizing a construct is to decide on what is the
intended level of measurement. Levels of measurement, also called rating scales, refer to the
type of attribute values that an indicator can take (but says nothing about the indicator itself).
In his seminal article titled "On the theory of scales of measurement" published in Science in
1946, psychologist Stanley Smith Stevens (1946) defined four generic types of rating scales for
scientific measurements: nominal, ordinal, interval, and ratio scales. The statistical properties
of these scales are shown in Table 6.1.

Scale Central Tendency Statistics Transformations

Nominal Mode Chi-square One-to-one (equality)

Ordinal Median Percentile, non- Monotonic increasing

parametric statistics (order)

Interval Arithmetic mean, range, Correlation, regression, Positive linear (affine)

standard deviation analysis of variance

Ratio Geometric mean, Coefficient of variation Positive similarities

harmonic mean (multiplicative, logarithmic)

Note: All higher-order scales can use any of the statistics for lower order scales.

Table 6.1. Statistical properties of rating scales

Nominal scales, also called categorical scales, measure categorical data. These scales
are used for variables or indicators that have mutually exclusive attributes. Examples include
gender (two values: male or female), industry type (manufacturing, financial, agriculture, etc.),
and religious affiliation (Christian, Muslim, Jew, etc.). Even if we assign unique numbers to each
value, for instance 1 for male and 2 for female, the numbers don’t really mean anything (i.e., 1 is
not less than or half of 2) and could have been easily been represented non-numerically, such as
M for male and F for female. Nominal scales merely offer names or labels for different attribute

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values. The appropriate measure of central tendency of a nominal scale is mode, and neither
the mean nor the median can be defined. Permissible statistics are chi-square and frequency
distribution, and only a one-to-one (equality) transformation is allowed (e.g., 1=Male,
2=Female).

Ordinal scales are those that measure rank-ordered data, such as the ranking of
students in a class as first, second, third, and so forth, based on their grade point average or test
scores. However, the actual or relative values of attributes or difference in attribute values
cannot be assessed. For instance, ranking of students in class says nothing about the actual GPA
or test scores of the students, or how they well performed relative to one another. A classic
example in the natural sciences is Moh’s scale of mineral hardness, which characterizes the
hardness of various minerals by their ability to scratch other minerals. For instance, diamonds
can scratch all other naturally occurring minerals on earth, and hence diamond is the “hardest”
mineral. However, the scale does not indicate the actual hardness of these minerals or even
provides a relative assessment of their hardness. Ordinal scales can also use attribute labels
(anchors) such as “bad”, “medium”, and “good”, or "strongly dissatisfied", "somewhat
dissatisfied", "neutral", or "somewhat satisfied", and "strongly satisfied”. In the latter case, we
can say that respondents who are “somewhat satisfied” are less satisfied than those who are
“strongly satisfied”, but we cannot quantify their satisfaction levels. The central tendency
measure of an ordinal scale can be its median or mode, and means are uninterpretable. Hence,
statistical analyses may involve percentiles and non-parametric analysis, but more
sophisticated techniques such as correlation, regression, and analysis of variance, are not
appropriate. Monotonically increasing transformation (which retains the ranking) is allowed.

Interval scales are those where the values measured are not only rank-ordered, but are
also equidistant from adjacent attributes. For example, the temperature scale (in Fahrenheit or
Celsius), where the difference between 30 and 40 degree Fahrenheit is the same as that
between 80 and 90 degree Fahrenheit. Likewise, if you have a scale that asks respondents’
annual income using the following attributes (ranges): $0 to 10,000, $10,000 to 20,000, $20,000
to 30,000, and so forth, this is also an interval scale, because the mid-point of each range (i.e.,
$5,000, $15,000, $25,000, etc.) are equidistant from each other. The intelligence quotient (IQ)
scale is also an interval scale, because the scale is designed such that the difference between IQ
scores 100 and 110 is supposed to be the same as between 110 and 120 (although we do not
really know whether that is truly the case). Interval scale allows us to examine “how much
more” is one attribute when compared to another, which is not possible with nominal or ordinal
scales. Allowed central tendency measures include mean, median, or mode, as are measures of
dispersion, such as range and standard deviation. Permissible statistical analyses include all of
those allowed for nominal and ordinal scales, plus correlation, regression, analysis of variance,
and so on. Allowed scale transformation are positive linear. Note that the satisfaction scale
discussed earlier is not strictly an interval scale, because we cannot say whether the difference
between “strongly satisfied” and “somewhat satisfied” is the same as that between “neutral” and
“somewhat satisfied” or between “somewhat dissatisfied” and “strongly dissatisfied”. However,
social science researchers often “pretend” (incorrectly) that these differences are equal so that
we can use statistical techniques for analyzing ordinal scaled data.

Ratio scales are those that have all the qualities of nominal, ordinal, and interval scales,
and in addition, also have a “true zero” point (where the value zero implies lack or non-
availability of the underlying construct). Most measurement in the natural sciences and
engineering, such as mass, incline of a plane, and electric charge, employ ratio scales, as are
some social science variables such as age, tenure in an organization, and firm size (measured as

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employee count or gross revenues). For example, a firm of size zero means that it has no
employees or revenues. The Kelvin temperature scale is also a ratio scale, in contrast to the
Fahrenheit or Celsius scales, because the zero point on this scale (equaling -273.15 degree
Celsius) is not an arbitrary value but represents a state where the particles of matter at this
temperature have zero kinetic energy. These scales are called “ratio” scales because the ratios
of two points on these measures are meaningful and interpretable. For example, a firm of size
10 employees is double that of a firm of size 5, and the same can be said for a firm of 10,000
employees relative to a different firm of 5,000 employees. All measures of central tendencies,
including geometric and harmonic means, are allowed for ratio scales, as are ratio measures,
such as studentized range or coefficient of variation. All statistical methods are allowed.
Sophisticated transformation such as positive similar (e.g., multiplicative or logarithmic) are
also allowed.

Based on the four generic types of scales discussed above, we can create specific rating
scales for social science research. Common rating scales include binary, Likert, semantic
differential, or Guttman scales. Other less common scales are not discussed here.

Binary scales. Binary scales are nominal scales consisting of binary items that assume
one of two possible values, such as yes or no, true or false, and so on. For example, a typical
binary scale for the “political activism” construct may consist of the six binary items shown in
Table 6.2. Each item in this scale is a binary item, and the total number of “yes” indicated by a
respondent (a value from 0 to 6) can be used as an overall measure of that person’s political
activism. To understand how these items were derived, refer to the “Scaling” section later on in
this chapter. Binary scales can also employ other values, such as male or female for gender, full-
time or part-time for employment status, and so forth. If an employment status item is
modified to allow for more than two possible values (e.g., unemployed, full-time, part-time, and
retired), it is no longer binary, but still remains a nominal scaled item.

Have you ever written a letter to a public official Yes No

Have you ever signed a political petition Yes No

Have you ever donated money to a political cause Yes No

Have you ever donated money to a candidate running for public office Yes No

Have you ever written a political letter to the editor of a newspaper or magazine Yes No

Have you ever persuaded someone to change his/her voting plans Yes No

Table 6.2. A six-item binary scale for measuring political activism

Likert scale. Designed by Rensis Likert, this is a very popular rating scale for
measuring ordinal data in social science research. This scale includes Likert items that
are simply-worded statements to which respondents can indicate their extent of agreement or
disagreement on a five or seven-point scale ranging from “strongly disagree” to “strongly
agree”. A typical example of a six-item Likert scale for the “employment self-esteem” construct
is shown in Table 6.3. Likert scales are summated scales, that is, the overall scale score may be
a summation of the attribute values of each item as selected by a respondent.

48
 Strongly Somewhat Neutral Somewhat Strongly
Disagree Disagree Agree Agree
I feel good about my job 1 2 3 4 5
I get along well with others at work 1 2 3 4 5

I’m proud of my relationship with my 1 2 3 4 5

supervisor at work

I can tell that other people at work are 1 2 3 4 5

glad to have me there
I can tell that my coworkers respect me 1 2 3 4 5

I feel like I make a useful contribution at 1 2 3 4 5

work

Table 6.3. A six-item Likert scale for measuring employment self-esteem

Likert items allow for more granularity (more finely tuned response) than binary items,
including whether respondents are neutral to the statement. Three or nine values (often called
“anchors”) may also be used, but it is important to use an odd number of values to allow for a
“neutral” (or “neither agree nor disagree”) anchor. Some studies have used a “forced choice
approach” to force respondents to agree or disagree with the LIkert statement by dropping the
neutral mid-point and using even number of values and, but this is not a good strategy because
some people may indeed be neutral to a given statement and the forced choice approach does
not provide them the opportunity to record their neutral stance. A key characteristic of a Likert
scale is that even though the statements vary in different items or indicators, the anchors
(“strongly disagree” to “strongly agree”) remain the same. Likert scales are ordinal scales
because the anchors are not necessarily equidistant, even though sometimes we treat them like
interval scales.

How would you rate your opinions on national health insurance?

Very much Somewhat Neither Somewhat Very much

Good □ □ □ □ □ Bad
Useful □ □ □ □ □ Useless
Caring □ □ □ □ □ Uncaring
Interesting □ □ □ □ □ Boring

Table 6.4. A semantic differential scale for measuring attitude toward national health insurance

Semantic differential scale. This is a composite (multi-item) scale where respondents

are asked to indicate their opinions or feelings toward a single statement using different pairs
of adjectives framed as polar opposites. For instance, the construct “attitude toward national
health insurance” can be measured using four items shown in Table 6.4. As in the Likert scale,
the overall scale score may be a summation of individual item scores. Notice that in Likert
scales, the statement changes but the anchors remain the same across items. However, in
semantic differential scales, the statement remains constant, while the anchors (adjective pairs)

49
change across items. Semantic differential is believed to be an excellent technique for
measuring people’s attitude or feelings toward objects, events, or behaviors.

Guttman scale. Designed by Louis Guttman, this composite scale uses a series of items
arranged in increasing order of intensity of the construct of interest, from least intense to most
intense. As an example, the construct “attitude toward immigrants” can be measured using five
items shown in Table 6.5. Each item in the above Guttman scale has a weight (not indicated
above) which varies with the intensity of that item, and the weighted combination of each
response is used as aggregate measure of an observation.

How will you rate your opinions on the following statements about immigrants?

Do you mind immigrants being citizens of your country Yes No

Do you mind immigrants living in your own neighborhood Yes No

Would you mind living next door to an immigrant Yes No

Would you mind having an immigrant as your close friend Yes No

Would you mind if someone in your family married an immigrant Yes No

Table 6.5. A five-item Guttman scale for measuring attitude toward immigrants

Scaling
The previous section discussed how to measure respondents’ responses to predesigned
items or indicators belonging to an underlying construct. But how do we create the indicators
themselves? The process of creating the indicators is called scaling. More formally, scaling is a
branch of measurement that involves the construction of measures by associating qualitative
judgments about unobservable constructs with quantitative, measurable metric units. Stevens
(1946) said, “Scaling is the assignment of objects to numbers according to a rule.” This process
of measuring abstract concepts in concrete terms remains one of the most difficult tasks in
empirical social science research.

The outcome of a scaling process is a scale, which is an empirical structure for

measuring items or indicators of a given construct. Understand that “scales”, as discussed in
this section, are a little different from “rating scales” discussed in the previous section. A rating
scale is used to capture the respondents’ reactions to a given item, for instance, such as a
nominal scaled item captures a yes/no reaction and an interval scaled item captures a value
between “strongly disagree” to “strongly agree.” Attaching a rating scale to a statement or
instrument is not scaling. Rather, scaling is the formal process of developing scale items, before
rating scales can be attached to those items.

Scales can be unidimensional or multidimensional, based on whether the underlying

construct is unidimensional (e.g., weight, wind speed, firm size) or multidimensional (e.g.,
academic aptitude, intelligence). Unidimensional scale measures constructs along a single scale,
ranging from high to low. Note that some of these scales may include multiple items, but all of
these items attempt to measure the same underlying dimension. This is particularly the case
with many social science constructs such as self-esteem, which are assumed to have a single

50
dimension going from low to high. Multi-dimensional scales, on the other hand, employ
different items or tests to measure each dimension of the construct separately, and then
combine the scores on each dimension to create an overall measure of the multidimensional
construct. For instance, academic aptitude can be measured using two separate tests of
students’ mathematical and verbal ability, and then combining these scores to create an overall
measure for academic aptitude. Since most scales employed in social science research are
unidimensional, we will next three examine approaches for creating unidimensional scales.

Unidimensional scaling methods were developed during the first half of the twentieth
century and were named after their creators. The three most popular unidimensional scaling
methods are: (1) Thurstone’s equal-appearing scaling, (2) Likert’s summative scaling, and (3)
Guttman’s cumulative scaling. The three approaches are similar in many respects, with the key
differences being the rating of the scale items by judges and the statistical methods used to
select the final items. Each of these methods are discussed next.

Thurstone’s equal-appearing scaling method. Louis Thurstone. one of the earliest

and most famous scaling theorists, published a method of equal-appearing intervals in 1925.
This method starts with a clear conceptual definition of the construct of interest. Based on this
definition, potential scale items are generated to measure this construct. These items are
generated by experts who know something about the construct being measured. The initial
pool of candidate items (ideally 80 to 100 items) should be worded in a similar manner, for
instance, by framing them as statements to which respondents may agree or disagree (and not
as questions or other things). Next, a panel of judges is recruited to select specific items from
this candidate pool to represent the construct of interest. Judges may include academics
trained in the process of instrument construction or a random sample of respondents of
interest (i.e., people who are familiar with the phenomenon). The selection process is done by
having each judge independently rate each item on a scale from 1 to 11 based on how closely, in
their opinion, that item reflects the intended construct (1 represents extremely unfavorable and
11 represents extremely favorable). For each item, compute the median and inter-quartile
range (the difference between the 75th and the 25th percentile – a measure of dispersion), which
are plotted on a histogram, as shown in Figure 6.1. The final scale items are selected as
statements that are at equal intervals across a range of medians. This can be done by grouping
items with a common median, and then selecting the item with the smallest inter-quartile range
within each median group. However, instead of relying entirely on statistical analysis for item
selection, a better strategy may be to examine the candidate items at each level and selecting
the statement that is the most clear and makes the most sense. The median value of each scale
item represents the weight to be used for aggregating the items into a composite scale score
representing the construct of interest. We now have a scale which looks like a ruler, with one
item or statement at each of the 11 points on the ruler (and weighted as such). Because items
appear equally throughout the entire 11-pointrange of the scale, this technique is called an
equal-appearing scale.

Thurstone also created two additional methods of building unidimensional scales – the
method of successive intervals and the method of paired comparisons – which are both very
similar to the method of equal-appearing intervals, except for how judges are asked to rate the
data. For instance, the method of paired comparison requires each judge to make a judgment
between each pair of statements (rather than rate each statement independently on a 1 to 11
scale). Hence, the name paired comparison method. With a lot of statements, this approach can
be enormously time consuming and unwieldy compared to the method of equal-appearing
intervals.

51
 Figure 6.1. Histogram for Thurstone scale items

Likert’s summative scaling method. The Likert method, a unidimensional scaling

method developed by Murphy and Likert (1938), is quite possibly the most popular of the three
scaling approaches described in this chapter. As with Thurstone’s method, the Likert method
also starts with a clear definition of the construct of interest, and using a set of experts to
generate about 80 to 100 potential scale items. These items are then rated by judges on a 1 to 5
(or 1 to 7) rating scale as follows: 1 for strongly disagree with the concept, 2 for somewhat
disagree with the concept, 3 for undecided, 4 for somewhat agree with the concept, and 5 for
strongly agree with the concept. Following this rating, specific items can be selected for the
final scale can be selected in one of several ways: (1) by computing bivariate correlations
between judges rating of each item and the total item (created by summing all individual items
for each respondent), and throwing out items with low (e.g., less than 0.60) item-to-total
correlations, or (2) by averaging the rating for each item for the top quartile and the bottom
quartile of judges, doing a t-test for the difference in means, and selecting items that have high
t-values (i.e., those that discriminates best between the top and bottom quartile responses). In
the end, researcher’s judgment may be used to obtain a relatively small (say 10 to 15) set of
items that have high item-to-total correlations and high discrimination (i.e., high t-values). The
Likert method assumes equal weights for all items, and hence, respondent’s responses to each
item can be summed to create a composite score for that respondent. Hence, this method is
called a summated scale. Note that any item with reversed meaning from the original direction
of the construct must be reverse coded (i.e., 1 becomes a 5, 2 becomes a 4, and so forth) before
summating.

Guttman’s cumulative scaling method. Designed by Guttman (1950), the cumulative

scaling method is based on Emory Bogardus’ social distance technique, which assumes that
people’s willingness to participate in social relations with other people vary in degrees of
intensity, and measures that intensity using a list of items arranged from “least intense” to
“most intense”. The idea is that people who agree with one item on this list also agree with all
previous items. In practice, we seldom find a set of items that matches this cumulative pattern
perfectly. A scalogram analysis is used to examine how closely a set of items corresponds to the
idea of cumulativeness.

Like previous scaling methods, the Guttman method also starts with a clear definition of
the construct of interest, and then using experts to develop a large set of candidate items. A
group of judges then rate each candidate item as “yes” if they view the item as being favorable

52
to the construct and “no” if they see the item as unfavorable. Next, a matrix or table is created
showing the judges’ responses to all candidate items. This matrix is sorted in decreasing order
from judges with more “yes” at the top to those with fewer “yes” at the bottom. Judges with the
same number of “yes”, the statements can be sorted from left to right based on most number of
agreements to least. The resulting matrix will resemble Table 6.6. Notice that the scale is now
almost cumulative when read from left to right (across the items). However, there may be a few
exceptions, as shown in Table 6.6, and hence the scale is not entirely cumulative. To determine
a set of items that best approximates the cumulativeness property, a data analysis technique
called scalogram analysis can be used (or this can be done visually if the number of items is
small). The statistical technique also estimates a score for each item that can be used to
compute a respondent’s overall score on the entire set of items.

Respondent Item 12 Item 5 Item 3 Item 22 Item 8 Item 7 …

29 Y Y Y Y Y Y

7 Y Y Y - Y -

15 Y Y Y Y - -

3 Y Y Y Y - -

32 Y Y Y - - -

4 Y Y - Y - -

5 Y Y - - - -

23 Y Y - - - -

11 Y - - Y - -

Y indicates exceptions that prevents this matrix from being perfectly cumulative

Table 6.6. Sorted rating matrix for a Guttman scale

Indexes
An index is a composite score derived from aggregating measures of multiple constructs
(called components) using a set of rules and formulas. It is different from scales in that scales
also aggregate measures, but these measures measure different dimensions or the same
dimension of a single construct. A well-known example of an index is the consumer price index
(CPI), which is computed every month by the Bureau of Labor Statistics of the U.S. Department
of Labor. The CPI is a measure of how much consumers have to pay for goods and services in
general, and is divided into eight major categories (food and beverages, housing, apparel,
transportation, healthcare, recreation, education and communication, and “other goods and
services”), which are further subdivided into more than 200 smaller items. Each month,
government employees call all over the country to get the current prices of more than 80,000
items. Using a complicated weighting scheme that takes into account the location and
probability of purchase of each item, these prices are combined by analysts, which are then
combined into an overall index score using a series of formulas and rules.

53
 Another example of index is socio-economic status (SES), also called the Duncan
socioeconomic index (SEI). This index is a combination of three constructs: income, education,
and occupation. Income is measured in dollars, education in years or degrees achieved, and
occupation is classified into categories or levels by status. These very different measures are
combined to create an overall SES index score, using a weighted combination of “occupational
education” (percentage of people in that occupation who had one or more year of college
education) and “occupational income” (percentage of people in that occupation who earned
more than a specific annual income). However, SES index measurement has generated a lot of
controversy and disagreement among researchers.

The process of creating an index is similar to that of a scale. First, conceptualize (define)
the index and its constituent components. Though this appears simple, there may be a lot of
disagreement among judges on what components (constructs) should be included or excluded
from an index. For instance, in the SES index, isn’t income correlated with education and
occupation, and if so, should we include one component only or all three components?
Reviewing the literature, using theories, and/or interviewing experts or key stakeholders may
help resolve this issue. Second, operationalize and measure each component. For instance,
how will you categorize occupations, particularly since some occupations may have changed
with time (e.g., there were no Web developers before the Internet). Third, create a rule or
formula for calculating the index score. Again, this process may involve a lot of subjectivity.
Lastly, validate the index score using existing or new data.

Though indexes and scales yield a single numerical score or value representing a
construct of interest, they are different in many ways. First, indexes often comprise of
components that are very different from each other (e.g., income, education, and occupation in
the SES index) and are measured in different ways. However, scales typically involve a set of
similar items that use the same rating scale (such as a five-point Likert scale). Second, indexes
often combine objectively measurable values such as prices or income, while scales are
designed to assess subjective or judgmental constructs such as attitude, prejudice, or self-
esteem. Some argue that the sophistication of the scaling methodology makes scales different
from indexes, while others suggest that indexing methodology can be equally sophisticated.
Nevertheless, indexes and scales are both essential tools in social science research.

Typologies
Scales and indexes generate ordinal measures of unidimensional constructs. However,
researchers sometimes wish to summarize measures of two or more constructs to create a set
of categories or types called a typology. Unlike scales or indexes, typologies are multi-
dimensional but include only nominal variables. For instance, one can create a political
typology of newspapers based on their orientation toward domestic and foreign policy, as
expressed in their editorial columns, as shown in Figure 6.2. This typology can be used to
categorize newspapers into one of four “ideal types” (A through D), identify the distribution of
newspapers across these ideal types, and perhaps even create a classificatory model to
classifying newspapers into one of these four ideal types depending on other attributes.

54
 Figure 6.2. A multi-dimensional typology of newspapers

Summary
In closing, scale (or index) construction in social science research is a complex process
involving several key decisions. Some of these decisions are:

 Should you use a scale, index, or typology?

 How do you plan to analyze the data?
 What is your desired level of measurement (nominal, ordinal, interval, or ratio) or
rating scale?
 How many scale attributes should you use (e.g., 1 to 10; 1 to 7; −3 to +3)?
 Should you use an odd or even number of attributes (i.e., do you wish to have neutral or
mid-point value)?
 How do you wish to label the scale attributes (especially for semantic differential
scales)?
 Finally, what procedure would you use to generate the scale items (e.g., Thurstone,
Likert, or Guttman method) or index components?

This chapter examined the process and outcomes of scale development. The next chapter will
examine how to evaluate the reliability and validity of the scales developed using the above
approaches.

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Chapter 7

Scale Reliability and Validity

The previous chapter examined some of the difficulties with measuring constructs in
social science research. For instance, how do we know whether we are measuring
“compassion” and not the “empathy”, since both constructs are somewhat similar in meaning?
Or is compassion the same thing as empathy? What makes it more complex is that sometimes
these constructs are imaginary concepts (i.e., they don’t exist in reality), and multi-dimensional
(in which case, we have the added problem of identifying their constituent dimensions). Hence,
it is not adequate just to measure social science constructs using any scale that we prefer. We
also must test these scales to ensure that: (1) these scales indeed measure the unobservable
construct that we wanted to measure (i.e., the scales are “valid”), and (2) they measure the
intended construct consistently and precisely (i.e., the scales are “reliable”). Reliability and
validity, jointly called the “psychometric properties” of measurement scales, are the yardsticks
against which the adequacy and accuracy of our measurement procedures are evaluated in
scientific research.

A measure can be reliable but not valid, if it is measuring something very consistently
but is consistently measuring the wrong construct. Likewise, a measure can be valid but not
reliable if it is measuring the right construct, but not doing so in a consistent manner. Using the
analogy of a shooting target, as shown in Figure 7.1, a multiple-item measure of a construct that
is both reliable and valid consists of shots that clustered within a narrow range near the center
of the target. A measure that is valid but not reliable will consist of shots centered on the target
but not clustered within a narrow range, but rather scattered around the target. Finally, a
measure that is reliable but not valid will consist of shots clustered within a narrow range but
off from the target. Hence, reliability and validity are both needed to assure adequate
measurement of the constructs of interest.

Figure 7.1. Comparison of reliability and validity

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Reliability
Reliability is the degree to which the measure of a construct is consistent or
dependable. In other words, if we use this scale to measure the same construct multiple times,
do we get pretty much the same result every time, assuming the underlying phenomenon is not
changing? An example of an unreliable measurement is people guessing your weight. Quite
likely, people will guess differently, the different measures will be inconsistent, and therefore,
the “guessing” technique of measurement is unreliable. A more reliable measurement may be
to use a weight scale, where you are likely to get the same value every time you step on the
scale, unless your weight has actually changed between measurements.

Note that reliability implies consistency but not accuracy. In the previous example of
the weight scale, if the weight scale is calibrated incorrectly (say, to shave off ten pounds from
your true weight, just to make you feel better!), it will not measure your true weight and is
therefore not a valid measure. Nevertheless, the miscalibrated weight scale will still give you
the same weight every time (which is ten pounds less than your true weight), and hence the
scale is reliable.

What are the sources of unreliable observations in social science measurements? One of
the primary sources is the observer’s (or researcher’s) subjectivity. If employee morale in a
firm is measured by watching whether the employees smile at each other, whether they make
jokes, and so forth, then different observers may infer different measures of morale if they are
watching the employees on a very busy day (when they have no time to joke or chat) or a light
day (when they are more jovial or chatty). Two observers may also infer different levels of
morale on the same day, depending on what they view as a joke and what is not. “Observation”
is a qualitative measurement technique. Sometimes, reliability may be improved by using
quantitative measures, for instance, by counting the number of grievances filed over one month
as a measure of (the inverse of) morale. Of course, grievances may or may not be a valid
measure of morale, but it is less subject to human subjectivity, and therefore more reliable. A
second source of unreliable observation is asking imprecise or ambiguous questions. For
instance, if you ask people what their salary is, different respondents may interpret this
question differently as monthly salary, annual salary, or per hour wage, and hence, the resulting
observations will likely be highly divergent and unreliable. A third source of unreliability is
asking questions about issues that respondents are not very familiar about or care about, such
as asking an American college graduate whether he/she is satisfied with Canada’s relationship
with Slovenia, or asking a Chief Executive Officer to rate the effectiveness of his company’s
technology strategy – something that he has likely delegated to a technology executive.

So how can you create reliable measures? If your measurement involves soliciting
information from others, as is the case with much of social science research, then you can start
by replacing data collection techniques that depends more on researcher subjectivity (such as
observations) with those that are less dependent on subjectivity (such as questionnaire), by
asking only those questions that respondents may know the answer to or issues that they care
about, by avoiding ambiguous items in your measures (e.g., by clearly stating whether you are
looking for annual salary), and by simplifying the wording in your indicators so that they not
misinterpreted by some respondents (e.g., by avoiding difficult words whose meanings they
may not know). These strategies can improve the reliability of our measures, even though they
will not necessarily make the measurements completely reliable. Measurement instruments
must still be tested for reliability. There are many ways of estimating reliability, which are
discussed next.

57
 Inter-rater reliability. Inter-rater reliability, also called inter-observer reliability, is a
measure of consistency between two or more independent raters (observers) of the same
construct. Usually, this is assessed in a pilot study, and can be done in two ways, depending on
the level of measurement of the construct. If the measure is categorical, a set of all categories is
defined, raters check off which category each observation falls in, and the percentage of
agreement between the raters is an estimate of inter-rater reliability. For instance, if there are
two raters rating 100 observations into one of three possible categories, and their ratings match
for 75% of the observations, then inter-rater reliability is 0.75. If the measure is interval or
ratio scaled (e.g., classroom activity is being measured once every 5 minutes by two raters on 1
to 7 response scale), then a simple correlation between measures from the two raters can also
serve as an estimate of inter-rater reliability.

Test-retest reliability. Test-retest reliability is a measure of consistency between two

measurements (tests) of the same construct administered to the same sample at two different
points in time. If the observations have not changed substantially between the two tests, then
the measure is reliable. The correlation in observations between the two tests is an estimate of
test-retest reliability. Note here that the time interval between the two tests is critical.
Generally, the longer is the time gap, the greater is the chance that the two observations may
change during this time (due to random error), and the lower will be the test-retest reliability.

Split-half reliability. Split-half reliability is a measure of consistency between two

halves of a construct measure. For instance, if you have a ten-item measure of a given
construct, randomly split those ten items into two sets of five (unequal halves are allowed if the
total number of items is odd), and administer the entire instrument to a sample of respondents.
Then, calculate the total score for each half for each respondent, and the correlation between
the total scores in each half is a measure of split-half reliability. The longer is the instrument,
the more likely it is that the two halves of the measure will be similar (since random errors are
minimized as more items are added), and hence, this technique tends to systematically
underestimate the reliability for longer instruments.

Internal consistency reliability. Internal consistency reliability is a measure of

consistency between different items of the same construct. If a multiple-item construct
measure is administered to respondents, the extent to which respondents rate those items in a
similar manner is a reflection of internal consistency. This reliability can be estimated in terms
of average inter-item correlation, average item-to-total correlation, or more commonly,
Cronbach’s alpha. As an example, if you have a scale with six items, you will have fifteen
different item pairings, and fifteen correlations between these six items. Average inter-item
correlation is the average of these fifteen correlations. To calculate average item-to-total
correlation, you have to first create a “total” item by adding the values of all six items, compute
the correlations between this total item and each of the six individual items, and finally, average
the six correlations. Neither of the two above measures takes into account the number of items
in the measure (six items in this example). Cronbach’s alpha, a reliability measure designed by
Lee Cronbach in 1951, factors in scale size in reliability estimation, calculated using the
following formula:

58
where K is the number of items in the measure, is the variance (square of standard
deviation) of the observed total scores, and is the observed variance for item i. The
standardized Cronbach’s alpha can be computed using a simpler formula:

where K is the number of items, is the average inter-item correlation, i.e., the mean of K(K-
1)/2 coefficients in the upper triangular (or lower triangular) correlation matrix.

Validity
Validity, often called construct validity, refers to the extent to which a measure
adequately represents the underlying construct that it is supposed to measure. For instance, is
a measure of compassion really measuring compassion, and not measuring a different construct
such as empathy? Validity can be assessed using theoretical or empirical approaches, and
should ideally be measured using both approaches. Theoretical assessment of validity focuses
on how well the idea of a theoretical construct is translated into or represented in an
operational measure. This type of validity is called translational validity (or representational
validity), and consists of two subtypes: face and content validity. Translational validity is
typically assessed using a panel of expert judges, who rate each item (indicator) on how well
they fit the conceptual definition of that construct, and a qualitative technique called Q-sort.

Empirical assessment of validity examines how well a given measure relates to one or
more external criterion, based on empirical observations. This type of validity is called
criterion-related validity, which includes four sub-types: convergent, discriminant,
concurrent, and predictive validity. While translation validity examines whether a measure is a
good reflection of its underlying construct, criterion-related validity examines whether a given
measure behaves the way it should, given the theory of that construct. This assessment is based
on quantitative analysis of observed data using statistical techniques such as correlational
analysis, factor analysis, and so forth. The distinction between theoretical and empirical
assessment of validity is illustrated in Figure 7.2. However, both approaches are needed to
adequately ensure the validity of measures in social science research.

Note that the different types of validity discussed here refer to the validity of the
measurement procedures, which is distinct from the validity of hypotheses testing procedures,
such as internal validity (causality), external validity (generalizability), or statistical conclusion
validity. The latter types of validity are discussed in a later chapter.

Face validity. Face validity refers to whether an indicator seems to be a reasonable

measure of its underlying construct “on its face”. For instance, the frequency of one’s
attendance at religious services seems to make sense as an indication of a person’s religiosity
without a lot of explanation. Hence this indicator has face validity. However, if we were to
suggest how many books were checked out of an office library as a measure of employee
morale, then such a measure would probably lack face validity because it does not seem to
make much sense. Interestingly, some of the popular measures used in organizational research
appears to lack face validity. For instance, absorptive capacity of an organization (how much
new knowledge can it assimilate for improving organizational processes) has often been
measured as research and development intensity (i.e., R&D expenses divided by gross
revenues)! If your research includes constructs that are highly abstract or constructs that are

59
hard to conceptually separate from each other (e.g., compassion and empathy), it may be
worthwhile to consider using a panel of experts to evaluate the face validity of your construct
measures.

Figure 7.2. Two approaches of validity assessment

Content validity. Content validity is an assessment of how well a set of scale items
matches with the relevant content domain of the construct that it is trying to measure. For
instance, if you want to measure the construct “satisfaction with restaurant service,” and you
define the content domain of restaurant service as including the quality of food, courtesy of wait
staff, duration of wait, and the overall ambience of the restaurant (i.e., whether it is noisy,
smoky, etc.), then for adequate content validity, this construct should be measured using
indicators that examine the extent to which a restaurant patron is satisfied with the quality of
food, courtesy of wait staff, the length of wait, and the restaurant’s ambience. Of course, this
approach requires a detailed description of the entire content domain of a construct, which may
be difficult for complex constructs such as self-esteem or intelligence. Hence, it may not be
always possible to adequately assess content validity. As with face validity, an expert panel of
judges may be employed to examine content validity of constructs.

Convergent validity refers to the closeness with which a measure relates to (or
converges on) the construct that it is purported to measure, and discriminant validity refers
to the degree to which a measure does not measure (or discriminates from) other constructs
that it is not supposed to measure. Usually, convergent validity and discriminant validity are
assessed jointly for a set of related constructs. For instance, if you expect that an organization’s
knowledge is related to its performance, how can you assure that your measure of
organizational knowledge is indeed measuring organizational knowledge (for convergent
validity) and not organizational performance (for discriminant validity)? Convergent validity
can be established by comparing the observed values of one indicator of one construct with that
of other indicators of the same construct and demonstrating similarity (or high correlation)
between values of these indicators. Discriminant validity is established by demonstrating that
indicators of one construct are dissimilar from (i.e., have low correlation with) other constructs.
In the above example, if we have a three-item measure of organizational knowledge and three
more items for organizational performance, based on observed sample data, we can compute

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bivariate correlations between each pair of knowledge and performance items. If this
correlation matrix shows high correlations within items of the organizational knowledge and
organizational performance constructs, but low correlations between items of these constructs,
then we have simultaneously demonstrated convergent and discriminant validity (see Table
7.1).

Table 7.1. Bivariate correlational analysis for convergent and discriminant validity

An alternative and more common statistical method used to demonstrate convergent

and discriminant validity is exploratory factor analysis. This is a data reduction technique which
aggregates a given set of items to a smaller set of factors based on the bivariate correlation
structure discussed above using a statistical technique called principal components analysis.
These factors should ideally correspond to the underling theoretical constructs that we are
trying to measure. The general norm for factor extraction is that each extracted factor should
have an eigenvalue greater than 1.0. The extracted factors can then be rotated using orthogonal
or oblique rotation techniques, depending on whether the underlying constructs are expected
to be relatively uncorrelated or correlated, to generate factor weights that can be used to
aggregate the individual items of each construct into a composite measure. For adequate
convergent validity, it is expected that items belonging to a common construct should exhibit
factor loadings of 0.60 or higher on a single factor (called same-factor loadings), while for
discriminant validity, these items should have factor loadings of 0.30 or less on all other factors
(cross-factor loadings), as shown in rotated factor matrix example in Table 7.2. A more
sophisticated technique for evaluating convergent and discriminant validity is the multi-trait
multi-method (MTMM) approach. This technique requires measuring each construct (trait)
using two or more different methods (e.g., survey and personal observation, or perhaps survey
of two different respondent groups such as teachers and parents for evaluating academic
quality). This is an onerous and relatively less popular approach, and is therefore not discussed
here.

Criterion-related validity can also be assessed based on whether a given measure relate
well with a current or future criterion, which are respectively called concurrent and predictive
validity. Predictive validity is the degree to which a measure successfully predicts a future
outcome that it is theoretically expected to predict. For instance, can standardized test scores
(e.g., Scholastic Aptitude Test scores) correctly predict the academic success in college (e.g., as
measured by college grade point average)? Assessing such validity requires creation of a
“nomological network” showing how constructs are theoretically related to each other.
Concurrent validity examines how well one measure relates to other concrete criterion that is
presumed to occur simultaneously. For instance, do students’ scores in a calculus class

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correlate well with their scores in a linear algebra class? These scores should be related
concurrently because they are both tests of mathematics. Unlike convergent and discriminant
validity, concurrent and predictive validity is frequently ignored in empirical social science
research.

Table 7.2. Exploratory factor analysis for convergent and discriminant validity

Theory of Measurement
Now that we know the different kinds of reliability and validity, let us try to synthesize
our understanding of reliability and validity in a mathematical manner using classical test
theory, also called true score theory. This is a psychometric theory that examines how
measurement works, what it measures, and what it does not measure. This theory postulates
that every observation has a true score T that can be observed accurately if there were no errors
in measurement. However, the presence of measurement errors E results in a deviation of the
observed score X from the true score as follows:

X = T + E
Observed score True score Error

Across a set of observed scores, the variance of observed and true scores can be related using a
similar equation:

var(X) = var(T) + var(E)

The goal of psychometric analysis is to estimate and minimize if possible the error variance
var(E), so that the observed score X is a good measure of the true score T.

Measurement errors can be of two types: random error and systematic error. Random
error is the error that can be attributed to a set of unknown and uncontrollable external factors
that randomly influence some observations but not others. As an example, during the time of
measurement, some respondents may be in a nicer mood than others, which may influence how
they respond to the measurement items. For instance, respondents in a nicer mood may
respond more positively to constructs like self-esteem, satisfaction, and happiness than those
who are in a poor mood. However, it is not possible to anticipate which subject is in what type
of mood or control for the effect of mood in research studies. Likewise, at an organizational
level, if we are measuring firm performance, regulatory or environmental changes may affect
the performance of some firms in an observed sample but not others. Hence, random error is
considered to be “noise” in measurement and generally ignored.

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 Systematic error is an error that is introduced by factors that systematically affect all
observations of a construct across an entire sample in a systematic manner. In our previous
example of firm performance, since the recent financial crisis impacted the performance of
financial firms disproportionately more than any other type of firms such as manufacturing or
service firms, if our sample consisted only of financial firms, we may expect a systematic
reduction in performance of all firms in our sample due to the financial crisis. Unlike random
error, which may be positive negative, or zero, across observation in a sample, systematic
errors tends to be consistently positive or negative across the entire sample. Hence, systematic
error is sometimes considered to be “bias” in measurement and should be corrected.

Since an observed score may include both random and systematic errors, our true score
equation can be modified as:

X = T + Er + Es

where Er and Es represent random and systematic errors respectively. The statistical impact of
these errors is that random error adds variability (e.g., standard deviation) to the distribution
of an observed measure, but does not affect its central tendency (e.g., mean), while systematic
error affects the central tendency but not the variability, as shown in Figure 7.3.

Figure 7.3. Effects of random and systematic errors

What does random and systematic error imply for measurement procedures? By
increasing variability in observations, random error reduces the reliability of measurement. In
contrast, by shifting the central tendency measure, systematic error reduces the validity of
measurement. Validity concerns are far more serious problems in measurement than reliability
concerns, because an invalid measure is probably measuring a different construct than what we
intended, and hence validity problems cast serious doubts on findings derived from statistical
analysis.

Note that reliability is a ratio or a fraction that captures how close the true score is
relative to the observed score. Hence, reliability can be expressed as:

var(T) / var(X) = var(T) / [ var(T) + var(E) ]

If var(T) = var(X), then the true score has the same variability as the observed score, and the
reliability is 1.0.

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An Integrated Approach to Measurement Validation
A complete and adequate assessment of validity must include both theoretical and
empirical approaches. As shown in Figure 7.4, this is an elaborate multi-step process that must
take into account the different types of scale reliability and validity.

Figure 7.4. An integrated approach to measurement validation

The integrated approach starts in the theoretical realm. The first step is conceptualizing
the constructs of interest. This includes defining each construct and identifying their
constituent domains and/or dimensions. Next, we select (or create) items or indicators for each
construct based on our conceptualization of these construct, as described in the scaling
procedure in Chapter 5. A literature review may also be helpful in indicator selection. Each
item is reworded in a uniform manner using simple and easy-to-understand text. Following
this step, a panel of expert judges (academics experienced in research methods and/or a
representative set of target respondents) can be employed to examine each indicator and
conduct a Q-sort analysis. In this analysis, each judge is given a list of all constructs with their
conceptual definitions and a stack of index cards listing each indicator for each of the construct
measures (one indicator per index card). Judges are then asked to independently read each
index card, examine the clarity, readability, and semantic meaning of that item, and sort it with
the construct where it seems to make the most sense, based on the construct definitions
provided. Inter-rater reliability is assessed to examine the extent to which judges agreed with
their classifications. Ambiguous items that were consistently missed by many judges may be
reexamined, reworded, or dropped. The best items (say 10-15) for each construct are selected
for further analysis. Each of the selected items is reexamined by judges for face validity and
content validity. If an adequate set of items is not achieved at this stage, new items may have to
be created based on the conceptual definition of the intended construct. Two or three rounds of
Q-sort may be needed to arrive at reasonable agreement between judges on a set of items that
best represents the constructs of interest.

Next, the validation procedure moves to the empirical realm. A research instrument is
created comprising all of the refined construct items, and is administered to a pilot test group of
representative respondents from the target population. Data collected is tabulated and

64
subjected to correlational analysis or exploratory factor analysis using a software program such
as SAS or SPSS for assessment of convergent and discriminant validity. Items that do not meet
the expected norms of factor loading (same-factor loadings higher than 0.60, and cross-factor
loadings less than 0.30) should be dropped at this stage. The remaining scales are evaluated for
reliability using a measure of internal consistency such as Cronbach alpha. Scale dimensionality
may also be verified at this stage, depending on whether the targeted constructs were
conceptualized as being unidimensional or multi-dimensional. Next, evaluate the predictive
ability of each construct within a theoretically specified nomological network of construct using
regression analysis or structural equation modeling. If the construct measures satisfy most or
all of the requirements of reliability and validity described in this chapter, we can be assured
that our operationalized measures are reasonably adequate and accurate.

The integrated approach to measurement validation discussed here is quite demanding

of researcher time and effort. Nonetheless, this elaborate multi-stage process is needed to
ensure that measurement scales used in our research meets the expected norms of scientific
research. Because inferences drawn using flawed or compromised scales are meaningless, scale
validation and measurement remains one of the most important and involved phase of
empirical research.

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Chapter 8

Sampling

Sampling is the statistical process of selecting a subset (called a “sample”) of a

population of interest for purposes of making observations and statistical inferences about
that population. Social science research is generally about inferring patterns of behaviors
within specific populations. We cannot study entire populations because of feasibility and cost
constraints, and hence, we must select a representative sample from the population of interest
for observation and analysis. It is extremely important to choose a sample that is truly
representative of the population so that the inferences derived from the sample can be
generalized back to the population of interest. Improper and biased sampling is the primary
reason for often divergent and erroneous inferences reported in opinion polls and exit polls
conducted by different polling groups such as CNN/Gallup Poll, ABC, and CBS, prior to every U.S.
Presidential elections.

The Sampling Process

Figure 8.1. The sampling process

The sampling process comprises of several stage. The first stage is defining the target
population. A population can be defined as all people or items (unit of analysis) with the
characteristics that one wishes to study. The unit of analysis may be a person, group,

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organization, country, object, or any other entity that you wish to draw scientific inferences
about. Sometimes the population is obvious. For example, if a manufacturer wants to
determine whether finished goods manufactured at a production line meets certain quality
requirements or must be scrapped and reworked, then the population consists of the entire set
of finished goods manufactured at that production facility. At other times, the target population
may be a little harder to understand. If you wish to identify the primary drivers of academic
learning among high school students, then what is your target population: high school students,
their teachers, school principals, or parents? The right answer in this case is high school
students, because you are interested in their performance, not the performance of their
teachers, parents, or schools. Likewise, if you wish to analyze the behavior of roulette wheels to
identify biased wheels, your population of interest is not different observations from a single
roulette wheel, but different roulette wheels (i.e., their behavior over an infinite set of wheels).

The second step in the sampling process is to choose a sampling frame. This is an
accessible section of the target population (usually a list with contact information) from where
a sample can be drawn. If your target population is professional employees at work, because
you cannot access all professional employees around the world, a more realistic sampling frame
will be employee lists of one or two local companies that are willing to participate in your study.
If your target population is organizations, then the Fortune 500 list of firms or the Standard &
Poor’s (S&P) list of firms registered with the New York Stock exchange may be acceptable
sampling frames.

Note that sampling frames may not entirely be representative of the population at large,
and if so, inferences derived by such a sample may not be generalizable to the population. For
instance, if your target population is organizational employees at large (e.g., you wish to study
employee self-esteem in this population) and your sampling frame is employees at automotive
companies in the American Midwest, findings from such groups may not even be generalizable
to the American workforce at large, let alone the global workplace. This is because the
American auto industry has been under severe competitive pressures for the last 50 years and
has seen numerous episodes of reorganization and downsizing, possibly resulting in low
employee morale and self-esteem. Furthermore, the majority of the American workforce is
employed in service industries or in small businesses, and not in automotive industry. Hence, a
sample of American auto industry employees is not particularly representative of the American
workforce. Likewise, the Fortune 500 list includes the 500 largest American enterprises, which
is not representative of all American firms in general, most of which are medium and small-
sized firms rather than large firms, and is therefore, a biased sampling frame. In contrast, the
S&P list will allow you to select large, medium, and/or small companies, depending on whether
you use the S&P large-cap, mid-cap, or small-cap lists, but includes publicly traded firms (and
not private firms) and hence still biased. Also note that the population from which a sample is
drawn may not necessarily be the same as the population about which we actually want
information. For example, if a researcher wants to the success rate of a new “quit smoking”
program, then the target population is the universe of smokers who had access to this program,
which may be an unknown population. Hence, the researcher may sample patients arriving at a
local medical facility for smoking cessation treatment, some of whom may not have had
exposure to this particular “quit smoking” program, in which case, the sampling frame does not
correspond to the population of interest.

The last step in sampling is choosing a sample from the sampling frame using a well-
defined sampling technique. Sampling techniques can be grouped into two broad categories:
probability (random) sampling and non-probability sampling. Probability sampling is ideal if

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generalizability of results is important for your study, but there may be unique circumstances
where non-probability sampling can also be justified. These techniques are discussed in the
next two sections.

Probability Sampling
Probability sampling is a technique in which every unit in the population has a chance
(non-zero probability) of being selected in the sample, and this chance can be accurately
determined. Sample statistics thus produced, such as sample mean or standard deviation, are
unbiased estimates of population parameters, as long as the sampled units are weighted
according to their probability of selection. All probability sampling have two attributes in
common: (1) every unit in the population has a known non-zero probability of being sampled,
and (2) the sampling procedure involves random selection at some point. The different types of
probability sampling techniques include:

Simple random sampling. In this technique, all possible subsets of a population (more
accurately, of a sampling frame) are given an equal probability of being selected. The
probability of selecting any set of n units out of a total of N units in a sampling frame is NCn.
Hence, sample statistics are unbiased estimates of population parameters, without any
weighting. Simple random sampling involves randomly selecting respondents from a sampling
frame, but with large sampling frames, usually a table of random numbers or a computerized
random number generator is used. For instance, if you wish to select 200 firms to survey from
a list of 1000 firms, if this list is entered into a spreadsheet like Excel, you can use Excel’s
RAND() function to generate random numbers for each of the 1000 clients on that list. Next,
you sort the list in increasing order of their corresponding random number, and select the first
200 clients on that sorted list. This is the simplest of all probability sampling techniques;
however, the simplicity is also the strength of this technique. Because the sampling frame is not
subdivided or partitioned, the sample is unbiased and the inferences are most generalizable
amongst all probability sampling techniques.

Systematic sampling. In this technique, the sampling frame is ordered according to some
criteria and elements are selected at regular intervals through that ordered list. Systematic sampling
involves a random start and then proceeds with the selection of every kth element from that point
onwards, where k = N/n, where k is the ratio of sampling frame size N and the desired sample size n, and
is formally called the sampling ratio. It is important that the starting point is not automatically the first in
the list, but is instead randomly chosen from within the first k elements on the list. In our previous
example of selecting 200 firms from a list of 1000 firms, you can sort the 1000 firms in increasing (or
decreasing) order of their size (i.e., employee count or annual revenues), randomly select one of the first
five firms on the sorted list, and then select every fifth firm on the list. This process will ensure that there
is no overrepresentation of large or small firms in your sample, but rather that firms of all sizes are
generally uniformly represented, as it is in your sampling frame. In other words, the sample is
representative of the population, at least on the basis of the sorting criterion.

Stratified sampling. In stratified sampling, the sampling frame is divided into

homogeneous and non-overlapping subgroups (called “strata”), and a simple random sample is
drawn within each subgroup. In the previous example of selecting 200 firms from a list of 1000
firms, you can start by categorizing the firms based on their size as large (more than 500
employees), medium (between 50 and 500 employees), and small (less than 50 employees).
You can then randomly select 67 firms from each subgroup to make up your sample of 200
firms. However, since there are many more small firms in a sampling frame than large firms,
having an equal number of small, medium, and large firms will make the sample less

68
representative of the population (i.e., biased in favor of large firms that are fewer in number in
the target population). This is called non-proportional stratified sampling because the
proportion of sample within each subgroup does not reflect the proportions in the sampling
frame (or the population of interest), and the smaller subgroup (large-sized firms) is over-
sampled. An alternative technique will be to select subgroup samples in proportion to their size
in the population. For instance, if there are 100 large firms, 300 mid-sized firms, and 600 small
firms, you can sample 20 firms from the “large” group, 60 from the “medium” group and 120
from the “small” group. In this case, the proportional distribution of firms in the population is
retained in the sample, and hence this technique is called proportional stratified sampling. Note
that the non-proportional approach is particularly effective in representing small subgroups,
such as large-sized firms, and is not necessarily less representative of the population compared
to the proportional approach, as long as the findings of the non-proportional approach is
weighted in accordance to a subgroup’s proportion in the overall population.

Cluster sampling. If you have a population dispersed over a wide geographic region, it
may not be feasible to conduct a simple random sampling of the entire population. In such case,
it may be reasonable to divide the population into “clusters” (usually along geographic
boundaries), randomly sample a few clusters, and measure all units within that cluster. For
instance, if you wish to sample city governments in the state of New York, rather than travel all
over the state to interview key city officials (as you may have to do with a simple random
sample), you can cluster these governments based on their counties, randomly select a set of
three counties, and then interview officials from every official in those counties. However,
depending on between-cluster differences, the variability of sample estimates in a cluster
sample will generally be higher than that of a simple random sample, and hence the results are
less generalizable to the population than those obtained from simple random samples.

Matched-pairs sampling. Sometimes, researchers may want to compare two

subgroups within one population based on a specific criterion. For instance, why are some
firms consistently more profitable than other firms? To conduct such a study, you would have
to categorize a sampling frame of firms into “high profitable” firms and “low profitable firms”
based on gross margins, earnings per share, or some other measure of profitability. You would
then select a simple random sample of firms in one subgroup, and match each firm in this group
with a firm in the second subgroup, based on its size, industry segment, and/or other matching
criteria. Now, you have two matched samples of high-profitability and low-profitability firms
that you can study in greater detail. Such matched-pairs sampling technique is often an ideal
way of understanding bipolar differences between different subgroups within a given
population.

Multi-stage sampling. The probability sampling techniques described previously are

all examples of single-stage sampling techniques. Depending on your sampling needs, you may
combine these single-stage techniques to conduct multi-stage sampling. For instance, you can
stratify a list of businesses based on firm size, and then conduct systematic sampling within
each stratum. This is a two-stage combination of stratified and systematic sampling. Likewise,
you can start with a cluster of school districts in the state of New York, and within each cluster,
select a simple random sample of schools; within each school, select a simple random sample of
grade levels; and within each grade level, select a simple random sample of students for study.
In this case, you have a four-stage sampling process consisting of cluster and simple random
sampling.

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Non-Probability Sampling
Nonprobability sampling is a sampling technique in which some units of the
population have zero chance of selection or where the probability of selection cannot be
accurately determined. Typically, units are selected based on certain non-random criteria, such
as quota or convenience. Because selection is non-random, nonprobability sampling does not
allow the estimation of sampling errors, and may be subjected to a sampling bias. Therefore,
information from a sample cannot be generalized back to the population. Types of non-
probability sampling techniques include:

Convenience sampling. Also called accidental or opportunity sampling, this is a technique in

which a sample is drawn from that part of the population that is close to hand, readily available, or
convenient. For instance, if you stand outside a shopping center and hand out questionnaire surveys to
people or interview them as they walk in, the sample of respondents you will obtain will be a
convenience sample. This is a non-probability sample because you are systematically excluding all
people who shop at other shopping centers. The opinions that you would get from your chosen sample
may reflect the unique characteristics of this shopping center such as the nature of its stores (e.g., high
end-stores will attract a more affluent demographic), the demographic profile of its patrons, or its
location (e.g., a shopping center close to a university will attract primarily university students with
unique purchase habits), and therefore may not be representative of the opinions of the shopper
population at large. Hence, the scientific generalizability of such observations will be very limited. Other
examples of convenience sampling are sampling students registered in a certain class or sampling
patients arriving at a certain medical clinic. This type of sampling is most useful for pilot testing, where
the goal is instrument testing or measurement validation rather than obtaining generalizable inferences.

Quota sampling. In this technique, the population is segmented into mutually-

exclusive subgroups (just as in stratified sampling), and then a non-random set of observations
is chosen from each subgroup to meet a predefined quota. In proportional quota sampling,
the proportion of respondents in each subgroup should match that of the population. For
instance, if the American population consists of 70% Caucasians, 15% Hispanic-Americans, and
13% African-Americans, and you wish to understand their voting preferences in an sample of
98 people, you can stand outside a shopping center and ask people their voting preferences.
But you will have to stop asking Hispanic-looking people when you have 15 responses from that
subgroup (or African-Americans when you have 13 responses) even as you continue sampling
other ethnic groups, so that the ethnic composition of your sample matches that of the general
American population. Non-proportional quota sampling is less restrictive in that you don’t
have to achieve a proportional representation, but perhaps meet a minimum size in each
subgroup. In this case, you may decide to have 50 respondents from each of the three ethnic
subgroups (Caucasians, Hispanic-Americans, and African-Americans), and stop when your
quota for each subgroup is reached. Neither type of quota sampling will be representative of
the American population, since depending on whether your study was conducted in a shopping
center in New York or Kansas, your results may be entirely different. The non-proportional
technique is even less representative of the population but may be useful in that it allows
capturing the opinions of small and underrepresented groups through oversampling.

Expert sampling. This is a technique where respondents are chosen in a non-random

manner based on their expertise on the phenomenon being studied. For instance, in order to
understand the impacts of a new governmental policy such as the Sarbanes-Oxley Act, you can
sample an group of corporate accountants who are familiar with this act. The advantage of this
approach is that since experts tend to be more familiar with the subject matter than non-
experts, opinions from a sample of experts are more credible than a sample that includes both

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experts and non-experts, although the findings are still not generalizable to the overall
population at large.

Snowball sampling. In snowball sampling, you start by identifying a few respondents

that match the criteria for inclusion in your study, and then ask them to recommend others they
know who also meet your selection criteria. For instance, if you wish to survey computer
network administrators and you know of only one or two such people, you can start with them
and ask them to recommend others who also do network administration. Although this method
hardly leads to representative samples, it may sometimes be the only way to reach hard-to-
reach populations or when no sampling frame is available.

Statistics of Sampling
In the preceding sections, we introduced terms such as population parameter, sample
statistic, and sampling bias. In this section, we will try to understand what these terms mean
and how they are related to each other.

When you measure a certain observation from a given unit, such as a person’s response
to a Likert-scaled item, that observation is called a response (see Figure 8.2). In other words, a
response is a measurement value provided by a sampled unit. Each respondent will give you
different responses to different items in an instrument. Responses from different respondents
to the same item or observation can be graphed into a frequency distribution based on their
frequency of occurrences. For a large number of responses in a sample, this frequency
distribution tends to resemble a bell-shaped curve called a normal distribution, which can be
used to estimate overall characteristics of the entire sample, such as sample mean (average of
all observations in a sample) or standard deviation (variability or spread of observations in a
sample). These sample estimates are called sample statistics (a “statistic” is a value that is
estimated from observed data). Populations also have means and standard deviations that
could be obtained if we could sample the entire population. However, since the entire
population can never be sampled, population characteristics are always unknown, and are
called population parameters (and not “statistic” because they are not statistically estimated
from data). Sample statistics may differ from population parameters if the sample is not
perfectly representative of the population; the difference between the two is called sampling
error. Theoretically, if we could gradually increase the sample size so that the sample
approaches closer and closer to the population, then sampling error will decrease and a sample
statistic will increasingly approximate the corresponding population parameter.

If a sample is truly representative of the population, then the estimated sample statistics
should be identical to corresponding theoretical population parameters. How do we know if the
sample statistics are at least reasonably close to the population parameters? Here, we need to
understand the concept of a sampling distribution. Imagine that you took three different
random samples from a given population, as shown in Figure 8.3, and for each sample, you
derived sample statistics such as sample mean and standard deviation. If each random sample
was truly representative of the population, then your three sample means from the three
random samples will be identical (and equal to the population parameter), and the variability in
sample means will be zero. But this is extremely unlikely, given that each random sample will
likely constitute a different subset of the population, and hence, their means may be slightly
different from each other. However, you can take these three sample means and plot a
frequency histogram of sample means. If the number of such samples increases from three to
10 to 100, the frequency histogram becomes a sampling distribution. Hence, a sampling

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distribution is a frequency distribution of a sample statistic (like sample mean) from a set of
samples, while the commonly referenced frequency distribution is the distribution of a response
(observation) from a single sample. Just like a frequency distribution, the sampling distribution
will also tend to have more sample statistics clustered around the mean (which presumably is
an estimate of a population parameter), with fewer values scattered around the mean. With an
infinitely large number of samples, this distribution will approach a normal distribution. The
variability or spread of a sample statistic in a sampling distribution (i.e., the standard deviation
of a sampling statistic) is called its standard error. In contrast, the term standard deviation is
reserved for variability of an observed response from a single sample.

Figure 8.2. Sample Statistic

The mean value of a sample statistic in a sampling distribution is presumed to be an

estimate of the unknown population parameter. Based on the spread of this sampling
distribution (i.e., based on standard error), it is also possible to estimate confidence intervals
for that prediction population parameter. Confidence interval is the estimated probability
that a population parameter lies within a specific interval of sample statistic values. All normal
distributions tend to follow a 68-95-99 percent rule (see Figure 8.4), which says that over 68%
of the cases in the distribution lie within one standard deviation of the mean value (µ + 1σ),
over 95% of the cases in the distribution lie within two standard deviations of the mean (µ +
2σ), and over 99% of the cases in the distribution lie within three standard deviations of the
mean value (µ + 3σ). Since a sampling distribution with an infinite number of samples will
approach a normal distribution, the same 68-95-99 rule applies, and it can be said that:

 (Sample statistic + one standard error) represents a 68% confidence interval for the
population parameter.

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  (Sample statistic + two standard errors) represents a 95% confidence interval for the
population parameter.
 (Sample statistic + three standard errors) represents a 99% confidence interval for the
population parameter.

Figure 8.3. The sampling distribution

A sample is “biased” (i.e., not representative of the population) if its sampling

distribution cannot be estimated or if the sampling distribution violates the 68-95-99 percent
rule. As an aside, note that in most regression analysis where we examine the significance of
regression coefficients with p<0.05, we are attempting to see if the sampling statistic
(regression coefficient) predicts the corresponding population parameter (true effect size) with
a 95% confidence interval. Interestingly, the “six sigma” standard attempts to identify
manufacturing defects outside the 99% confidence interval or six standard deviations (standard
deviation is represented using the Greek letter sigma), representing significance testing at
p<0.01.

Figure 8.4. The 68-95-99 percent rule for confidence interval

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Chapter 9

Survey Research

Survey research a research method involving the use of standardized questionnaires

or interviews to collect data about people and their preferences, thoughts, and behaviors in a
systematic manner. Although census surveys were conducted as early as Ancient Egypt, survey
as a formal research method was pioneered in the 1930-40s by sociologist Paul Lazarsfeld to
examine the effects of the radio on political opinion formation of the United States. This method
has since become a very popular method for quantitative research in the social sciences.

The survey method can be used for descriptive, exploratory, or explanatory research.
This method is best suited for studies that have individual people as the unit of analysis.
Although other units of analysis, such as groups, organizations or dyads (pairs of organizations,
such as buyers and sellers), are also studied using surveys, such studies often use a specific
person from each unit as a “key informant” or a “proxy” for that unit, and such surveys may be
subject to respondent bias if the informant chosen does not have adequate knowledge or has a
biased opinion about the phenomenon of interest. For instance, Chief Executive Officers may
not adequately know employee’s perceptions or teamwork in their own companies, and may
therefore be the wrong informant for studies of team dynamics or employee self-esteem.

Survey research has several inherent strengths compared to other research methods.
First, surveys are an excellent vehicle for measuring a wide variety of unobservable data, such
as people’s preferences (e.g., political orientation), traits (e.g., self-esteem), attitudes (e.g.,
toward immigrants), beliefs (e.g., about a new law), behaviors (e.g., smoking or drinking
behavior), or factual information (e.g., income). Second, survey research is also ideally suited
for remotely collecting data about a population that is too large to observe directly. A large
area, such as an entire country, can be covered using mail-in, electronic mail, or telephone
surveys using meticulous sampling to ensure that the population is adequately represented in a
small sample. Third, due to their unobtrusive nature and the ability to respond at one’s
convenience, questionnaire surveys are preferred by some respondents. Fourth, interviews
may be the only way of reaching certain population groups such as the homeless or illegal
immigrants for which there is no sampling frame available. Fifth, large sample surveys may
allow detection of small effects even while analyzing multiple variables, and depending on the
survey design, may also allow comparative analysis of population subgroups (i.e., within-group
and between-group analysis). Sixth, survey research is economical in terms of researcher time,
effort and cost than most other methods such as experimental research and case research. At
the same time, survey research also has some unique disadvantages. It is subject to a large
number of biases such as non-response bias, sampling bias, social desirability bias, and recall
bias, as discussed in the last section of this chapter.

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 Depending on how the data is collected, survey research can be divided into two broad
categories: questionnaire surveys (which may be mail-in, group-administered, or online
surveys), and interview surveys (which may be personal, telephone, or focus group interviews).
Questionnaires are instruments that are completed in writing by respondents, while interviews
are completed by the interviewer based on verbal responses provided by respondents. As
discussed below, each type has its own strengths and weaknesses, in terms of their costs,
coverage of the target population, and researcher’s flexibility in asking questions.

Questionnaire Surveys
Invented by Sir Francis Galton, a questionnaire is a research instrument consisting of a
set of questions (items) intended to capture responses from respondents in a standardized
manner. Questions may be unstructured or structured. Unstructured questions ask
respondents to provide a response in their own words, while structured questions ask
respondents to select an answer from a given set of choices. Subjects’ responses to individual
questions (items) on a structured questionnaire may be aggregated into a composite scale or
index for statistical analysis. Questions should be designed such that respondents are able to
read, understand, and respond to them in a meaningful way, and hence the survey method may
not be appropriate or practical for certain demographic groups such as children or the illiterate.

Most questionnaire surveys tend to be self-administered mail surveys, where the

same questionnaire is mailed to a large number of people, and willing respondents can
complete the survey at their convenience and return it in postage-prepaid envelopes. Mail
surveys are advantageous in that they are unobtrusive, and they are inexpensive to administer,
since bulk postage is cheap in most countries. However, response rates from mail surveys tend
to be quite low since most people tend to ignore survey requests. There may also be long
delays (several months) in respondents’ completing and returning the survey (or they may
simply lose it). Hence, the researcher must continuously monitor responses as they are being
returned, track and send reminders to non-respondents repeated reminders (two or three
reminders at intervals of one to 1.5 months is ideal). Questionnaire surveys are also not well-
suited for issues that require clarification on the part of the respondent or those that require
detailed written responses. Longitudinal designs can be used to survey the same set of
respondents at different times, but response rates tend to fall precipitously from one survey to
the next.

A second type of survey is group-administered questionnaire. A sample of

respondents is brought together at a common place and time, and each respondent is asked to
complete the survey questionnaire while in that room. Respondents enter their responses
independently without interacting with each other. This format is convenient for the
researcher, and high response rate is assured. If respondents do not understand any specific
question, they can ask for clarification. In many organizations, it is relatively easy to assemble a
group of employees in a conference room or lunch room, especially if the survey is approved by
corporate executives.

A more recent type of questionnaire survey is an online or web survey. These surveys
are administered over the Internet using interactive forms. Respondents may receive an
electronic mail request for participation in the survey with a link to an online website where the
survey may be completed. Alternatively, the survey may be embedded into an e-mail, and can

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be completed and returned via e-mail. These surveys are very inexpensive to administer,
results are instantly recorded in an online database, and the survey can be easily modified if
needed. However, if the survey website is not password-protected or designed to prevent
multiple submissions, the responses can be easily compromised. Furthermore, sampling bias
may be a significant issue since the survey cannot reach people that do not have computer or
Internet access, such as many of the poor, senior, and minority groups, and the respondent
sample is skewed toward an younger demographic who are online much of the time and have
the time and ability to complete such surveys. Computing the response rate may be
problematic, if the survey link is posted on listservs or bulletin boards instead of being e-mailed
directly to targeted respondents. For these reasons, many researchers prefer dual-media
surveys (e.g., mail survey and online survey), allowing respondents to select their preferred
method of response.

Constructing a survey questionnaire is an art. Numerous decisions must be made about

the content of questions, their wording, format, and sequencing, all of which can have important
consequences for the survey responses.

consequences for the survey responses.

Response formats. Survey questions may be structured or unstructured. Responses to

structured questions are captured using one of the following response formats:

 Dichotomous response, where respondents are asked to select one of two possible
choices, such as true/false, yes/no, or agree/disagree. An example of such a question is:
Do you think that the death penalty is justified under some circumstances (circle one):
yes / no.
 Nominal response, where respondents are presented with more than two unordered
options, such as: What is your industry of employment: manufacturing / consumer
services / retail / education / healthcare / tourism & hospitality / other.
 Ordinal response, where respondents have more than two ordered options, such as:
what is your highest level of education: high school / college degree / graduate studies.
 Interval-level response, where respondents are presented with a 5-point or 7-point
Likert scale, semantic differential scale, or Guttman scale. Each of these scale types
were discussed in a previous chapter.
 Continuous response, where respondents enter a continuous (ratio-scaled) value with a
meaningful zero point, such as their age or tenure in a firm. These responses generally
tend to be of the fill-in-the blanks type.

Question content and wording. Responses obtained in survey research are very
sensitive to the types of questions asked. Poorly framed or ambiguous questions will likely
result in meaningless responses with very little value. Dillman (1978) recommends several
rules for creating good survey questions. Every single question in a survey should be carefully
scrutinized for the following issues:

 Is the question clear and understandable: Survey questions should be stated in a very
simple language, preferably in active voice, and without complicated words or jargon
that may not be understood by a typical respondent. All questions in the questionnaire
should be worded in a similar manner to make it easy for respondents to read and

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 understand them. The only exception is if your survey is targeted at a specialized group
of respondents, such as doctors, lawyers and researchers, who use such jargon in their
everyday environment.
 Is the question worded in a negative manner: Negatively worded questions, such as
should your local government not raise taxes, tend to confuse many responses and lead
to inaccurate responses. Such questions should be avoided, and in all cases, avoid
double-negatives.
 Is the question ambiguous: Survey questions should not words or expressions that may
be interpreted differently by different respondents (e.g., words like “any” or “just”). For
instance, if you ask a respondent, what is your annual income, it is unclear whether you
referring to salary/wages, or also dividend, rental, and other income, whether you
referring to personal income, family income (including spouse’s wages), or personal and
business income? Different interpretation by different respondents will lead to
incomparable responses that cannot be interpreted correctly.
 Does the question have biased or value-laden words: Bias refers to any property of a
question that encourages subjects to answer in a certain way. Kenneth Rasinky (1989)
examined several studies on people’s attitude toward government spending, and
observed that respondents tend to indicate stronger support for “assistance to the poor”
and less for “welfare”, even though both terms had the same meaning. In this study,
more support was also observed for “halting rising crime rate” (and less for “law
enforcement”), “solving problems of big cities” (and less for “assistance to big cities”),
and “dealing with drug addiction” (and less for “drug rehabilitation”). A biased language
or tone tends to skew observed responses. It is often difficult to anticipate in advance
the biasing wording, but to the greatest extent possible, survey questions should be
carefully scrutinized to avoid biased language.
 Is the question double-barreled: Double-barreled questions are those that can have
multiple answers. For example, are you satisfied with the hardware and software
provided for your work? In this example, how should a respondent answer if he/she is
satisfied with the hardware but not with the software or vice versa? It is always
advisable to separate double-barreled questions into separate questions: (1) are you
satisfied with the hardware provided for your work, and (2) are you satisfied with the
software provided for your work. Another example: does your family favor public
television? Some people may favor public TV for themselves, but favor certain cable TV
programs such as Sesame Street for their children.
 Is the question too general: Sometimes, questions that are too general may not
accurately convey respondents’ perceptions. If you asked someone how they liked a
certain book and provide a response scale ranging from “not at all” to “extremely well”,
if that person selected “extremely well”, what does he/she mean? Instead, ask more
specific behavioral questions, such as will you recommend this book to others, or do you
plan to read other books by the same author? Likewise, instead of asking how big is
your firm (which may be interpreted differently by respondents), ask how many people
work for your firm, and/or what is the annual revenues of your firm, which are both
measures of firm size.
 Is the question too detailed: Avoid unnecessarily detailed questions that serve no
specific research purpose. For instance, do you need the age of each child in a
household or is just the number of children in the household acceptable? However, if
unsure, it is better to err on the side of details than generality.
 Is the question presumptuous: If you ask, what do you see are the benefits of a tax cut,
you are presuming that the respondent sees the tax cut as beneficial. But many people

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 may not view tax cuts as being beneficial, because tax cuts generally lead to lesser
funding for public schools, larger class sizes, and fewer public services such as police,
ambulance, and fire service. Avoid questions with built-in presumptions.
 Is the question imaginary: A popular question in many television game shows is “if you
won a million dollars on this show, how will you plan to spend it?” Most respondents
have never been faced with such an amount of money and have never thought about it
(most don’t even know that after taxes, they will get only about $640,000 or so in the
United States, and in many cases, that amount is spread over a 20-year period, so that
their net present value is even less), and so their answers tend to be quite random, such
as take a tour around the world, buy a restaurant or bar, spend on education, save for
retirement, help parents or children, or have a lavish wedding. Imaginary questions
have imaginary answers, which cannot be used for making scientific inferences.
 Do respondents have the information needed to correctly answer the question: Often
times, we assume that subjects have the necessary information to answer a question,
when in reality, they do not. Even if a response is obtained, in such case, the responses
tend to be inaccurate, given their lack of knowledge about the question being asked. For
instance, we should not ask the CEO of a company about day-to-day operational details
that they may not be aware of, or asking teachers about how much their students are
learning, or asking high-schoolers “Do you think the US Government acted appropriately
in the Bay of Pigs crisis?”

Question sequencing. In general, questions should flow logically from one to the next.
To achieve the best response rates, questions should flow from the least sensitive to the most
sensitive, from the factual and behavioral to the attitudinal, and from the more general to the
more specific. Some general rules for question sequencing:

 Start with easy non-threatening questions that can be easily recalled. Good options are
demographics (age, gender, education level) for individual-level surveys and
firmographics (employee count, annual revenues, industry) for firm-level surveys.
 Never start with an open ended question.
 If following an historical sequence of events, follow a chronological order from earliest
to latest.
 Ask about one topic at a time. When switching topics, use a transition, such as “The next
section examines your opinions about …”
 Use filter or contingency questions as needed, such as: “If you answered “yes” to
question 5, please proceed to Section 2. If you answered “no” go to Section 3.”

Other golden rules. Do unto your respondents what you would have them do unto
you. Be attentive and appreciative of respondents’ time, attention, trust, and confidentiality of
personal information. Always practice the following strategies for all survey research:

 People’s time is valuable. Be respectful of their time. Keep your survey as short as
possible and limit it to what is absolutely necessary. Respondents do not like spending
more than 10-15 minutes on any survey, no matter how important it is. Longer surveys
tend to dramatically lower response rates.
 Always assure respondents about the confidentiality of their responses, and how you
will use their data (e.g., for academic research) and how the results will be reported
(usually, in the aggregate).
 For organizational surveys, assure respondents that you will send them a copy of the
final results, and make sure that you follow up with your promise.

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  Thank your respondents for their participation in your study.
 Finally, always pretest your questionnaire, at least using a convenience sample, before
administering it to respondents in a field setting. Such pretesting may uncover
ambiguity, lack of clarity, or biases in question wording, which should be eliminated
before administering to the intended sample.

Interview Survey
Interviews are a more personalized form of data collection method than questionnaires,
and are conducted by trained interviewers using the same research protocol as questionnaire
surveys (i.e., a standardized set of questions). However, unlike a questionnaire, the interview
script may contain special instructions for the interviewer that is not seen by respondents, and
may include space for the interviewer to record personal observations and comments. In
addition, unlike mail surveys, the interviewer has the opportunity to clarify any issues raised by
the respondent or ask probing or follow-up questions. However, interviews are time-
consuming and resource-intensive. Special interviewing skills are needed on part of the
interviewer. The interviewer is also considered to be part of the measurement instrument, and
must proactively strive not to artificially bias the observed responses.

The most typical form of interview is personal or face-to-face interview, where the
interviewer works directly with the respondent to ask questions and record their responses.
Personal interviews may be conducted at the respondent’s home or office location. This
approach may even be favored by some respondents, while others may feel uncomfortable in
allowing a stranger in their homes. However, skilled interviewers can persuade respondents to
cooperate, dramatically improving response rates.

A variation of the personal interview is a group interview, also called focus group. In
this technique, a small group of respondents (usually 6-10 respondents) are interviewed
together in a common location. The interviewer is essentially a facilitator whose job is to lead
the discussion, and ensure that every person has an opportunity to respond. Focus groups
allow deeper examination of complex issues than other forms of survey research, because when
people hear others talk, it often triggers responses or ideas that they did not think about before.
However, focus group discussion may be dominated by a dominant personality, and some
individuals may be reluctant to voice their opinions in front of their peers or superiors,
especially while dealing with a sensitive issue such as employee underperformance or office
politics. Because of their small sample size, focus groups are usually used for exploratory
research rather than descriptive or explanatory research.

A third type of interview survey is telephone interviews. In this technique,

interviewers contact potential respondents over the phone, typically based on a random
selection of people from a telephone directory, to ask a standard set of survey questions. A
more recent and technologically advanced approach is computer-assisted telephone
interviewing (CATI), increasing being used by academic, government, and commercial survey
researchers, where the interviewer is a telephone operator, who is guided through the
interview process by a computer program displaying instructions and questions to be asked on

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a computer screen. The system also selects respondents randomly using a random digit dialing
technique, and records responses using voice capture technology. Once respondents are on the
phone, higher response rates can be obtained. This technique is not ideal for rural areas where
telephone density is low, and also cannot be used for communicating non-audio information
such as graphics or product demonstrations.

Role of interviewer. The interviewer has a complex and multi-faceted role in the
interview process, which includes the following tasks:

 Prepare for the interview: Since the interviewer is in the forefront of the data collection
effort, the quality of data collected depends heavily on how well the interviewer is
trained to do the job. The interviewer must be trained in the interview process and the
survey method, and also be familiar with the purpose of the study, how responses will
be stored and used, and sources of interviewer bias. He/she should also rehearse and
time the interview prior to the formal study.
 Locate and enlist the cooperation of respondents: Particularly in personal, in-home
surveys, the interviewer must locate specific addresses, and work around respondents’
schedule sometimes at undesirable times such as during weekends. They should also be
like a salesperson, selling the idea of participating in the study.
 Motivate respondents: Respondents often feed off the motivation of the interviewer. If
the interviewer is disinterested or inattentive, respondents won’t be motivated to
provide useful or informative responses either. The interviewer must demonstrate
enthusiasm about the study, communicate the importance of the research to
respondents, and be attentive to respondents’ needs throughout the interview.
 Clarify any confusion or concerns: Interviewers must be able to think on their feet and
address unanticipated concerns or objections raised by respondents to the respondents’
satisfaction. Additionally, they should ask probing questions as necessary even if such
questions are not in the script.
 Observe quality of response: The interviewer is in the best position to judge the quality
of information collected, and may supplement responses obtained using personal
observations of gestures or body language as appropriate.

Conducting the interview. Before the interview, the interviewer should prepare a kit
to carry to the interview session, consisting of a cover letter from the principal investigator or
sponsor, adequate copies of the survey instrument, photo identification, and a telephone
number for respondents to call to verify the interviewer’s authenticity. The interviewer should
also try to call respondents ahead of time to set up an appointment if possible. To start the
interview, he/she should speak in an imperative and confident tone, such as “I’d like to take a
few minutes of your time to interview you for a very important study,” instead of “May I come in
to do an interview?” He/she should introduce himself/herself, present personal credentials,
explain the purpose of the study in 1-2 sentences, and assure confidentiality of respondents’
comments and voluntariness of their participation, all in less than a minute. No big words or
jargon should be used, and no details should be provided unless specifically requested. If the
interviewer wishes to tape-record the interview, he/she should ask for respondent’s explicit
permission before doing so. Even if the interview is recorded, the interview must take notes on
key issues, probes, or verbatim phrases.

During the interview, the interviewer should follow the questionnaire script and ask
questions exactly as written, and not change the words to make the question sound friendlier.

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They should also not change the order of questions or skip any question that may have been
answered earlier. Any issues with the questions should be discussed during rehearsal prior to
the actual interview sessions. The interviewer should not finish the respondent’s sentences. If
the respondent gives a brief cursory answer, the interviewer should probe the respondent to
elicit a more thoughtful, thorough response. Some useful probing techniques are:

 The silent probe: Just pausing and waiting (without going into the next question) may
suggest to respondents that the interviewer is waiting for more detailed response.
 Overt encouragement: Occasional “uh-huh” or “okay” may encourage the respondent to
go into greater details. However, the interviewer must not express approval or
disapproval of what was said by the respondent.
 Ask for elaboration: Such as “can you elaborate on that?” or “A minute ago, you were
talking about an experience you had in high school. Can you tell me more about that?”
 Reflection: The interviewer can try the psychotherapist’s trick of repeating what the
respondent said. For instance, “What I’m hearing is that you found that experience very
traumatic” and then pause and wait for the respondent to elaborate.

After the interview in completed, the interviewer should thank respondents for their
time, tell them when to expect the results, and not leave hastily. Immediately after leaving, they
should write down any notes or key observations that may help interpret the respondent’s
comments better.

Biases in Survey Research

Despite all of its strengths and advantages, survey research is often tainted with
systematic biases that may invalidate some of the inferences derived from such surveys. Five
such biases are the non-response bias, sampling bias, social desirability bias, recall bias, and
common method bias.

Non-response bias. Survey research is generally notorious for its low response rates.
A response rate of 15-20% is typical in a mail survey, even after two or three reminders. If the
majority of the targeted respondents fail to respond to a survey, then a legitimate concern is
whether non-respondents are not responding due to a systematic reason, which may raise
questions about the validity of the study’s results. For instance, dissatisfied customers tend to
be more vocal about their experience than satisfied customers, and are therefore more likely to
respond to questionnaire surveys or interview requests than satisfied customers. Hence, any
respondent sample is likely to have a higher proportion of dissatisfied customers than the
underlying population from which it is drawn. In this instance, not only will the results lack
generalizability, but the observed outcomes may also be an artifact of the biased sample.
Several strategies may be employed to improve response rates:

 Advance notification: A short letter sent in advance to the targeted respondents

soliciting their participation in an upcoming survey can prepare them in advance and
improve their propensity to respond. The letter should state the purpose and
importance of the study, mode of data collection (e.g., via a phone call, a survey form in
the mail, etc.), and appreciation for their cooperation. A variation of this technique may
request the respondent to return a postage-paid postcard indicating whether or not
they are willing to participate in the study.

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  Relevance of content: If a survey examines issues of relevance or importance to
respondents, then they are more likely to respond than to surveys that don’t matter to
them.
 Respondent-friendly questionnaire: Shorter survey questionnaires tend to elicit higher
response rates than longer questionnaires. Furthermore, questions that are clear, non-
offensive, and easy to respond tend to attract higher response rates.
 Endorsement: For organizational surveys, it helps to gain endorsement from a senior
executive attesting to the importance of the study to the organization. Such
endorsement can be in the form of a cover letter or a letter of introduction, which can
improve the researcher’s credibility in the eyes of the respondents.
 Follow-up requests: Multiple follow-up requests may coax some non-respondents to
respond, even if their responses are late.
 Interviewer training: Response rates for interviews can be improved with skilled
interviewers trained on how to request interviews, use computerized dialing techniques
to identify potential respondents, and schedule callbacks for respondents who could not
be reached.
 Incentives: Response rates, at least with certain populations, may increase with the use
of incentives in the form of cash or gift cards, giveaways such as pens or stress balls,
entry into a lottery, draw or contest, discount coupons, promise of contribution to
charity, and so forth.
 Non-monetary incentives: Businesses, in particular, are more prone to respond to non-
monetary incentives than financial incentives. An example of such a non-monetary
incentive is a benchmarking report comparing the business’s individual response
against the aggregate of all responses to a survey.
 Confidentiality and privacy: Finally, assurances that respondents’ private data or
responses will not fall into the hands of any third party, may help improve response
rates.

Sampling bias. Telephone surveys conducted by calling a random sample of publicly

available telephone numbers will systematically exclude people with unlisted telephone
numbers, mobile phone numbers, and people who are unable to answer the phone (for instance,
they are at work) when the survey is being conducted, and will include a disproportionate
number of respondents who have land-line telephone service with listed phone numbers and
people who stay home during much of the day, such as the unemployed, the disabled, and the
elderly. Likewise, online surveys tend to include a disproportionate number of students and
younger people who are constantly on the Internet, and systematically exclude people with
limited or no access to computers or the Internet, such as the poor and the elderly. Similarly,
questionnaire surveys tend to exclude children and the illiterate, who are unable to read,
understand, or meaningfully respond to the questionnaire. A different kind of sampling bias
relate to sampling the wrong population, such as asking teachers (or parents) about academic
learning of their students (or children), or asking CEOs about operational details in their
company. Such biases make the respondent sample unrepresentative of the intended
population and hurt generalizability claims about inferences drawn from the biased sample.

Social desirability bias. Many respondents tend to avoid negative opinions or

embarrassing comments about themselves, their employers, family, or friends. With negative
questions such as do you think that your project team is dysfunctional, is there a lot of office
politics in your workplace, or have you ever illegally downloaded music files from the Internet,
the researcher may not get truthful responses. This tendency among respondents to “spin the
truth” in order to portray themselves in a socially desirable manner is called the “social

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desirability bias”, which hurts the validity of response obtained from survey research. There is
practically no way of overcoming the social desirability bias in a questionnaire survey, but in an
interview setting, an astute interviewer may be able to spot inconsistent answers and ask
probing questions or use personal observations to supplement respondents’ comments.

Recall bias. Responses to survey questions often depend on subjects’ motivation,

memory, and ability to respond. Particularly when dealing with events that happened in the
distant past, respondents may not adequately remember their own motivations or behaviors or
perhaps their memory of such events may have evolved with time and no longer retrievable.
For instance, if a respondent to asked to describe his/her utilization of computer technology
one year ago or even memorable childhood events like birthdays, their response may not be
accurate due to difficulties with recall. One possible way of overcoming the recall bias is by
anchoring respondent’s memory in specific events as they happened, rather than asking them
to recall their perceptions and motivations from memory.

Common method bias. Common method bias refers to the amount of spurious
covariance shared between independent and dependent variables that are measured at the
same point in time, such as in a cross-sectional survey, using the same instrument, such as a
questionnaire. In such cases, the phenomenon under investigation may not be adequately
separated from measurement artifacts. Standard statistical tests are available to test for
common method bias, such as Harmon’s single-factor test (Podsakoff et al. 2003), Lindell and
Whitney’s (2001) market variable technique, and so forth. This bias can be potentially avoided
if the independent and dependent variables are measured at different points in time, using a
longitudinal survey design, of if these variables are measured using different methods, such as
computerized recording of dependent variable versus questionnaire-based self-rating of
independent variables.

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Chapter 10

Experimental Research

Experimental research, often considered to be the “gold standard” in research designs,

is one of the most rigorous of all research designs. In this design, one or more independent
variables are manipulated by the researcher (as treatments), subjects are randomly assigned to
different treatment levels (random assignment), and the results of the treatments on outcomes
(dependent variables) are observed. The unique strength of experimental research is its
internal validity (causality) due to its ability to link cause and effect through treatment
manipulation, while controlling for the spurious effect of extraneous variable.

Experimental research is best suited for explanatory research (rather than for
descriptive or exploratory research), where the goal of the study is to examine cause-effect
relationships. It also works well for research that involves a relatively limited and well-defined
set of independent variables that can either be manipulated or controlled. Experimental
research can be conducted in laboratory or field settings. Laboratory experiments, conducted
in laboratory (artificial) settings, tend to be high in internal validity, but this comes at the cost
of low external validity (generalizability), because the artificial (laboratory) setting in which
the study is conducted may not reflect the real world. Field experiments, conducted in field
settings such as in a real organization, and high in both internal and external validity. But such
experiments are relatively rare, because of the difficulties associated with manipulating
treatments and controlling for extraneous effects in a field setting.

Experimental research can be grouped into two broad categories: true experimental
designs and quasi-experimental designs. Both designs require treatment manipulation, but
while true experiments also require random assignment, quasi-experiments do not.
Sometimes, we also refer to non-experimental research, which is not really a research design,
but an all-inclusive term that includes all types of research that do not employ treatment
manipulation or random assignment, such as survey research, observational research, and
correlational studies.

Basic Concepts
Treatment and control groups. In experimental research, some subjects are
administered one or more experimental stimulus called a treatment (the treatment group)
while other subjects are not given such a stimulus (the control group). The treatment may be
considered successful if subjects in the treatment group rate more favorably on outcome
variables than control group subjects. Multiple levels of experimental stimulus may be
administered, in which case, there may be more than one treatment group. For example, in

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order to test the effects of a new drug intended to treat a certain medical condition like
dementia, if a sample of dementia patients is randomly divided into three groups, with the first
group receiving a high dosage of the drug, the second group receiving a low dosage, and the
third group receives a placebo such as a sugar pill (control group), then the first two groups are
experimental groups and the third group is a control group. After administering the drug for a
period of time, if the condition of the experimental group subjects improved significantly more
than the control group subjects, we can say that the drug is effective. We can also compare the
conditions of the high and low dosage experimental groups to determine if the high dose is
more effective than the low dose.

Treatment manipulation. Treatments are the unique feature of experimental research

that sets this design apart from all other research methods. Treatment manipulation helps
control for the “cause” in cause-effect relationships. Naturally, the validity of experimental
research depends on how well the treatment was manipulated. Treatment manipulation must
be checked using pretests and pilot tests prior to the experimental study. Any measurements
conducted before the treatment is administered are called pretest measures, while those
conducted after the treatment are posttest measures.

Random selection and assignment. Random selection is the process of randomly

drawing a sample from a population or a sampling frame. This approach is typically employed
in survey research, and assures that each unit in the population has a positive chance of being
selected into the sample. Random assignment is however a process of randomly assigning
subjects to experimental or control groups. This is a standard practice in true experimental
research to ensure that treatment groups are similar (equivalent) to each other and to the
control group, prior to treatment administration. Random selection is related to sampling, and
is therefore, more closely related to the external validity (generalizability) of findings.
However, random assignment is related to design, and is therefore most related to internal
validity. It is possible to have both random selection and random assignment in well-designed
experimental research, but quasi-experimental research involves neither random selection nor
random assignment.

Threats to internal validity. Although experimental designs are considered more

rigorous than other research methods in terms of the internal validity of their inferences (by
virtue of their ability to control causes through treatment manipulation), they are not immune
to internal validity threats. Some of these threats to internal validity are described below,
within the context of a study of the impact of a special remedial math tutoring program for
improving the math abilities of high school students.

 History threat is the possibility that the observed effects (dependent variables) are
caused by extraneous or historical events rather than by the experimental treatment.
For instance, students’ post-remedial math score improvement may have been caused
by their preparation for a math exam at their school, rather than the remedial math
program.
 Maturation threat refers to the possibility that observed effects are caused by natural
maturation of subjects (e.g., a general improvement in their intellectual ability to
understand complex concepts) rather than the experimental treatment.
 Testing threat is a threat in pre-post designs where subjects’ posttest responses are
conditioned by their pretest responses. For instance, if students remember their
answers from the pretest evaluation, they may tend to repeat them in the posttest exam.
Not conducting a pretest can help avoid this threat.

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  Instrumentation threat, which also occurs in pre-post designs, refers to the possibility
that the difference between pretest and posttest scores is not due to the remedial math
program, but due to changes in the administered test, such as the posttest having a
higher or lower degree of difficulty than the pretest.
 Mortality threat refers to the possibility that subjects may be dropping out of the study
at differential rates between the treatment and control groups due to a systematic
reason, such that the dropouts were mostly students who scored low on the pretest. If
the low-performing students drop out, the results of the posttest will be artificially
inflated by the preponderance of high-performing students.
 Regression threat, also called a regression to the mean, refers to the statistical tendency
of a group’s overall performance on a measure during a posttest to regress toward the
mean of that measure rather than in the anticipated direction. For instance, if subjects
scored high on a pretest, they will have a tendency to score lower on the posttest (closer
to the mean) because their high scores (away from the mean) during the pretest was
possibly a statistical aberration. This problem tends to be more prevalent in non-
random samples and when the two measures are imperfectly correlated.

Two-Group Experimental Designs

The simplest true experimental designs are two group designs involving one treatment
group and one control group, and are ideally suited for testing the effects of a single
independent variable that can be manipulated as a treatment. The two basic two-group designs
are the pretest-posttest control group design and the posttest-only control group design, while
variations may include covariance designs. These designs are often depicted using a
standardized design notation, where R represents random assignment of subjects to groups, X
represents the treatment administered to the treatment group, and O represents pretest or
posttest observations of the dependent variable (with different subscripts to distinguish
between pretest and posttest observations of treatment and control groups).

Pretest-posttest control group design. In this design, subjects are randomly assigned
to treatment and control groups, subjected to an initial (pretest) measurement of the
dependent variables of interest, the treatment group is administered a treatment (representing
the independent variable of interest), and the dependent variables measured again (posttest).
The notation of this design is shown in Figure 10.1.

Figure 10.1. Pretest-posttest control group design

The effect E of the experimental treatment in the pretest posttest design is measured as
the difference in the posttest and pretest scores between the treatment and control groups:

E = (O2 – O1) – (O4 – O3)

Statistical analysis of this design involves a simple analysis of variance (ANOVA)

between the treatment and control groups. The pretest posttest design handles several threats
to internal validity, such as maturation, testing, and regression, since these threats can be
expected to influence both treatment and control groups in a similar (random) manner. The

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selection threat is controlled via random assignment. However, additional threats to internal
validity may exist. For instance, mortality can be a problem if there are differential dropout
rates between the two groups, and the pretest measurement may bias the posttest
measurement (especially if the pretest introduces unusual topics or content).

Posttest-only control group design. This design is a simpler version of the pretest-
posttest design where pretest measurements are omitted. The design notation is shown in
Figure 10.2.

Figure 10.2. Posttest only control group design

The treatment effect is measured simply as the difference in the posttest scores
between the two groups:

E = (O1 – O2)

The appropriate statistical analysis of this design is also a two-group analysis of

variance (ANOVA). The simplicity of this design makes it more attractive than the pretest-
posttest design in terms of internal validity. This design controls for maturation, testing,
regression, selection, and pretest-posttest interaction, though the mortality threat may continue
to exist.

Covariance designs. Sometimes, measures of dependent variables may be influenced

by extraneous variables called covariates. Covariates are those variables that are not of central
interest to an experimental study, but should nevertheless be controlled in an experimental
design in order to eliminate their potential effect on the dependent variable and therefore allow
for a more accurate detection of the effects of the independent variables of interest. The
experimental designs discussed earlier did not control for such covariates. A covariance design
(also called a concomitant variable design) is a special type of pretest posttest control group
design where the pretest measure is essentially a measurement of the covariates of interest
rather than that of the dependent variables. The design notation is shown in Figure 10.3, where
C represents the covariates:

Figure 10.3. Covariance design

Because the pretest measure is not a measurement of the dependent variable, but rather
a covariate, the treatment effect is measured as the difference in the posttest scores between
the treatment and control groups as:

E = (O1 – O2)

Due to the presence of covariates, the right statistical analysis of this design is a two-
group analysis of covariance (ANCOVA). This design has all the advantages of post-test only

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design, but with internal validity due to the controlling of covariates. Covariance designs can
also be extended to pretest-posttest control group design.

Factorial Designs
Two-group designs are inadequate if your research requires manipulation of two or
more independent variables (treatments). In such cases, you would need four or higher-group
designs. Such designs, quite popular in experimental research, are commonly called factorial
designs. Each independent variable in this design is called a factor, and each sub-division of a
factor is called a level. Factorial designs enable the researcher to examine not only the
individual effect of each treatment on the dependent variables (called main effects), but also
their joint effect (called interaction effects).

The most basic factorial design is a 2 x 2 factorial design, which consists of two
treatments, each with two levels (such as high/low or present/absent). For instance, let’s say
that you want to compare the learning outcomes of two different types of instructional
techniques (in-class and online instruction), and you also want to examine whether these
effects vary with the time of instruction (1.5 or 3 hours per week). In this case, you have two
factors: instructional type and instructional time; each with two levels (in-class and online for
instructional type, and 1.5 and 3 hours/week for instructional time), as shown in Figure 8.1. If
you wish to add a third level of instructional time (say 6 hours/week), then the second factor
will consist of three levels and you will have a 2 x 3 factorial design. On the other hand, if you
wish to add a third factor such as group work (present versus absent), you will have a 2 x 2 x 2
factorial design. In this notation, each number represents a factor, and the value of each factor
represents the number of levels in that factor.

Figure 10.4. 2 x 2 factorial design

Factorial designs can also be depicted using a design notation, such as that shown on the
right panel of Figure 10.4. R represents random assignment of subjects to treatment groups, X
represents the treatment groups themselves (the subscripts of X represents the level of each
factor), and O represent observations of the dependent variable. Notice that the 2 x 2 factorial
design will have four treatment groups, corresponding to the four combinations of the two
levels of each factor. Correspondingly, the 2 x 3 design will have six treatment groups, and the 2
x 2 x 2 design will have eight treatment groups. As a rule of thumb, each cell in a factorial
design should have a minimum sample size of 20 (this estimate is derived from Cohen’s power
calculations based on medium effect sizes). So a 2 x 2 x 2 factorial design requires a minimum
total sample size of 160 subjects, with at least 20 subjects in each cell. As you can see, the cost

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of data collection can increase substantially with more levels or factors in your factorial design.
Sometimes, due to resource constraints, some cells in such factorial designs may not receive any
treatment at all, which are called incomplete factorial designs. Such incomplete designs hurt our
ability to draw inferences about the incomplete factors.

In a factorial design, a main effect is said to exist if the dependent variable shows a
significant difference between multiple levels of one factor, at all levels of other factors. No
change in the dependent variable across factor levels is the null case (baseline), from which
main effects are evaluated. In the above example, you may see a main effect of instructional
type, instructional time, or both on learning outcomes. An interaction effect exists when the
effect of differences in one factor depends upon the level of a second factor. In our example, if
the effect of instructional type on learning outcomes is greater for 3 hours/week of
instructional time than for 1.5 hours/week, then we can say that there is an interaction effect
between instructional type and instructional time on learning outcomes. Note that the presence
of interaction effects dominate and make main effects irrelevant, and it is not meaningful to
interpret main effects if interaction effects are significant.

Hybrid Experimental Designs

Hybrid designs are those that are formed by combining features of more established
designs. Three such hybrid designs are randomized bocks design, Solomon four-group design,
and switched replications design.

Randomized block design. This is a variation of the posttest-only or pretest-posttest

control group design where the subject population can be grouped into relatively homogeneous
subgroups (called blocks) within which the experiment is replicated. For instance, if you want
to replicate the same posttest-only design among university students and full-time working
professionals (two homogeneous blocks), subjects in both blocks are randomly split between
treatment group (receiving the same treatment) or control group (see Figure 10.5). The
purpose of this design is to reduce the “noise” or variance in data that may be attributable to
differences between the blocks so that the actual effect of interest can be detected more
accurately.

Figure 10.5. Randomized blocks design

Solomon four-group design. In this design, the sample is divided into two treatment
groups and two control groups. One treatment group and one control group receive the pretest,
and the other two groups do not. This design represents a combination of posttest-only and
pretest-posttest control group design, and is intended to test for the potential biasing effect of
pretest measurement on posttest measures that tends to occur in pretest-posttest designs but
not in posttest only designs. The design notation is shown in Figure 10.6.

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 Figure 10.6. Solomon four-group design

Switched replication design. This is a two-group design implemented in two phases

with three waves of measurement. The treatment group in the first phase serves as the control
group in the second phase, and the control group in the first phase becomes the treatment
group in the second phase, as illustrated in Figure 10.7. In other words, the original design is
repeated or replicated temporally with treatment/control roles switched between the two
groups. By the end of the study, all participants will have received the treatment either during
the first or the second phase. This design is most feasible in organizational contexts where
organizational programs (e.g., employee training) are implemented in a phased manner or are
repeated at regular intervals.

Figure 10.7. Switched replication design

Quasi-Experimental Designs
Quasi-experimental designs are almost identical to true experimental designs, but
lacking one key ingredient: random assignment. For instance, one entire class section or one
organization is used as the treatment group, while another section of the same class or a
different organization in the same industry is used as the control group. This lack of random
assignment potentially results in groups that are non-equivalent, such as one group possessing
greater mastery of a certain content than the other group, say by virtue of having a better
teacher in a previous semester, which introduces the possibility of selection bias. Quasi-
experimental designs are therefore inferior to true experimental designs in interval validity due
to the presence of a variety of selection related threats such as selection-maturation threat (the
treatment and control groups maturing at different rates), selection-history threat (the
treatment and control groups being differentially impact by extraneous or historical events),
selection-regression threat (the treatment and control groups regressing toward the mean
between pretest and posttest at different rates), selection-instrumentation threat (the
treatment and control groups responding differently to the measurement), selection-testing
(the treatment and control groups responding differently to the pretest), and selection-
mortality (the treatment and control groups demonstrating differential dropout rates). Given
these selection threats, it is generally preferable to avoid quasi-experimental designs to the
greatest extent possible.

Many true experimental designs can be converted to quasi-experimental designs by

omitting random assignment. For instance, the quasi-equivalent version of pretest-posttest
control group design is called nonequivalent groups design (NEGD), as shown in Figure 10.8,
with random assignment R replaced by non-equivalent (non-random) assignment N. Likewise,

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the quasi-experimental version of switched replication design is called non-equivalent
switched replication design (see Figure 10.9).

Figure 10.8. NEGD design

Figure 10.9. Non-equivalent switched replication design

In addition, there are quite a few unique non-equivalent designs without corresponding
true experimental design cousins. Some of the more useful of these designs are discussed next.

Regression-discontinuity (RD) design. This is a non-equivalent pretest-posttest

design where subjects are assigned to treatment or control group based on a cutoff score on a
preprogram measure. For instance, patients who are severely ill may be assigned to a
treatment group to test the efficacy of a new drug or treatment protocol and those who are
mildly ill are assigned to the control group. In another example, students who are lagging
behind on standardized test scores may be selected for a remedial curriculum program
intended to improve their performance, while those who score high on such tests are not
selected from the remedial program. The design notation can be represented as follows, where
C represents the cutoff score:

Figure 10.10. RD design

Because of the use of a cutoff score, it is possible that the observed results may be a
function of the cutoff score rather than the treatment, which introduces a new threat to internal
validity. However, using the cutoff score also ensures that limited or costly resources are
distributed to people who need them the most rather than randomly across a population, while
simultaneously allowing a quasi-experimental treatment. The control group scores in the RD
design does not serve as a benchmark for comparing treatment group scores, given the
systematic non-equivalence between the two groups. Rather, if there is no discontinuity
between pretest and posttest scores in the control group, but such a discontinuity persists in
the treatment group, then this discontinuity is viewed as evidence of the treatment effect.

Proxy pretest design. This design, shown in Figure 10.11, looks very similar to the
standard NEGD (pretest-posttest) design, with one critical difference: the pretest score is
collected after the treatment is administered. A typical application of this design is when a
researcher is brought in to test the efficacy of a program (e.g., an educational program) after the
program has already started and pretest data is not available. Under such circumstances, the
best option for the researcher is often to use a different prerecorded measure, such as students’

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grade point average before the start of the program, as a proxy for pretest data. A variation of
the proxy pretest design is to use subjects’ posttest recollection of pretest data, which may be
subject to recall bias, but nevertheless may provide a measure of perceived gain or change in the
dependent variable.

Figure 10.11. Proxy pretest design

Separate pretest-posttest samples design. This design is useful if it is not possible to

collect pretest and posttest data from the same subjects for some reason. As shown in Figure
10.12, there are four groups in this design, but two groups come from a single non-equivalent
group, while the other two groups come from a different non-equivalent group. For instance,
you want to test customer satisfaction with a new online service that is implemented in one city
but not in another. In this case, customers in the first city serve as the treatment group and
those in the second city constitute the control group. If it is not possible to obtain pretest and
posttest measures from the same customers, you can measure customer satisfaction at one
point in time, implement the new service program, and measure customer satisfaction (with a
different set of customers) after the program is implemented. Customer satisfaction is also
measured in the control group at the same times as in the treatment group, but without the new
program implementation. The design is not particularly strong, because you cannot examine
the changes in any specific customer’s satisfaction score before and after the implementation,
but you can only examine average customer satisfaction scores. Despite the lower internal
validity, this design may still be a useful way of collecting quasi-experimental data when pretest
and posttest data are not available from the same subjects.

Figure 10.12. Separate pretest-posttest samples design

Nonequivalent dependent variable (NEDV) design. This is a single-group pre-post

quasi-experimental design with two outcome measures, where one measure is theoretically
expected to be influenced by the treatment and the other measure is not. For instance, if you
are designing a new calculus curriculum for high school students, this curriculum is likely to
influence students’ posttest calculus scores but not algebra scores. However, the posttest
algebra scores may still vary due to extraneous factors such as history or maturation. Hence,
the pre-post algebra scores can be used as a control measure, while that of pre-post calculus can
be treated as the treatment measure. The design notation, shown in Figure 10.13, indicates the
single group by a single N, followed by pretest O1 and posttest O2 for calculus and algebra for the
same group of students. This design is weak in internal validity, but its advantage lies in not
having to use a separate control group.

An interesting variation of the NEDV design is a pattern matching NEDV design, which
employs multiple outcome variables and a theory that explains how much each variable will be

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affected by the treatment. The researcher can then examine if the theoretical prediction is
matched in actual observations. This pattern-matching technique, based on the degree of
correspondence between theoretical and observed patterns is a powerful way of alleviating
internal validity concerns in the original NEDV design.

Figure 10.13. NEDV design

Perils of Experimental Research

Experimental research is one of the most difficult of research designs, and should not be
taken lightly. This type of research is often best with a multitude of methodological problems.
First, though experimental research requires theories for framing hypotheses for testing, much
of current experimental research is atheoretical. Without theories, the hypotheses being tested
tend to be ad hoc, possibly illogical, and meaningless. Second, many of the measurement
instruments used in experimental research are not tested for reliability and validity, and are
incomparable across studies. Consequently, results generated using such instruments are also
incomparable. Third, many experimental research use inappropriate research designs, such as
irrelevant dependent variables, no interaction effects, no experimental controls, and non-
equivalent stimulus across treatment groups. Findings from such studies tend to lack internal
validity and are highly suspect. Fourth, the treatments (tasks) used in experimental research
may be diverse, incomparable, and inconsistent across studies and sometimes inappropriate for
the subject population. For instance, undergraduate student subjects are often asked to
pretend that they are marketing managers and asked to perform a complex budget allocation
task in which they have no experience or expertise. The use of such inappropriate tasks,
introduces new threats to internal validity (i.e., subject’s performance may be an artifact of the
content or difficulty of the task setting), generates findings that are non-interpretable and
meaningless, and makes integration of findings across studies impossible.

The design of proper experimental treatments is a very important task in experimental

design, because the treatment is the raison d’etre of the experimental method, and must never
be rushed or neglected. To design an adequate and appropriate task, researchers should use
prevalidated tasks if available, conduct treatment manipulation checks to check for the
adequacy of such tasks (by debriefing subjects after performing the assigned task), conduct
pilot tests (repeatedly, if necessary), and if doubt, using tasks that are simpler and familiar for
the respondent sample than tasks that are complex or unfamiliar.

In summary, this chapter introduced key concepts in the experimental design research
method and introduced a variety of true experimental and quasi-experimental designs.
Although these designs vary widely in internal validity, designs with less internal validity
should not be overlooked and may sometimes be useful under specific circumstances and
empirical contingencies.

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Chapter 11

Case Research

Case research is a method of intensively studying a phenomenon over time within its
natural setting in one or a few sites. Multiple methods of data collection, such as interviews,
observations, prerecorded documents, and secondary data, may be employed for deriving rich,
detailed, and contextualized inferences about the phenomenon of interest. Case research can be
employed in a positivist manner for the purpose of theory testing or in an interpretive manner
for theory building. This method is more popular in business research than in other social
science disciplines.

Case research has several unique strengths over competing research methods such as
experiments and survey research. First, case research can be used for either theory building or
theory testing. In interpretive case research, the constructs of interest need not be known in
advance, but may emerge as the research progresses. Second, the research questions can be
modified during the research process if the original questions are found to be less relevant or
salient. This is not possible in any positivistic method after the data collection process has
started. Third, case research can help derive richer, more contextualized, and more authentic
interpretation of the phenomenon of interest than most other research methods by virtue of its
ability to capture a rich array of contextual data. Fourth, the phenomenon of interest can be
studied from the perspectives of multiple actors. Fifth, case research can examine a problem
from multiple levels of analysis (e.g., individual and organizational) by virtue of its ability to
record and analyze data at different levels.

At the same time, case research also has some weaknesses. Because it involves no
experimental treatment or control, internal validity of inferences remain weak. Of course, this
is a problem for all research methods except experiments. However, as described later, the
problem of controls may be addressed in case research using “natural controls”. Second, the
quality of inferences derived from case research depends heavily on the integrative powers of
the researcher. An experienced researcher may see concepts and patterns in case research data
that a novice researcher may miss. Hence, the findings are sometimes criticized as being
subjective. Finally, because the inferences are heavily contextualized, it may be difficult to
generalize case research based inferences to other contexts or other organizations.

It is important to note that case research is different from case descriptions such as
Harvard case studies. While case descriptions typically describe an organizational problem in
rich detail with the goal of stimulating classroom discussion and critical thinking among
students or analyzing how well an organization handled a problem, case research is a formal

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research technique that involves a scientific method to derive explanations of organizational
phenomena.

The case research method a difficult research technique requiring advanced research
skills on the part of the researcher, and is therefore, often prone to error. Benbasat et al.
(1987)6 describe five frequent problems with case research studies. First, many of these
studies start without specific research questions, and therefore end up without having any
specific answers or insightful inferences. Second, case sites are often chosen based on access
and convenience, rather than based on fit with the research questions, and are therefore unable
to adequately address the research questions of interest. Third, researchers often do not
validate or triangulate data collected using multiple means, which may lead to biased
interpretation based on biased interviewee responses. Fourth, many studies provide very little
details on how data was collected (e.g., what interview questions were used, which documents
were examined, what are the organizational positions of each interviewee, etc.), which may
raise questions about the reliability of the data collected. Finally, despite its strength as a
longitudinal research method, many case research studies do not follow through a phenomenon
in a longitudinal manner, and hence present only a cross-sectional and limited view of temporal
processes and phenomena.

Key Decisions in Case Research

Several key decisions must be made by a researcher when considering a case research
method. First, is this the right method for the research questions being studied? The case
research method is particularly appropriate for exploratory studies for discovering constructs
of interest in areas where theory building at the formative stages, for studies where the
experiences of actors and context of actions are critical, and for studies aimed at understanding
complex, temporal processes (why and how of a phenomenon) rather than factors or causes
(what). This method is suited for studying complex organizational processes, such as
organizational change and large-scale technology implementation, involving multiple actors
and interacting sequences of events.

Second, what is the appropriate unit of analysis for a case research study? Recall that
case research can simultaneously examine multiple units of analyses such as individual, group,
and organizational for true multi-level analysis. For instance, it can integrate group-level
constructs, such as group cohesion and group leadership, with individual-level constructs such
as individual participation in group activities to derive a rich understanding of group decision
making or group dynamics.

Third, should the researcher employ a single-case or multiple-case design? The single
case design is more appropriate at the outset of theory generation, if the situation is unique or
extreme, if it is revelatory (i.e., the situation was previously inaccessible for scientific
investigation), or if it represents a critical case for testing a well-formulated theory. The
multiple case design is more appropriate for theory testing, for establishing generalizability of
findings, and for developing richer and more nuanced interpretation of a phenomenon. Yin
(1984)7 recommends the use of multiple case sites with replication logic, viewing each case site

6
Benbasat, I., Goldstein, D. K., and Mead, M. (1987). "The Case Research Strategy in Studies of Information
Systems," MIS Quarterly (11:3), 369-386.
7 Yin, R. K. (2002), Case Study Research: Design and Methods. Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage Publications.

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as similar to one experimental study, and following similar rules of scientific rigor in inductively
building theories or deductively testing theories.

Fourth, what sites should be chosen for case research? Given the contextualized nature
of inferences derived from case research, site selection is a particularly critical issue because
selecting the wrong site may lead to the wrong inferences. If the goal of the research is to test
theories or examine generalizability of inferences, then dissimilar case sites should be selected
to increase variance in observations. For instance, if the goal of the research is to understand
the technology implementation process in firms, a mix of large, mid-sized, and small firms
should be selected to examine whether the technology implementation process differs with firm
size. Note that site selection should not be opportunistic or based on convenience, but rather
based on the fit with research questions.

Fifth, what data collection methods should be used in case research? A multiplicity of
data collection techniques can be used including interviews (which may be either open-ended
or focused/structured), direct observation (e.g., researchers attending executive meetings,
briefings, and planning sessions), documentation (e.g., internal reports, presentations, and
memoranda, as well as external accounts such as newspaper reports), archival records (e.g.,
organization charts, financial records, etc.), and physical artifacts (e.g., devices, outputs, tools).
Furthermore, the researcher should triangulate or validate observed data by comparing
responses across interviewees or by comparing interview data with observation,
documentation, and other forms of data.

Conducting Case Research

Most case research studies tend to be interpretive in nature. Interpretive case research
is an inductive technique of research where evidence collected from one or more case sites is
systematically analyzed and synthesized to allow concepts and patterns to emerge for the
purpose of building new theories or expanding existing ones. Eisenhardt (1989)8 proposed a
“roadmap” to building theories from case research. This roadmap is modified to posit a
generalized approach to conduct interpretive case research. Although some of these stages may
be rearranged or adjusted for positivistic case research, sampling, data collection, and data
analytic methods should generally remain the same.

Define research questions. Any scientific research must start with defining research
questions that are theoretically and practically interesting, and forming some intuitive
expectations about possible answers to those research questions. Likewise, case research must
also start with defining interesting research questions, and specifying some preliminary
constructs to guide initial case design. In positivistic case research, the preliminary constructs
are based on theory, while no theory or hypotheses should be considered in interpretive
research. Furthermore, in interpretive case research, research questions and constructs may be
changed later on, if needed, but not in positivistic research.

Select case sites. The researcher should use a process of purposive sampling (not
random sampling) to identify case sites. In this approach, only those case sites are chosen that
fit the nature of research questions in a manner to minimize extraneous variance or noise due
to firm size, industry effects, and so forth, while maximizing variance in the dependent variables

8Eisenhardt, K. M. (1989). “Building Theories from Case Research,” Academy of Management Review
(14:4), 532-550.

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of interest. For instance, if the goal of the research is to examine how some firms innovate
better than others, select firms of similar size within the same industry to reduce industry or
size related effects, and select some more innovative and some less innovative firms to increase
contrast in firm innovation. Instead of cold-calling or writing to a potential site, the researcher
should contact someone at executive level inside the organization with the authority to approve
the project or someone who can identify a person of authority. During initial conversations, the
researcher should describe the nature and purpose of the project, any potential benefits to the
case site, how the collected data will be used, the people involved in data collection (other
researchers, research assistants, etc.), and the amount of time, effort, and expense required of
the sponsoring organization. The researcher must also assure the firm of confidentiality,
privacy, and anonymity of both the firm and the individual respondents.

Create instruments and protocols. Since the primary mode of data collection in case
research is interviews, an interview protocol should be designed to guide the interview process.
This is essentially a list of questions to be asked. Questions may be open-ended (unstructured)
or closed-ended (structured) or a combination of both. The interview protocol must be strictly
followed, and the interviewer must not change the order of questions or skip any question
during the interview process, although some deviations are allowed to probe further into
respondent’s comments that may be ambiguous or interesting. The interviewer must maintain
a neutral tone, not lead respondents in any specific direction, and not agree or disagree with
any response. More detailed interviewing techniques are discussed in the chapter on surveys.
In addition, seek additional sources of data, such as internal documents and memorandums,
annual reports, financial statements, and newspaper articles. If possible, the researcher should
also try to use direct observations to supplement interview and other data.

Select respondents. Select interview respondents at different organizational levels,

departments, and positions to obtain divergent perspectives on the phenomenon of interest. A
random sampling of interviewees is most preferable; however a snowball sample is acceptable,
as long as a diversity of perspectives is represented in the sample. Interviewees must be
selected based on their personal involvement with the phenomenon under investigation and
their ability and willingness to answer the researcher’s questions accurately and adequately,
and not based on convenience or access.

Start data collection. It is usually a good idea to electronically record interviews for
future reference. However, such recording must only be done with the interviewee’s consent.
Even when interviews are being recorded, the interviewer should take notes to capture
important comments or critical observations, behavioral responses (e.g., respondent’s body
language), and the researcher’s personal impressions about the respondent and his/her
comments. After each interview is completed, the entire interview should be transcribed
verbatim into a text document for analysis.

Conduct within-case data analysis. Data analysis may follow or overlap with data
collection. Overlapping data collection and analysis has the advantage of adjusting the data
collection process based on themes emerging from data analysis, or to further probe into these
themes. Data analysis is done in two stages. In the first stage (within-case analysis), the
researcher should examine emergent concepts separately at each case site and patterns
between these concepts to generate an initial theory of the problem of interest. The researcher
can interview data subjectively to “make sense” of the research problem in conjunction with
using her personal observations or experience at the case site. Alternatively, a coding strategy
such as Glasser and Strauss’ (1967) grounded theory approach, using techniques such as open

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coding, axial coding, and selective coding, may be used to derive a chain of evidence and
inferences. These techniques are discussed in detail in a later chapter. Homegrown techniques,
such as graphical representation of data (e.g., network diagram) or sequence analysis (for
longitudinal data) may also be used. Note that there is no predefined way of analyzing the
various types of case data, and the data analytic techniques can be modified to fit the nature of
the research project.

Conduct cross-case analysis. Multi-site case research requires cross-case analysis as the
second stage of data analysis. In such analysis, the researcher should look for similar concepts
and patterns between different case sites, ignoring contextual differences that may lead to
idiosyncratic conclusions. Such patterns may be used for validating the initial theory, or for
refining it (by adding or dropping concepts and relationships) to develop a more inclusive and
generalizable theory. This analysis may take several forms. For instance, the researcher may
select categories (e.g., firm size, industry, etc.) and look for within-group similarities and
between-group differences (e.g., high versus low performers, innovators versus laggards).
Alternatively, she can compare firms in a pair-wise manner listing similarities and differences
across pairs of firms.

Build and test hypotheses. Based on emergent concepts and themes that are
generalizable across case sites, tentative hypotheses are constructed. These hypotheses should
be compared iteratively with observed evidence to see if they fit the observed data, and if not,
the constructs or relationships should be refined. Also the researcher should compare the
emergent constructs and hypotheses with those reported in the prior literature to make a case
for their internal validity and generalizability. Conflicting findings must not be rejected, but
rather reconciled using creative thinking to generate greater insight into the emergent theory.
When further iterations between theory and data yield no new insights or changes in the
existing theory, “theoretical saturation” is reached and the theory building process is complete.

Write case research report. In writing the report, the researcher should describe very
clearly the detailed process used for sampling, data collection, data analysis, and hypotheses
development, so that readers can independently assess the reasonableness, strength, and
consistency of the reported inferences. A high level of clarity in research methods is needed to
ensure that the findings are not biased by the researcher’s preconceptions.

Interpretive Case Research Exemplar

Perhaps the best way to learn about interpretive case research is to examine an
illustrative example. Here, we will examine Eisenhardt’s (1989)9 study of how executives make
decisions in high-velocity environments (HVE). Readers are advised to read the original paper
published in Academy of Management Journal before reading the synopsis in this chapter. In
this study, Eisenhardt examined how executive teams in some HVE firms make fast decisions,
while those in other firms cannot, and whether faster decisions improve or worsen firm
performance in such environments. HVE was defined as one where demand, competition, and
technology changes so rapidly and discontinuously that the information available is often
inaccurate, unavailable or obsolete. Implicit assumptions in this context were that (1) it is hard
to make fast decisions with inadequate information in HVE, and (2) fast decisions may not be
efficient and may result in poor firm performance.

9Eisenhardt, K. M. (1989). “Making Fast Strategic Decisions in High-Velocity Environments,” Academy of

Management Journal (32:3), 543-576.

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 Reviewing the prior literature on executive decision-making, Eisenhardt found several
patterns, although none of these patterns were specific to high-velocity environments. First, the
literature suggested that in the interest of expediency, firms that make faster decisions obtain
input from fewer sources, consider fewer alternatives, make limited analysis, restrict user
participation in decision-making, centralize decision-making authority, and has limited internal
conflicts. However, Eisenhardt contended that these views may not necessarily explain how
decision makers make decisions in high-velocity environments, where decisions must be made
quickly and with incomplete information, while maintaining high decision quality.

To examine this phenomenon, Eisenhardt conducted an inductive study of eight firms in

the personal computing industry. The personal computing industry was undergoing dramatic
changes in technology with the introduction of the UNIX operating system, RISC architecture,
and 64KB random access memory in the 1980’s, changes in competition with the entry of IBM
into the personal computing business, and changes in customer demand with double-digit
demand growth, and therefore fit the profile of a high-velocity environment quite well. This
was a multiple case design with replication logic, where each case was expected to confirm or
disconfirm inferences from other cases. Case sites were selected based on their access and
proximity to the researcher; however, all of these firms operated in the high-velocity personal
computing industry in California’s Silicon Valley area. The collocation of firms in the same
industry and the same area ruled out any “noise” or variance in dependent variables (decision
speed or performance) attributable to industry or geographic location.

The study employed an embedded design with multiple levels of analysis: decision
(comparing multiple strategic decisions within each firm), executive teams (comparing
different teams responsible for strategic decisions), and the firm (overall firm performance).
Data was collected from five different sources:

 Initial interviews with Chief Executive Officers: CEOs were asked questions about their
firm’s competitive strategy, distinctive competencies, major competitors, performance,
and recent/ongoing major strategic decisions. Based on these interviews, several
strategic decisions were selected in each firm for further investigation. Four criteria
were used to select decisions: (1) the decisions involved the firm’s strategic positioning,
(2) the decisions had high stakes, (3) the decisions involved multiple functions, and (4)
the decisions were representative of strategic decision-making process in that firm.
 Interviews with divisional heads: Each divisional head was asked sixteen open-ended
questions, ranging from their firm’s competitive strategy, functional strategy, top
management team members, frequency and nature of interaction with team, typical
decision making processes, how each of the previously identified decision was made,
and how long it took them to make those decisions. Interviews lasted between 1.5 and 2
hours, and sometimes extended to 4 hours. To focus on facts and actual events rather
than respondents’ perceptions or interpretations, a “courtroom” style questioning was
employed, such as when did this happen, what did you do, etc. Interviews were
conducted by two people, and the data was validated by cross-checking facts and
impressions made by the interviewer and note-taker. All interview data was recorded,
however notes were also taken during each interview, which ended with the
interviewer’s overall impressions. Using a “24-hour rule”, detailed field notes were
completed within 24 hours of the interview, so that some data or impressions were not
lost to recall.

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  Questionnaires: Executive team members at each firm were completed a survey
questionnaire that captured quantitative data on the extent of conflict and power
distribution in their firm.
 Secondary data: Industry reports and internal documents such as demographics of the
executive teams (responsible for strategic decisions), financial performance of firms,
and so forth, were examined.
 Personal observation: In addition, the researcher attended a 1-day strategy session and
a weekly executive meeting at two firms in her sample.

Data analysis involved a combination of quantitative and qualitative techniques.

Quantitative data on conflict and power were analyzed for patterns across firms/decisions.
Qualitative interview data was combined into decision climate profiles, using profile traits (e.g.,
impatience) mentioned by more than one executive. Within-case analysis was conducted by
building decision stories using executive accounts of each strategic decision into a timeline of
events. Cross-case analysis was conducted by comparing pairs of firms for similarities and
differences, categorized along variables of interest, such as decision speed and firm
performance. Based on these analyses, tentative constructs and propositions were derived
inductively from each decision story within firm categories. Each decision case was revisited to
confirm that the proposed relationship was indeed accurate. The inferred propositions were
compared with findings from the existing literature to reconcile examine differences with the
extant literature and to generate new insights from the case findings. Finally, the validated
propositions were synthesized into an inductive theory of strategic decision-making by firms in
high-velocity environments.

Inferences derived from this multiple case research contradicted and corroborated
several decision-making patterns expected from the existing literature. First, fast decision
makers in high-velocity environments used more information, and not less information as
suggested by the previous literature. Furthermore, these decision makers used more real-time
information (an insight not available from prior research). Using real-time information helped
these firms identify problems and opportunities quicker, and allowed them to react quickly and
accurately to changing circumstances. Second, fast decision makers examined more (not fewer)
alternatives. However, fast decisions were associated with simultaneous consideration of
multiple alternatives, while slower decisions were characterized by sequential consideration of
fewer alternatives. Third, fast decision makers did not centralize decision making or restrict
inputs from others, as the literature suggested. Rather, these firms used a two-tiered decision
process in which experienced counselors were asked for inputs in the first stage, following by a
rapid comparison and selection of one option in the second stage. Fourth, fast decision makers
did not have less conflict, as expected from the literature, but employed better conflict
resolution techniques to improve decision-making speed. Finally, fast decision makers
exhibited superior firm performance by virtue of their built-in cognitive, emotional, and
political processes that led to rapid closure of major decisions.

Positivistic Case Research Exemplar

Case research can also be used in a positivistic manner to test theories or hypotheses.
Although such studies are rare, an exemplary illustration of positivistic case research is Markus’
(1983)10 study of technology implementation at Golden Triangle Company (a pseudonym). In

10Markus, M. L. (1983). “Power, Politics, and MIS Implementation,” Communications of the ACM (26:6),
430-444.

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this study, Markus examined why a newly implemented financial information system (FIS),
intended to improve the productivity and performance of accountants at GTC was supported by
accountants at GTC’s corporate headquarters but resisted by divisional accountants at GTC
branches. Given the uniqueness of the phenomenon of interest, this was a single-case research
study.

To understand the reasons driving user resistance of FIS, Markus posited three
alternative explanations: (1) system-determined theory: resistance was caused by factors
related to an inadequate system, such as its technical deficiencies, poor ergonomic design, or
lack of user friendliness, (2) people-determined theory: resistance was caused by factors
internal to users, such as the accountants’ cognitive styles or personality traits that
incompatible with using the system, and (3) interaction theory: resistance was not caused not
by factors intrinsic to the system or the people, but by the interaction between the two set of
factors. Specifically, interaction theory suggested that the FIS engendered a redistribution of
intra-organizational power, such that accountants who lost organizational status, relevance, or
power as a result of FIS implementation resisted the system while those gaining power favored
it.

In order to test the three theories, Markus predicted alternative outcomes expected
from each theoretical explanation and analyzed the extent to which those predictions matched
with her observations at GTC. For instance, the system-determined theory suggested that since
user resistance was caused by an inadequate system, fixing the technical problems of the
system would eliminate resistance. The computer running the FIS system was subsequently
upgraded with a more powerful operating system, online processing (from initial batch
processing, which delayed immediate processing of accounting information), and a simplified
software for new account creation by managers. One year after these changes were made, the
resistant users were still resisting the system and felt that it should be replaced. Hence, the
system-determined theory was rejected.

The people-determined theory predicted that replacing individual resistors or co-opting

them with less resistant users would reduce their resistance toward the FIS. Subsequently, GTC
started a job rotation and mobility policy, moving accountants in and out of the resistant
divisions, but resistance not only persisted, but in some cases increased! In particular, one
accountant, who was one of the system’s designers and advocates when he was working for
corporate accounting, started resisting the system after he was moved to the divisional
controller’s office. Failure to realize the predictions of the people-determined theory led to the
rejection of this theory.

Finally, the interaction theory predicted that neither changing the system or the people
(i.e., user education or job rotation policies) will reduce resistance as long as the power
imbalance and redistribution from the pre-implementation phase were not addressed. Before
FIS implementation, divisional accountants at GTC felt that they owned all accounting data
related to their divisional operations. They maintained this data in thick, manual ledger books,
controlled others’ access to the data, and could reconcile unusual accounting events before
releasing those reports. Corporate accountants relied heavily on divisional accountants for
access to the divisional data for corporate reporting and consolidation. Because the FIS system
automatically collected all data at source and consolidated them into a single corporate
database, it obviated the need for divisional accountants, loosened their control and autonomy
over their division’s accounting data, and making their job somewhat irrelevant. Corporate
accountants could now query the database and access divisional data directly without going

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through the divisional accountants. Furthermore, corporate accountants could now analyze
and compare the performance of individual divisions, and report unusual patterns and activities
to the executive committee, resulting in further erosion of the divisions’ power. Though Markus
did not empirically test this theory, her observations about the redistribution of organizational
power, coupled with the rejection of the two alternative theories, led to the justification of
interaction theory.

Comparisons with Traditional Research

Positivist case research, aimed at hypotheses testing, is often criticized by natural
science researchers as lacking in controlled observations, controlled deductions, replicability,
and generalizability of findings – the traditional principles of positivist research. However,
these criticisms can be overcome through appropriate case research designs. For instance, the
problem of controlled observations refers to the difficulty of obtaining experimental or
statistical control in case research. However, case researchers can compensate for such lack of
controls by employing “natural controls.” This natural control in Markus’ (1983) study was the
corporate accountant who advocated the system initially started resisting it once she moved to
controlling division. In this instance, the change in her behavior may be attributed to her new
divisional position. However, such natural controls cannot be anticipated in advance, and case
researchers may overlook then unless they are proactively looking for such controls.
Incidentally, natural controls are also used in natural science disciplines such as astronomy,
geology, and human biology for making inferences about phenomena of interest.

The problem of controlled deduction refers to the lack of adequate quantitative

evidence to support inferences, given the mostly qualitative nature of case research data.
Despite the lack of quantitative data for hypotheses testing (e.g., t-tests), controlled deductions
can still be obtained in case research by generating behavioral predictions based on theoretical
considerations and testing those predictions over time. Markus employed this strategy in her
study by generating three alternative theoretical hypotheses for user resistance, and rejecting
two of those predictions when they did not match with actual observed behavior. In this case,
the hypotheses were tested using logical propositions rather than using mathematical tests,
which are just as valid as statistical inferences since mathematics is a subset of logic.

Third, the problem of replicability refers to the difficulty of observing the same
phenomenon given the uniqueness and idiosyncrasy of a given case site. However, using
Markus’ three theories as an illustration, a different researcher can test the same theories at a
different case site, where three different predictions may emerge based on the idiosyncratic
nature of the new case site, and the three resulting predictions may be tested accordingly. In
other words, it is possible to replicate the inferences of case research, even if the case research
site or context may not be replicable.

Fourth, case research tends to examine unique and non-replicable phenomena that may
not be generalized to other settings. Generalizability in natural sciences is established through
additional studies. Likewise, additional case studies conducted in different contexts with
different predictions can establish generalizability of findings if such findings are observed to
be consistent across studies.

Lastly, British philosopher Karl Popper described four requirements of scientific

theories: (1) theories should be falsifiable, (2) they should be logically consistent, (3) they
should have adequate predictive ability, and (4) they should provide better explanation than

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rival theories. In case research, the first three requirements can be increased by increasing the
degrees of freedom of observed findings, such as by increasing the number of case sites, the
number of alternative predictions, and the number of levels of analysis examined. This was
accomplished in Markus’ study by examining the behavior of multiple groups (divisional
accountants and corporate accountants) and providing multiple (three) rival explanations.
Popper’s fourth condition was accomplished in this study when one hypothesis was found to
match observed evidence better than the two rival hypotheses.

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Chapter 12

Other Qualitative Research

Qualitative research is a systematic mode of inquiry into complex social structures,

interactions, or processes by employing observational, interpretive, and naturalistic
approaches. Most qualitative researchers believe that social reality is embedded within and
cannot be abstracted from their social settings, and that the best way to understand such reality
is to engage in “sense-making” rather than hypothesis testing that is typical of traditional
scientific research. Given the complex and embedded nature of the social reality it aspires to
study, qualitative research usually employs small, focused samples that fit the phenomenon of
interest, rather than large, random samples.

Note that the term “qualitative research” is often used synonymously with “interpretive
research,” although strictly speaking, “qualitative” refers to the type of data being collected
(which is often textual data, as opposed to quantitative or numeric data), while “interpretive”
refers to a style of research based on a certain set of assumptions about social reality (i.e., that
social phenomena are shaped by and cannot be abstracted from their social and historical
contexts) and the best way to study such reality (i.e., through subjective interpretations of the
actors involved and making sense of the phenomenon in its socio-historic context). Hence,
interpretive research is a more accurate label for what is commonly called qualitative research.

Qualitative research has its roots in a variety of disciplines, such as anthropology,

sociology, psychology, linguistics, and semiotics, and has historically been available longer
(some as early as the 19th century) than quantitative techniques. There has historically been a
perception, at least in some Western countries, that because qualitative data collection and
interpretation is subjective, it is more susceptible to human error and bias. However, given the
failure of many quantitative techniques to generate interesting insights or new knowledge, we
are seeing a resurgence of interest in qualitative research, albeit with exacting methodology and
stringent criteria to ensure the reliability and validity of qualitative inferences. Some
researchers advocate mixed-mode research by combining qualitative and quantitative research
to generate unique insights not available from either type of research alone.

Distinctions from Quantitative Research

Qualitative research is distinct from quantitative research in a paradigmatic sense and
in a data-oriented sense. Paradigmatically, qualitative (or more accurately, “interpretive”)
research is based on the assumption that social reality is not singular or objective, but is rather
shaped by human experiences and social contexts (ontology), and is therefore best studied
within its socio-historic context by reconciling the subjective interpretations of its various

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participants (epistemology). In contrast, quantitative research assumes that the reality is
relatively independent of the context, and can be abstracted from their contexts and studied
using objective techniques such as standardized measures. The control and generalizability of
quantitative research are traded in qualitative research for contextual detail and deeper
understanding of the phenomenon of interest.

The data-oriented distinction assumes that qualitative research relies mostly on non-
numeric data, in contrast to numeric data for quantitative research. Hence, qualitative research
is not amenable to statistical procedures such as computation of means or regression
coefficients. Although qualitative data is sometimes coded quantitatively by raters into
categories and frequencies, the coded data is not statistically analyzed, and this coding
approach is rejected by many puritan qualitative researchers as a futile effort to seek consensus
or objectivity in a social phenomenon which is essentially subjective.

In addition to the two fundamental differences discussed above, qualitative and

quantitative research differ in several other minor ways. First, qualitative research employs a
purposive sampling strategy, where cases are selected based on whether they possess certain
desired contextual characteristics. In contrast, quantitative research employs random sampling
(or a variation of this technique), where cases are chosen randomly from a population. As a
result, convenience samples and small samples are considered acceptable in qualitative
research as long as they fit the unique requirements of a given context, but not in quantitative
research.

Second, the role of the researcher receives critical attention in qualitative research. In
some qualitative methods such as ethnography, action research, and participant observation,
the researcher is considered part of the social phenomenon, and her specific role and
involvement in the research process must be made clear during data analysis. For other
qualitative methods, such as case research, the researcher must take a “neutral” or unbiased
stance during the data collection and analysis processes, and ensure that her personal biases or
preconceptions does not taint the nature of subjective inferences derived from qualitative
research. In quantitative research, however, the researcher is considered to be external to and
independent of data collection and analytic procedures.

Third, qualitative analysis is holistic and contextual, rather than being reductionist and
isolationist. Qualitative interpretations tend to focus on language, signs, and meanings, from
the perspective of the actors involved in the social phenomenon, in contrast to statistical
techniques that are employed heavily in quantitative research. Rigor in qualitative research is
viewed in terms of employing systematic and transparent approaches for analysis rather than
statistical benchmarks for construct validity or significance of regression coefficients.

Lastly, an often understated benefit of qualitative research is its ability to modify the
research process or even change the research questions at a late stage of the project during or
after data collection. Because data collection and analysis is often done simultaneously and
iteratively in qualitative research, if the researcher realizes that her original research questions
are unlikely to generate new or useful insights, she can adjust the remainder of her data
collection effort to explore a different set of research questions that may be more fruitful. This
luxury is however not available in quantitative research, where the research project cannot be
modified or changed once the data collection has started without redoing the entire project
from the start.

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Benefits and Challenges of Quantitative Research
Qualitative research has several unique advantages. First, they are well-suited for
exploring hidden reasons behind complex, interrelated, or multifaceted social processes, such
as inter-firm relationships or inter-office politics, where quantitative evidence may be biased,
inaccurate, or otherwise difficult to obtain. Second, they are often helpful for theory
construction in areas with no or insufficient a priori theory. Third, they are also appropriate for
studying context-specific, unique, or idiosyncratic events or processes. Fourth, an often
unappreciated benefit of qualitative research is its ability to uncover interesting and relevant
research questions and issues for follow-up research.

At the same time, qualitative research also has its own set of challenges. First, this type
of research tends to consume more time and resources than quantitative research. Care should
be taken to collect adequate data: too little data can lead to false or premature assumptions,
while too much data may not be effectively processed by the researcher. Second, qualitative
research requires well-trained researchers who can conduct such research without injecting
their personal biases or preconceptions into the study’s design, data collection, or data analytic
procedures. Given the subjective nature of qualitative interpretation, the researcher must be
careful to interpret the social phenomenon from the perspectives of the actors embedded in
that phenomenon, and not from her own personal viewpoints, since she is not part of the social
context. Third, all participants or data sources may not be equally credible, unbiased, or
knowledgeable about the phenomenon of interest, or may have undisclosed political agendas,
which may lead to misleading or false impressions. Inadequate trust between participants and
researcher may hinder full and honest self-representation by participants, and such trust
building takes time. It is the job of the qualitative researcher to “see through the smoke”
(hidden or biased agendas) and understand the true nature of the problem while reconciling
the presumably diverse perspectives of the actors involved. Fourth, given the heavily
contextualized nature of inferences drawn from qualitative research, such inferences do not
lend themselves well to replicability or generalizability. Finally, qualitative research may
sometimes fail to answer the research questions of interest or predict future behaviors.

Characteristics of Qualitative Research

All qualitative research must adhere to a common set of principles, as described below.

Naturalistic inquiry: Social phenomena must be studied within their natural setting.
Because qualitative research assumes that social phenomena is situated within and cannot be
isolated from its social context, the findings of such research must be interpreted within the
socio-historical context in which the phenomena are embedded. This implies that contextual
variables should be observed and considered in seeking explanations of a phenomenon of
interest (although context sensitivity limits generalizability of inferences).

Researcher as instrument: Researchers are often embedded within the social context
that they are attempting to study, and must use their observational skills and ability to interact
with participants to capture their personal insights, knowledge, and experiences in the social
context that are critical to understanding the phenomenon of interest. At the same time,
researchers must be fully aware of their personal biases and preconceptions, and not let such
biases interfere with their ability to present a fair and accurate portrayal of the phenomenon.

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 Interpretive analysis: Observations must be interpreted through the eyes of the social
actors embedded in the social phenomenon being studied. Interpretation must occur at two
levels. The first level involves viewing or experiencing the phenomenon from the subjective
perspectives of the social participants. The second level is to understand the apparent meaning
of the participants’ experiences to provide a “thick description” or a rich narrative story of the
phenomenon of interest, communicating the essence of what it is like for the participants.

Use of expressive language: Documenting the verbal and non-verbal language of

participants and the analysis of such language are integral components of qualitative analysis.
The study must ensure that the story is viewed through the eyes of a person, and not a machine,
and must depict the emotions and experiences of that person, so that readers can understand
and relate to that person. Use of imageries, metaphors, sarcasm, and other figures of speech is
very common in qualitative analysis.

Temporal nature: Qualitative research is often not concerned with searching for specific
answers, but with understanding a dynamic social process as it unfolds over time. Hence, such
research requires an immersive involvement of the researcher at the study site for an extended
period of time, and is necessary to capture the entire evolution of the phenomenon of interest.
Furthermore, the goal of the study may change with time if new issues emerge during the
course of the study that may be more insightful than original expectations.

Hermeneutic circle: Qualitative interpretation is an iterative process of moving from

pieces of observations (text) to the entirety of the social phenomenon (context), and then back
to observations. Such iterations between the understanding/meaning of a phenomenon and
observations must continue until any additional iteration does not yield any more insight into
the phenomenon of interest.

Qualitative Data Collection

Data is collected in qualitative research using a variety of techniques. The most
frequently used technique is interviews (face-to-face, telephone, or focus groups). Interview
types and strategies are discussed in detail in a previous chapter on survey research. A second
technique is observation. Observational techniques include direct observation, where the
researcher is a neutral and passive external observer and is not involved in the phenomenon of
interest, and participant observation, where the researcher is an active participant in the
phenomenon (e.g., her inputs or mere presence influence the phenomenon being studied). A
third technique is documentation, where external and internal documents, such as memos,
electronic mails, annual reports, financial statements, newspaper articles, websites, may be
used as independent data sources or for corroboration of other forms of evidence.

Types of Qualitative Research

Case research. As discussed in the previous chapter, case research is an intensive
longitudinal study of a phenomenon at one or more research sites for the purpose of deriving
detailed, contextualized inferences and understanding the dynamic process underlying a
phenomenon of interest. Case research has some unique distinctions from other qualitative
methods. First, this method can be used for either inductive theory building or deductive
theory testing. Second, the researcher is a neutral observer (direct observation) in the social
setting rather than an active participant (participant observation). As with any other
qualitative research method, whether or not meaningful inferences are derived from case

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research depends heavily on the integrative abilities of the researcher. Please refer to the
previous chapter for further details on this method.

Action research. Action research (also called participatory action research) is an

interactive method of inquiry that assumes that complex social phenomena are best understood
by introducing changes, interventions, or “actions” into those phenomena and observing the
effects of those actions on the phenomena of interest. In this method, the researcher is usually a
consultant or an organizational member embedded into a social context (such as an
organization), who initiates an action in response to a social problem, and examines how her
action influences the phenomenon while also learning and generating insights about the
relationship between the action and the phenomenon. Examples of actions may include
organizational change programs, such as the introduction of new organizational processes,
procedures, people, or technology or replacement of old ones, initiated with the goal of
improving an organization’s profitability or performance in its business environment. The
researcher’s choice of actions must be based on theory, which should explain why and how such
actions may bring forth the desired social change. The theory is validated by the extent to
which the chosen action is successful in remedying the targeted problem. Simultaneous
problem solving and insight generation is the central feature that distinguishes action research
from all other qualitative research methods. Hence, action research is an excellent method for
bridging research and practice.

Figure 10.1. Action research cycle

As described by Susman and Evered (1978)11, the research method follows an action
research cycle consisting of five phases: (1) diagnosing, (2) action planning, (3) action taking,
(4) evaluating, and (5) learning (see Figure 10.1). The diagnosing phase involves identifying
and defining a problem in its social context. Action planning involves identifying and evaluating
alternative solutions to the problem, and deciding on a future course of action (based on
theoretical rationale). Action taking is the implementation of the planned course of action. The
evaluation stage examines the extent to which the initiated action resolves the original problem,
i.e., whether theorized effects are indeed realized in practice. In the learning phase, the
experiences and feedback from the action evaluation phase are used to generate insights about
the problem and suggest future modifications or improvements to the action. The problem is

11Susman, G.I. and Evered, R.D. "An Assessment of the Scientific Merits of Action Research," Administrative Science
Quarterly, (23) 1978, pp. 582-603.

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then reexamined based on the outcomes of the previous action, and the action research cycle is
repeated with a new or modified action sequence. Action research proponents suggest that the
entire action research cycle must be traversed at least twice so that learning from the first cycle
can be implemented in the second cycle. In this method, the primary mode of data collection is
participant observation, although other techniques such as interviews and documentary
evidence may be used to support the researcher’s observations.

Ethnography. The ethnographic research method, derived largely from the field of
anthropology, emphasizes studying a phenomenon within the context of its culture. The
researcher must be deeply immersed in the social culture over an extended period of time
(usually 8 months to 2 years) and should engage, observe, and record the daily life of the
studied culture and social actors in the within their natural setting. The primary mode of data
collection is participant observation, and data analysis involves a “sense-making” approach. In
addition, the researcher must take extensive field notes, and narrate her experience in
descriptive detail so that readers may experience the same culture that she is immersed in. In
essence, the researcher has two roles: rely on her unique knowledge and engagement to
generate insights (theory), and convince the scientific community of the trans-situational
nature of the studied phenomenon.

The classic example of ethnographic research is Jane Goodall’s study of primate

behaviors, where she lived with chimpanzees in their natural habitat at Gombe National Park in
Tanzania, observed their behaviors, interacted with them, and shared their lives. During that
process, she learnt and chronicled how chimpanzees seek food and shelter, how they socialize
with each other, their communication patterns, their mating behaviors, and so forth. Another
example of ethnographic research is Myra Bluebond-Langer’s (1996)12 study of the experiences
of children with life-threatening illnesses and their families, where she followed approximately
80 children for a period of over two years with the goal of understanding how families make
decisions when their children are suffering from a disease for which there is no cure, and the
physical, psychological, environmental, ethical, legal, and cultural issues that influence such
decision-making. Data collection involved participant observation and formal/informal
conversations with children, their parents and relatives, and health care providers to document
their lived experience.

Phenomenology. Phenomenology is a research method that emphasizes the study of

conscious experiences as a way of understanding the reality around us. It is based on the ideas
of German philosopher Edmund Husserl in the early 20th century who believed that human
experience is the source of all knowledge. Phenomenology is concerned with the systematic
reflection and analysis of phenomena associated with conscious experiences, such as human
judgment, perceptions, and actions, with the goal of (1) appreciating and describing social
reality from the diverse subjective perspectives of the participants involved, and (2)
understanding the symbolic meanings (“deep structure”) underlying these subjective
experiences. Phenomenological inquiry requires that researchers eliminate any prior
assumptions and personal biases, empathize with the participant’s situation, and tune into existential
dimensions of that situation, so that they can fully understand the deep structures that drives the
conscious thinking, feeling, and behavior of the studied participants.

12Bluebond-Langer, M. (1996). In the Shadow of Illness: Parents and Siblings of the Chronically Ill Child.
Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press.

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 Some researchers view phenomenology as a philosophy rather than as a research
method. In response to this criticism, Giorgi and Giorgi (2003)13 developed an existential
phenomenological research method to guide studies in this area. This method, illustrated in
Figure 10.2, can be grouped into data collection and data analysis phases. In the data collection
phase, participants embedded in a social phenomenon are interviewed to capture their
subjective experiences and perspectives regarding the phenomenon under investigation.
Examples of questions that may be asked include “can you describe a typical day” or “can you
describe that particular incident in more detail?” These interviews are recorded and transcribed for
further analysis. During data analysis, the researcher reads the transcripts to get a sense of the
whole. Next, each transcript is read individually to establish “units of significance” that can
faithfully represent participants’ subjective experiences. Examples of such units of significance
are concepts such as “felt space” and “felt time,” which are then used to represent participants’
psychological experiences. For instance, did participants feel safe, free, trapped, or joyous when
experiencing a phenomenon (“felt-space”)? Did they feel that their experience was pressured,
slow, or discontinuous (“felt-time”)? Such analysis should take into account the participants’
temporal landscape (i.e., their sense of past, present, and future), and the researcher must
transpose herself in an imaginary sense in the participant’s situation (i.e., temporarily live the
participant’s life). The participants’ lived experience is described in form of a narrative or using
emergent themes. Phenomenological analysis delves into these themes to identify multiple
layers of meaning while retaining the fragility and ambiguity of subjects’ lived experiences.

Figure 10.2. The existential phenomenological research method

Grounded theory. Grounded theory is an inductive technique of building theories

about a social phenomenon based on (or “grounded in”) qualitative data about that
phenomenon such as interviews, focus groups, narratives, or audio/video recordings. It also
refers to a theory that is grounded in empirical observations. Glaser and Strauss (1967)14
developed the method of constant comparative analysis of grounded theory research, which was

13 Giorgi, A and Giorgi, B (2003) Phenomenology. In J A Smith (ed.) Qualitative Psychology: A

Practical Guide to Research Methods. London: Sage Publications.
14 Glaser, B. and Strauss, A. (1967). The Discovery of Grounded Theory: Strategies for Qualitative

Research, Chicago: Aldine.

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further refined by Strauss and Corbin (1990)15. In this approach, raw data is studied in
transcript form, as obtained from interviews or audio recordings, and analyzed line by line
using techniques such as open, axial, and selective coding (discussed in the next chapter). Early
stages of data analysis focus on identifying, refining, and aggregating a set of core concepts
related to the phenomenon of interest, which are grouped into “core categories” (equivalent to
theoretical constructs). Patterns of observations between these core concepts are used to form
tentative relationships between concepts. Later stages of data analysis focus on verification of
these observed relationships. Data collection/analysis and theory refinement continues until
“theoretical saturation” is reached, i.e., when additional data does not yield any marginal change
in the core categories or the relationships. To ensure that the theory is based solely on
observed evidence, the grounded theory approach requires that researchers suspend any
preexisting theoretical expectations or biases before data analysis, and let the data dictate the
formulation of the theory. The “constant comparison” process implies continuous
rearrangement, aggregation, and refinement of categories, relationships, and interpretations
based on increasing depth of understanding, and an iterative interplay of four stages of
activities: (1) comparing incidents/texts assigned to each category (to validate the category),
(2) integrating categories and their properties, (3) delimiting the theory (focusing on the core
concepts and ignoring less relevant concepts), and (4) writing theory (using techniques like
memoing, storylining, and diagramming that are discussed in the next chapter).

Hermeneutics. Derived from religious studies and linguistics, hermeneutics is the

study of interpretation as an art and the theory and practice of interpretation. Traditional
hermeneutics, such as biblical hermeneutics, refers to the interpretation of written texts,
especially in the areas of literature, religion and law (such as the Bible). In the 20th century,
German philosopher Martin Heidegger suggested that a more direct, non-mediated, and
authentic way of understanding social reality is to experience it, rather than simply observe it,
and developed philosophical hermeneutics, where the focus shifted from interpretation to
existential understanding. Heidegger argued that texts are the means by which readers can not
only read about an author’s experience, but also relive the author’s experiences. Furthermore,
texts narrate an author’s experience within a socio-historic context, and should therefore be
interpreted within that context. This reciprocity between text and context is what Heidegger
called the hermeneutic circle. Note that a hermeneutic (singular) refers to one particular
method or strand of interpretation. Contemporary or modern hermeneutics, developed by
Heidegger’s students such as Hans-Georg Gadamer, further examined the limits of written texts
for communicating social experiences, and went on to propose a framework of the interpretive
process, encompassing all forms of communication, including written, verbal, and non-verbal,
and exploring issues that restrict the communicative ability of written texts, such as
presuppositions, language structures (e.g., grammar, syntax, etc.), and semiotics (the study of
written signs such as symbolism, metaphor, analogy, and sarcasm). The term hermeneutics is
sometimes used interchangeably (and inaccurately so) with exegesis, which refers to the
interpretation or critical explanation of written text only and especially religious texts.

Rigor in Qualitative Research

Qualitative interpretation is subjective, and is therefore often considered less rigorous
by many functionalistic researchers. While functionalist research employs a “reductionist”
approach by simplifying social reality into parsimonious theories and laws, interpretive or

15Strauss, A. and Corbin, J. (1990). Basics of Qualitative Research: Grounded Theory Procedures and
Techniques, Beverly Hills, CA: Sage Publications.

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qualitative research attempts to interpret social reality within the context in which the reality is
situated and from the subjective viewpoints of the embedded actors. The heavily
contextualized interpretations derived from interpretive analysis naturally lend these
interpretations less generalizable and less applicable to other contexts. However, Lincoln and
Guba (1985)16 argue that because interpretive research is based on different set of ontological
and epistemological assumptions about social reality than positivist research, the traditional
notions of reliability and validity do not apply in a similar manner. Instead, they furnish an
alternative set of criteria that can be used to judge the rigor of qualitative research.

Dependability. Qualitative research can be viewed as dependable or authentic if two

researchers assessing the same phenomenon using the same set of evidence independently
arrive at the same conclusions or the same researcher observing the same or a similar
phenomenon at different times arrives at similar conclusions. This concept is similar to that of
reliability in positivist research, with agreement between two independent researchers being
similar to the notion of inter-rater reliability, and agreement between two observations of the
same phenomenon by the same researcher akin to test-retest reliability. To ensure
dependability, interpretive researchers must provide adequate details about their phenomenon
of interest and the social context in which it is embedded so as to allow readers to
independently authenticate their interpretive inferences.

Credibility. Qualitative research can be considered credible if readers find its

inferences to be believable. This concept is akin to that of internal validity in functionalistic
research. The credibility of qualitative research can be improved by providing evidence of the
researcher’s extended engagement in the field, by demonstrating data triangulation across
subjects or data collection techniques, and by maintaining meticulous data management and
analytic procedures, such as verbatim transcription of interviews, accurate records of contacts
and interviews, and clear notes on theoretical and methodological decisions, that can allow an
independent audit of data collection and analysis if needed.

Confirmability. Confirmability refers to the extent to which the findings reported in

qualitative research can be independently confirmed by others (typically, participants). This is
similar to the notion of objectivity in functionalistic research. Since qualitative research rejects
the notion of an objective reality, confirmability is demonstrated in terms of “inter-subjectivity”,
i.e., if the study’s participants agree with the inferences derived by the researcher. For instance,
if a study’s participants generally agree with the inferences drawn by a researcher about a
phenomenon of interest (based on a review of the research paper or report), then the findings
can be viewed as confirmable.

Transferability. Transferability in qualitative research refers to the extent to which

the findings can be generalized to other settings. This idea is similar to that of external validity
in functionalistic research. The researcher must provide rich, detailed descriptions of the
research context (“thick description”) and thoroughly describe the structures, assumptions, and
processes revealed from the data so that readers can independently assess whether and to what
extent are the reported findings transferable to other settings.

16 Lincoln, Y. S., and Guba, E. G. (1985). Naturalistic Inquiry. Beverly Hills, CA: Sage Publications.

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Chapter 13

Qualitative Analysis

Qualitative analysis is the analysis of qualitative data such as text data from interview
transcripts. Unlike quantitative analysis, which is statistics driven and largely independent of
the researcher, qualitative analysis is heavily dependent on the researcher’s analytic and
integrative skills and personal knowledge of the social context where the data is collected. The
emphasis in qualitative analysis is “sense making” or understanding a phenomenon, rather than
predicting or explaining. A creative and investigative mindset is needed for qualitative analysis,
based on a ethically enlightened and participant-in-context attitude, and a set of analytic
strategies. This chapter provides a brief overview of some of these qualitative analysis
strategies. Interested readers are referred to more authoritative and detailed references such
as Miles and Huberman’s (1984)17 seminal book on this topic.

Coding Techniques
How can you analyze a vast set qualitative data acquired through participant
observation, in-depth interviews, narratives of audio/video recordings, or secondary
documents? One of the key techniques used for analyzing text data is coding – a process of
classifying and categorizing text data segments into concepts or “codes,” which can then be used
to uncover patterns in the data. Coding is widely used in grounded theory research, but can
also be used in other qualitative methods that involve interpretation of text data. The extracted
codes can be used for quantitative or qualitative analysis.

Before starting the coding process, it is important to identify a coding unit – a

standardized unit of analysis for guiding the coding process. For instance, in comparing
American and French novels, the researcher may code sentences or paragraphs or chapters or
entire books. Coding can also be done at multiple levels, but in quantitative analysis of codes,
but codes can be compared only at the same unit of analysis. For instance, if book chapter is our
coding unit, we may say that 15% of the chapters in American novels contain metaphors,
compared to 23% of the chapters in French novels.

Qualitative analysis is organized around concepts or key ideas. Examples of concepts

include organizational size and organizational mission. The size of text units may vary with the
type of concept. For instance, organizational size may include just a few words per coding unit,
while organizational mission may take a few pages. The reason is that organizational size is a

Miles M. B., Huberman A. M. (1984). Qualitative Data Analysis: A Sourcebook of New Methods.
17

Newbury Park, CA: Sage Publications.

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clear, unambiguous concept, while organizational mission is an ambiguous concept that is
viewed differently by different participants. Some references to organizational mission may be
brief, while others may be lengthy. Hence, coding units does not have to be standardized (to
say, a certain length like a paragraph) in qualitative analysis.

Strauss and Corbin (1998)18 describe three coding techniques for analyzing text data:
open, axial, and selective. Open coding is a process aimed at identifying, uncovering, and
naming concepts that are hidden within textual data, which can later be used to explain a social
phenomenon. The researcher examines the textual data line by line to identify discrete events,
incidents, ideas, actions, perceptions, and interactions of relevance that are coded as concepts,
which are also called in vivo codes. Each concept is linked to specific portions of the text
(coding unit) for later validation. Concepts can be named using the researcher’s own naming
convention or standardized labels taken from the research literature. Once a basic set of
concepts are identified, these concepts can be used to code the remainder of the data, while
simultaneously looking for new concepts and refining old concepts. While coding, it is
important to identify the recognizable characteristics of each concept, such as its size, color, or
level (e.g., high or low), so that similar concepts can be later grouped into broad categories.
This coding technique is called “open” because the researcher is open to and actively seeking
new concepts relevant to the phenomenon of interest.

Next, similar concepts are grouped into higher order categories. While concepts may
be context-specific, categories tend to be broad and generalizable, and ultimately evolve into
constructs in a grounded theory. Categories are needed to reduce the amount of concepts the
researcher must work with and to build a “big picture” of the issues salient to understanding a
social phenomenon. Categorization can be done is phases, by combining concepts into
subcategories, and then subcategories into higher order categories. Constructs from the
existing literature can be used to name these categories, particularly if the goal of the research
is to extend current theories. However, caution must be taken while using existing constructs,
as such constructs may bring with them commonly held beliefs and biases. For each category,
its characteristics (or properties) and dimensions of each characteristic should be identified.
The dimension represents a value of a characteristic along a continuum. For example, a
“communication media” category may have a characteristic called “speed”, which can be
dimensionalized as fast, medium, or slow. Such categorization helps differentiate between
different kinds of communication media and enables researchers identify patterns in the data,
such as which communication media is used for which types of tasks.

The second phase of grounded theory is axial coding, where the categories and
subcategories are assembled into causal relationships or hypotheses that can tentatively
explain the phenomenon of interest. Although distinct from open coding, axial coding can be
performed simultaneously with open coding. The relationships between categories may be
clearly evident in the data or may be more subtle and implicit. In the latter instance,
researchers may use a coding scheme (also called a “coding paradigm”, but different from the
paradigm discussed in Chapter 3) to understand which categories represent conditions (the
circumstances in which the phenomenon is embedded), actions interactions (the responses of
individuals to events under these conditions), and consequences (the outcomes of actions/
interactions). As conditions, actions/interactions, and consequences are identified, theoretical

18Strauss, A. and Corbin, J. (1990). Basics of Qualitative Research: Grounded Theory Procedures and
Techniques, Beverly Hills, CA: Sage Publications.

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propositions start to emerge, and researchers can start explaining why a phenomenon occurs,
under what conditions, and with what consequences.

The third phase of grounded theory is selective coding, which involves identifying a
central category or a core variable and systematically and logically relating this central category
to other categories. The central category can evolve from existing categories or can be a higher
order category that subsumes previously coded categories. New data is selectively sampled to
validate or refine the central category or its relationships to other categories (i.e., the tentative
theory). This process is called theoretical sampling, which is the inductive component of
grounded theory. Selective coding limits the range of analysis, but makes it move fast.
Theoretical concepts weave in fractured concepts and propositions into a holistic theory about
the phenomenon of interest.

However, having a central category does not necessarily indicate that all other
categories can be integrated nicely around it. Integration techniques may include storyline,
memos, or concept maps. In storylining, categories and relationships are used to explicate
and/or refine a story of the observed phenomenon. Memos are theorized write-ups of ideas
about substantive concepts and their theoretically coded relationships as they evolve during
ground theory analysis, and are important tools to keep track of and refine ideas that develop
during the analysis. Memoing is the process of using these memos to discover patterns and
relationships between categories using two-by-two tables, diagrams, or figures, or other
illustrative displays. Concept mapping is a graphical representation of concepts and
relationships between those concepts (e.g., using boxes and arrows). The major concepts are
typically laid out on one or more sheets of paper, blackboards, or using graphical software
programs, linked to each other using arrows, and readjusted to best fit the observed data.

After a grounded theory is generated, it must be refined for internal consistency and
logic. First, researchers must ensure that the central construct has the stated characteristics
and dimensions, and if not, the data analysis may be repeated. Second, the researcher must
ensure that the characteristics and dimensions of all categories show variation. For example, if
behavior frequency is one such category, then the data must provide evidence of both frequent
performers and infrequent performers of the focal behavior. Finally, the theory must be
validated by comparing it with raw data. If the theory contradicts with observed evidence, the
coding process may be repeated to reconcile such contradictions or unexplained variations.

Content Analysis
Content analysis is the systematic analysis of the content of a text (e.g., who says what,
to whom, why, and to what extent and with what effect) in a quantitative or qualitative manner.
Content analysis typically conducted as follows. First, when there are many texts to analyze
(e.g., newspaper stories, organizational reports, etc.), the researcher begins by sampling a
selected set of texts from the population of texts for analysis. This process is not random, buut
instead, texts that have more pertinent content should be chosen selectively. Second, the
researcher identifies and applies rules to divide each text into segments or “chunks” that can be
treated as separate units of analysis. This process is called unitizing. For example, assumptions,
effects, enablers, and barriers in texts may constitute such units. Third, the researcher
constructs and applies one or more concepts to each unitized text segment in a process called
coding. For coding purposes, a coding scheme is used based on the themes the researcher is
searching for or uncovers as she classifies the text. Finally, the coded data is analyzed, often

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both quantitatively and qualitatively, to determine which themes occur most frequently, in
what contexts, and how they are related to each other.

A frequent criticism of content analysis is that it lacks a set of systematic procedures

that would allow the analysis to be replicated by other researchers. Schilling (2006)19
addressed this criticism by organizing different content analytic procedures into a spiral model.
consisting of five phases or levels of interpreting text. In Level 1, recorded tapes are converted
into raw text data or transcripts for content analysis. In Level 2, raw data is converted into
condensed protocols. In Level 3, condensed protocols are converted into a preliminary
category system. In Level 4, the preliminary category system is used to generate coded
protocols. Finally, in Level 5, coded protocols are analyzed to generate interpretation about the
phenomenon of interest.

Content analysis has several limitations. First, the coding process is restricted to the
information available in text form. For instance, if you are interested in studying people’s views
on capital punishment, you may not find an archive of text documents that may be relevant.
Second, sampling must be done carefully to avoid sampling bias. For instance, if your
population is the published research literature on a given topic, then you have systematically
omitted unpublished research or the most recent work that is yet to be published.

Conclusions
In qualitative inquiry, it is acceptable to include numerical quantities and analyze such
data using quantitative techniques. Such analysis is called mixed-method analysis. For
example, while qualitative data from an interview transcript can be analyzed qualitatively using
content analysis, quantitative data collected during the same process can be analyzed
quantitatively using measures of central tendency, correlation, and so forth. Combining
qualitative and quantitative results can sometimes yield a richer understanding of the
phenomenon of interest that either type of results alone.

Finally, standard software programs, such as ATLAS.ti.5, NVivo, and QDA Miner, can be
used to automate coding processes in qualitative research methods such as content analysis.
These programs can quickly and efficiently organize, search, sort, and process large volumes of
text data using user-defined rules. To guide such automated analysis, a coding schema should
be created, specifying the keywords or codes to search for in the text, based on an initial manual
examination of sample text data. The schema can be organized in a hierarchical manner to
organize codes into higher-order codes or constructs. The coding schema should be validated
using a different sample of texts for accuracy and adequacy. However, if the coding schema is
biased or incorrect, the resulting analysis of the entire population of text may be flawed and
non-interpretable. However, software programs cannot decipher the meaning behind the
certain words or phrases or the context within which these words or phrases are used (such as
those in sarcasms or metaphors), which may lead to significant misinterpretation in large scale
qualitative analysis.

19Schilling, J. (2006). “On the Pragmatics of Qualitative Assessment: Designing the Process for
Content Analysis,” European Journal of Psychological Assessment (22:1), 28-37.

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Chapter 14

Quantitative Analysis:
Descriptive Statistics

Numeric data collected in a research project can be analyzed quantitatively using

statistical tools in two different ways. Descriptive analysis refers to statistically describing,
aggregating, and presenting the constructs of interest or associations between these constructs.
Inferential analysis refers to the statistical testing of hypotheses (theory testing). In this
chapter, we will examine statistical techniques used for descriptive analysis, and the next
chapter will examine statistical techniques for inferential analysis. Much of today’s quantitative
data analysis is conducted using software programs such as SPSS or SAS. Readers are advised
to familiarize themselves with one of these programs for understanding the concepts described
in this chapter.

Data Preparation
In research projects, data may be collected from a variety of sources: mail-in surveys,
interviews, pretest or posttest experimental data, observational data, and so forth. This data
must be converted into a machine-readable, numeric format, such as in a spreadsheet or a text
file, so that they can be analyzed by computer programs like SPSS or SAS. Data preparation
usually follows the following steps.

Data coding. Coding is the process of converting data into numeric format. A codebook
should be created to guide the coding process. A codebook is a comprehensive document
containing detailed description of each variable in a research study, items or measures for that
variable, the format of each item (numeric, text, etc.), the response scale for each item (i.e.,
whether it is measured on a nominal, ordinal, interval, or ratio scale; whether such scale is a
five-point, seven-point, or some other type of scale), and how to code each value into a numeric
format. For instance, if we have a measurement item on a seven-point Likert scale with anchors
ranging from “strongly disagree” to “strongly agree”, we may code that item as 1 for strongly
disagree, 4 for neutral, and 7 for strongly agree, with the intermediate anchors in between.
Nominal data such as industry type can be coded in numeric form using a coding scheme such
as: 1 for manufacturing, 2 for retailing, 3 for financial, 4 for healthcare, and so forth (of course,
nominal data cannot be analyzed statistically). Ratio scale data such as age, income, or test
scores can be coded as entered by the respondent. Sometimes, data may need to be aggregated
into a different form than the format used for data collection. For instance, for measuring a
construct such as “benefits of computers,” if a survey provided respondents with a checklist of
benefits that they could select from (i.e., they could choose as many of those benefits as they

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wanted), then the total number of checked items can be used as an aggregate measure of
benefits. Note that many other forms of data, such as interview transcripts, cannot be
converted into a numeric format for statistical analysis. Coding is especially important for large
complex studies involving many variables and measurement items, where the coding process is
conducted by different people, to help the coding team code data in a consistent manner, and
also to help others understand and interpret the coded data.

Data entry. Coded data can be entered into a spreadsheet, database, text file, or
directly into a statistical program like SPSS. Most statistical programs provide a data editor for
entering data. However, these programs store data in their own native format (e.g., SPSS stores
data as .sav files), which makes it difficult to share that data with other statistical programs.
Hence, it is often better to enter data into a spreadsheet or database, where they can be
reorganized as needed, shared across programs, and subsets of data can be extracted for
analysis. Smaller data sets with less than 65,000 observations and 256 items can be stored in a
spreadsheet such as Microsoft Excel, while larger dataset with millions of observations will
require a database. Each observation can be entered as one row in the spreadsheet and each
measurement item can be represented as one column. The entered data should be frequently
checked for accuracy, via occasional spot checks on a set of items or observations, during and
after entry. Furthermore, while entering data, the coder should watch out for obvious evidence
of bad data, such as the respondent selecting the “strongly agree” response to all items
irrespective of content, including reverse-coded items. If so, such data can be entered but
should be excluded from subsequent analysis.

Missing values. Missing data is an inevitable part of any empirical data set.
Respondents may not answer certain questions if they are ambiguously worded or too
sensitive. Such problems should be detected earlier during pretests and corrected before the
main data collection process begins. During data entry, some statistical programs automatically
treat blank entries as missing values, while others require a specific numeric value such as -1 or
999 to be entered to denote a missing value. During data analysis, the default mode of handling
missing values in most software programs is to simply drop the entire observation containing
even a single missing value, in a technique called listwise deletion. Such deletion can
significantly shrink the sample size and make it extremely difficult to detect small effects.
Hence, some software programs allow the option of replacing missing values with an estimated
value via a process called imputation. For instance, if the missing value is one item in a multi-
item scale, the imputed value may be the average of the respondent’s responses to remaining
items on that scale. If the missing value belongs to a single-item scale, many researchers use the
average of other respondent’s responses to that item as the imputed value. Such imputation
may be biased if the missing value is of a systematic nature rather than a random nature. Two
methods that can produce relatively unbiased estimates for imputation are the maximum
likelihood procedures and multiple imputation methods, both of which are supported in
popular software programs such as SPSS and SAS.

Data transformation. Sometimes, it is necessary to transform data values before they

can be meaningfully interpreted. For instance, reverse coded items, where items convey the
opposite meaning of that of their underlying construct, should be reversed (e.g., in a 1-7 interval
scale, 8 minus the observed value will reverse the value) before they can be compared or
combined with items that are not reverse coded. Other kinds of transformations may include
creating scale measures by adding individual scale items, creating a weighted index from a set
of observed measures, and collapsing multiple values into fewer categories (e.g., collapsing
incomes into income ranges).

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Univariate Analysis
Univariate analysis, or analysis of a single variable, refers to a set of statistical
techniques that can describe the general properties of one variable. Univariate statistics
include: (1) frequency distribution, (2) central tendency, and (3) dispersion. The frequency
distribution of a variable is a summary of the frequency (or percentages) of individual values
or ranges of values for that variable. For instance, we can measure how many times a sample of
respondents attend religious services (as a measure of their “religiosity”) using a categorical
scale: never, once per year, several times per year, about once a month, several times per
month, several times per week, and an optional category for “did not answer.” If we count the
number (or percentage) of observations within each category (except “did not answer” which is
really a missing value rather than a category), and display it in the form of a table as shown in
Figure 14.1, what we have is a frequency distribution. This distribution can also be depicted in
the form of a bar chart, as shown on the right panel of Figure 14.1, with the horizontal axis
representing each category of that variable and the vertical axis representing the frequency or
percentage of observations within each category.

Figure 14.1. Frequency distribution of religiosity

With very large samples where observations are independent and random, the frequency
distribution tends to follow a plot that looked like a bell-shaped curve (a smoothed bar chart of the
frequency distribution) similar to that shown in Figure 14.2, where most observations are clustered
toward the center of the range of values, and fewer and fewer observations toward the extreme ends of
the range. Such a curve is called a normal distribution.

Central tendency is an estimate of the center of a distribution of values. There are three major
estimates of central tendency: mean, median, and mode. The arithmetic mean (often simply called the
“mean”) is the simple average of all values in a given distribution. Consider a set of eight test scores: 15,
22, 21, 18, 36, 15, 25, 15. The arithmetic mean of these values is (15 + 20 + 21 + 20 + 36 + 15 + 25 +
15)/8 = 20.875. Other types of means include geometric mean (nth root of the product of n numbers in a
distribution) and harmonic mean (the reciprocal of the arithmetic means of the reciprocal of each value in
a distribution), but these means are not very popular for statistical analysis of social research data.

The second measure of central tendency, the median, is the middle value within a range of
values in a distribution. This is computed by sorting all values in a distribution in increasing order and
selecting the middle value. In case there are two middle values (if there is an even number of values in a
distribution), the average of the two middle values represent the median. In the above example, the

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sorted values are: 15, 15, 15, 18, 22, 21, 25, 36. The two middle values are 18 and 22, and hence the
median is (18 + 22)/2 = 20.

Lastly, the mode is the most frequently occurring value in a distribution of values. In the
previous example, the most frequently occurring value is 15, which is the mode of the above set of test
scores. Note that any value that is estimated from a sample, such as mean, median, mode, or any of the
later estimates are called a statistic.

Dispersion refers to the way values are spread around the central tendency, for example, how
tightly or how widely are the values clustered around the mean. Two common measures of dispersion
are the range and standard deviation. The range is the difference between the highest and lowest values
in a distribution. The range in our previous example is 36-15 = 21.

The range is particularly sensitive to the presence of outliers. For instance, if the highest value in
the above distribution was 85 and the other vales remained the same, the range would be 85-15 = 70.
Standard deviation, the second measure of dispersion, corrects for such outliers by using a formula that
takes into account how close or how far each value from the distribution mean:

where σ is the standard deviation, xi is the ith observation (or value), µ is the arithmetic mean, n is the
total number of observations, and Σ means summation across all observations. The square of the
standard deviation is called the variance of a distribution. In a normally distributed frequency
distribution, it is seen that 68% of the observations lie within one standard deviation of the mean (µ + 1
σ), 95% of the observations lie within two standard deviations (µ + 2 σ), and 99.7% of the observations
lie within three standard deviations (µ + 3 σ), as shown in Figure 14.2.

Figure 14.2. Normal distribution

Bivariate Analysis
Bivariate analysis examines how two variables are related to each other. The most
common bivariate statistic is the bivariate correlation (often, simply called “correlation”),
which is a number between -1 and +1 denoting the strength of the relationship between two
variables. Let’s say that we wish to study how age is related to self-esteem in a sample of 20

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respondents, i.e., as age increases, does self-esteem increase, decrease, or remains unchanged.
If self-esteem increases, then we have a positive correlation between the two variables, if self-
esteem decreases, we have a negative correlation, and if it remains the same, we have a zero
correlation. To calculate the value of this correlation, consider the hypothetical dataset shown
in Table 14.1.

Table 14.1. Hypothetical data on age and self-esteem

The two variables in this dataset are age (x) and self-esteem (y). Age is a ratio-scale
variable, while self-esteem is an average score computed from a multi-item self-esteem scale
measured using a 7-point Likert scale, ranging from “strongly disagree” to “strongly agree.” The
histogram of each variable is shown on the left side of Figure 14.3. The formula for calculating
bivariate correlation is:

where rxy is the correlation, x and y are the sample means of x and y, and sx and sy are
the standard deviations of x and y. The manually computed value of correlation between age
and self-esteem, using the above formula as shown in Table 14.1, is 0.79. This figure indicates
that age has a strong positive correlation with self-esteem, i.e., self-esteem tends to increase
with increasing age, and decrease with decreasing age. Such pattern can also be seen from
visually comparing the age and self-esteem histograms shown in Figure 14.3, where it appears
that the top of the two histograms generally follow each other. Note here that the vertical axes
in Figure 14.3 represent actual observation values, and not the frequency of observations (as
was in Figure 14.1), and hence, these are not frequency distributions but rather histograms.
The bivariate scatter plot in the right panel of Figure 14.3 is essentially a plot of self-esteem on
the vertical axis against age on the horizontal axis. This plot roughly resembles an upward

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sloping line (i.e., positive slope), which is also indicative of a positive correlation. If the two
variables were negatively correlated, the scatter plot would slope down (negative slope),
implying that an increase in age would be related to a decrease in self-esteem and vice versa. If
the two variables were uncorrelated, the scatter plot would approximate a horizontal line (zero
slope), implying than an increase in age would have no systematic bearing on self-esteem.

Figure 14.3. Histogram and correlation plot of age and self-esteem

After computing bivariate correlation, researchers are often interested in knowing

whether the correlation is significant (i.e., a real one) or caused by mere chance. Answering
such a question would require testing of the following hypothesis:

H0: r = 0
H1: r ≠ 0

H0 is called the null hypotheses, and H1 is called the alternative hypothesis (sometimes,
also represented as Ha) or the hypothesis that we actually want to test (i.e., whether the
correlation is different from zero). Although they may seem like two hypotheses, H0 and H1
jointly represent a single hypothesis since they are opposites of each other. Also note that H1 is
a non-directional hypotheses since it does not specify whether r is greater than or less than
zero. Directional hypotheses will be specified as H0: r ≤ 0; H1: r > 0 (if we are testing for a
positive correlation). Significance testing of directional hypothesis is done using a one-tailed t-
test, while that for non-directional hypothesis is done using a two-tailed t-test.

In statistical testing, the alternative hypothesis cannot be proven directly or

conclusively. Rather, it is indirectly proven by rejecting the null hypotheses with a certain level
of probability. Statistical testing is always probabilistic, because we are never sure if our
inferences, based on sample data, apply to the population, since our sample never equals the
population. The probability that a statistical inference is caused pure chance is called the p-
value. The p-value is compared with the significance level (α), which represents the
maximum level of risk that we are willing to take that our inference is incorrect. For most
statistical analysis, α is set to 0.05. A p-value less than α=0.05 indicates that we have enough
statistical evidence to reject the null hypothesis, and thereby, indirectly accept the alternative

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hypothesis. If p>0.05, then we do not have adequate statistical evidence to reject the null
hypothesis or accept the alternative hypothesis.

The easiest way to test for the above hypothesis is to look up critical values of r from
statistical tables available in any standard textbook on statistics or on the Internet (most
software programs also perform significance testing). The critical value of r depends on our
desired significance level (α = 0.05), the degrees of freedom (df), and whether the desired test is
a one-tailed or two-tailed test. The degree of freedom is the number of values that can vary
freely in any calculation of a statistic. In case of correlation, the df simply equals n – 2, or for the
data in Table 14.1, df is 20 – 2 = 18. There are two different statistical tables for one-tailed and
two-tailed test. In the two-tailed table, the critical value of r for α = 0.05 and df = 18 is 0.44. For
our computed correlation of 0.79 to be significant, it must be larger than the critical value of
0.44 or less than -0.44. Since our computed value of 0.79 is greater than 0.44, we conclude that
there is a significant correlation between age and self-esteem in our data set, or in other words,
the odds are less than 5% that this correlation is a chance occurrence. Therefore, we can reject
the null hypotheses that r ≤ 0, which is an indirect way of saying that the alternative hypothesis
r > 0 is probably correct.

Most research studies involve more than two variables. If there are n variables, then we
will have a total of n*(n-1)/2 possible correlations between these n variables. Such correlations
are easily computed using a software program like SPSS, rather than manually using the
formula for correlation (as we did in Table 14.1), and represented using a correlation matrix, as
shown in Table 14.2. A correlation matrix is a matrix that lists the variable names along the
first row and the first column, and depicts bivariate correlations between pairs of variables in
the appropriate cell in the matrix. The values along the principal diagonal (from the top left to
the bottom right corner) of this matrix are always 1, because any variable is always perfectly
correlated with itself. Further, since correlations are non-directional, the correlation between
variables V1 and V2 is the same as that between V2 and V1. Hence, the lower triangular matrix
(values below the principal diagonal) is a mirror reflection of the upper triangular matrix
(values above the principal diagonal), and therefore, we often list only the lower triangular
matrix for simplicity. If the correlations involve variables measured using interval scales, then
this specific type of correlations are called Pearson product moment correlations.

Table 14.2. A hypothetical correlation matrix for eight variables

Another useful way of presenting bivariate data is cross-tabulation (often abbreviated

to cross-tab, and sometimes called more formally as a contingency table). A cross-tab is a table
that describes the frequency (or percentage) of all combinations of two or more nominal or
categorical variables. As an example, let us assume that we have the following observations of

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gender and grade for a sample of 20 students, as shown in Figure 14.3. Gender is a nominal
variable (male/female or M/F), and grade is a categorical variable with three levels (A, B, and
C). A simple cross-tabulation of the data may display the joint distribution of gender and grades
(i.e., how many students of each gender are in each grade category, as a raw frequency count or
as a percentage) in a 2 x 3 matrix. This matrix will help us see if A, B, and C grades are equally
distributed across male and female students. The cross-tab data in Table 14.3 shows that the
distribution of A grades is biased heavily toward female students: in a sample of 10 male and 10
female students, five female students received the A grade compared to only one male students.
In contrast, the distribution of C grades is biased toward male students: three male students
received a C grade, compared to only one female student. However, the distribution of B grades
was somewhat uniform, with six male students and five female students. The last row and the
last column of this table are called marginal totals because they indicate the totals across each
category and displayed along the margins of the table.

Table 14.3. Example of cross-tab analysis

Although we can see a distinct pattern of grade distribution between male and female
students in Table 14.3, is this pattern real or “statistically significant”? In other words, do the
above frequency counts differ from that that may be expected from pure chance? To answer
this question, we should compute the expected count of observation in each cell of the 2 x 3
cross-tab matrix. This is done by multiplying the marginal column total and the marginal row
total for each cell and dividing it by the total number of observations. For example, for the
male/A grade cell, expected count = 5 * 10 / 20 = 2.5. In other words, we were expecting 2.5
male students to receive an A grade, but in reality, only one student received the A grade.
Whether this difference between expected and actual count is significant can be tested using a
chi-square test. The chi-square statistic can be computed as the average difference between
observed and expected counts across all cells. We can then compare this number to the critical
value associated with a desired probability level (p < 0.05) and the degrees of freedom, which
is simply (m-1)*(n-1), where m and n are the number of rows and columns respectively. In this
example, df = (2 – 1) * (3 – 1) = 2. From standard chi-square tables in any statistics book, the
critical chi-square value for p=0.05 and df=2 is 5.99. The computed chi-square value, based on
our observed data, is 1.00, which is less than the critical value. Hence, we must conclude that
the observed grade pattern is not statistically different from the pattern that can be expected by
pure chance.

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Chapter 15

Quantitative Analysis:
Inferential Statistics

Inferential statistics are the statistical procedures that are used to reach conclusions
about associations between variables. They differ from descriptive statistics in that they are
explicitly designed to test hypotheses. Numerous statistical procedures fall in this category,
most of which are supported by modern statistical software such as SPSS and SAS. This chapter
provides a short primer on only the most basic and frequent procedures; readers are advised to
consult a formal text on statistics or take a course on statistics for more advanced procedures.

Basic Concepts
British philosopher Karl Popper said that theories can never be proven, only disproven.
As an example, how can we prove that the sun will rise tomorrow? Popper said that just
because the sun has risen every single day that we can remember does not necessarily mean
that it will rise tomorrow, because inductively derived theories are only conjectures that may or
may not be predictive of future phenomenon. Instead, he suggested that we may assume a
theory that the sun will rise every day without necessarily proving it, and if the sun does not
rise on a certain day, the theory is falsified and rejected. Likewise, we can only reject
hypotheses based on contrary evidence but can never truly accept them because presence of
evidence does not mean that we may not observe contrary evidence later. Because we cannot
truly accept a hypothesis of interest (alternative hypothesis), we formulate a null hypothesis as
the opposite of the alternative hypothesis, and then use empirical evidence to reject the null
hypothesis to demonstrate indirect, probabilistic support for our alternative hypothesis.

A second problem with testing hypothesized relationships in social science research is

that the dependent variable may be influenced by an infinite number of extraneous variables
and it is not plausible to measure and control for all of these extraneous effects. Hence, even if
two variables may seem to be related in an observed sample, they may not be truly related in
the population, and therefore inferential statistics are never certain or deterministic, but always
probabilistic.

How do we know whether a relationship between two variables in an observed sample

is significant, and not a matter of chance? Sir Ronald A. Fisher, one of the most prominent
statisticians in history, established the basic guidelines for significance testing. He said that a
statistical result may be considered significant if it can be shown that the probability of it being
rejected due to chance is 5% or less. In inferential statistics, this probability is called the p-

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value, 5% is called the significance level (α), and the desired relationship between the p-value
and α is denoted as: p≤0.05. The significance level is the maximum level of risk that we are
willing to accept as the price of our inference from the sample to the population. If the p-value
is less than 0.05 or 5%, it means that we have a 5% chance of being incorrect in rejecting the
null hypothesis or having a Type I error. If p>0.05, we do not have enough evidence to reject
the null hypothesis or accept the alternative hypothesis.

We must also understand three related statistical concepts: sampling distribution,

standard error, and confidence interval. A sampling distribution is the theoretical
distribution of an infinite number of samples from the population of interest in your study.
However, because a sample is never identical to the population, every sample always has some
inherent level of error, called the standard error. If this standard error is small, then statistical
estimates derived from the sample (such as sample mean) are reasonably good estimates of the
population. The precision of our sample estimates is defined in terms of a confidence interval
(CI). A 95% CI is defined as a range of plus or minus two standard deviations of the mean
estimate, as derived from different samples in a sampling distribution. Hence, when we say that
our observed sample estimate has a CI of 95%, what we mean is that we are confident that 95%
of the time, the population parameter is within two standard deviations of our observed sample
estimate. Jointly, the p-value and the CI give us a good idea of the probability of our result and
how close it is from the corresponding population parameter.

General Linear Model

Most inferential statistical procedures in social science research are derived from a
general family of statistical models called the general linear model (GLM). A model is an
estimated mathematical equation that can be used to represent a set of data, and linear refers to
a straight line. Hence, a GLM is a system of equations that can be used to represent linear
patterns of relationships in observed data.

Figure 15.1. Two-variable linear model

The simplest type of GLM is a two-variable linear model that examines the relationship
between one independent variable (the cause or predictor) and one dependent variable (the
effect or outcome). Let us assume that these two variables are age and self-esteem respectively.
The bivariate scatterplot for this relationship is shown in Figure 15.1, with age (predictor)
along the horizontal or x-axis and self-esteem (outcome) along the vertical or y-axis. From the
scatterplot, it appears that individual observations representing combinations of age and self-
esteem generally seem to be scattered around an imaginary upward sloping straight line. We

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can estimate parameters of this line, such as its slope and intercept from the GLM. From high-
school algebra, recall that straight lines can be represented using the mathematical equation y =
mx + c, where m is the slope of the straight line (how much does y change for unit change in x)
and c is the intercept term (what is the value of y when x is zero). In GLM, this equation is
represented formally as:

y = β0 + β1 x + ε

where β0 is the slope, β1 is the intercept term, and ε is the error term. ε represents the deviation
of actual observations from their estimated values, since most observations are close to the line
but do not fall exactly on the line (i.e., the GLM is not perfect). Note that a linear model can have
more than two predictors. To visualize a linear model with two predictors, imagine a three-
dimensional cube, with the outcome (y) along the vertical axis, and the two predictors (say, x1
and x2) along the two horizontal axes along the base of the cube. A line that describes the
relationship between two or more variables is called a regression line, β0 and β1 (and other beta
values) are called regression coefficients, and the process of estimating regression coefficients is
called regression analysis. The GLM for regression analysis with n predictor variables is:

y = β0 + β1 x1 + β2 x2 + β3 x3 + … + βn xn + ε

In the above equation, predictor variables xi may represent independent variables or

covariates (control variables). Covariates are variables that are not of theoretical interest but
may have some impact on the dependent variable y and should be controlled, so that the
residual effects of the independent variables of interest are detected more precisely. Covariates
capture systematic errors in a regression equation while the error term (ε) captures random
errors. Though most variables in the GLM tend to be interval or ratio-scaled, this does not have
to be the case. Some predictor variables may even be nominal variables (e.g., gender: male or
female), which are coded as dummy variables. These are variables that can assume one of only
two possible values: 0 or 1 (in the gender example, “male” may be designated as 0 and “female”
as 1 or vice versa). A set of n nominal variables is represented using n–1 dummy variables. For
instance, industry sector, consisting of the agriculture, manufacturing, and service sectors, may
be represented using a combination of two dummy variables (x1, x2), with (0, 0) for agriculture,
(0, 1) for manufacturing, and (1, 1) for service. It does not matter which level of a nominal
variable is coded as 0 and which level as 1, because 0 and 1 values are treated as two distinct
groups (such as treatment and control groups in an experimental design), rather than as
numeric quantities, and the statistical parameters of each group are estimated separately.

The GLM is a very powerful statistical tool because it is not one single statistical method,
but rather a family of methods that can be used to conduct sophisticated analysis with different
types and quantities of predictor and outcome variables. If we have a dummy predictor
variable, and we are comparing the effects of the two levels (0 and 1) of this dummy variable on
the outcome variable, we are doing an analysis of variance (ANOVA). If we are doing ANOVA
while controlling for the effects of one or more covariate, we have an analysis of covariance
(ANCOVA). We can also have multiple outcome variables (e.g., y1, y1, … yn), which are
represented using a “system of equations” consisting of a different equation for each outcome
variable (each with its own unique set of regression coefficients). If multiple outcome variables
are modeled as being predicted by the same set of predictor variables, the resulting analysis is
called multivariate regression. If we are doing ANOVA or ANCOVA analysis with multiple
outcome variables, the resulting analysis is a multivariate ANOVA (MANOVA) or multivariate
ANCOVA (MANCOVA) respectively. If we model the outcome in one regression equation as a

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predictor in another equation in an interrelated system of regression equations, then we have a
very sophisticated type of analysis called structural equation modeling. The most important
problem in GLM is model specification, i.e., how to specify a regression equation (or a system of
equations) to best represent the phenomenon of interest. Model specification should be based
on theoretical considerations about the phenomenon being studied, rather than what fits the
observed data best. The role of data is in validating the model, and not in its specification.

Two-Group Comparison
One of the simplest inferential analyses is comparing the post-test outcomes of
treatment and control group subjects in a randomized post-test only control group design, such
as whether students enrolled to a special program in mathematics perform better than those in
a traditional math curriculum. In this case, the predictor variable is a dummy variable
(1=treatment group, 0=control group), and the outcome variable, performance, is ratio scaled
(e.g., score of a math test following the special program). The analytic technique for this simple
design is a one-way ANOVA (one-way because it involves only one predictor variable), and the
statistical test used is called a Student’s t-test (or t-test, in short).

The t-test was introduced in 1908 by William Sealy Gosset, a chemist working for the
Guiness Brewery in Dublin, Ireland to monitor the quality of stout – a dark beer popular with
19th century porters in London. Because his employer did not want to reveal the fact that it was
using statistics for quality control, Gosset published the test in Biometrika using his pen name
“Student” (he was a student of Sir Ronald Fisher), and the test involved calculating the value of
t, which was a letter used frequently by Fisher to denote the difference between two groups.
Hence, the name Student’s t-test, although Student’s identity was known to fellow statisticians.

The t-test examines whether the means of two groups are statistically different from
each other (non-directional or two-tailed test), or whether one group has a statistically larger
(or smaller) mean than the other (directional or one-tailed test). In our example, if we wish to
examine whether students in the special math curriculum perform better than those in
traditional curriculum, we have a one-tailed test. This hypothesis can be stated as:

H0: μ1 ≤ μ2 (null hypothesis)

H1: μ1 > μ2 (alternative hypothesis)

where μ1 represents the mean population performance of students exposed to the special
curriculum (treatment group) and μ2 is the mean population performance of students with
traditional curriculum (control group). Note that the null hypothesis is always the one with the
“equal” sign, and the goal of all statistical significance tests is to reject the null hypothesis.

How can we infer about the difference in population means using data from samples
drawn from each population? From the hypothetical frequency distributions of the treatment
and control group scores in Figure 15.2, the control group appears to have a bell-shaped
(normal) distribution with a mean score of 45 (on a 0-100 scale), while the treatment group
appear to have a mean score of 65. These means look different, but they are really sample
means ( ), which may differ from their corresponding population means (μ) due to sampling
error. Sample means are probabilistic estimates of population means within a certain
confidence interval (95% CI is sample mean + two standard errors, where standard error is the
standard deviation of the distribution in sample means as taken from infinite samples of the
population. Hence, statistical significance of population means depends not only on sample

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mean scores, but also on the standard error or the degree of spread in the frequency
distribution of the sample means. If the spread is large (i.e., the two bell-shaped curves have a
lot of overlap), then the 95% CI of the two means may also be overlapping, and we cannot
conclude with high probability (p<0.05) that that their corresponding population means are
significantly different. However, if the curves have narrower spreads (i.e., they are less
overlapping), then the CI of each mean may not overlap, and we reject the null hypothesis and
say that the population means of the two groups are significantly different at p<0.05.

Figure 15.2. Student’s t-test

To conduct the t-test, we must first compute a t-statistic of the difference is sample
means between the two groups. This statistic is the ratio of the difference in sample means
relative to the difference in their variability of scores (standard error):

where the numerator is the difference in sample means between the treatment group (Group 1)
and the control group (Group 2) and the denominator is the standard error of the difference
between the two groups, which in turn, can be estimated as:

s2 is the variance and n is the sample size of each group. The t-statistic will be positive if the
treatment mean is greater than the control mean. To examine if this t-statistic is large enough
than that possible by chance, we must look up the probability or p-value associated with our
computed t-statistic in statistical tables available in standard statistics textbooks or on the
Internet or as computed by statistical software programs such as SAS and SPSS. This value is a
function of the t-statistic, whether the t-test is one-tailed or two-tailed, and the degrees of
freedom (df) or the number of values that can vary freely in the calculation of the statistic
(usually a function of the sample size and the type of test being performed). The degree of
freedom of the t-statistic is computed as:

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which often approximates to (n1+n2–2). If this p-value is smaller than a desired significance
level (say α=0.05) or the highest level of risk (probability) we are willing to take to conclude
that there is a treatment effect when in fact there is none (Type I error), then we can reject the
null hypotheses.

After demonstrating whether the treatment group has a significantly higher mean than
the control group, the next question usually is what is the effect size (ES) or the magnitude of
the treatment effect relative to the control group? We can estimate the ES by conducting
regression analysis with performance scores as the outcome variable (y) and a dummy coded
treatment variable as the predictor variable (x) in a two-variable GLM. The regression
coefficient of the treatment variable (β1), which is also the slope of the regression line (β1 =
Δy/Δx), is an estimate of the effect size. In the above example, since x is a dummy variable with
two values (0 and 1), Δx = 1–0 = 1, and hence the effect size or β1 is simply the difference
between treatment and control means (Δy = y1- y2).

Factorial Designs
Extending from the previous example, let us say that the effect of the special curriculum
(treatment) relative to traditional curriculum (control) depends on the amount of instructional
time (3 or 6 hours/week). Now, we have a 2 x 2 factorial design, with the two factors being
curriculum type (special versus traditional) and instructional type (3 or 6 hours/week). Such a
design not only helps us estimate the independent effect of each factor, called main effects, but
also the joint effect of both factors, called the interaction effect. The generalized linear model
for this two-way factorial design is designated as follows:

y = β0 + β1 x1 + β2 x2 + β3 x1 x2 + ε

where y represents students’ post-treatment performance scores, x1 is the treatment (special

versus traditional curriculum), x2 is instructional time (3 or 6 hours/week). Note that both x1
and x2 are dummy variables, and although x2 looks like a ratio-scale variable (3 or 6), it actually
represents two categories in the factorial design. Regression coefficients β1 and β2 provide
effect size estimates for the main effects and β3 for the interaction effect. Alternatively, the
same factorial model can be analyzed using a two-way ANOVA analysis. Regression analysis
involving multiple predictor variables is sometimes called multiple regression, which is
different from multivariate regression that uses multiple outcome variables.

A note on interpreting interaction effects. If β3 is significant, it implies that the effect of

the treatment (curriculum type) on student performance depends on instructional time. In this
case, we cannot meaningfully interpret the independent effect of the treatment (β1) or of
instructional time (β2), because the two effects cannot be isolated from each other. Main effects
are interpretable only when the interaction effect is non-significant.

Covariates can be included in factorial designs as new variables, with new regression
coefficients (e.g., β4). Covariates can be measured using interval or ratio scaled measures, even
when the predictors of interest are designated as dummy variables. Interpretation of
covariates also follows the same rules as that of any other predictor variable.

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Other Quantitative Analysis
There are many other useful inferential statistical techniques, based on variations in the
GLM, that are briefly mentioned here. Interested readers are referred to advanced textbooks or
statistics courses for more information on these techniques:

 Factor analysis is a data reduction technique that is used to statistically aggregate a

large number of observed measures (items) into a smaller set of unobserved (latent)
variables called factors based on their underlying bivariate correlation patterns. This
technique is widely used for assessment of convergent and discriminant validity in
multi-item measurement scales in social science research.
 Discriminant analysis is a classificatory technique that aims to place a given observation
in one of several nominal categories based on a linear combination of predictor
variables. The technique is similar to multiple regression, except that the dependent
variable is nominal. It is popular in marketing applications, such as for classifying
customers or products into categories based on salient attributes as identified from
large-scale surveys.
 Logistic regression (or logit model) is a GLM in which the outcome variable is binary (0
or 1) and is presumed to follow a logistic distribution, and the goal of the regression
analysis is to predict the probability of the successful outcome by fitting data into a
logistic curve. An example is predicting the probability of heart attack within a specific
period, based on predictors such as age, body mass index, exercise regimen, and so
forth. Logistic regression is extremely popular in the medical sciences. Effect size
estimation is based on an “odds ratio,” representing the odds of an event occurring in
one group versus the other.
 Probit regression (or probit model) is a GLM in which the outcome variable can vary
between 0 and 1 (or can assume discrete values 0 and 1) and is presumed to follow a
standard normal distribution, and the goal of the regression is to predict the probability
of each outcome. This is a popular technique for predictive analysis in the actuarial
science, financial services, insurance, and other industries for applications such as credit
scoring based on a person’s credit rating, salary, debt and other information from her
loan application. Probit and logit regression tend to demonstrate similar regression
coefficients in comparable applications (binary outcomes); however the logit model is
easier to compute and interpret.
 Path analysis is a multivariate GLM technique for analyzing directional relationships
among a set of variables. It allows for examination of complex nomological models
where the dependent variable in one equation is the independent variable in another
equation, and is widely used in contemporary social science research.
 Time series analysis is a technique for analyzing time series data, or variables that
continually changes with time. Examples of applications include forecasting stock
market fluctuations and urban crime rates. This technique is popular in econometrics,
mathematical finance, and signal processing. Special techniques are used to correct for
auto-correlation, or correlation within values of the same variable across time.

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Chapter 16

Research Ethics

Ethics is defined by Webster’s dictionary as conformance to the standards of conduct of

a given profession or group. Such standards are often defined at a disciplinary level though a
professional code of conduct, and sometimes enforced by university committees called even
Institutional Review Board. Even if not explicitly specified, scientists are still expected to be
aware of and abide by general agreements shared by the scientific community on what
constitutes acceptable and non-acceptable behaviors on the part of the scientist in the
professional conduct of science. For instance, scientists should not manipulate their data
collection, analysis, and interpretation procedures in a way that contradicts the principles of
science or the scientific method or advances their personal agenda.

Why is research ethics important? Because, science has often been manipulated in
unethical ways by people and organizations to advance their private agenda and engaging in
activities that are contrary to the norms of scientific conduct. A classic example is
pharmaceutical giant Merck’s drug trials of Vioxx, where the company hid the fatal side-effects
of the drug from the scientific community. Hiding these facts resulted in the deaths of 3468
deaths, mostly from cardiac arrest, of Vioxx recipients. In 2010, the company agreed to a $4.85
billion settlement and appointed two independent committees and a chief medical officer to
monitor the safety of its drug development process. Merck’s conduct was unethical and
violation the scientific principles of data collection, analysis, and interpretation.

Ethics is the moral distinction between right and wrong, and what is unethical may not
necessarily be illegal. If a scientist’s conduct falls within the gray zone between ethics and law,
she may not be culpable in the eyes of the law, but may still be ostracized in her professional
community, face severe damage to professional reputation, and may even lose their job for
scientific misconduct. These ethical norms may vary from one society to another, and here, we
refer to ethical standards as applied to scientific research in Western countries.

Ethical Principles in Scientific Research

Some of the expected tenets of ethical behavior that are widely accepted within the
scientific community are as follows.

Voluntary participation and harmlessness. Subjects in a research project must be

aware that their participation in the study is voluntary, that they have the freedom to withdraw
from the study at any time without any unfavorable consequences, and they are not harmed as
a result of their participation or non-participation in the project. The most flagrant violations of

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the voluntary participation principle are probably forced medical experiments conducted by
Nazi researchers on prisoners of war during World War II, as documented in the post-War
Nuremberg Trials (these experiments also originated the term “crimes against humanity”).
Less known violations include the Tuskegee syphilis experiments conducted by the U.S. Public
Health Service during 1932-1972, in which nearly 400 impoverished African-American men
suffering from syphilis were denied treatment even after penicillin was accepted as an effective
treatment of syphilis, and subjects were presented with false treatments such as spinal taps as
cures for syphilis. Even if subjects face no mortal threat, they should not be subjected to
personal agony as a result of their participation. In 1971, psychologist Philip Zambardo created
the Stanford Prison Experiment, where Stanford students recruited as subjects were randomly
assigned to roles such as prisoners or guards. When it became evident that student prisoners
were suffering psychological damage as a result of their mock incarceration and student guards
were exhibiting sadism that would later challenge their own self-image, the experiment was
terminated.

Today, if an instructor asks her students to fill out a questionnaire and informs them
that their participation is voluntary, students must not fear that their non-participation may
hurt their grade in class in any way. For instance, it in unethical to provide bonus points for
participation and no bonus points for non-participations, because it places non-participants at a
distinct disadvantage. To avoid such circumstances, the instructor may possibly provide an
alternate task for non-participants so that they can recoup the bonus points without
participating in the research study, or by providing bonus points to everyone irrespective of
their participation or non-participation. Furthermore, all participants must receive and sign an
Informed Consent form that clearly describes their right to not participate and right to
withdraw, before their responses in the study can be recorded. In a medical study, this form
must also specify any possible risks to subjects from their participation. For subjects under the
age of 18, this form must be signed by their parent or legal guardian. Researchers must retain
these informed consent forms for a period of time (often three years) after the completion of
the data collection process in order comply with the norms of scientific conduct in their
discipline or workplace.

Anonymity and confidentiality. To protect subjects’ interests and future well-being,

their identity must be protected in a scientific study. This is done using the dual principles of
anonymity and confidentiality. Anonymity implies that the researcher or readers of the final
research report or paper cannot identify a given response with a specific respondent. An
example of anonymity in scientific research is a mail survey in which no identification numbers
are used to track who is responding to the survey and who is not. In studies of deviant or
undesirable behaviors, such as drug use or illegal music downloading by students, truthful
responses may not be obtained if subjects are not assured of anonymity. Further, anonymity
assures that subjects are insulated from law enforcement or other authorities who may have an
interest in identifying and tracking such subjects in the future.

In some research designs such as face-to-face interviews, anonymity is not possible. In

other designs, such as a longitudinal field survey, anonymity is not desirable because it prevents
the researcher from matching responses from the same subject at different points in time for
longitudinal analysis. Under such circumstances, subjects should be guaranteed
confidentiality, in which the researcher can identify a person’s responses, but promises not to
divulge that person’s identify in any report, paper, or public forum. Confidentiality is a weaker
form of protection than anonymity, because social research data do not enjoy the “privileged
communication” status in United State courts as do communication with priests or lawyers. For

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instance, two years after the Exxon Valdez supertanker spilled ten million barrels of crude oil
near the port of Valdez in Alaska, the communities suffering economic and environmental
damage commissioned a San Diego research firm to survey the affected households about
personal and embarrassing details about increased psychological problems in their family.
Because the cultural norms of many Native Americans made such public revelations
particularly painful and difficult, respondents were assured confidentiality of their responses.
When this evidence was presented to court, Exxon petitioned the court to subpoena the original
survey questionnaires (with identifying information) in order to cross-examine respondents
regarding their answers that they had given to interviewers under the protection of
confidentiality, and was granted that request. Luckily, the Exxon Valdez case was settled before
the victims were forced to testify in open court, but the potential for similar violations of
confidentiality still remains.

In an extreme case, Rick Scarce, a graduate student at Washington State University,

conducted participant observation studies of animal rights activities, and chronicled his
findings in a 1990 book called Ecowarriors: Understanding the Radical Environmental Movement.
In 1993, Scarce was called before a grand jury to identify the activists he studied. The
researcher refused to answer grand jury questions, in keeping with his ethical obligations as a
member of the American Sociological Association, and was forced to spend 159 days at Spokane
County Jail. To protect themselves from travails similar to Rik Scarce, researchers should
remove any identifying information from documents and data files as soon as they are no longer
necessary. In 2002, the United States Department of Health and Human Services issued a
“Certificate of Confidentiality” to protect participants in research project from police and other
authorities. Not all research projects qualify for this protection, but this can provide an
important support for protecting participant confidentiality in many cases.

Disclosure. Usually, researchers have an obligation to provide some information about

their study to potential subjects before data collection to help them decide whether or not they
wish to participate in the study. For instance, who is conducting the study, for what purpose,
what outcomes are expected, and who will benefit from the results. However, in some cases,
disclosing such information may potentially bias subjects’ responses. For instance, if the
purpose of a study is to examine to what extent subjects will abandon their own views to
conform with “groupthink” and they participate in an experiment where they listen to others’
opinions on a topic before voicing their own, then disclosing the study’s purpose before the
experiment will likely sensitize subjects to the treatment. Under such circumstances, even if the
study’s purpose cannot be revealed before the study, it should be revealed in a debriefing
session after the study, in addition to identifying potential problems or issues identified during
the experiment.

Analysis and reporting. Researchers also have ethical obligations to the scientific
community on how data is analyzed and reported in their study. Unexpected or negative
findings should be fully disclosed, even if they cast some doubt on the research design or the
findings. Similarly, many interesting relationships are discovered after a study is completed, by
chance or data mining. It is unethical to present such findings as the product of deliberate
design. In other words, hypotheses should not be designed in positivist research after the fact
based on the results of data analysis, because the role of data in such research is to test
hypotheses, and not build them. It is also unethical to “carve” their data into different segments
to prove or disprove their hypotheses of interest, or to generate multiple papers claiming
different data sets. Misrepresenting questionable claims as valid based on partial, incomplete,
or improper data analysis is also dishonest. Science progresses through openness and honesty,

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and researchers can best serve science and the scientific community by fully disclosing the
problems with their research, so that they can save other researchers from similar problems.

Institutional Review Boards

Research ethics in studies involving human subjects is governed in the United States by
federal law. Any agency, such as a university or a hospital, that wants to apply for federal
funding to support its research projects must establish that it is in compliance with federal laws
governing the rights and protection of human subjects. This process is overseen by a panel of
experts in that agency called an Institutional Review Board (IRB). The IRB reviews all
research proposal involving human subjects to ensure that the principles of voluntary
participation, harmlessness, anonymity, confidentiality, and so forth are preserved, and that the
risks posed to human subjects are minimal. Even though the federal laws apply specifically for
federally funded projects, the same standards and procedures are also applied to non-funded or
even student projects.

The IRB approval process require completing a structured application providing

complete information about the research project, the researchers (principal investigators), and
details on how the subjects’ rights will be protected. Additional documentation such as the
Informed Consent form, research questionnaire or interview protocol may be needed. The
researchers must also demonstrate that they are familiar with the principles of ethical research
by providing certification of their participation in an research ethics course. Data collection can
commence only after the project is cleared by the IRB review committee.

Professional Code of Ethics

Most professional associations of researchers have established and published formal
codes of conduct describing what constitute acceptable and unacceptable professional behavior
of their member researchers. As an example, the summarized code of conduct for the
Association of Information Systems (AIS), the global professional association of researchers in
the information systems discipline is summarized in Table 16.1 (the complete code of conduct
is available online at http://home.aisnet.org/ displaycommon.cfm?an=1&subarticlenbr=15).
Similar codes of ethics are also available for other disciplines.

The AIS code of conduct groups ethical violations in two categories. Category I includes
serious transgressions such as plagiarism and falsification of data, research procedures, or data
analysis, which may lead to expulsion from the association, dismissal from employment, legal
action, and fatal damage to professional reputation. Category 2 includes less serious
transgression such as not respecting the rights of research subjects, misrepresenting the
originality of research projects, and using data published by others without acknowledgement,
which may lead to damage to professional reputation, sanctions from journals, and so forth.
The code also provides guidance on good research behaviors, what to do when ethical
transgressions are detected (for both the transgressor and the victim), and the process to be
followed by AIS in dealing with ethical violation cases. Though codes of ethics such as this have
not completely eliminated unethical behavior, they have certainly helped clarify the boundaries
of ethical behavior in the scientific community and reduced instances of ethical transgressions.

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CATEGORY ONE: Codes in this category must ALWAYS be adhered to and disregard for them constitutes
a serious ethical breach. Serious breaches can result in your expulsion from academic associations,
dismissal from your employment, legal action against you, and potentially fatal damage to your academic
reputation.

1. Do not plagiarize.
2. Do not fabricate or falsify data, research procedures, or data analysis.

CATEGORY TWO: Codes in this category are recommended ethical behavior. Flagrant disregard of these
or other kinds of professional etiquette, while less serious, can result in damage to your reputation,
editorial sanctions, professional embarrassment, legal action, and the ill will of your colleagues.

3. Respect the rights of research subjects, particularly their rights to information privacy, and to
being informed about the nature of the research and the types of activities in which they will be
asked to engage.
4. Do not make misrepresentations to editors and conference program chairs about the originality
of papers you submit to them.
5. Do not abuse the authority and responsibility you have been given as an editor, reviewer or
supervisor, and ensure that personal relationships do not interfere with your judgement.
6. Declare any material conflict of interest that might interfere with your ability to be objective and
impartial when reviewing submissions, grant applications, software, or undertaking work from
outside sources.
7. Do not take or use published data of others without acknowledgement, or unpublished data
without both permission and acknowledgement.
8. Acknowledge the substantive contributions of all research participants, whether colleagues or
students, according to their intellectual contribution.
9. Do not use other people’s unpublished writings, information, ideas, concepts or data that you
may see as a result of processes such as peer review without permission of the author.
10. Use archival material only in accordance with the rules of the archival source.

ADVICE: Some suggestions on how to protect yourself from authorship disputes, mis-steps, mistakes, and
even legal action.

1. Keep the documentation and data necessary to validate your original authorship for each
scholarly work with which you are connected.
2. Do not republish old ideas of your own as if they were a new intellectual contribution.
3. Settle data set ownership issues before data compilation.
4. Consult appropriate colleagues if in doubt.

Table 16.1. Code of ethics for the Association of Information Systems

An Ethical Controversy
Robert Allen “Laud” Humphreys was an American sociologist and author, who is best
known for his Ph.D. dissertation, Tearoom Trade, published in 1970. This book is
an ethnographic account of anonymous male homosexual encounters in public toilets in parks –
a practice known as "tea-rooming" in U.S. gay slang. Humphreys was intrigued by the fact that
the majority of participants in the tearoom activity were outwardly heterosexual men, who

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lives otherwise conventional family lives in their communities. However, it was important to
them to preserve their anonymity during tearoom visits.

Typically, the tearoom encounters involved three people – the two males engaging in a
sexual act and a lookout called a “watchqueen,” whose job it was to alert the other two males for
police or other people, while getting to watch the action as a voyeur. Because it was not
otherwise possible to reach these subjects, Humphreys showed up at public toilets,
masquerading as a watchqueen. As a participant observer, Humphreys was able to conduct
field observations as he would in a study of political protests or other sociological phenomenon.

Humphreys needed more information on the participants. But because they were
unwilling to be interviewed in the field, Humphreys wrote down the license plate numbers of
the participants’ cars, wherever possible, and tracked down their names and addresses from
public databases. Then he visited these men at their homes, disguising himself to avoid
recognition and announcing that he was conducting a survey, and collected personal data that
was not available otherwise.

Humphreys’ research generated considerable controversy within the scientific

community. Many critics said that he should not have invaded others’ right to privacy in the
name of science, others were worried about his deceitful behavior in leading participants to
believe that he was only a watchqueen, when he had ulterior motives. Even those who
considered observing tearoom activity to be acceptable since the participants used public
facilities, thought that the follow-up interview survey in participants’ homes under false
pretenses was unethical, because of the way he obtained their home addresses and because he
did not seek informed consent. A few researchers justified Humphrey’s approach saying that
this was an important sociological phenomenon worth investigation, that there were no other
way of collecting this data, and that the deceit was harmless, since Humphreys did not disclose
his subjects’ names or their tearoom activities. This controversy was never resolved, and it is
still hotly debated given the emotions and ethical issues it generates. Nevertheless, this
example presents an interesting case for a classroom discussion on research ethics.

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Appendix

Sample Syllabus for a Doctoral Course

QMB 7565: Introduction to Research Methods

University of South Florida
College of Business
Fall Semester 2011

Objectives:
The purpose of this course is to introduce doctoral students to the process of conducting
academic research. We will learn about how to think and act like a researcher in
conceptualizing, designing, executing, and evaluating “scientific” research projects. Part of the
class will require you to design and write an independent research proposal (with your
professor’s help). In addition, the finals exam will prepare you for the research methods section
of your Ph.D. comprehensives exam.

Structure:
This class is designed in a seminar format. This heart of any Ph.D. seminar is discussion
and analysis of assigned readings. To do that, you must read all assigned readings before class,
think about these issues throughout the semester, debate these issues with your classmates,
and synthesize these issues mentally to develop yourself as a researcher. Please note that if you
do not come to class fully prepared, you will be totally lost and will not learn anything from the
class.

Being a doctoral seminar, this course will entail: (1) a much higher workload than any
Masters-level course you have encountered thus far, (2) a heavy dose of boring readings, and
(3) a substantial amount of critical and often frustrating thinking. This is not an easy class and
you will not receive an easy grade. If you are challenged by the demanding nature of this class,
you should drop this class and drop out of the Ph.D. program.

Books and Materials:

Bhattacherjee, A. Social Science Research: Principles, Methods, and Practice, Ver 2.0, 2011, Free
download from Blackboard (my.usf.edu).

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Kuhn, T. J. The Structure of Scientific Revolutions, University of Chicago Press, Chicago, 1996.
This entire book must be read prior to Week 4. This $7.50 paperback (Amazon price) looks
deceptively small, but is actually a heavy drill, so start reading it right away.

Papers: Download from Blackboard (my.usf.edu). See Class Schedule.

Grading:
Grade components: Finals exam 35 points
Research proposal 35 points
Paper review 10 points
Class participation 20 points

Grading scale: A+: 97-100; A: 92-97; A-: 90-92; B+: 88-90; B: 82-88; B-: 80-82; C+: 78-80; C: 70-
78

Finals Exam:
This is a 3-hour, comprehensive exam, in which you will be asked 3-4 multi-part essay-type
questions, similar to the ones in your Ph.D. comprehensive exams. Sample exam questions can
be downloaded from Blackboard. You can either hand-write your answers on type them a
computer. Your answers should demonstrate (a) synthesis of materials covered in class and (b)
your own critical analysis of these materials, and not a mere regurgitation of the papers or the
professor’s comments. You will be graded solely on quality of your answer and not on how
many pages you write. You will lose credit if your answer is irrelevant (of the rambling type),
does not contain enough details (too general or vague), or demonstrate just a superficial level of
understanding of the materials discussed in class. Exam is open-book/open-notes, but please
be forewarned that having all the materials in front of you will not help, if you didn’t bother to
prepare for the exams ahead of time. Given the avalanche of topics and materials covered in
class, cramming the week before the exams will be too little and too late.

Research Proposal:
You will apply your learning about the research process into a research proposal that is due at
the end of the semester. This proposal will be 10-12 pages single-spaced, excluding references
and appendices. You can select any research problem of your choice for this proposal, but
preferably in the positivist tradition of inquiry. However, the proposed research must be
original (i.e., not something you are doing for another class or another professor), must
examine a real problem (i.e., not a hypothetical or “toy” problem), and must be of at least a
conference-level quality. Your proposal must include five sections: (1) research problem and
significance, (2) literature review, (3) theory and hypotheses, (4) research methods, and (5)
research plan. Data collection or analysis is not necessary. But if you want to do an interpretive
research project instead, then some data collection and analysis will be needed (and the above
structure will also change – talk to me about these changes). Project deliverables are due
throughout the course of the semester, as we cover corresponding topics in class. This will
allow me to give you early feedback and correct problems well before the final due date. Note
that intermediate deliverables are not graded, only your final proposal will be graded. You will
also present your final proposal during the last week of class in a 15-20 minute formal

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presentation (plus a 5 minute question/answer session), as you would typically do at an
academic conference.

Paper Review:
A key component of an academic career is critically evaluating others’ research. During the
second half of the semester, you’ll be asked to write a formal review (critique) of a paper
submitted for publication to a leading business journal. To help you prepare, I’ll discuss in class
how to write reviews, give you a framework for review, and have you do one practice round of
review in class for an actual journal submission. After you write your review, I will give you
actual reviews by anonymous reviewers/editors for this paper so that you can compare your
own review with that of professional reviewers, and see what you missed. The graded paper
review is take-home, and due one week before the finals. You may need to do some background
research or read some additional papers before writing your review report, but you must not
collaborate or discuss the paper with anyone in or out of class.

Class Participation:
Each paper discussed in class will be assigned a “lead discussant,” who will be responsible for
(1) preparing a one-page synopsis of those papers (in a structured format) and (2) leading class
discussion on that paper. You will receive full class participation grade if you turn in synopsis
of all assigned papers on time and do a reasonable job in class discussion. Please see the sample
synopsis to get an idea of how to structure these synopses. These synopses can be useful study
aids for the exams, but only if you do a thorough job with them. Bring enough copies of the
synopses to share with the rest of the class. I’ll give you immediate feedback on your synopsis
as we discuss the paper in class, so that you can try to improve your synopsis next time. If you
have to miss a class or would like to do a different paper, you can exchange your assigned paper
with a classmate. However, if there is a miscommunication and no synopsis is available for a
paper on the discussion date, the student originally assigned that paper will be penalized in
his/her class participation grade. Irrespective of synopsis assignment, everyone is expected to
attend all classes, read all papers, and contribute to all class discussions.

Class Policies:
Attendance: I do not take formal attendance, but I do keep track of who is coming to class and
who is not. If you think you will miss more than one week of class for any reason, you should
drop this class.

Academic honesty: Plagiarism in any form is banned and will result in a straight FF grade.
Please refer to USF’s academic honesty policy in your student handbook.

Disability: Students requiring disability accommodations should notify me within the first two
weeks of class, with a letter from the Student Disability Services Office.

Cell phones: Cell phones must be turned OFF during the duration of the class, but you can use
them during the breaks.

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Class Schedule:
Week 1: Introduction to Research

Syllabus & Introductions.

Chapter 1.
The Research & Publication Process: Research Process Slides

Week 2: Thinking Like a Researcher

Chapter 2.
A Tale of Two Papers:
 Fichman, R.G. and Kemerer, C.F., "The Illusory Diffusion of Innovation: An Examination of
Assimilation Gaps," Information Systems Research (10:3), September 1999, pp. 255-275.
 Williams, L.; Kessler, R.R.; Cunningham, W.; and Jeffries, R., "Strengthening the Case for Pair
Programming," IEEE Software, July/August 2000, pp. 19-25.
Critical Thinking:
 Dialog on Leadership, "Awareness is the First Critical Thing," A Conversation with Wanda
Orlikowski, 1999.
Research Ethics:
 AIS Code of Conduct: http://home.aisnet.org/displaycommon.cfm?an=1&subarticlenbr=13
 IRB Process: http://www.research.usf.edu/cs/irb_forms.htm

Week 3: Literature Review & Meta-Analysis

Lit review:
 Fichman, R.G., "Information Technology Diffusion: A Review of Empirical Research,"
Proceedings of the Thirteenth International Conference on Information Systems, Dallas,
1992, 195-206.
 Alavi, M. and Leidner, D.E., "Knowledge Management and Knowledge Management
Systems," MIS Quarterly (25:2), March 2001, pp. 107-136.
Meta-analysis:
 King, W.R, and He, J., "Understanding the Role and Methods of Meta-Analysis in IS
Research," Communications of the AIS (16), 2005, pp. 665.686.
 Henard, D.H. and Szymanski, D.M., "Why Some New Products are More Successful Than
Others," Journal of Marketing Research (38), August 2001, pp. 362-375.
Due: Research Proposal: Research Problem and its Significance.

Week 4: Philosophy of Science

Chapter 3.
Paradigms in scientific inquiry:
 Kuhn, T., The Structure of Scientific Revolutions, University of Chicago Press, 1996 (entire
book).
[See Dr. Pajares' notes ONLY if you completely lost]
Social science paradigms:
 Krugman, P., "How Did Economists Get It So Wrong," New York Times, Sept 6, 2009.
 Gioia, D.A. and Pitre, E., "Multiparadigm Perspectives on Theory Building," Academy of
Management Review (15:4), 1990, pp. 584-602.

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Week 5: Theories in Organizational Research

Chapter 4.
Why theory:
 Steinfield, C.W. and Fulk, J., "The Theory Imperative," in Organizations and Communications
Technology, Janet Fulk and Charles W. Steinfield (eds.), Sage Publications, Newbury Park,
CA, 1990.
Evaluating organizational theories:
 Bacharach, S.B., "Organizational Theories: Some Criteria for Evaluation," Academy of
Management Review (14:4), 1989, pp. 496-515.
Agency theory:
 Eisenhardt, K.M., "Agency Theory: An Assessment and Review," Academy of Management
Review (14:1), 1989, pp. 57-74.
Transaction cost theory:
 Williamson, O.E., "The Economics of Organization: The Transaction Cost Approach,"
American Journal of Sociology (87:3), 1981, pp. 548-577.

Week 6: Organizational Theories - Continued

Transaction cost theory:

 Rindfleisch, A. and Heide, J.B., "Transaction Cost Analysis: Past, Present, and Future
Applications," Journal of Marketing (61:4), 1997, pp. 30-54.
Resource-based theory:
 Barney, J.B., "Firm Resources and Sustained Competitive Advantage," Journal of
Management (17:1), 1991, pp. 99-120.
 Priem, R.L. and Butler, J.E., "Is the Resource-Based 'View' a Useful Perspective for Strategic
Management Research?", Academy of Management Review (26:1), 2001, pp. 22-40.
Dynamic capability theory:
 Teece, D.J.; Pisano, G.; and Shuen, A., "Dynamic Capabilities and Strategic Management,"
Strategic Management Journal (18:7), 1997, 509-533.
Due: Research Proposal: Literature Review (with prior sections, modified if needed).

Week 7: Measurement and Validity

Chapters 6 and 7.
Scale validity and unidimensionality:
 Straub, D.W., "Validating Instruments in MIS Research," MIS Quarterly (13:2), June 1989, pp.
146-169.
 MacKenzie, S. B., Podsakoff, P. M., and Podsakoff, N. P., "Construct Measurement and
Validation Procedures in MIS and Behavioral Research: Integrating New and Existing
Techniques," MIS Quarterly (35:2), 2011, pp. 293-334.
Due: Research Proposal: Theory & Hypotheses (with prior sections, modified as needed).

Week 8: Survey Research

Chapters 5, 8, and 9.
Field survey exemplar:
 Tsai, W., "Knowledge Transfer in Intraorganizational Networks: Effects of Network Position
and Absorptive Capacity on Business Unit Innovation and Performance," Academy of
Management Review, 2001.

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Biases in survey research:
 Malhotra, N. K, Kim, S. S., and Patil, A., "Common Method Variance in IS Research: A
Comparison of Alternative Approaches and a Reanalysis of Past Research," Management
Science (52:12), 2006, pp. 1865-1883.

Week 9: Experimental & Quasi-Experimental Research

Chapter 10.
Field experiment examplar:
 Hunton, J.E. and McEwen, R.A., "An Assessment of the Relation Between Analysts' Earnings
Forecast Accuracy, Motivational Incentives, and Cognitive Information Search Strategy," The
Accounting Review (72:4), October 1997, pp. 497-515.
Problems with experimental research:
 Jarvenpaa, S. L.; Dickson, G. W.; and DeSanctis, G., "Methodological Issues in Experimental IS
Research: Experiences and Recommendations," MIS Quarterly, June 1985, pp. 141-156.

Week 10: Reviewing Research

Writing paper reviews:

 Lee, A.S., "Reviewing a Manuscript for Publication," Journal of Operations Management
(13:1), July 1995, pp.87-92.
 Agarwal, R; Echambadi, R; Franco, A.M.; and Sarkar, M.B., "Reap Rewards: Maximizing
Benefits from Reviewer Comments," Academy of Management Journal (49:2), 2006, pp.
191-196.
Why papers are rejected:
 Daft, R.L., "Why I Recommended that Your Manuscript be Rejected and What You Can Do
About It," in L.L. Cummings & P.J. Frost (eds.), Publishing in the Organizational Sciences, 2nd
ed., 1995, pp. 164-182.
Formal review:
 Write a formal review of the following paper based on the guidelines prescribed in the
above articles. Use this review template to structure your review: Anonymous, Paper
submitted to MIS Quarterly, 2004.
Actual comments from three reviewers, AE, and SE will be e-mailed to you the day before
(after you complete your review).
Paper review:
 One "mystery paper" for you to review and submit on Week 13. This is part of your course
grade, hence please plan to spend adequate time and effort on this review.

Week 11: Case Research

Chapter 11.
Conducting case research:
 Benbasat, I.; Goldstein, D.K.; and Mead, M., "The Case Research Strategy in Studies of
Information Systems," MIS Quarterly, September 1987, pp. 369-386.
Case research exemplars:
 Beaudry, A. and Pinsonneault, A., "Understanding User Responses to Information
Technology: A Coping Model of User Adaptation," MIS Quarterly (29:3), September 2005,
pp. 493-524.
 Eisenhardt, K.M., "Making Fast Strategic Decisions In High-Velocity Environments,"
Academy of Management Journal (32:3), 1989, pp. 543-577.

143
Positivistic versus Interpretive Analysis:
 Trauth, E.M. and Jessup, L.M., "Understanding Computer-Mediated Discussions: Positivist
and Interpretive Analyses of Group Support System Use," MIS Quarterly (24:1), March 2000,
pp. 43-79.
Due: Research Proposal: Research Methods (with all prior sections).

Week 12: Interpretive Research

Chapters 12 and 13.

Demo: Content Analysis using Grounded Theory.
Qualitative research:
 Shah, S.K. and Corley, K.G., "Building Better Theory by Bridging the Quantitative-Qualitative
Divide," Journal of Management Studies (48:3), December 2006, pp. 1821-1835.
Action research:
 Kohli, R. and Kettinger, W., "Informating the Clan: Controlling Physician Costs and
Outcomes," MIS Quarterly (28:3), September 2004, pp. 1-32.
Ethnography:
 Barley, S.R., "Technicians in the Workplace: Ethnographic Evidence for Bringing Work into
Organization Studies," Administrative Science Quarterly (41), 1996, pp. 404-411.

Week 13: Miscellaneous Methods

Chapter 16.
Demo:
 Statistical analysis using SPSS.
Secondary data analysis:
 Chaney, P.K. and Philipich, K.L., "Shredded Reputation: The Cost of Audit Failure," Journal of
Accounting Research (40:4), September 2002, pp. 1221-1245.
Analytic Modeling:
 Bayus, B.L., Jain, S., and Rao, A.G, "Truth or Consequences: An Analysis of Vaporware and
New Product Announcements," Journal of Marketing Research (38), February 2001, pp. 3-
13.
Due: Article Review.

Week 14: Finals

Comprehensive in-class 3-hour open-book exam. See Sample Exam Questions.

Week 15: Student Presentations

20-minute presentation plus 10-minute Q & A.

Due: Final Research Proposal.

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About the Book
This book is designed to introduce doctoral and
graduate students to the process of scientific
research in the social sciences, business, education,
public health, and related disciplines. It is a one-
stop, comprehensive, and compact source for
foundational concepts in behavioral research, and
can serve as a stand-alone text or as a supplement to
research readings in any course on research
methods.

About the Author

Anol Bhattacherjee is a professor of information
systems and the Citigroup/Hidden River Fellow at
the University of South Florida, USA. He is one of
the top ten researchers in the world in the
information systems discipline (ranked 7th during
the 2000-2009 decade), based on research papers
published in leading journals such as MIS
Quarterly, Information Systems Research, and Journal
of Management Information Systems. In a research
career spanning 15 years, Dr. Bhattacherjee has
published two books and over 50 refereed journal
papers that received over 3000 citations on Google
Scholar. He also served on the editorial board
of MIS Quarterly and is frequently invited to present
his research at universities and academic
conferences worldwide. Dr. Bhattacherjee holds
Ph.D. and MBA degrees from the University of
Houston, USA and M.S. and B.S. degrees from Indian
Institute of Technology, Kharagpur, India.

About the Global Text Project

The Global Text Project is a non-profit organization
founded with the goal of distributing free, high-
quality textbooks in electronic format for advancing
education worldwide under the creative commons
license. Started in January 2004, this project is
funded by the Jacobs Foundation, Zurich,
Switzerland, and is based at the University of
Georgia, USA.