Sabp A 028

Best Practice
SABP-A-028 10 June 2018

Optimizing Design and Operation of Reverse Osmosis Plants
Document Responsibility: Water Treatment and Conservation Standards
Committee
Contents
1 Introduction..................................................................... 3
2 Scope and Purpose........................................................ 3
3 Conflicts and Deviations................................................. 3
4 References..................................................................... 3
4.1 Saudi Aramco References........................................ 3
4.2 Industry Codes and Standards................................. 4
5 Definitions and Abbreviations......................................... 4
6 Important Design Parameters......................................... 9
6.1 Membrane Performance........................................... 9
6.2 Water Analysis.......................................................... 9
6.3 Recovery................................................................. 10
6.4 Membrane Design Configuration............................ 10
6.4.1 Concentrate Staging.................................. 10
6.4.2 Permeate Staging...................................... 11
6.5 Membrane Flux....................................................... 12
6.6 Feed Water Flow..................................................... 12
6.7 Feed Water Salinity................................................. 13
6.8 Feed Water Pressure.............................................. 13
6.9 Feed Water Temperature........................................ 14
6.10 Minimum Brine Flow............................................... 14
6.11 Concentration Polarization (Beta factor)................. 14
6.12 Fouling Tendency During System Shut Down........ 15
6.13 Suspended Solids................................................... 15
6.14 SDI Test.................................................................. 16
Previous Issue: 14 February 2016 Next Planned Update: TBD

Revised paragraphs are indicated in the right margin Page 1 of 38
Contact: Khasawinah, Salim Abdallah (khasawsa) on +966-13-8809429
Copyright©Saudi Aramco 2016. All rights reserved.

Document Responsibility: Water Treatment and Conservation Standards Committee SABP-A-028
Issue Date: 10 June 2018
Next Planned Update: TBD Optimizing Design and Operation of Reverse Osmosis Plants
Contents (cont'd)
6.15 Preventing Biological Growth on Membranes......... 16
6.15.1 Storage....................................................... 16
6.15.2 Membrane Shipping................................... 16
6.15.3 System Shut Down..................................... 16
6.16 Membrane Fouling.................................................. 17
6.17 Fouling.................................................................... 17
6.18 Membrane Fouling/Scaling..................................... 17
6.19 Antiscalant Injection................................................ 18
6.20 Dispersant Injection................................................ 18
6.21 Acid Injection.......................................................... 18
6.22 Reduce Recovery................................................... 18
6.23 Correcting Fouling................................................... 18
6.23.1 Check and Fix the Pretreatment................ 18
6.23.2 Change the Operating Conditions.............. 19
7 How to design an RO System...................................... 19
8 Reverse Osmosis Plant Start Up.................................. 23
9 Reverse Osmosis Plant Shut Down............................. 24
10 Preservation of RO Membranes................................... 24
11 RO System Data Collection and Monitoring................. 24
11.1 Silt Density Index (SDI)........................................... 25
11.2 RO System Pressure Drop..................................... 25
11.3 Salt Rejection.......................................................... 25
11.4 Normalized Permeate Flow..................................... 25
12 Common RO System Failures/Problems...................... 27
13 Reverse Osmosis Membrane Cleaning........................ 28
14 Chemical Water Treatment for Reverse Osmosis........ 29
14.1 Coagulants/Flocculents........................................... 29
14.2 Chlorine................................................................... 29
14.3 Sodium Meta-Bisulfite, Bisulfite, Sulfite.................. 30
14.4 Biocides.................................................................. 31
14.5 Scale Inhibitors....................................................... 32
15 Troubleshooting............................................................ 32
15.1 Profiling an RO Array.............................................. 32
15.2 Probing.................................................................... 33
15.3 Replacing O-Rings.................................................. 34
15.4 Shimming................................................................ 34
15.5 Replacing RO Membrane Elements....................... 34
Saudi Aramco: Company General Use
Page 2 of 38
15.6 Membrane Autopsies…………………………......… 35
1 Introduction
Reverse Osmosis (RO) technology is evolved into a widely used process for both
seawater and brackish water desalination. Well designed and properly operated systems
give a trouble-free performance over long periods of time. On the other hand, mistakes
made during the design or operation of RO systems can lead to ongoing problems and
reduced membrane performance and membrane useful life.
The membrane system, which includes the membrane elements housed in pressure
vessels and a high pressure pump constitutes the heart of the RO plant. The system also
includes a pretreatment section to achieve the required feed water quality, a clean in
place (CIP) section to facilitate membrane cleaning, and a post-treatment section to
achieve the required product quality.
The RO performance is typically characterized by the permeate flow and permeate

quality. These parameters should always be referenced to the feed water analysis, feed
pressure and system recovery. The goal of a good RO design for a certain required
permeate flow is to minimize feed pressure and membrane costs, while maximizing
permeate quality and recovery.
This Saudi Aramco Best Practice (SABP) outlines some of the common mistakes made
during the design and operation of the RO systems and provides guidelines for best RO
design and operational performance.
2 Scope and Purpose
This SABP provides guidelines that will improve the performance of RO systems by
avoiding mistakes in their design and operation.
It is based on current industry experience as well as direct experience from Saudi

Aramco RO desalination plants such as Tanajib, Abqaiq, Uthmaniyah, Shedgum,
Hawiyah, Berri, Dhahran and others. This SABP is meant for internal use only.
3 Conflicts and Deviations
If there is a conflict between this SABP and other standards and specifications, please
contact the Coordinator of ME&CCD/CSD.
4 References
4.1 Saudi Aramco References

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Saudi Aramco Engineering Procedure

SAEP-348 Chemical Cleaning, Disinfection, Post Treatment
and Storage of Reverse Osmosis Membranes
Saudi Aramco Materials System Specifications

32-SAMSS-033 Reverse Osmosis Systems
Saudi Aramco Environmental Health Code

SAEHC-S-01 Water
4.2 Industry Codes and Standards
American Society of Mechanical Engineers

ASME SEC VIII Pressure Vessels
ASME SEC X Fiber-Reinforced Plastic Pressure Vessels
American Water Works Association

AWWA B100 Filtering Materials
ASTM D4189 - 07 Standard Method for Silt Density Index (SDI) of
Water
5 Definitions
Antiscalant: Chemical added to increase the solubility of sparingly soluble salts. In

RO systems CaCO3, CaSO4, SrSO4, BaSO4 and CaF are the most common scales of
concern.
Anti-Telescoping Device (ATD): A plastic device placed on the ends of a membrane

element, which provides structural support to the membrane envelopes preventing
unraveling and extension.
Array: The physical arrangement of the pressure vessels, e.g., a 6:3 array configuration
is a 2-stage configuration with a total of 9 vessels. The 1st stage has 6 pressure vessels
and the 2nd stage has 3 pressure vessels. The reject of each stage is the feed stream for the
next successive stage.
Brackish Water: Technically, is defined as water of total dissolved solids (TDS)

levels from 1,500 mg/l up to 10,000 mg/l.
Brine Seal: Plastic or rubber devices that seal the outside of one end of a spiral wound
membrane element against the wall of the RO housing. These devices prevent bypassing
of feed water around the element and force the feed water through the element.
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RO Membrane Compaction: It is the physical compression of the membrane.

This compression results in a decrease in flux. The rate of compaction is directly
proportional to increase in temperature and pressure. Membrane compaction occurs
naturally over time requiring a greater feed pressure.
Concentration Polarization: Refers to the concentration gradient of salts on the high

pressure side of the membrane surface. The salt concentration in this boundary layer
exceeds the concentration of the bulk water. This phenomenon impacts the
performance of the process by increasing the osmotic pressure at the membrane’s
surface, reducing flux, increasing salt passage and increasing the probability of scale
formation. Increasing the velocity (turbulence) of the brine stream or reducing recovery
helps to reduce concentration polarization.
Conversion or Recovery: The percentage of the feed water which is converted into
permeate.
Cross Flow: The running of the feed water stream in parallel to the membrane surface
so that it continuously removes contaminants from the membrane surface.
Elements: Often referred to as a module, elements are the physical devices that house
the membrane. Spiral wound systems can have up to six elements per pressure vessel.
Hollow fiber RO systems usually have only one element per pressure vessel.
Feed Channel Spacer: Found in spiral wound elements, feed channel spacers are a
netting material placed between the flat sheets of the membrane envelopes to promote
turbulence in the feed / concentrate stream.
RO Feed Stream: Flow into the first stage of an RO system. The feed stream is
separated into permeate or product stream and a concentrated or brine stream.
Feed stream = Permeate stream + Concentrate stream.
Flux or Water Flux: Typically expressed as volume per area per unit of time, flux is
used to express the rate at which water permeates a membrane. Typical units are
gallons per square foot per day (GFD) or liters per square meter per hour (l/m2/hr).
The flux of a membrane is directly proportional to temperature and pressure. As a rule
of thumb, flux decreases 1.5% per 1oF. Salt flux is the amount of TDS passed through a
given area of membrane per unit of time. Salt flux is a function of concentration
gradient and not driving pressure. Therefore, with increasing driving pressure, the
concentration of salts in the permeate decreases due to constant salt leakage
(e.g., milligrams) and increased water flux (e.g., liters). The net effect of increased
drive pressure is to dilute a constant amount of salt with more pure water.
Note: 1 GFD = 1.66 l/m2/hr
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Hollow Fiber Element: One of four possible membrane configurations (others are
spiral wound, plate and frame, and tubular). Hollow fiber elements are made of
extruded cellulose acetate or polyamide material. Pressurized feed water passes across
the outside of the fibers. Pure water permeates the fibers and is collected at the end of
the element. Hollow fibers were among the first RO systems.
The hollow fiber element does not allow for turbulent flow or uniform flow across the
fiber surface making these elements more prone to fouling and scaling. Once hollow
fiber elements are fouled they are more difficult to clean due to the inability to get the
cleaning solution to the fouled area. Hollow fiber elements are mostly found in
seawater desalination applications and limited brackish water applications where
fouling potential is minimal.
Hydrolysis: Chemical breakdown of a membrane from exposure to low or high pH,

bio-activity and temperature. Normally associated with CA membranes where the
acetyl groups are replaced by hydroxyl groups. Hydrolysis increases salt leakage
(i.e., greater conductivity of the permeate) and a lower feed pressure requirement.
Oxidants and temperature can cause hydrolysis in TFC elements.
Langelier Saturation Index (LSI): A measurement of CaCO3 scaling potential and is

used as a key performance indicator in the management of RO systems. A positive
Langelier Saturation Index indicates that CaCO3 can precipitate. A negative LSI
indicates that the water is corrosive.
RO Membranes: An RO membrane is a semipermeable material, that is, a material

through which water passes relatively quickly, while other substances cannot (or do so
relatively slowly). Membranes provide the barrier layer or interface for cross flow
separation. Membranes are thin, porous material constructed of organic polymer
(e.g., cellulose acetate, polyamide and charged polysulfone). RO membranes will
typically reject contaminants with molecular weights greater than 200.
Nanofiltration (NF) Membranes: Similar to Reverse Osmosis membranes but are not
as effective at removing dissolved solids. NF membranes are commonly referred to as
membrane softeners because they will usually reject the double-positively charged
hardness ions (i.e., calcium & magnesium) fairly well, but they show very low rejection
for the single-positive and negative charged ions (e.g., sodium & potassium, chloride).
NF membranes can also reject double-negative ions such as sulfate.
NF membranes are most commonly used in the drinking water industry where the
dissolved solids must be reduced to below 500 mg/L (Safe Drinking Water Act).
The choice between NF and RO in these applications comes down to economics.
NF membranes require less pumping pressure than RO membranes.
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Net Driving Pressure: NDP, the difference between the feed pressure and the osmotic
pressure. It is the measure of the actual driving pressure available to force the water
through the membrane. As net driving pressure increases, the flux increases
proportionally (given all other factors remain constant).
Normalized Permeate Flow: NPF is a calculation that allows the comparison of a

measured permeate flow rate to a standard (or start up) condition. Permeate flow is a
function of Net Driving Pressure (NDP), temperature and membrane condition.
By normalizing measured permeate flow for observed NDP and temperature, a measure is
obtained that can be used to compare the condition of the membrane to original start up
conditions. A decrease in NPF of 10-15% indicates that membrane cleaning is required.
O-Rings: Used to seal the permeate water tube inter-connectors of adjacent elements to
prevent the intrusion of high pressure feedwater (poor quality) into the low pressure
permeate water (good quality). A damaged O-ring will result in higher salt
concentration of the permeate in that section of the system.
Osmotic Pressure: Is the pressure required to prevent the flow of water across a
semipermeable membrane separating two solutions having different ionic strengths.
For RO systems it is osmotic pressure that has to be overcome in order to produce
permeate. A “rule of thumb” is for every 100 mg/L of TDS difference between feed
and permeate, 1 psi of osmotic pressure exists.
Permeate: Often referred to as “product,” permeate is the portion of the feedwater

stream water which passes through the membrane.
Permeate = Feedwater – Concentrate
Polyamide Membranes: Introduced in the early 1970’s this asymmetric polymer is

used in the construction of thin film composite (TFC) spiral wound membrane.
Polyamide membranes are the most typical membrane construction material due to less
pressure requirements and more flexible operating conditions. Polyamide membranes
are oxidant (chlorine, chloramine, bromine, ozone etc.) intolerant.
Pressure Vessel: This is a tubular device, which contains the membrane elements.
For spiral wound elements the pressure vessel often is referred to as the pressure tube or
housing and can contain up to eight membrane elements (usually six). In hollow fiber
systems the pressure vessel is often referred to as the “permeator.”
Product Channel Spacer: Also known as a permeate water carrier or permeate spacer.
In the construction of a membrane element, the product channel spacer is placed
between two layers of the flat sheet membrane. This spacer is a knit fabric called Tricot
and is used to prevent the membrane from closing off on itself under the high pressure
of operation. Permeate water will flow in a spiral path across the product channel
spacer into the product collection tube.
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Product Collection Tube: Collects the permeate water and directs to a product water
header. The product collection tube is in the center of a spiral wound membrane
element with the “membrane-product channel spacer - membrane- feed water channel
spacer” sandwich wrapped around it.
Product Stream: Same as permeate. Often referred to as “product” permeate is the

portion of the feed water stream water which passes through the membrane.
Recovery: Recovery is the percentage of the feed water, which is converted into
permeate (sometimes referred to as conversion).
Salt Passage: The quantity of salt, as a percentage, which passes through the
membrane into to the permeate stream. Salt passage is a function of temperature,
velocity and concentration gradient (i.e., concentration of salt in the brine versus the
permeate).
Note: Salt Passage = 1 - Salt Rejection
% Salt passage = [(TDS of product) / (TDS of feed)] x 100
Salt Rejection: The quantity of salt removed from the feed water stream as a
percentage.
Note: Salt Rejection = 1 - Salt Passage
% Salt Rejection = [(TDS of feed – TDS of product) / (TDS of feed)] x 100
Silt Density Index (SDI): Silt Density Index is an empirical test used to characterize the
fouling potential of a feed water stream. The test is based on measuring the rate of
plugging a 45 micron filter using a constant 30 psig feed pressure for specified period of
time. SDI15 refers to a silt density index test, which is run for 15 minutes.
Typically, spiral wound systems require an SDI < 5 and hollow fiber systems require an
SDI < 3. Most deep well waters have an SDI of 3 and most surface water have SDI’s
greater than 6.
Spiral Wound Element: A membrane configuration, which is comprised of “flat sheet

membrane-permeate channel spacer - flat sheet membrane - feed channel spacer”
combinations rolled up around a product collection tube.
Staging - “Reject Staging”: Refers to a configuration where the reject from one group
of RO pressure vessels becomes the feed stream of a second group of RO pressure
vessels. Reject staging is used to increase the recovery of water. A one stage system
typically could recover 50 - 60% of the feed water stream with 2 and 3 stage systems
operating at 75 - 80% and greater than 85% respectively.
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“Product Staging”: Refers to as “multiple pass”, is a configuration where the product

of the first group of RO pressure vessels becomes the feed water stream for a second
group. Product staging is used to increase the quality of the product water.
Telescoping: Longitudinal unraveling of spiral wound elements, which results in the

RO membrane leaves extending beyond the spacing material between the leaves. It can
be caused by hydraulic surges, excessive differential pressures or by temperature
extremes. It is physically damaging to the construction of the membrane element.
Most manufactures install anti-telescoping devices (ATD’s) on their elements.
Thin Film Composite (TFC): Is an RO membrane composed of and manufactured as

three layers bonded together. The two base layers of the asymmetric design have a thin
skin (3rd) layer of polyamide deposited on the surface. The thin film is the salt rejecting
layer where the two base layers provide a porous structure support.
Ultrafiltration: A membrane separation technique used to remove colloidal, very fine

particles and macromolecules from a water stream. Pore sizes in an Ultrafiltration (UF)
system range from 0.001 to 0.1 micron. UF membrane systems are characterized by the
molecular weight cut-off points (e.g., 3,000, 10,000, 20,000, and 80,000 Daltons).
Unlike RO systems, UF does not remove dissolved salts from water.
Ultrapure Water: Term used to characterize electronic grade process water.

Essentially, ultrapure water is free of particles, colloids, organic and inorganic
contaminants.
6 Important Design Parameters
6.1 Membrane Performance
There is one simple but extremely important fact in keeping the membranes at
their peak performance:
"Keep The Membrane Surface Clean"
All impurities in water are removed at the membrane surface. The dynamics of
this separation step must ensure that concentrated materials are not accumulating
at the membrane surface. If concentrations are allowed to build up near the
membrane surface (boundary layer), fouling of the membrane surface as well as
precipitation of low solubility substances will follow resulting in a decline in
membrane performance.
6.2 Water Analysis
A good and reliable raw water analysis is of paramount importance for the
design of RO systems. Understanding the water analysis and the potential
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problems that can arise from the sparingly soluble salts are crucial for the design
and operational success of the RO system. RO systems which are designed and
constructed with unreliable or incomplete water analysis they are bound to fail.
These types of mistakes are difficult to fix once the plant is put into operation.
The required water analysis for the design of an RO system is given in
32-SAMSS-033 “Technical Data Sheet Water Analysis.”
Ba2+ and Sr2+ must be analyzed at the 1 μg/L (ppb) and 1 mg/L (ppm) level of
detection, respectively. It is also important that the temperature be given as a
range (temperature for winter and summer) rather than an absolute value.
Temperature variation can impact the scaling potential of an RO system,
especially when silica and bicarbonate levels in the feed water are high.
Measurements of pH, alkalinity, and gasses must be taken at the point of

sampling or pressurized samples need to be taken if these analyses are to be
done in the laboratory. Analysis of suspended solids in the presence of soluble
iron, or hydrogen sulphide should also take place at the point of sampling or if
the analysis is to be done in the laboratory pressurized samples should be taken.
6.3 Recovery
Recovery is a very important parameter in the design and operation of RO

systems. Membrane recovery is defined as the ratio of permeate flow to feed
flow.
(1)
Operating membranes at higher than the design recovery will result in fouling
and scaling of the membrane surface.
6.4 Membrane Design Configuration
Membranes assembly units consists of pressure vessels placed on RO blocks or

racks, which support the pressure vessels together with the interconnecting
piping, and feed permeate manifolds. The membranes are installed inside the
pressure vessels.
Depending whether maximum water recovery or maximum water quality is the

objective, different membrane staging configurations are used. If maximum
water recovery is the aim “concentrate staging” is used, whereas, if maximum
water quality is the aim, “permeate staging” is used.
6.4.1 Concentrate Staging
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Figure 1, shows a typical two-stage RO concentrate staging membrane

configuration. The system is divided into two groups of pressure vessels
called concentrate stages. In each stage pressure vessels are connected in
parallel with respect to the direction of the feed concentrate flow.
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1st + 2nd Stage

st
1 Stage Permeate
6 x 6 Array
PG 1st Stage Permeate
2nd Stage
3 x 6 Array
2nd Stage Permeate

PG
Final
Reject
Figure 1 – A Two-Stage Reverse Osmosis System (A Typical Drinking Water Plant)
In this particular case the first stage consists of 6 pressure vessels

connected in parallel with each pressure vessel containing 6 membrane
elements inside (6 x 6 membrane array). The second stage consists of
3 vessels connected in parallel with each pressure vessel containing
6 membrane elements inside (3 x 6 membrane array). The decreasing
number of parallel pressure vessels from stage to stage compensates for
the decreasing volume of feed flow, which is continuously being
partially converted to permeate. The reject from the first stage is used as
the feed to the second stage. The permeate water of all vessels from
each stage is combined into a common permeate manifold. The reject
from the second stage is the final reject, which is sent to waste.
A 2-stage concentrate staging configuration is suitable for brackish RO
systems where the water is of relatively low salinity and the objective is
to obtain high recovery (usually 75% recovery). If seawater is to be
desalinated then a single stage is normally adopted.
6.4.2 Permeate Staging
For some applications, the single pass RO system may not be capable of
producing permeate water of the required quality. Such a situation may
be encountered in a brackish RO application when the quality of
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permeate required is to supply make-up water for boilers. In this case

the permeate staging is adopted.
1st Pass 2nd Pass

Feed Permeate
Reject
Reject Recycle
Figure 2 – A Two-Pass Reverse Osmosis System (Typical Plant for Boiler Make Up)
Figure 2 shows a typical permeate staging. To achieve additional

reduction in permeate salinity, the permeate water produced in the first
pass is desalted further in the second pass. The reject from the second
pass is of very good quality (better quality than the feed to first pass) and
therefore is recycled to the suction of the feed pump.
6.5 Membrane Flux
Membrane flux is the rate at which water permeates the membrane, i.e., the
volume of permeate produced per membrane area per unit time. It has units of
gallons per square foot per day (GFD).
(2)
All membranes have one common limitation. They can only produce a
maximum flow of a certain maximum permeate flow for a given water.
This limit is controlled by the quality of feed water and not by the make of the
membrane. For example, a maximum permeate flow for brackish water treated
by conventional filtration and of SDI 4.0 is 14 gallons per square foot per day
(GFD). If the membranes are run at fluxes higher than this value, fouling will
take place.
6.6 Feed Water Flow
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A minimum feed flow must be maintained throughout the membrane.

Feed velocity helps to reduce build up of concentrated materials at the
membrane surface. When several membranes are being used, the arrangement
of these membranes is crucial in maintaining proper flow velocities (see
example, Figure 3). This arrangement must be checked against other related
factors such as higher pumping costs, recycle flow, etc.
Example:
50 GPM
Feed 1 2 3
Flow
50 GPM 1
Feed 3
Flow
Figure 3 – Higher Feed 2
Flow Helps to Reduce Membrane Fouling
6.7 Feed Water Salinity
Sometimes the RO system may experience fluctuation of feed water

composition during operation. This may be due to seasonal fluctuation of feed
water salinity supplies or due to intermittent operation of a number of water
sources of different salinity. Changes in feed water composition will affect the
required feed pressure and permeate water salinity. If the change in feed water
composition involves changes in sparingly soluble salts higher than in the
design, then the recovery may have to be reduced to avoid the precipitation of
scale in the concentrate stream.
6.8 Feed Water Pressure
RO systems using spiral wound membrane elements operate at constant flux,

i.e., produce constant permeate flow. Over operating time the feed pressure may
be adjusted to compensate for changes in feed water temperature, salinity, and
permeate decline due to fouling or membrane compaction. For the purpose of
specifying the high pressure pump it is usually assumed that the membrane flux
will decline by about 20% over three years and therefore the pump should be
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designed accordingly to compensate for this flux decline. Since Saudi Aramco
RO plants use centrifugal pumps it is better to use an oversize pump and
regulate the feed pressure by throttling (partially closing the feed valve).
Alternatively, electric motors with variable speed drives can be used, which
enable adjustment of flow and feed pressure of the pump.
6.9 Feed Water Temperature
Change in the feed water temperature affects the rate of diffusion through the
membrane. The rate of change in permeate flux is about 3% per degree Celsius.
Since RO systems are designed to operate at constant output, the feed pressure
should be adjusted to compensate for water flux changes due to change in
temperature. The salt diffusion (salt passage) through the membrane also
changes approximately at the same rate as the water flux. Since the permeate
flux is maintained constant the permeate salinity changes according to
temperature fluctuations.
6.10 Minimum Brine Flow
There should be a minimum brine flow to flash the concentrated stream which
contains foulants and scalants away from the membrane surface. This minimum
brine flow depends on the feed water quality in relation to sparingly soluble salts
and SDI. The typical minimum brine flow per vessel for RO permeate (second
pass) is 8-10 gpm whereas, for any other water sources, e.g., brackish well
softened is 12-14 gpm brackish well not softened is 12-16 gpm, for seawater
without Microfiltration or Ultrafiltration treatment is 12-16 gpm for seawater
with Microfiltration or Ultrafiltration treatment is 12-14 gpm, etc.
6.11 Concentration Polarization (Beta Factor)
The Concentration Polarization Factor (CPF) or Beta Factor can be defined as

the ratio of salt concentration at the membrane surface (Cs) to bulk
concentration (Cb).
CPF = Cs/Cb
The value of the Concentration Polarization Factor of 1.2, which is the

recommended Hydranautics limit, corresponds to 18% permeate recovery for a
40" long membrane element.
As water flows through the membrane and salts are rejected by the membrane, a
boundary layer is formed near the membrane surface in which the salt
concentration exceeds the salt concentration in the bulk solution. This increase of
salt concentration is called concentration polarization. The effect of concentration
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polarization is to reduce the normalized permeate flow rate and the normalized
salt rejection. The effects of concentration polarization are as follows:
1) Greater osmotic pressure at the membrane surface than in the bulk feed
solution (Δπ).
2) Reduced net driving force across the membrane (ΔP-Δπ).
Where ΔP is the feed pressure.
3) Reduced water flow across membrane (Qw).
4) Increased salt flow across membrane (Qs).
5) Increased probability of exceeding solubility of sparingly soluble salts at
the membrane surface, and the distinct possibility of precipitation causing
membrane scaling.
An increase in permeate flux will increase the delivery rate of ions to the
membrane surface and increase Cs. An increase of feed flow increases
turbulence and reduces the thickness of the high concentration layer near the
membrane surface. Therefore, the Beta Factor is directly proportional to
permeate flow (Qp), and inversely proportional to average feed flow (QFavg).
CPF = Kp * exp(Qp/ QFavg)
Where Kp is a proportionality constant depending on system geometry.
6.12 Fouling Tendency during System Shut-Down
The fouling tendency of feed water when flowing through membranes is quite
different than that of stagnant water at shut down. Certain suspended solids may
settle on membrane surface during stagnant periods. These constitute ideal
conditions for anaerobic bacteria such as Sulfate Reducing Bacteria (SRBs) to
grow. Also silica is found to crystallize during shut down. A proper flush cycle
can eliminate these problems.
6.13 Suspended Solids
Suspended solids and colloidal materials in feed water are one of the biggest
problems in reverse osmosis systems. Even though most systems have some
pretreatment including 5 micron prefilters, these fine particles are responsible
for fouling of reverse osmosis membranes.
In order to have some measure of the degree of this fouling problem, a concept
called Silt density index (SDI) is used. Here, a 0.45 micron filter is exposed to
the feed water under pressure and filtration rates are calculated.
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An SDI of less than 5 is considered acceptable for the reverse osmosis systems
but the lower the value the better. This means that at values of SDI of less than
5, the membranes should foul at a very low rate. Even though the concept
works most of the time, there are exceptions when a lower SDI (less than 3) is
desirable due to the nature of the suspended solids in that feedwater.
6.14 SDI Test
This is a very important test in reverse osmosis systems and should be carried
out correctly. Silt density index (SDI) is an empirical test used to characterize
the fouling potential of a feedwater stream. The test is based on measuring the
rate of plugging a 0.45 micron filter using a constant 30 psig feed pressure for
specified period of time. SDI15 refers to a silt density index test which is run for
15 minutes. Full details of the test are given in ASTM D4189 - 07 “Standard
Test Method for Silt Density Index (SDI) of Water.”
6.15 Preventing Biological Growth on Membranes
To prevent biological growth on membranes, care should be taken for storage

Shipping, and System Shut-Down.
6.15.1 Storage
Store the membranes in a cool area out of direct sunlight.

Membrane storage temperature limits are 22°F-113°F (-5.5°C to 45°C).
Preserve in a solution of 2% sodium bisulfite and 20% glycerine if
freezing conditions are anticipated. This will not prevent freezing
below 32°F, but the crystals are soft and the membrane is not damaged.
Keep new elements in their original packaging.
Examine the preservative solutions in preserved elements every

3 months.
The pH of the preservative solutions should not drop below 3.
Storage time for preserved elements is 6 months to 1 year.
Storage time for dry (new) elements is unlimited.
6.15.2 Membrane Shipping
Preserve the element in the plastic bag using the recommended

procedure. Make sure the plastic bag does not leak and the element is
Page 17 of 38
properly identified. Make sure the preservative solution is correctly

labeled. Protect the element package from physical damage.
6.15.3 System Shut-Down

- Clean the membranes in the system using the appropriate cleaning
procedure.
- Circulate the preservative solution.
- Shut down the system and close valves to prevent air entering the
system.
- Check preservative once a month.
6.16 Membrane Fouling
All membranes lose their performance with time. One of the major causes for
the loss of performance is due to substances that deposit on the membrane
surface. Although the term fouling is used for deposition of any materials on the
membrane, the coating of the membrane surface can be due to the following:
- Fouling
- Scaling
6.17 Fouling
Fouling of membranes is due to the suspended or emulsified materials that may

be present in the feed water to the reverse osmosis system. Examples of such
materials are: silica, oil, clay, iron, sulfur and humic acids. These substances
can be present in a very fine or colloidal form. Even the typical 5 micron
cartridge filters used upstream of a reverse osmosis system may not completely
remove these foulants.
6.18 Membrane Fouling/Scaling
The concentration of all materials in the feed water – dissolved and suspended - is
highest near the membrane surface. As the permeate passes through the
membrane, all impurities are left behind near the membrane surface. The layer of
water next to the membrane surface (boundary layer) gets increasingly
concentrated in dissolved and suspended materials. These concentrations reach a
certain steady level depending on the feed velocity; element recovery and
membrane permeate flux (gallons per square foot of permeate produced per day).
It is important to follow the membrane manufacturer’s recommendations on

minimum feed flow, maximum element recovery, minimum brine flow and
Page 18 of 38
maximum element flux. These recommendations are based on element size and
quality of feed water being treated. The concentrations of the dissolved and
suspended solids in the boundary layer control the performance of the membrane.
Higher concentrations mean higher osmotic pressure, higher tendency of
suspended solids to coagulate and coat the membrane surface, and higher
likelihood of scaling to take place. Maintaining proper operating conditions for
the membrane is the key preventative step to minimize membrane fouling.
6.19 Antiscalant Injection
One of the options to avoid carbonate and sulfate scales is the use of
antiscalants. These are injected directly into the feed water usually upstream of
the cartridge filter. Dosage of antiscalant depends on the feed water analysis but
usually is between 2 to 5 ppm. In simplified terms, the antiscalants delay the
scale formation process. This delay is sufficient to avoid precipitation of
carbonate salts and sulfate salts on the membrane surface. As this delay is for a
finite period, scaling can take place in systems on shut down. For this reason, it
is a good practice to flush the membranes with permeate water or feed water at
shut down to displace the concentrated solution in the membrane by permeate or
feed water.
6.20 Dispersant Injection
For suspended or colloidal materials, a dispersant can be injected in the feed

water. The usual dosage for a dispersant is 10 ppm. Dispersants keep fine
suspended solids from coagulating and coming down on the membrane surface.
Proper use of dispersants can minimize fouling due to problem particulates that
are difficult to prefilter.
6.21 Acid Injection
Adjusting the pH of the feed water by acid injection is another way to control
calcium carbonate scaling. The net effect of lowering the feed pH with acid
injection is to convert bicarbonate alkalinity to carbon dioxide and thereby
prevent the formation of calcium carbonate scale.
6.22 Reduce Recovery
Recovery can be reduced by increasing the feed flow. Another way to reduce
recovery is to decrease the operating pressure. Lower operating pressure
produces a lower amount of permeate. If the feed flow can be maintained near
the original value, then a lower recovery is obtained. The effect of lower
recovery is to reduce the overall concentration of all substances in the reverse
osmosis system, thus achieving more favorable boundary layer conditions.
Page 19 of 38
6.23 Correcting Fouling
6.23.1 Check and Fix the Pre-Treatment
Membrane fouling can result from a number of pretreatment

deficiencies or equipment failure. Some common examples of these are
given below. Check and fix these items as appropriate.
 Activated carbon fines
 Water hardness
 Pre-filter breakdown
 Pre-filter is too coarse
 Pump impeller sheds fines
 Chorine breakthrough
6.23.2 Change the Operating Conditions
Fouling can also be caused by improper system design and

maintenance. The fouling can be minimized by implementing one or
more of the below steps.
1. Reduce recovery
2. Reduce operating pressure (thus reducing membrane flux)
3. Improve pretreatment system (media filtration, coagulant and
flocculent dose, mixing, pH adjustment etc.)
4. Change cartridge filters more frequently (ensure that cartridge filters
do not bypass)
5. Sanitize the system regularly
7 How to Design an RO System
Step 1: Consider Feed Source, Feed Quality, Feed/Product Flow and Required Product
Quality
Step 2: Select the Flow Configuration and Number of Passes
Step 3: Select Membrane Element Type
Step 4: Select Average Membrane Flux (Design Flux)
Step 5: Calculate the Number of Membrane Elements Needed

Page 20 of 38
Step 6: Calculate the Number of Pressure Vessels Needed
Step 7: Select the Number of Stages
Step 8: Select the Staging Ratio (Array Ratio)
Step 9: Balance the Permeate Flow Rate
Step 10: Example
Example:
Given Conditions:
 Feed source: Well water, SDI<2
 Required permeate Flow = 200 gpm (1090 m3/d)
 6-element pressure vessels to be used
Steps:
1. Well water with SDI<2, total permeate flow = 200 gpm (1090 m3/d)
2. Select plug flow
3. Hydranautics CPA2 [membrane with active membrane area of 365 ft2 (33.9 m2)
4. Recommended average flux for well water feed with SDI <2 = 14.6 gfd (24.3
L/m/h).
5. Total number of elements =(200 gpm)(1440 gpd)/14.6 gfd)(365 ft2) = 54
6. Total number of pressure vessels = 54/6 = 9
7. Number of stages for 6-element vessels and 75% recovery = 2
8. Staging ratio selected: 2:1. Appropriate stage ratio (Array) = 6:3
9. The chosen system must then be analyzed using the Reverse Osmosis Integrated
Membrane Solutions Design Software (IMSDesign) computer program.
This computer program software calculates the feed pressure required and the
permeate quality of the RO system as well as the operating data of all individual
elements. It is then easy to optimize the system design by changing the number and
type of elements and their arrangement.
Page 21 of 38
FinalPermeate
First Stage (200 gpm) (TDS 73 mg/l)
6 x 6 Array
Permeate
PG (162.9 gpm)
103.8 gpm
266.7 gpm Second Stage
(TDS 2800 mg/l) 3 x 6 Array
Permeate
(37.1 gpm)
PG
Note: Membrane area of CPA2 = 365 ft2
Reject
(66.7 gpm)
Figure 4 – Schematic Diagram of How to Design RO System
Calculations Example:
Figure – shows the details of the example used for the step 10 in “how to design an
RO system”. It assumes that the TDS of the well water is 2800 m/l. The flows of
permeates and rejects of the first and second stage were obtained using the IMSDesign
Hydranatics software as well as the final permeate of 73 mg/l in TDS. On the basis of
Figure 2 the following calculations may be carried out.
1. % Recovery of 1st stage = [ QP /( QP + QR )] x 100
= [162.9 gpm / (162.9 gpm + 103.8 gpm)] x 100 = 61.1 %
2. % Recovery of 2nd stage = (QP / QP + QR ) x 100
= (37.1 gpm / 37.1 gpm + 66.7 gpm) x 100 = 35.7 %
3. % Overall System Recovery = [QP /( QP + QR )] x 100
= [200 gpm /(200 gpm + 66.7 gpm)] x 100 = 75.0 %
4. 1st Stage Flux = QP /A = 162.9 gpm x 60 x 24 / 6 x 6 x 365 ft2 = 17.85 GPD/ft2
5. 2nd Stage Flux = QP /A = 37.1 gpm x 60 x 24 / 6 x 6 x 365 ft2 = 8.13 GPD/ft2
6. Average RO Flux = QP /A = 200 gpm x 60 x 24 / 9 x 6 x 365 ft2 = 14.6 GPD/ft2
7. % Overall System Salt Passage (% SP) = [Permeate TDS / Feed TDS ] x 100
= [73 mg/l / 2800 mg/l ] x 100 = 2.6 %
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8. % Overall System Salt Rejection (% SR) = 100 - % SP = 100 – 2.6 % = 97.4 %
Where:
QP = Flow rate of permeate
QR = Flow rate of reject
A = Membrane surface area (surface area of Hydranautics membrane CPA2 = 365 ft2)
Important Points to Note in this Design

1) The 1st stage recovery is 61.1%, which is higher than the 2nd stage recovery.
This is what a good design requires, because the TDS in the 1st stage is low and the
system can operate at higher recovery without scaling.
2) The 2nd stage recovery of 35.7 % is lower than the 1st stage recovery. This is what
a good design requires since the TDS in the 2nd stage is higher than in the 1st stage
and the 2nd stage needs to operate at lower recovery to avoid scaling.
3) Despite the difference in recoveries between the 1st and 2nd stages of the RO
system, the overall system recovery is 75% as per design.
4) The 1st stage flux is 17.85 GPD/ft2 which is high. However, this is acceptable
because the TDS in the 1st stage is low and the membrane can still operate without
scaling.
5) The 2nd stage flux is only 8.13 GPD/ft2 because the TDS in the second stage is high
and operation at higher flux will cause scaling.
6) Despite the difference in fluxes between 1st and 2nd stages of the RO system, the
average RO system flux is 14.6 GPD/ft2 as per design.
Design Limits
For any RO design, recommended design limits should be adopted. The table below
shows such recommended design limits.
Feedwater RO Brackish Well Brackish Well Seawater Surface

Parameters Permeate Softened not Softened Conventional
SDI15 Maximum 1 2 3 4
Turbidity NTU Typical 0.1 0.1 0.1 0.1
Particle Count 2µm Typical 100 100 100 100
particles/ml
System Average Flux Conservative 18 14 14 7
(GFD) Typical 21 16 16 8
Page 23 of 38
Feedwater RO Brackish Well Brackish Well Seawater Surface

Parameters Permeate Softened not Softened Conventional
Aggressive 24 20 18 10
Lead Element Flux Conservative 29 24 21 17
(GFD) Typical 30 27 24 20
Aggressive 35 29 27 24
% Flux Decline Conservative 7 10 10 10
(per year) Typical 5 7 7 7
Aggressive 3 5 7 7
% Salt Passage Conservative 7 15 15 15
Increase/per year Typical 5 10 10 10
Feed GPM Conservative 75 70 65 60
(Maximum per Vessel) Typical 75 75 75 75
8-inch Maximum 75 75 75 75
Reject GPM (minimum Conservative 10 12 12 15
per vessel) 8-inch Typical 7.1 9.6 9.6 10.3
DeltaP (psi) Typical 25 25 25 25
6 M Vessel Maximum 40 40 40 40
Membrane Element Maximum 10 10 10 10
Saturation Limits with Typical < 1.8 < 1.8 < 1.8 < 1.8
Antiscalant (LSI &SDSI) Aggressive < 2.5 2.5 2.5 2.5
8 Reverse Osmosis Plant Start Up
Startup - Before starting up a reverse osmosis plant system, verified that all
pretreatment systems are working according to their specifications. Take water samples
for analysis to ensure that specifications are met. In the case of polyamide (thin film
composite) membranes free chlorine must be 0.0 ppm.
The Silt Density Index (SDI) should be according to the RO design guidelines (typically
< 5.0 and preferably <3.0).
If the water analysis (ions, temperature, pH) has changed significantly, run a new scale
projection analysis on the system.
On startup, the inlet valve should open prior to the initiation of the high-pressure pump,
to completely fill the system with low pressure water (<100 psi [< 7 Bars]).
An alternative is to open the recycle valve for the pump and then gradually open the
feed control valve to introduce the feed water at low pressure. This “soft start” will
prevent hydraulic shock at startup. Pre-treatment chemical addition should begin at this
time (making sure the chemicals are not over-injected). The high-pressure pump should
then be started and the system slowly bought on-line, up to the design permeates flow.
If starting up after a period of shutdown, flush the RO permeate to drain for 30 minutes
to remove residual preservation chemicals. Produced water permeate can be used only
when it meets the quality requirement of downstream processes.
Page 24 of 38
9 Reverse Osmosis Plant Shut Down
As salts in the feed water have concentrated up and exceeded their solubility during
operation, they should be rinsed out (>15 minutes) prior to any shutdown. Rinsing of
the membranes with permeate water on shut down will also aid the flushing of colloids
and bacteria from the membrane surface.
Flow rate during flushing should be based on the recommended cleaning instruction
flow rates (refer to SAEP-348). This is normally 30 – 40 gpm [6.8 – 9.1 m3 /hr] per
pressure vessel.
Flushing time should be long enough for the conductivity out to equal the conductivity
in. This is typically 15 - 20 minutes.
If the permeate flush is unavailable, feed water can be used by allowing low-pressure
water to replace the water within the system by delaying the inlet valve closing. Scale
inhibitor should be turned OFF during the permeate flush. If the water temperature in
the membranes exceeds 115°F, flush water should be continuously passed through the
system to prevent membrane degradation.
10 Preservation of RO Membranes
It is recommended to preserve membrane systems when the unit is out of production.

Failure to preserve membranes may result in the development of biofilm on the
membrane surface, causing operation problems such as increased pressure drops and
lower normalized permeate flow to occur.
Also note that prior to any shutdown, RO membranes need to be cleaned (dependent on
the operation parameters). The system then MUST be flushed with RO permeate
before the preservation solution can be pumped into the RO (at low pressure). For
membrane preservation see SAEP-348.
11 RO Plant Systems - Data Collection & Monitoring
Data collection is critical for monitoring the performance of the membrane system.
Without it, there will be no idea if the system is fouling, suffering from scale formation,
or if the membranes are deteriorating.
When operating data is recorded, it should be compared to previously established alert

and alarm levels. These levels should be associated with well-defined response
procedures corresponding to the potential problem.
The alert and alarm levels are set for a 15% change from normalized start up data.
Page 25 of 38
11.1 Silt Density Index (SDI)
The SDI is an on-site measurement of the suspended solids concentration in the

feed water. It should be used to monitor the performance of the pre-treatment
equipment.
SDI measurements should be made pre and post multimedia filters and post
cartridge filters. An SDI < 5.0 for the RO feedwater should be maintained at all
times preferably SDI<3.0. Pre-treatment should be controlled efficiently using
the designed flow rates and differential pressure limits for back-washing of the
multi-media filters and replacing of the cartridge filters to give an SDI before
the membranes of < 3.0.
11.2 RO System Pressure Drop
The difference between the inlet to the initial membrane elements and the
concentrate stream pressure coming off the tail end elements is what pushes the
water across the membrane surface of all the elements. This is called the
pressure drop (DP) or the hydraulic differential pressure.
As long as the flows are constant, the DP will not change unless something
physically blocks the passage of flow between the membrane envelopes of the
elements (fouling). Therefore, it is important to monitor the DP across each
stage of the system. An increase in DP can then be isolated as lead end, tail end
or both to indicate possible cause.
11.3 Salt Rejection
Since the RO systems are used to remove (or concentrate) dissolved salts,
measuring salt rejection is a direct way to monitor the performance. Salt rejection
is the percentage of the feed water TDS that has been removed in the permeate
water. The simple way to monitor the salt rejection is to measure permeate water
conductivity.
The permeate water conductivity should be measured for each pressure vessel
on a daily basis. This will then help determine if a high salt passage problem is
universal (indicating membrane damage), isolated to a certain stage (possible
fouling) or isolated to an individual pressure vessel (indicating O-ring
problems). Probing of individual pressure vessels can be carried out to isolate a
salt rejection problem to an individual membrane element.
11.4 Normalized Permeate Flow
The permeate (product water) flow of the RO system is related to water

temperature and the net driving pressure. Permeate flow should therefore be
Page 26 of 38
standardized for the effects of these variables to allow better monitoring of how
well water is permeating through the membranes.
The formula used to calculate Normalized Permeate flow is:
Qnorm = Qi * (NDPstart / NDPi) * (TCstart/TCi)

Where
Qnorm = Normalized permeate flow
Qi = Permeate flow at point i
NDPstart = Net Driving Pressure at startup or reference condition
NDPi = Net Driving Pressure at point i.
TCstart = Temperature Correction Factor at startup or reference condition
TCi = Temperature Correction Factor at point i.
The membrane manufacturer provides the temperature correction factors (at a

constant net pressure) to allow normalization for temperature effects.
The net driving pressure is the applied pressure minus the permeate back-
pressure minus the osmotic pressure. This driving pressure is proportional to the
permeate flow rate. We can multiply by a ratio of the startup driving pressure to
the current driving pressure to obtain the permeate flow rate if we were at
startup pressure conditions.
The calculated permeate flow rate can then be multiplied by the membrane
temperature correction factor to give the normalized permeate flow.
To save time and give accurate measurements, either the membrane

manufacturers or our ROCIsoft software should be used to normalize all
permeate flow readings.
A decline indicates that fouling or scale formation is reducing permeate flow

through the membranes. An increase indicates that fouling/scaling has been
removed or that membrane deterioration is occurring.
It is recommended that normalized permeate flow is monitored for each stage.

This will help identify and isolate problems more accurately.
Page 27 of 38
12 Common Reverse Osmosis Systems Failures/Problems
Failure/Problem Effect Recommended Monitoring Practice
Scale formation on membranes, usually

in the back-end stages, high salt Check dosing equipment and monitor changes
Antiscalant
passage, high differential pressure in in water quality
final stage
Biofouled pipe-work, cartridge filters Sanitize sand filters and GAC filters. Check
Ineffective sanitization
and membranes - high differential microbiological analysis, chlorine dosing,
procedures
pressure contamination in chemical dosing tanks
Pipe-work corrosion, ferric breakthrough from
Iron loading on cartridge filters. Iron
media beds, failure of media filters, or iron
High iron content fouling of membranes – high
source between media filters and cartridge
differential pressure, low permeate flow
filters
Humic substances and organic fouling
Feed water composition, review flocculation
High organic content on membrane – low permeate flow, high
procedures, feed water color, TOC
feed pressure
Colloidal particles foul micron filters
Silt Density Index (SDI), condition of
Colloidal breakthrough and membranes – high differential
cartridge filters, eliminate media fines
pressure, low permeate flow
Granular activated Carbon fines foul micro filters and Check washing procedure to remove fines
carbon filters membranes from GAC filters
Overdosing of Cationic flocculent fouls membrane –
Check flocculent dosing levels
flocculent low permeate flow, high feed pressure.
Dosing equipment, Redox meters, bisulfite
Membrane damage – high salt passage
Overdosing of chlorine dosing levels and positioning of dosing point,
and increased flux
chlorine test kit
Check individual vessels’ conductivity, probe
Permeate tube “O” ring
High salt passage suspect vessels to check individual membrane
failure
product conductivity
High bacterial/fungal counts in water Biocide adsorption on GAC, check contact
Ineffective biocide samples. Biofouling of membranes – times and dose rate, select broad-spectrum
high differential pressure biocide, select biocide for organic content
Sand/Multi-media filter Colloidal and bacterial fouling of
Check wash procedures to remove fines
breakthrough micron filters and membranes
Acid dosing Scale formation – CaCO3 only pH monitor/controller
Seasonal algae blooms High microbiological loading, biofilm, Microbiological counts in water samples,
(sea water) severe cartridge filter fouling evidence of biofilms, check algae counts
Poor performance on Check membrane flush procedures on shut
Fouling/scaling of membranes
start up after shutdown down and preservation procedures on extended
Page 28 of 38
Failure/Problem Effect Recommended Monitoring Practice
shutdowns
13 Reverse Osmosis Membrane Cleaning
RO membrane cleaning is an important part of any reverse osmosis maintenance

program. Effective cleaning usually requires some knowledge of the type of foulant and
the cleaning options available. Foulants on the membrane surface can cause flux loss
(permeate flow), an increase in differential pressure, higher product water conductivity,
a need for increased feed pressure to maintain output or a combination of these effects.
Even with all the preventative care given to a reverse osmosis system, some fouling of
the membranes will take place. Cleaning of the membranes can improve membrane
performance. Membranes can be cleaned using only Cleaning Solutions approved by
the membrane manufacturer.
What to do before cleaning? Perform all daily monitoring and use the results to
perform data normalization as outlined by the membrane manufactures. The data
normalization programs consist of Excel spreadsheet on which the operating parameters
and operating data are inserted. These data normalization programs are given free of
charge by the membrane manufacturers or can be downloaded from the membrane
manufacturers’ websites.
Hydranautics membranes: Use the RODataXL software for tracking the RO system
performance. This is an RO normalization program. This program allows easy input of
operational data and graphs of operational and normalized parameters are automatically
updated.
Toray membranes: Use the TorayTrack software for tracking the RO system
performance. This is for the data collection, normalization and management of Reverse
Osmosis (RO) membranes in plants of any size. The graphs and output of the software
will provide operators with crucial information guiding their maintenance and operation
plans and optimizing membrane performance for maximum membrane cost
effectiveness.
Dow Filmect membranes: Use the FTNORM - Software to Normalize Membrane

Operating Data. This is a spreadsheet-based program. The program is Microsoft®
Excel 97® based and provides for automatic standardization of operating data. Charts
are created showing standardized permeate flow, standardized salt passage / salt
rejection and differential pressure. One spreadsheet should be used for each train in the
system.
Page 29 of 38
When to clean? It is essential to clean membranes at an early stage of fouling. It is

often difficult to clean excessively fouled membranes and irreversible damage may
occur during the cleaning process. Cleaning is recommended when one or more of the
following parameters change by 10 – 15% after data normalization:
 Decrease in normalized permeate flow
 Increase in product conductivity or salt passage
 Increase in feed pressure to maintain normalized permeate flow
 Increase in differential pressure
If any of the above performance parameters deteriorates by more than 30%, it may be
impossible to recover plant performance by routine cleaning practices.
What to clean? Find out the kind of impurities from simple examination of the SDI
filter pad. Autopsy a couple of membranes taken from strategic points within the RO
system. One lead element membrane taken from the first stage of the RO system to
establish the foulants present and one membrane element taken from the tail end of the
second stage to establish the type of scaling.
How to clean? Once you decide what to clean, follow the appropriate chemical
cleaning procedures as outlined in SAEP-348.
14 Chemical Water Treatment for Reverse Osmosis
14.1 Coagulants/Flocculents
Coagulants/flocculents can be used to improve filtration and aid the removal of

fine colloids, reducing SDI values of RO feedwater. The coagulant should
always be dosed prior to the multimedia/sand filters and as far back in the
system as possible for good mixing and coagulation.
Cationic flocculents can foul RO membranes. It is therefore important that the

dosage is accurately controlled. Over-dosing, particularly of organic
flocculents, can cause the coagulant to break-through the filters and end up in
the RO plant. Organic flocculent reaction with anionic polymer antiscalants can
also occur, resulting in membrane fouling. It is therefore important to ensure a
flocculent compatible antiscalant is used when using cationic flocculents in the
pre-treatment.
14.2 Chlorine
Chlorine (Na/Ca hypochlorite, bleach or gas) can be dosed to control biological

fouling of the pre-treatment system. If biological contamination is an issue,
Page 30 of 38
chlorine can be dosed prior to the pre-treatment system to give a free chlorine
residual of 0.2 – 1.00 ppm depending on severity of contamination.
Chlorine will destroy polyamide thin film composite membranes. It is essential

that ALL chlorine be removed from the feed water prior to entering the
membranes (CA membranes can tolerate up to 1ppm free chlorine). Even trace
amounts of free chlorine can cause oxidation damage, especially in the presence
of metals such as iron. Chlorine can be removed by bisulfite/metabisulfite
addition or by the use of carbon filters.
14.3 Sodium Meta-Bisulfite, Bisulfite, Sulfite
Sodium Bisulfite, Sodium Meta-Bisulfite or Sodium Sulfite can all be used to

de-chlorinate the RO feed water. De-chlorination is essential with polyamide
type membranes.
Sodium Metabisulfite (SMBS = Na2S2O5) is a 100% active solid and dissolves

in water to form sodium bisulfite. It is 100% active. The fumes from mixing
with water can be irritating.
Na2S2O5 + H2O 2NaHSO3
De-chlorination reaction with bleach (HOCl):
HOCl + NaHSO3 NaCl + H2SO4
Sodium Bisulfite (SBS = NaHSO3) is liquid and usually sold as a 40% active.
HOCl + NaHSO3 NaCl + H2SO4
Sodium Sulfite (SS = Na2SO3) is a liquid, usually with a maximum active of

20%.
HOCl + Na2SO3 HCl + Na2SO4
A 40% sodium bisulfite solution (either as supplied or made up with

metabisulfite) will probably be the most stable solution to use.
Important points to note:
Page 31 of 38
 The SBS solution should be dosed as close to the RO system as possible (to
keep as much of the pre-treatment as possible in contact with chlorine – e.g.,
cartridge filters). However,
 If the free chlorine level is high, the SBS should be dosed prior to the
antiscalant injection point (or antiscalant dosage adjusted to compensate for
chlorine attack). Some antiscalants are attacked by free chlorine.
 The antiscalant and SBS dosing point should be far enough apart to prevent
neat product mixing (SBS and antiscalant can often be mixed when diluted
correctly, but pH differences of the neat products can cause problems).
14.4 Biocides
RO Biocides - Non-oxidizing, non-ionic biocides can be used either on line or as

part of a cleaning program to control biofouling in RO membranes. When used
as an on-line treatment, the biocide should be dosed prior to the RO system to
control bio-growth in the membranes. Application frequency will depend on
biological loading and biofilm growth rate. The program should be used to
control differential pressures in the RO plant to reduce cleaning frequency.
Application rates and frequency of application (biocide program costs vs.
effectiveness) vs. reduction in cleaning frequency, down time, membrane life
(operating costs without biocide program) should be balanced to determine the
most cost effective biocide dosing frequency.
Dosing biocide further back in the pre-treatment will help control bio-growth
but will greatly increase demand and application costs. The main goal of an
effective biocide program is to control biofouling in the membranes to an
acceptable and cost effective level compared to cleaning program costs.
The two products widely used are 2,2-dibromo-3-nitrilopropionamide (DBNPA)

and isothiazolone. These products are fully compatible with polyamide (PA)
and cellulose acetate (CA) membranes.
DBNPA
DBNPA (2,2dibromo-3-nitrilopropionamide) is fast biocide acting and readily

decomposes to harmless by-products on discharge. On-line, it is dosed just prior
to the RO system to control biofouling in the membranes. Dose rate is typically
100 ppm for 1 hour. Frequency of application depends on degree of biological
contamination in the feed water and rate of biofilm growth in the membranes.
Typically, frequency of application can vary from every other day to once a
month. The half-life of DBNPA is reduced with the increase of pH. In high pH
feed waters (>8.5) the dose rate and contact time should be doubled.
Page 32 of 38
DBNPA biocide should not be dosed with stainless steel injection quills as
corrosion of the injection assembly will occur.
Isothiazolone
Isothiazolone has a longer contact time than DBNPA. Dose rate is typically
50 – 100 ppm for 4 hours contact. Isothiazolone is more effective than DBNPA
in waters with high organic loading. Isothiazolone can also be used at low dose
rates on a continuous basis (10 – 20 ppm).
Hydrogen Peroxide Silver Blend

ROCbio Silver, an innovative blend of hydrogen peroxide and silver, is an
eco-friendly, multi-component oxidizing biocide utilizing a stable combination
of Hydrogen Peroxide (H2O2) and Silver(Ag) ions to form a highly effective
sanitizing solution. This synergistic combination is so effective it creates a
biocide twenty times more powerful than that of hydrogen peroxide alone.
14.5 Scale Inhibitors
RO Scale inhibitors or antiscalants can be dosed before or after the system

cartridge filters. If iron is present in the feed water, the antiscalant can be dosed
post to prevent “pick-up” of iron (or in the case of polymer antiscalants de-
activation by iron – in this case use a phosphonate based product with good iron
sequestering properties).
The dose point should be after the sodium bi-sulfite injection to ensure chlorine
is removed (especially with high levels of free chlorine). Dose point should be
sufficiently down-stream of the SBS injection point to avoid “neat” product
mixing.
15 Troubleshooting
The performance of an RO system is determined by the quality and quantity of product

water that delivers. Permeate flow and salt rejections are therefore important parameters
for the RO system evaluation. In certain situations changes in the element’s differential
pressure (ΔP) can be used as another parameter for RO system evaluation. A problem
exists when these factors are outside the range of expected values. Although performance
may still satisfy the end-user, any unexpected change in these parameters should be
investigated and corrective action taken immediately to prevent further deterioration of
the system. Many factors affect product flow, salt rejection and element ΔP. Some of
these items involve changes in operating conditions. These changes can be taken into
account by normalizing to a fixed set of conditions. Performance variations unexplained
by operating conditions involve troubleshooting.
Page 33 of 38
15.1 Profiling an RO Array
When problems arise with an RO system, the ability to isolate the problem to a
particular location within the system provides valuable information as to the
nature of the problem. This will determine the remedial action such as cleaning,
O-ring replacement or membrane element replacing. Online investigation is done
while the system is in operation. It involves analyzing performance trends in
normalized product flow salt rejection and correlating these trends with symptoms
of known problems. The information for the online investigation is obtained from
the plant operating data log and basic plant design package. The frequency,
accuracy and completeness of the operating log are vital for successful
troubleshooting. Also, critical is the accuracy of the instrumentation. It cannot be
over-emphasized that before troubleshooting any plant problem, the good working
order and proper calibration of meters and gauges must first be assured.
15.2 Probing
Once profiling has isolated a salt rejection problem to a particular pressure

vessel, or set of vessels, probing can be used to further isolate the problem.
Probing involves inserting flexible tubing through one of the vessel permeate
connections as a means of diverting the permeate from a specific area within the
elements. This water is then tested for conductivity with a portable meter.
Probing must be performed while the RO is operating. The tubing is worked

through various fittings to the other end of the vessel. It is then gradually pulled
back as diverted water samples are tested. The end of the vessel should be
sampled and then every 20 inches through the whole of the vessel. Sufficient time
(30 seconds) should be allowed between samples to ensure that water from the
new sampling location has completely displaced the water within the tubing.
Figure 5 shows how the probing procedure is applied. From the conductivity
readings obtained a graph is plotted. Curve A represents the expected graph if
none of the membrane elements or o-rings are malfunctioning. Curve B
indicates the source of the high salt passage problem.
Page 34 of 38
Curve B
Curve A
Figure 5 – Location of High Salt Passage (Probing)
15.3 Replacing O-Rings
Movement of the spiral wound membrane elements within their pressure vessel
can commonly cause abrasion and breaking of the O-rings that seal the inter-
connector to the element permeate tube.
A sudden increase in permeate conductivity, not accompanied with a noticeable

increase in permeate flow rate could indicate a broken or missing O-ring.
Profiling and then probing to determine if only individual pressure
vessels/membrane elements are causing the increased conductivity will indicate
if O-ring damage is the problem.
To replace the O-ring, the RO should be shut down and allowed to drain by
opening the sample valves. The end-cap is then removed. Usually, O-ring
damage is visible. The O-ring is replaced by hand, wetting with lubricant
(glycerin- use sparingly) if necessary.
15.4 Shimming
It is normal to have some movement of the membrane elements within their

pressure vessel housings. This occurs because the pressure drop across the
elements can cause them to compress. Fouling or high flow rates can result in
significant movement, mostly when the system starts up. When it shuts down,
the elements will then relax.
Page 35 of 38
This movement will cause rubbing against the inter-connector O-rings,

particularly in the lead end elements. With time, this can cause them to abrade
and possibly break. In case of severe pressure drops, O-rings can be completely
dislodged and blow out of their slots.
The potential for this movement should be minimized by making certain that the
elements fit tightly within their pressure vessel. Any slop should be taken up
with shims.
Shims are slices of plastic piping that have an inside diameter that just fits over
the outside of an end connector, usually the end connector between the lead end
element and the vessel end cap. Enough should be installed so that replacing the
end cap in its vessel should be met with some resistance.
15.5 Replacing RO Membrane Elements
Occasionally, it is necessary to replace RO membrane elements. This will be

determined if necessary following trouble shooting and other remedial actions.
As with replacing O-rings, the system should be shut down and drained. Prior to
installation, the new element serial numbers should be recorded indicating their
intended location in the system. This is useful in comparing the membrane
manufacturer’s test data with the system performance.
It may be necessary to remove both of the vessel end-caps. The elements can then
be removed in their normal direction of flow. This will prevent their brine seals
from jamming against the pressure vessel. The replacement elements can be
inserted in the feed end of the vessel and used to push the other elements through.
The U-cup brine seals and the inter-connector O-rings can be sparingly
lubricated with glycerin to aid fitting. Each inter-connector should have O-rings
installed. U cup brine seals should be installed only with the open groove of the
seal facing the upstream end of each element (note flow arrow on side of
element which points toward the downstream end). Never put brine seals on
both ends of an element.
After element replacement, any gaps should be limited with shims. The end
caps can them be installed and the system started up. It should be filled with
low-pressure water prior to starting the high-pressure pump. New elements
should be rinsed to drain to remove any residual preservative chemicals.
System operating data should be collected after the RO performance stabilizes
(within 24 hours).
15.6 Membrane Autopsies
Page 36 of 38
RO membranes tend to undergo performance deterioration with time, which

mainly depends on the efficiency of the pretreatment. The decline in
performance due to fouling or scaling of the membrane, in many cases, can be
restored to some extent by means of chemical cleaning. However, the
performance decline due to irreversible damage to the membrane polymer
cannot be restored.
The physical dissection of a membrane followed by laboratory analyses for

identification of its foulants and scalants constitute one of the most definitive
methods of troubleshooting in an RO system. The autopsy should include all the
procedures applied to identify the decline in RO performance and conclude with
a written report and recommendations. The tests required to be carried out
during a membrane autopsy are:
1) External visual examination of membrane element.
a) Examination of external construction of element for damage during
operation/shipping including fiberglass, ATDs and brine seal.
b) Examination of feed and concentrate ends before and after removal
of ATD.
2) Removal of fiberglass.
3) Internal visual examination.
a) Examination of each individual membrane sheet for evidence of
manufacturing defects, channeling, fouling, scaling, etc.
b) Examination of glue lines, check for any evidence of delamination.
c) Measurement of active surface area to see if it matches the surface
area in the specification sheets of the membrane manufacturer.
4) Fujiwara Test. A Fujiwara test is a qualitative test (using pyridine
solution) to detect for the possible oxidation of the membrane (polymer)
surface by a halogen.
5) Dye Test. The dye test with methylene blue is carried out to detect any
physical defects or deterioration of the membrane surface. Areas of damage
show the dye to soak through to the permeate side of the membrane.
6) Chemical identification of foulants/scalants using:
a) FTIR Spectrometer
b) Energy Dispersive X-Ray Spectrometer (EDX)
c) Scanning Electron Microscope (SEM)
d) Carbonates test
Page 37 of 38
7) Loss on ignition test, to determine the proportion of inorganic and organic

constituents in the foulants.
8) Microscopic evaluation
a) Slime-forming bacteria culture
b) Iron-related bacteria culture
c) Sulfate Reducing Bacteria (SRB) culture
d) General aerobic bacteria (GAB) culture
e) Yeast, molds
Finally, there should be a submittal of the Final Report documenting step-by-
step all the findings of the autopsy. The report should also include conclusions
and recommendations that will ensure that the observed deficiencies that caused
the decline in membrane performance do not re-occur.
Revision Summary
12 September 2009 New Saudi Aramco Best Practice.

14 February 2016 Editorial revision to transfer document responsibility from CSD to the new consolidated
entity of EPD and changed referenced to Saudi Aramco Sanitary Code (SASC) with Saudi
Aramco Environmental Health Code (SAEHC).
10 June 2018 Editorial revision to change standards committee from Environmental to Water Treatment
& Conservation
Page 38 of 38

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15.6 Membrane Autopsies…………………………......… 35

The RO performance is typically characterized by the permeate flow and permeate

2 Scope and Purpose

It is based on current industry experience as well as direct experience from Saudi

3 Conflicts and Deviations

4.1 Saudi Aramco References

Saudi Aramco Engineering Procedure

Saudi Aramco Materials System Specifications

Saudi Aramco Environmental Health Code

4.2 Industry Codes and Standards

American Society of Mechanical Engineers

American Water Works Association

Antiscalant: Chemical added to increase the solubility of sparingly soluble salts. In

Anti-Telescoping Device (ATD): A plastic device placed on the ends of a membrane

Brackish Water: Technically, is defined as water of total dissolved solids (TDS)

RO Membrane Compaction: It is the physical compression of the membrane.

Concentration Polarization: Refers to the concentration gradient of salts on the high

Saudi Aramco: Company General Use

Hydrolysis: Chemical breakdown of a membrane from exposure to low or high pH,

Langelier Saturation Index (LSI): A measurement of CaCO3 scaling potential and is

RO Membranes: An RO membrane is a semipermeable material, that is, a material

Saudi Aramco: Company General Use

Normalized Permeate Flow: NPF is a calculation that allows the comparison of a

Permeate: Often referred to as “product,” permeate is the portion of the feedwater

Permeate = Feedwater – Concentrate

Polyamide Membranes: Introduced in the early 1970’s this asymmetric polymer is

Product Stream: Same as permeate. Often referred to as “product” permeate is the

% Salt passage = [(TDS of product) / (TDS of feed)] x 100

% Salt Rejection = [(TDS of feed – TDS of product) / (TDS of feed)] x 100

Spiral Wound Element: A membrane configuration, which is comprised of “flat sheet

Saudi Aramco: Company General Use

“Product Staging”: Refers to as “multiple pass”, is a configuration where the product

Telescoping: Longitudinal unraveling of spiral wound elements, which results in the

Thin Film Composite (TFC): Is an RO membrane composed of and manufactured as

Ultrafiltration: A membrane separation technique used to remove colloidal, very fine

Ultrapure Water: Term used to characterize electronic grade process water.

6 Important Design Parameters

6.1 Membrane Performance

"Keep The Membrane Surface Clean"

6.2 Water Analysis

Measurements of pH, alkalinity, and gasses must be taken at the point of

Recovery is a very important parameter in the design and operation of RO

6.4 Membrane Design Configuration

Membranes assembly units consists of pressure vessels placed on RO blocks or

Depending whether maximum water recovery or maximum water quality is the

6.4.1 Concentrate Staging

Saudi Aramco: Company General Use

Figure 1, shows a typical two-stage RO concentrate staging membrane

Saudi Aramco: Company General Use

1st + 2nd Stage

PG 1st Stage Permeate

2nd Stage Permeate

Figure 1 – A Two-Stage Reverse Osmosis System (A Typical Drinking Water Plant)

In this particular case the first stage consists of 6 pressure vessels

6.4.2 Permeate Staging