ODeL COMMUNICATION SKILLS MODULE

By

John Mutambwa and Damaris Kaguda

Communication Skills Centre, Department of Linguistics

UNIVERSITY OF ZIMBABWE
………………………………………………………………………………………………

COURSE OUTLINE

UNIT 1

The Communication Theory

-General definitions of communication

-Implications from the definitions

-Models of communication

-Levels of communication

-Verbal and nonverbal communication

UNIT 2: Barriers to Communication

-Definition of barrier to communication.

-“NOISE” in communication.

-Types of barriers to communication.

-Feedback in communication.

-Overcoming barriers.

UNIT 3: Reading for Academic Purposes

-What is reading?

-Interface between reading and writing.

-Reading strategies

(a) Paraphrasing

(b) Summarising

(c) synthesising

(d) SQ3R approach

-Critical reading

-Developing strategies for independent learning

UNIT 4: Introduction to Academic Writing

-Academic writing defined

-Implications from the definitions

-Characteristics of academic writing

-The writing process

-Question analysis

-Interpretation and evaluation of questions

-Register and style

-Citation and referencing skills

UNIT 5: Oral Communication

- What is oral communication?

-Oral vs. Written communication.

-Advantages and disadvantages of written communication.

-Advantages and disadvantages of oral communication.

-Visuals in oral communication.

-Using visuals effectively in oral communication.

-Modes of oral communication in the teaching profession.

 UNIT 1: THE COMMUNICATION THEORY.

When you have read and understood this unit, you will be able to:

-state the reasons why the study of communication is crucial.

-Define communication

-Name the components of communication

-Differentiate communication models

-Explain the relationship between verbal and nonverbal communication

-Name and explain levels of communication.

-Explain how communication is linked to macro- skills of listening, hearing, speaking

and writing

1.0 Preamble

Studying communication is essential for you. It can help you to solve problems.

Academic and professional communication analysts believe that poor communication in

your life is at the root of many problems and effective communication is one solution to

these problems. You cannot avoid communication and you will engage in communication

nearly every minute and every day of your life. Thus, communication plays a major role

in nearly every aspect of your life. Studying communication has a number of advantages;

 It can improve the way you see yourself. Communication is vital to the

development of the whole person because most of our self-knowledge comes

from communicative experiences. As you learn how to communicate effectively

 in a variety of situations from interpersonal relations to public speeches, you will

realise that your self-confidence will also increase. Thus, communication studies

improve one’s communicative competence in the classroom, at work, and in

social settings.

 Studying communication can improve the way others see you. People generally

like communicating with others who can communicate well; a person who has a

good vocabulary, listens when you speak, reveals appropriate personal

information and smoothly exchanges talk turns with you, would be more preferred

to one who interrupts and uses inappropriate language to express ideas.

 Studying communication can increase what you know about human relationships

since the field of communication includes learning about how people relate to

each other and about what communication is appropriate for a given situation.

 Communication also teaches life skills because it involves learning important

aspects such as critical thinking, problem solving, decision-making, team

building, and public speaking.

“Communication instruction improves the critical thinking ability of the participants”

(Allen et al., 1999).

 Communication can enhance your academic career. Consider the centrality of oral

communication to teaching and learning. Often you are called on to answer

questions in class and to make presentations. Your oral and written work depends

on your ability to think critically.

 Communication studies can help you succeed professionally. You will realise that

most employers identify effective speaking and listening skills as the most
 important factors for hiring people and important skills of graduate students.

Employers view your written and oral communicative competencies and your

ability to listen and analyse messages as essential job skills.

You have now realised how important communication is to your studies and your career

but you have probably wondered what communication is. We are now introducing you

to the subject of Communication.

1.2 Communication defined

Dumont and Lennon (1985) and Pearson et al. (2003) say that the word communication

comes from the Latin word communicare which means “to make common” or “to share”.

Words such as commune, communion, communicant which belong to the same semantic

area easily come to mind and have been associated with sharing, exchanging, and holding

in common.

Over the years, a number of scholars have created countless definitions of

communication. It is very difficult to come up with a single comprehensive and all-

encompassing definition of communication since it is a phenomenon that cuts across

disciplines, to the extent that different people end up holding different views as to what

communication is. However, for the purposes of this module, three definitions shall be

given to enhance a broader understanding of the concept.

According to Berko et al (1998) communication is;

 A conscious or unconscious, intentional or unintentional process in which feelings and

ideas are expressed as verbal and or nonverbal messages, sent, received and

comprehended.

Pearson et al (2003) define communication as;

The process by which meaning is exchanged between individuals through a common

system of symbols, signs, or behaviour.

Staley and Staley (1992) define communication as;

A dynamic transaction of simultaneously exchanged verbal and nonverbal messages

resulting in shared meaning between two or more people. Messages occur through formal

and informal channels in upward, downward, or horizontal directions.

1.3 Implications from the definitions

From the first definition it can be inferred that sometimes we send messages fully aware

of the communication purpose we want to achieve and indeed achieve that purpose but

there are times when we do not communicate the intended purpose. In other words the

receiver can interpret the message differently. And there are serious implications that go

with unintentional communication.

Why conscious or unconscious? Sometimes you are fully aware that you are

communicating but at other times you may not be aware that you indeed are

communicating. This is common especially with nonverbal communication.

The other aspect which can be drawn from this definition is that we are always

communicating ideas and feelings .Is there anything other than ideas and feelings that can

be communicated? I wonder!

The final element is that every message has a “sender” and a “receiver” and for

communication to take place effectively, the message has to be “comprehended” or

“interpreted” or “understood”.

From the second definition, communication is considered a “process” because it is an

activity, an exchange or a set of behaviours that occur over time. When something is

labelled as a process it means that it does not have a beginning, an end and a fixed

sequence of events, it is not static, is moving and the elements within the process interact

affecting each other. Thus, communication involves several elements such as; the sender,

the receiver, message, medium, channel, context, feedback, noise.

The other aspect is that communication involves meaning, which is the shared

understanding of the message. Understanding the meaning of the other person’s message

only occurs when two communicators can elicit common meanings of words, phrases,

and nonverbal codes. Shared meaning is enhanced by shared experiences, common

language, and culture.

The third definition from Staley and Staley (1999) points to the fact that communication

is a dynamic transaction because we simultaneously communicate with each other

verbally and nonverbally through our eye-contact, posture, gestures, and facial

expressions. Messages flow in both directions at once so we cannot talk of a message

sender and a message receiver. Also, communication changes as the context in which it

occurs changes. Communication also includes verbal and nonverbal messages. The words
one speaks constitute the content of the message, but one’s nonverbal message

communicates her feelings about her relationship with her conversational partner.

Therefore, each time one communicates, messages contain (content and relationship) or

“what you say” and “how you say it”.

Messages are exchanged through both established formal means of contact and informal

networks of interaction. Communication also occurs in a variety of directions such as

downward, upward, and horizontal between/among communicators.

1.5 Models of Communication

Modelling is a common way to learn. A model is a representation of an abstract concept.

In this unit we will present three models of the communication process. These are

illustrations intended to help you to understand the elements and interactions involved.

You should note, however, that no model can accurately represent the reality it stands for.

These models illustrate significant aspects of the communication process and thus, can

help to clarify the nature of communication.

1.5.1 The Linear Model by Shannon and Weaver (1949)

The diagram below illustrates the Linear Model.

Figure1.2: Linear Model of Communication (One-Directional Communication

 Communication Environment

Noise
Source Channel Receiver
encodes decodes
message message

Noise Noise

Communication Environment

Adapted from Berko et al. (1997, p. 18)

Tubbs and Moss (1980) and Berko et al. (1997) point out that the linear model of

communication views communication as a one-way process which consists of a sender,

the message, a channel through which the message is sent and a receiver. The source

encodes a message and sends it through the channel to the receiver. The receiver then

makes the expected response without selecting or interpreting. In this model, there is very

limited feedback, if at all. The sender has a more active role. This is normally associated

with mass communication and is also evident in almost all work places, for example,

when one is listening to a tape-recorded message from a manufacturer after buying a new

computer. It is most dominant in the army, air force and the Police where orders are given
by superiors to juniors. At a school, when memos are sent to teachers from the

headmaster, the teachers are not expected to provide feedback but simply to act as per the

memo’s instruction.

Although one-directional communication is often necessary, its effectiveness is limited.

The model ignores the role of the receiver in responding to the message by providing

feedback which can enable the sender to check to see if an order is understood or a

message is clear. Real life situations call for feedback during communication. However,

this model paved way for other models.

1.5.2 The Interactional Model (by Osgood and Schramm)

Figure 1.3: The Interactional Model of Communication (Two-Directional

Communication

Communication Environment

Noise
Source Channel Receiver
encodes decodes
message message

Noise Noise

Communication Environment

Adapted from Berko et al (1997)

This model goes beyond the linear model to a more complex way of thinking about

communication. The notion of feedback is introduced since the receiver now selects,

interprets and responds to the sender’s message. Communication is considered a two-way

cyclical process in which each person has dual roles. Thus, the sender can assume the

role of the receiver alternatively. Take for example, when you are in class and engage in

question and answer session. You can ask your students questions which they can answer

verbally or orally or through writing and you can as well provide feedback through oral

comments or written comments, grades etc. This model is applicable to several situations

in our lives.

1.5.3 The transactional Model (by Lasswell)

Fig 1.4: The Transactional Model of Communication (Multidirectional

Communication)
 Communication Environment

Encoder Encoder
Communicator A Communicator B
Decoder Decoder
Message

Decoder

Noise Noise

Communication Environment

Adapted from Berko et al (1997:12)

This model provides the most contemporary view of communication. It takes all the

elements of the interactional communication and builds upon them. From the

transactional viewpoint, communication can be thought of only within the context of a

relationship between two or more people. Instead of a two-way flow, we have

simultaneous activities going on all the time, some verbal, others nonverbal. Thus, the

transactional view also emphasises that all behaviours are communicative. The model

supports the view that communication is a transaction in which the sender and the
receiver play interchangeable roles throughout the act of communication. It stresses the

transactional and continuing nature of communication since the sender and the receiver

are constantly exchanging messages until they reach understanding and meaning is

heavily negotiated. It stresses the interdependence of the participants in a communication

event and are simultaneously influencing one another. The transactive view is that a

person’s communication can be defined only in relation to some other or others. It

provides room for face- to- face interaction and instant feedback. It promotes co-

operation and builds team work. It is involving, as participants exchange roles and share

experiences/ ideas.

In this model, communication is not a static process in which the encoder or decoder can

be distinctly identified. Rather, the processes take place concurrently. Thus,

communication is multidirectional, for example, in a situation where participants can

send messages but at the same time receive and interpret non-verbal feedback from those

with whom they are communicating. When you ask your student a question, as he or she

responds, you are likely to nod your head or smile as a sign of approval of the correct

answer being provided and at the same time your student can interpret your nonverbal

feedback in the process of giving the answer to your question.

It can be noted that these three models of communication can be used concurrently in a

single situation. There are times when one-way communication is more effective than the

others while at other times, interactional and transactional models are very effective. For

example, the headmaster at your school can make an announcement to parents on

television pertaining to an urgent meeting to be held before the closure of schools. At the

meeting, he can explain the reasons for the meeting and allow parents to ask questions.
One parent can ask a question which the headmaster will answer; as he responds to the

question, some parents may nod their heads in agreement.

ACTIVITY 1.1 Using practical examples drawn from your teaching environment,

show how knowledge of communication models can improve communication in a

classroom situation.

1.6 Levels of Communication

Human communication occurs in a virtually infinitive variety of situations or

communication settings. The following are the main levels of communication;

Intrapersonal communication

Interpersonal, two-person or dyadic communication

Small group communication

Public communication

Organisational communication

Mass communication

Intercultural communication

1.6.1 Intrapersonal Communication

This is communication within ourselves, talking to ourselves or thinking. This type of

communication is important in the formation of an individual’s self-image. Normally, an

idea starts within the individual before he or she decides to share it with anyone else. He

or she weighs the value of the idea whether it is worth sharing or not. One becomes both

the sender and the receiver. This type of communication is also known as ‘Me VS. Me”

1.6.2 Interpersonal communication

This is communication between two people who will be involved in a face-to-face

transaction. This communication accounts for most informal everyday conversations. For

example, friendship pairs, marital couples, business partners, parent- child relationship.

Thus, it includes personal and intimate relations as well as many business situations. The

uniqueness of two-way communication hinges on the high degree of potential intimacy

between the participants (Tubbs & Moss, 1980).

1.6.3 Small-group communication

This level of communication is distinct in that it occurs between three or more persons

who perceive themselves as belonging to or being identified with a group. The group may

be identified or defined by perceptions, motivations, goals, organisational

interdependency. Thus, the same values and norms should be developed within the group

for effective communication.

1.6.4 Public communication

This is a one-way form of communication and is formal in nature. It is a ‘pronounced

social occasion’ as opposed to a relatively informal, unstructured occasion (Stubbs &

Moss, 1980). Usually, the event is planned in advance and there is an agenda. Public

communication tends to occur within a more formal and structured setting than either

interpersonal or small-group communication.

1.6.5 Organisational communication

This is communication that occurs in organisational settings such as hospitals, churches,

government agencies, military organisations and academic institutions. The process of

getting different work loads to move along together smoothly calls for order in planning

and decision-making which depend on communication. Therefore, communication

normally flows downward, upward and horizontally in an organisation.

1.6.6 Mass communication

It is the transmission of a message to a mass audience and it is the most formal and

expensive of all levels. It is basically one-way communication with limited feedback and

there is no contact between the sender and the receiver. Mass communication activities or

events sometimes require the efforts of hundreds of people, months of preparation and

millions of dollars. The events of mass communication involve media such as, radio,

television, newspaper, books and films. The audience in mass communication is

relatively large, heterogeneous, and anonymous to the source. Communication is

basically characterised as public, rapid and fleeting. The source of communication works

through a complex organisation rather than in isolation and the message may represent

the efforts of many individuals.

1.6.7 Intercultural communication

This is communication between people who belong to different cultures. Rogers and

Steinfatt (1999) define intercultural communication as “the exchange of information

between individuals who are unalike culturally.”

1.7 Verbal and nonverbal communication

Berko et al (1997) distinguish between verbal and non-verbal communication. They say

that verbal communication is transmission of information through word of mouth, known

as oral communication. Non-verbal communication is commonly used to describe all

human communication events that transcend spoken or written words. Non-verbal

communication involves, not only actions but the cultural interpretation of those actions

in relation to the verbal communication uttered simultaneously (Dodd, 1998).

1.8 Verbal communication

The greater part of communication in organisations is mainly verbal. It is particularly

used for giving instructions, making inquiries, receiving feedback, informing others,

maintaining relationships and in conducting meetings. Thus, effective communication

will enable the effective functioning of the organisation. Effectiveness of verbal

communication in an organisation depends on a number of factors such as the mutual

comprehension between the speaker and the listener, the tone of the voice, and the non-

verbal cues that accompany the utterance, the attitude of the speaker and the topic under

discussion. Where there is no mutual understanding, for example, in a multilingual

setting where the listener does not understand the language of the speaker, the verbal
communication becomes ineffective. Where the non-verbal cues that accompany the

verbal contradicts the verbal communication, there will be communication breakdown

between the speaker and the hearer.

1.9 Nonverbal communication

Nonverbal communication is communication by means other than the word of mouth. In

nonverbal communication, a person conveys messages without uttering a word. When

one speaks, the listener gets messages not only from what one says but also from how

one looks and acts. Nonverbal cues speak louder than words in some cases. Eye-contact,

facial expression, body movements, space, time, distance, appearance influence the way

the message is interpreted, or decoded, by the receiver. When verbal and non-verbal

messages conflict, receivers put more faith in the nonverbal messages. Verbal messages

can suggest defensiveness, cooperation, nervousness, frustration, weakness, and power.

There are different forms of nonverbal communication. These include eye-contact,

proxemics, chronemics, kinesics, posture and gestures, appearance or dress, olfatics,

paralanguage, artifacts and environmental cues.

1.9.1 Eye- contact

Considered to be the most accurate predictor of a person’s true feelings and attitudes,

most people cannot look another person straight in the eye and lie. Therefore, we tend to

believe people who look directly in the eye. Guffey (2000) argues that, the eyes have

been called the “windows of the soul” because they are true to us. Sustained eye-contact

suggests trust and admiration. Brief eye-contact signifies fear or stress. However,
prolonged eye-contact can be intrusive and intimidating. Thus, a successful teacher can

tell from the pupil’s eyes whether they are focused, receptive, or distant. Good eye-

contact can enable the message sender to determine if a receiver is paying attention,

responding favourably, or feeling distress. Taylor (1999) asserts that “looking someone

directly in the eye suggests openness, honesty, confidence, and comfort”. Thus, looking

away gives the impression of being shy or unsure and uncomfortable. In the context of

the teaching field, a teacher can roam his or her eyes regularly to all corners of the

classroom to let everyone feel involved when speaking to the whole class, rather than

fixing eyes on one person.

1.9.2 Facial expression.

The expression on a communicator’s face can be as revealing of emotion just like the

eyes. According to Taylor (1999), human faces are capable of communicating a wide

range of expressions and emotions. A smile conveys good humour, raised eyebrows

denote questioning and disbelief, a frown denotes upset or worry.

1.9.3 Proxemics

According to Berko (1997), proxemics refers to, “...how people use and perceive their

personal and social space.” Space in any institution communicates power, status, position

ownership and territory. There are four zones of social interaction. The intimate zone, the

personal zone, the social zone, and the public zone.

 The intimate zone is the distance reserved for those with whom we are intimate or

for those who must interact with us at close range, for example, a physician,
 tailor, or a barber. It is a zone mostly for members of the family and other loved

ones.

 The personal zone is reserved for people that we are close to but not so intimate as

those that we would allow into the intimate zone. It is also known as the comfort

zone. Relatives and friends are ideal for this zone. It is also common when people

conduct business.

 The social zone is for those people with whom we carry out business transactions.

Berko (1997) gives another aspect of social distance as, “standing-seated

interaction in which the person in control stands and the other person sits”

Examples of such relationships are those obtaining between the teacher and his or

her pupils and superior and subordinates.

 The public zone is to place a barrier between the sender and the receiver. It is

used between people who are not very close socially. The public zone is used in

the classroom and for speeches before groups. In this zone nonverbal cues

become important as aids to communication.

1.9.4 Chronemics

Chronemics refers to the use of time and the meaning that is conveyed by how people use

it. How people structure and use time tells us about their personality and attitudes.

People’s respect for time is usually dependent on the culture in which they were brought

up. It is important to note that there is a difference between monochromic cultures and

polychromic cultures. In monochromic cultures people have a fixed single conception of

time. When one arrives late for a meeting it could mean that the meeting is unimportant,
it has low priority and that the person has little self-discipline. In polychromic cultures,

people have no fixed concept of time. Nine o’clock can be anytime between ten or

eleven.

1.9.5 Kinesics

According to Berko (1997), kinesics, “is the study of communication through body

movement”. These movements often convey more meaning than what is communicated

verbally. Kinesics behaviour fall into five categories.

1.9.5.1 Illustrators

Berko et al (1997, p. 111) define illustrators as, “kinesics acts that are used to aid in the

description of what is being said and trace the direction of speech.” For example, moving

one’s hand up as he or she asks someone to stand up. These are therefore, nonverbal

sketches that accompany language.

1.9.5.2 Affect displays

Affect displays, according to Berko (1997), “... are facial gestures that show emotions

such as anger, happiness, sadness, fear, disgust, and surprise.” These include pointing,

winking, and raising or lowering the eyelids and eyebrows. These affect displays are

culture oriented.

1.9.5.3 Regulators
These are nonverbal acts that maintain and control the back and forth nature of speaking

and listening between two or more participants in the communication process. They are

used for purposes of encouraging or discouraging conversation. They are the subtle

signals used to control the give and take of conversations. For example, when a manager

glances at his watch or browse through a newspaper when engaged in a conversation with

an employee who is asking for salary increment, such nonverbal actions would most

likely be intended to send a message to the employee that there is no further negotiation

and what the manager has said is final. Other regulators are raising of the voice and

acceleration of speech.

1.9.5.4 Adaptors

These are speech related gestures and according to Berko et al (1997), these movements

show boredom, internal feelings or regulate a situation. Guffey (2000) points out that

adaptors are nonverbal movements designed to meet a physical or emotional need, for

example, rubbing your eyes, biting your fingernails, tapping of fingers on the table.

1.9.5.5 Emblems

These are nonverbal signals that have direct verbal translations, for example, you can

point to the empty chair to invite your visitor to sit. Other examples include the sign

language used by the deaf and the gestures used by behind-the-scenes television

personnel. However, not all emblems are universal, some are culture specific.

1.9.6 Olfatics
Another form of nonverbal communication is olfatics. This refers to body smells, scents

and sometimes odours and the meaning that they convey to the people around us.

According to Berko et al (1997, p. 122), “our sense of smell is very selective and helps us

reach conclusions.”These conclusions can be conscious or unconscious and this is what

gives rise to people wanting to relate with or avoid others on the basis of the smell-related

encounters that they have had with those other people.

1.9.7 Paralanguage

Paralanguage is another type of nonverbal communication. The other term for

paralanguage is ‘paravocalics’. This refers to all the elements in the human voice during

communication except the words themselves. Thus, we can also make some pretty

judgments about the emotions and feelings of the people with whom we communicate by

their paralinguistic presentation (Berko et al., 1997, p. 114).We can tell whether one is

happy or angry from the tone of their voice or the speed with which they speak.

Paralanguage can therefore be used as negative, positive, or indifferent responses to

statements, requests, instructions or action so important for individuals engaged in

communication to be able to correctly interpret these vocal cues. Messages can be

expressed in many ways showing sincerity, jealousy, sacarsm.You may vary a message

by changing the pitch of certain words from low to high, rhythm from smooth to halting,

the rate from fast to slow, the articulation from forced to relaxed. Therefore, how you

say what you say is considered the non-verbal component of the spoken language. In

short, paralanguage involves using voice variation, using pauses and non-word sounds

such as ‘uh’, ‘um’, ‘well’, ‘you know’, to accompany a verbal message.

1.9.8 Aesthetics

Aesthetics is the communication of a message or mood through colour or music .For

example, the colours of buildings, vehicles and clothes worn by employees communicate

a great deal of information to both internal and external stakeholders of the company.

1.9.9 Appearance

The way you look, your clothing, grooming, and posture communicates an instant non-

verbal message about you. People who are careful about their appearance avoid flashy

garments, clunky jewellery and garish makeup and pay attention to good grooming, a

neat hairstyle, body cleanliness, polished shoes and clean nails. Verderber & Verdeber

(1994, p. 38) argues that appearance can be interpreted in three ways.

 Appearance can be interpreted by others as a clue to your interests (as a

business person or as a sports person)

 Appearance can be interpreted as expressing a person’s attitude towards

another person, especially when a specific kind of attire is expected.

 Appearance can be interpreted as a sign of a person’s self- regard

(thinking highly of yourself).

1.9.10 Posture

Posture is a nonverbal aspect of communication. An individual’s general posture can

convey anything from high status and self-confidence to shyness and submissiveness. For
example, leaning towards a speaker suggests attraction and interest. Pulling away or

shrinking back denotes fear, distrust, anxiety, or disgust. Taylor (1999) notes that the way

people stand or sit can say an awful lot about how they feel. Someone who is nervous or

anxious will fidget with her hands, tap her feet, and drum the table with her fingers.

Someone who sits well back in his or her chair legs with crossed at the ankles would be

seen as being relaxed and confident. Many gestures are used as we speak, for example,

shaking a fist to denote anger, sweeping arms in excitement, using hands for emphasis. In

listening nodding in agreement, shaking head in disapproval, and folding arms in

boredom.

1.9.11 Environmental cues

Staley and Staley (1992, p. 429) state that, “we shape our buildings, thereafter they shape

us.” Offices are basically an extension of our personality. Extroverts are likely to place

their desks facing the door and tend to position the visitor’s chair in a side-by-side

arrangement. Introverts prefer to face the wall. Thus, in many institutions, office features

such as accessibility, floor space and layout and decoration are symbols of status.

Features of the environment are counted as non-verbal communication because they can

affect your behaviour and mood as well as that of one’s listener or audience. These

features include colour, lighting, sound and space.

1.9.11 Touch
Touch plays a predictable, although limited communication role. Staley and Staley (1992,

p. 420) give five functions of touch in a communication setting.

 Functional- professional: this is an impersonal touch with a clear

professional purpose (doctor examining a patient).

 Social-polite: a recognized touch traditions in social interaction (two

professionals shaking hands to close a deal).

 Affectionate- intimate: this is touch that invades personal space (patting a

colleague at the back).

 Relational- dominant: touch that reinforces roles in superior-subordinate

relationships (a male boss who feels free to put his arm around a female

employee).

 Relational-manipulative- touch that helps a person achieves a particular

outcome (a politician who shakes hands with hundreds of voters).

However, laws against sexual harassment have intensified our awareness of the dangers

of unsolicited touch in social gatherings, and workplaces. Touch is culturally interpreted,

because of that; an innocent squeeze on the arm may be misinterpreted as indication of

romantic attraction in some circles.

1.10 Relationship between verbal and nonverbal communication

Verbal and nonverbal messages are inextricably related, the messages coordinate.

Nonverbal messages repeat verbal messages. To ensure being understood, we sometimes

double up on messages. People cannot afford to risk losing the message because of noise,

confusion, or distance.

Nonverbal messages can contradict verbal messages. Although contradiction between

verbal and nonverbal communication occurs, speakers are often unaware that they send

conflicting messages.

Nonverbal messages substitute for verbal messages (nodding or shaking your head).

Nonverbal messages complement verbal messages (smiling).

Nonverbal messages regulate the back- and- forth flow of verbal messages.

Verderber (1994) argues that nonverbal messages serve four functions.

 To complement verbal messages.

 To emphasise verbal messages.

 To replace verbal messages.

 To contradict verbal messages.

Staley and Staley (1992) outlined five principles of nonverbal communication.

 Whenever people are together, nonverbal communication occurs. Thus,

we can communicate, even though the verbal channel can be turned on

and off at will; the nonverbal channel is continuous.

 Nonverbal messages are contextual. Correctly interpreting subtle changes

in tone of voice depends on how the message is related to the context.

 Smiles, nods and winks carry different meanings depending on the

circumstances.

 Nonverbal messages are packaged rather than isolated. If you zero in on

only one type of non-verbal message, you may inaccurately read the non-

verbal communication of others. One area of the body does not tell all.

 Nonverbal messages communicate affect. In professional and business

interactions, you will be able to tell how others are responding to you

and your ideas through the non-verbal messages they send. You will use

the nonverbal channel to ascertain the power structure in the

organisation. You will also communicate to others, your awareness to

them and their importance to you. Nonverbal messages serve as vehicles

for transmitting three kinds of affective information. Immediacy,

dominance, and responsiveness.

 Nonverbal messages are highly believable. Nonverbal messages are

highly credible. When we are presented with conflicting verbal and

nonverbal messages, the nonverbal cue is usually the more convincing.

Activity 1.1: What are the functions of nonverbal communication?

How effective is paralanguage as a nonverbal cue in the teaching profession?

 Compulsory Reading

Cleary, et al. (1999). The Communication Handbook. Cape Town: Juta.

Dodd, C.H. (1998). Dynamics of intercultural communication. New York: Mc Graw Hill.

Staley, C.C. and Staley, R.S. (1992). Communication in Business and the Professions:

The inside word. Wadsworth: California.

Tubbs, S. L. and Moss, S. (198O). Human communication. New York: Random House.

Rogers, E .M. and Steinfatt, T. M. (1999). Intercultural communication. Prospect

Heights: Waveland Press.

Guffey, M. E. (2000). Business communication Process and Product. New York: South-

Western College Publishing.

Verderber, R. F. (1994). Speech for effective communication. New York: Holt Rinehart

and Winston.

http://en.wikipedia.org./communication
 UNIT 2: BARRIRES TO COMMUNICATION

2.1 Introduction

This unit explores the barriers that hinder or interfere with the communication process.

We discuss the various forms of barriers/noise as they apply to interpersonal, mass as

well as public communication. The unit will also suggest how the barriers can be

minimized or overcome altogether. Each barrier will be discussed before a possible

solution is offered.

2.2 Specific Objectives

By the end of this unit, you should be able to:

a) Define noise/barrier to the communication process.

b) Enumerate at least 5 barriers to communication.

c) Give five examples of each of the barriers to communication.

d) Suggest ways of ending or eliminating each of the barriers above.

Reading list

Berko, et al (1998) Communication: a social and career focus. Boston : Houghton

Mifflin Company.
Fielding, M (1997). Effective Communication in Organizations. Cape Town. Juta

Feathers, G. (1997).

Lee-Davis, L. (2007). Developing Work and Study Skills. London: Thomson Learning.

Verdeber, R.F. and Verdeber, K.S. (2008). Communicate! Belmont C.A: Thomson and

Wadsworth.

http://www.en.wikipedia.org/wiki/communication

2.3 Key words

 Noise: any interference added to the message between the sender and the receiver

that will make the accurate interpretation of the message difficult

 Physiological barriers

 Psychological

 Physical barriers

 Linguistic barriers

 Perceptional barriers

 Noise barriers

 Medium barriers

 Feedback barriers

 Stimulus
2.4 Overview

Communication has been defined in Unit One and implications to the definitions have

been discussed. It has also been established that a communication conversation can never

be 100% efficient since there are always barriers of one type or the other. This unit will

deal with most of the barriers we encounter in general communication. The unit will also

look at ways of reducing the negative effect of these barriers. In other words, we will

discuss how we can enhance communication, even in the face of barriers. It is important

to note that no matter how hard we may try, some of the barriers will never go away yet

we still go ahead and pass on the messages. Therefore, it is seldom that the whole

communication focus goes on without hiccups. Discussing noises to communication is

the same as examining what might go wrong in/during the communication process, so

that, instead of understanding, there may be misunderstanding or communication

breakdown. Any case of misunderstanding to the communication process is called a

barrier. A barrier hampers or disrupts the smooth flow of a message from the sender to

the receiver or, in the case of feedback from the receiver to the sender.

ACTIVITY 1.1 Enumerate some barriers that easily come to mind.

2.5 Classification of Barriers to Communication

Many writers classify barriers to communication in a number of ways. According to

Fielding (1997), barriers to communication can be organizational, technical, physical,

physiological, psychological, linguistic and cultural. Cleary et al. (1999) classify barriers

to communication as frame of reference barriers, which are the same as Fielding’s (1997)

psychological barriers to communication, perceptional barriers, noise barriers, medium

barriers and feedback barriers. Verdeber and Verdeber (2008), list down physical noise,

psychological noise and semantic noise as major barriers to communication.

Krizan et al. (2008) attribute failure in effective communication to two categories. The

first category relates to choice of words used by the sender, denotative and connotative

meaning of words, use of idioms, implications and inferences, incorrect

grammar/sentence structure and the wrong type of message. The second category lists

the appearance of the message, the appearance of the sender (credibility), environmental

factors (physical noise), receiver’s capability and ineffective listening skills. Obviously,

it will not be possible to discuss the barriers to communication under the various

categories suggested by the writers above. We will, instead, fuse these together for

purposes of discussion. We shall also try and discuss how each of the barriers can be

minimized or reduced altogether, for more effective communication.

2.5.1 Semantic Barriers

2.5.2 It will be helpful to start by defining the term semantics. Semantics, as a general

term, is the study of meanings of words and can be extended to the meaning of

symbols since we will be discussing nonverbal communication. Therefore,

semantic barriers have something to do with what the sender of a message uses to

communicate meaning with the receiver(s). If a word used by a sender conveys a

different meaning to the receiver, there is communication breakdown. An

example will best illustrate this. The word suffer is always associated with pain,

discomfort and hunger but when in the Bible, Jesus says, ‘Suffer little children,’

surely He does not mean that the little children would undergo pain, misery and

hunger. Instead He means that the little children should be allowed to come to

Him. Here, it can be seen that the word “suffer” has two different meanings to

two people. If one has only one meaning of suffer there will be communication

breakdown or outright confusion. To avoid such confusion, it is important to

unpack information so that the meaning of words is not in doubt. There is also

need to enhance meaning (in verbal communication) by use of gestures or

nonverbal ones.

From another perspective, semantic noise can be in the form of mental pictures of what

words mean. As an example, one can refer to a forty-year old secretary as “the girl in the

office”. A first time visitor to your place will expect to see a young graceful lady serving

as secretary. The visitor will be surprised to see this old woman sitting behind the

secretary’s desk. What is in question here is the two people’s interpretation of the word

‘girl’. Further examples are the meanings of words such as valuable/invaluable, which
many people have mistaken as opposites, the words chilly (nippy cold) and chillies

(periperi), which have different meanings.

Semantic noise also relates to the choice of words used by the sender. If the sender

chooses words that are too different, too technical or too easy for his/her receiver, this

can become a barrier to communication. If words are too different or too technical, the

receiver may not understand them; if the words are easy/simple, the receiver may become

bored or feel insulted. In either case, the message falls short of its goal, that is, to share

meaning. Misusing a word will not only impair meaning but will reflect badly on the

sender. For example, quite often people confuse the words “continuous and continual, so

that, instead of saying ‘The rain was continual throughout the night’, we say ‘The rain

was continuous’. The following are some of the words that are often misused or

confused, with embarrassing results; assure/ensure; complement/compliment;

counsul/council/counsel; biannual/biennial; effect/affect; aid/aide; adopt/adapt/adept;

weather/whether; proceed/procede and principal/principle. Look these words up in a

dictionary and make sure you know them so that when next your friends confuse them

you can help. We are sure that you can come up with more such confusing words.

To overcome the barrier of word meaning and/or usage, we have to rely on dictionaries

and word -finders so that we do not send the wrong message or interpret a message

wrongly.

2.5.2 Syntactic Barriers

Closely related to semantic barriers are syntactic noises. Syntax refers to word order in a

sentence. If the order is changed, then the import of the sentence also changes. The

statement “Can I see Beulah?” is perceived as a polite request to see the said Beulah.

Imagine someone coming to your class while you are busy teaching and saying, “I can

see Beulah?” What would be your reaction? Obviously you would like to respond by

saying, “So what? Go away I am teaching” or you might think that the person is

downright rude or disruptive. All this person has done is to transpose the words ‘can’

and ‘I’ and the whole meaning has changed. So, there you are, the next time when you

are on teaching practice and a student says, “I can go to the toilet” do not get offended,

just correct them because they have committed a syntactic error! There is a place in

Harare known as Market Square but we have often heard people coming from out of

Harare calling the place, Square Market! This is another classical case of syntactic errors.

Such cases of syntactic errors occur when someone does not have a high level of

competence in a language, say in our case, English, which is the official language as well

as the language of instruction in our school and in trade. With various nationalities

coming to visit or to set up business in Zimbabwe, we will come across such people

because they speak Mandarin (Chinese official language), French, Portuguese, German or

Dutch. It is important that we listen carefully to the person you are communicating with

in order to get the meaning of what they are saying. We need to be sensitive as well as

sympathetic to people who cannot speak our language. Bear in mind that they are trying

hard to communicate! What might help a lot is to concentrate on the content words the

speaker is producing in order to arrive at a meaning. We do not have to ignore

everything /he is saying because he/she has used the wrong word; salvage some meaning

from the wrongness of message.

2.5.3 Psychological Noise

Verdeber and Verdeber (2008) define psychological barriers as internal distractions based

on thoughts, feeling or emotional reaction to symbols. Psychological barriers refer to

thoughts or feelings that compete for attention and interfere with the communication

process. A student who attends a lesson with earphones stuck in his/her ears listening to

music coming from an MP3 player has his/her attention divided between the music

coming from the radio and what the teacher/lecturer is saying. It is obvious that such a

student will not grasp 100% of the lecture or lesson, and so the radio acts as a barrier to

effective communication. The same applies when a student has anxiety, fear and/or lacks

confidence. They will not be part of the class because they have a lot on their mind. Their

bodies are present in the classroom but their thoughts are elsewhere. As a teacher, when

you call for their attention, they will behave as if they were coming from somewhere or

as if you have disturbed them from a dream!

The solutions to psychological barriers are varied, suffice to say, that, in any

communication, there should be minimal distractions of a mental nature. The reason why

lecturers are constantly asking their learners to sit up, look in certain direction or to close

and put away their books is to ensure that the students pay attention to what the lecturer

is saying. Such communication as classroom discussions needs to take place where there
are a few things that compete for the attention of the communicants (students + teacher).

As an example, we attend church services in buildings so that we are not distracted by

people who pass by or cars that drive past the church venue. This way, the pastor is

assured of the full attention of the congregation. In like manner, if a teacher were to

conduct/hold a class under a tree in the open, she/he would have difficulty in controlling

the students because their attention would easily wander. For those that lack courage

and/or confidence, they should be encouraged to speak and contribute during discussions

as this will help them build on their confidence. The more confidence they have the more

communicative they become.

2.5.4 Cultural barriers

Cultural barriers refer mostly to nonverbal communication. Nonverbal communication is

culturally determined; it is possible that nonverbal communication in an intercultural

situation can have problems as a result of misunderstanding. Misunderstanding can occur

when both the sender and the receiver are ignorant of the accepted rules of behaviour in

the other’s culture. As an example, in the western culture, and also in Zimbabwe, it is

standard practice or customary to wrap a gift before offering it, while in Japan it is

customary to bear the gift open so that everyone can see it. In Japan, a wrapped gift is a

bad one and when one wraps it, one is trying to conceal that fact. In a situation where a

Japanese and a westerner/or a Zimbabwean are exchanging gifts, the westerner would

offend his/her Japanese friend by presenting a wrapped gift; the inverse would be true if
the Japanese presented a ”naked’ gift. Nowadays, however, these differences are fast

disappearing because of the concept of the global village. The global village concept

means that differences between people from different cultures are becoming less and less

as we exploit and highlight similarities that exist among the various nationalities.

Another example of a cultural barrier is between Africans and Westerners on one hand

and Arabs on the other. In the African culture, it is customary that visitors will announce

the end of their visit and thank the host before taking leave. In Arabic cultures, this

would be regarded as offensive behaviour because the host is the one who is supposed to

announce that the visit has lasted enough and to tell the guests that they may go. On the

African continent, nonverbal communication differs from country to country. An

interesting observation was noted in Ghanaian culture when it comes to leave taking. In

both Zimbabwe and Ghana, it is normal practice to wave goodbye to our visitors when

they depart. While Zimbabweans are not particular about which hand is waved,

Ghanaians are. In Ghana, if you wave goodbye using the left hand, then you are wishing

your visitor(s) bad luck! So a Ghanaian would naturally wonder in askance why you

would wish them bad luck if you had spent the whole afternoon entertaining them.

Nearly all societies have become multicultural and it is important for us to be familiar

with the behaviour and communication codes of all cultures in order for us to be good

communicators. Ignorance of other cultures is the root of prejudice. Prejudice makes

intercultural communication very difficult.

2.5.5 Perceptional Barriers

Let us start by defining the term perception so that everything we are going to discuss

will fall into place. Perception is the process of relating and organizing information

gained through the senses in such a way that it makes sense. It is a way of interpreting

information or giving meaning to the world around you. You are surrounded by sensory

stimuli all day, but your perception – because it is selective – filters out certain stimuli

and allows other stimuli through to register and so make sense to you.

Because perception is selective, two people can witness the same event (experience the

same sensory stimuli) but their perception of the event will differ. In fact, perception is

unique to each individual; no two people can perceive or interpret a communication

transaction in exactly the same way. Perception is unique because an individual’s

perception is determined by his/her frame of reference.

Frame of reference and perception are separate concepts that are, however, interrelated.

Frame of reference determines perception. In other words, one perceives according to

one’s frame of reference.

Perception has already been defined, now we will attempt a definition of “frame of

reference”. Frame of reference is the sum total of an individual’s cultural and

educational background, attitudes, values, beliefs, physical attributes, age and gender.

An individual’s frame of reference is not static but can change because of experience

over a lifetime, for example, how we see things at the age of 8, 18 or 87 is different.

Generally speaking, no two individuals have identical frames of reference; the differences

in frames of reference bring about barriers to communication. People can have different

frames of reference on a simple concept such as what is decent accommodation in a hotel.

When one thinks of a bed and a shower, the other conjures up an ornate room with a

double bedroom suite, a bath tub, a butler unit, a thick carpet and visitors’ comfortable

chairs.

2.5.6 Values, Beliefs and Attitudes

There are three attributes/aspects of a person’s frame of reference. One’s values and

beliefs are ideas which one holds about what is good or true. Values and beliefs cannot

be seen but we can see the manifestation of these through a person’s behaviour. When

two people have different values, they cannot see eye to eye. This is because what they

value as good and/or true is different. As an example, let us take the topical issue of

abortion where there has not been a consensus as to whether it is good or bad. Any

debate on the issue of abortion can never reach an agreement because of the differing

values and beliefs. Here it is a case of Christian values and beliefs against scientific

principles. Attitudes are feelings of approval or disapproval towards people or things.

We say one has a negative attitude towards another person or thing if one disapproves.

For example, old men and women, especially those from the communal lands, have a
negative attitude towards miniskirts because they associate this with wayward behaviour.

Definitely, there will be a frame of reference barrier if two communicants who have

different attitudes towards miniskirts try to discuss clothes and deportment.

At times people’s attitude towards others or things are not guided by sound reasons or

legitimate evidence but by an individual or group’s negative attitude (frame of reference).

Such extremely negative attitude is called prejudice. Where prejudice exists,

communication can be difficult. This is because communicants come into a

communication situation with preconceived ideas based on one incident or unfounded

reasons. In Zimbabwe, there is a general belief that members of the coloured community

are aggressive and so people approach them with caution. This attitude may have been

based on one incident where a group of coloureds may have been involved in a bawl

among themselves or against a group of non-coloureds. This attitude may have been

caused by the fact that during colonial times, coloureds were kept in a closed community

and so viewed anyone different from them as an enemy. This form of prejudice seems to

have died down because, at independence, all communities were integrated under the unit

that was advocate for by the first black government.

Closely linked to attitudes, belief and values are emotions. We tend to perceive other

people, things or events according to the feelings we have at the time. If we are angry,

we tend to perceive what a person says in a different way from if we were happy. In

communication, if we feel that what we strongly believe in is under threat, we react

emotionally. Discussions among Jews, Muslims and Christians (on ZTV) have always
turned emotional when one religious sect felt that their beliefs and were being shaken.

The moderator of such discussions was always quick to come in and cool down tempers.

Such is the strong relationship between emotions and beliefs, values and attitudes that it

is difficult to separate them.

The solution to frame of reference barriers lie in individual communicants in that they

need to develop tolerance of other people’s beliefs and values, and to respect them. The

common practice in Zimbabwe is to start a meeting or function with a prayer, and the

prayer is usually, Christian, meaning that all those gathered are Christians. This has the

effect of encouraging negative attitudes in those people who are not Christians. They feel

they have not been given enough recognition or are not regarded altogether.

2.5.7 Feedback barriers

Feedback is the response that a receiver will give to the sender. For communication to be

successful, the sender should get a response that s/he intended to receive from the

receiver. This means that the message that the sender transmitted was received as it was

sent. Viewed this way, feedback is used to assess the success/failure of the

communication. If the sender does not get the intended response, s/he makes adjustments

to the message before resubmitting or resending it. Adjustment can be in the form of re-

stating the ideas, stressing key issues or repeating them in order to enhance the chances of

effective communication. What we need to remember is that we are wasting our time

when we ask if the receiver has understood. If we ask “Do you understand?” the
receiver will say yes because no one wants to be viewed as a dunce! (a dunce is a very

dull person). Rather we need to ask “What did you understand?” This allows us to

determine whether the message has been correctly understood or not.

Let us hasten t add that feedback will depend on the medium chosen to send the message,

that is, what we refer to as the message flow. Written communication allows for one-way

communication with little or no immediate feedback. On the other hand, spoken or face-

to-face conversation allow for two-way communication. There is a great deal of feedback

in the form of direct questions, comments and the reading of body language such as a

smile, a frown, a nod of the head and the use of hands or related gestures through which

meanings and feelings can be assessed. Lastly, telephone messages also allow for two-

way communication and have more immediate feedback than written communication.

However, because of distance, nonverbal messages such as frowns or smiles cannot be

captured. To sum up, barriers to effective communication can arise from any part of the

communication process; awareness of these barriers can help improve communication.

Summary

A communication barrier is any factor that hampers the achievement of understanding

between sender and the receiver. Because the communication process is complex, there

are many possible breakdowns or barriers that can arise. Even when we think we are

quite and not communicating, we will be communicating because communication can be

conscious or unconscious, intentional and unintentional. We conclude by saying that a

good communicator should anticipate and try to avoid the occurrence of barriers.
 UNIT 3: READING FOR ACADEMIC PURPOSES

Specific Objectives

By the end of the unit, you should be able to:

 Choose the appropriate reading techniques for a given task.

 Use skimming techniques to survey, preview and review reading material.

 Locate information by scanning.

 Reduce a text to a meaningful set of notes.

 Demonstrate the ability to summarize the main points in your own words and

generate a connected grammatically correct prose passage.

Summary

This unit examines the various ways of adapting your reading to the various tasks you

will come across in your studies. You need to pay attention to the reading techniques

given in this unit as these will come in handy when you are required to do some exercises

later on in this and subsequent units. The main techniques in reading/writing interface

are summarizing, paraphrasing, and synthesizing, and these will be discussed in detail in

the course of this unit.

Compulsory reading
  http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index hph

 http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/sk....-reading

 http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/active-listening

 Cleary, S. (ed.) 1999 The Communication Handbook. Kenyan Juta.

Additional Reading

Greendale, S. and Swan, M. (1986.) Effective reading: reading skills for advanced

students. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.

Key words

Reading: a complex cognitive process of decoding symbols with the intention of deriving

or constructing meaning. Reading is a means of communication and sharing of ideas. It

is an interaction between a text and the reader and is shaped by the reader’s own

knowledge, experience, attitudes, speech community etc.

Skimming: a process of speed reading that involves visually searching the sentences of a

page for clues to meaning. The aim is to get an overall view of a text and is done at a

much faster speed than normal reading (700 or more words per minute).
Summarizing: Writing an abridged version of a long passage, by taking the main points

and leaving out less important information. This is done in one continuous paragraph.

The summary is usually shorter than the original passage. By the of thumb, a summary

should be a third of the length of the original passage.

Paraphrasing: writing a personal version of a given paragraph/passage. This is done to

demonstrate that you have understood the text. The paraphrase may be longer than the

original text.

Scanning: this is a fast reading technique meant to locate specific information e.g.

looking up a word in a dictionary. There is no need to read the whole dictionary or to

understand other words except the one you are looking for.

Synthesizing: putting together ideas from the various sources you have consulted on a

given topic. You may be putting together, ideas that concur or disagree.

SQ3R/4R: also known as critical reading, study reading or interactive reading. The

acronym stands for Survey, Question, Recite/Recall, Review and Record.

3.0 Approaches to Reading

3.1 Reading and Content

Reading involves interacting with a text. This interaction occurs within a context.

Context may refer to context of the passage being read or context of the reader.

Context of the passage refers to the circumstances in which the reading occurs. For

example, we cannot read a passage from an entertainment magazine in the same way we

would read the same passage if it came in an examination. In the context of leisure

reading, we do not pay attention to detail but we just pick up the main points of the event

being narrated. In the second context, we read closely because we anticipate answering

questions on the passage after reading it. So, it can be seen that the same passage can be

read differently, depending on the context of the passage.

The context of the reader refers to the different personal characteristics that the reader

brings to the text. These characteristics differ from individual to individual and may

include linguistic competence, that is, mastery of the language, knowledge of the

language in terms of codes and structures, and life experiences. The characteristics may

also include prior knowledge of the topic being read or discussed, means for reading and

frame of reference. We hope that by now you are familiar with the term frame of

reference because it was dealt with in the previous unit when we discussed barriers to

effective communication. In other words, this means that when an individual reads a

passage, the individual brings in a lot of experience to the text being read. The interplay

of the individual’s characteristics in a particular reading context makes reading a complex

process.
3.2 Reading Process

Reading as a process, involves focusing on the meaning of words in combination. You

will agree that words in isolation have very limited meaning and that possibilities of

meaning increase as words are combined with others. As an example, we can have

individual words used as ‘play’, ‘team’, ‘soccer’, ‘ground’, or even ‘yesterday’. The

words have limited meaning as single isolated lexical items but can be more meaningful

if they were combined in a sentence such as The team play soccer at he ground. In

reading, focus is not on individual letters or on single words, but on groups of words

which form meaningful phrases. Once meaningful phrases have been identified, the

reader can make informed guesses on what is to follow. This, as we have already said,

will depend on the reader’s characteristics. For example, if we hear the phrase, Once

upon a time …, there is no doubt in our minds that we are about to hear a narrative story.

Similarly, when we hear In summing up…, we are certain that the presentation is coming

to an end and not starting. These are just general guiding points when we read because

they help us in anticipating what to expect.

3.3 Reading Purposes and Techniques

Much of university learning comes from reading but the sheer volume of books and

academic papers which it is necessary to read can be worrying. This is why students

often say that there is too much to read and they can never have enough time to get
through it all. Students also complain that the text books that they are supposed to read

are difficult to understand, and lastly, they do not know which sources to read for various

assignments they are given. There are, however, a number of techniques that can be

employed to enable more efficient reading. Remember that each time you read, you do

so for a purpose, which should affect the way you approach your reading. If you are

reading a novel or magazine, you generally do so for relaxation and entertainment and so

your reading tends to be quick and effortless because there is no need for critical analysis.

In contrast, much academic reading involves a more careful approach where the main

ideas of what you are reading about are identified and evaluated. In reading for academic

purposes, note-taking is also necessary. There is need for university students to adjust

their reading style and speed to suit the purpose for reading. Avoid unnecessary reading,

that is, reading the whole chapter when all you need is a piece of information contained

in one paragraph. Also, avoid the wrong type of reading, e.g., reading generally, when

you should be reading critically, or trying to get a detailed understanding of each page yet

you only need an overview.

REMEMBER: Books, articles or any reading material must be read at different rates,

and in different ways, for different purposes. Therefore before you start reading, you will

need to do the following:

3.3.1 Identify your purpose. Is it:

a) Background reading for an essay/argument?

 b) Setting out a line of argument in panel discussions?

c) Entertainment or enjoyment?

d) Understanding the basic principles in a subject area?

3.3.2 Select the type of reading suitable for your purpose. There are five main types of

reading, here arranged in increasing order of intensity:

a) Reading for enjoyment: light reading

b) Reading for overview: getting a general idea or the gist of a topic.

c) Search reading: looking for some specific piece of information.

d) Reading for mastery: to get detailed information or for understanding.

e) Critical reading: reading for stimulus or to challenge and assess ideas, values and

arguments.

3.4 TYPES OF READING

In academic situations, there are three styles or types of reading that can be used. There

are skimming, scanning (also called search reading) and the SQ3R/4R also known as

reading for mastery). We will now go over each of the styles in detail to help you have

an insight into these important processes. Remember, these processes will be the main

ways through which you will get information for your assignments or when you

conference with colleagues.

3.4.1 Skimming (overview reading)

This is a very fast way of reading, not every word is read. The general purpose is to get

an overview of the text. You will go through the material quickly and, in addition to

finding the main idea, try to identify how the material is organized, and get an idea of the

tone and intention of the writer. Normally, you will skim for three purposes, that is, to

preview, to survey and to review a text.

3.4.1.1 Skimming to preview

This is done to get some idea of the content of a passage/text, for example, an article, in

the shortest possible time. When you preview you will have to answer the following

questions:

a) What is the passage/article about?

b) Does the article contain useful information on the topic I am studying?

c) How difficult does it look?

In order to answer the questions, you have to read the heading/title, the chapter headings

and subheadings, opening and closing paragraphs and the first and last lines of each

paragraph. This way, you have a general idea of what is contained in the article and you

can determine whether or not it is relevant to what you are reading about.
3.4.1.2 Skimming to survey

We do this in order to get a mental picture or outline of the material you have to study in

depth. You will need to fit in the details into a given framework in order to have a clear

understanding of the material. When skimming to review, use the following strategies:

a) Study the heading or title of the text.

b) Read the introduction. Usually, writers of articles/books tell the reader where

they are going and how they are going to get there in the introduction.

c) Read the summary, if there is one, or the conclusion. This gives you an overview

of the main points.

d) Read the main headings and check if there are any further subheadings.

e) Pay attention to other techniques used by the writer to draw the reader’s attention,

such as italicised or bold point, boxed items, illustrations and diagrams.

3.4.1.3 Skimming to review

This is done as a revision strategy. You will have to read the material you have already

gone through, quickly and concentrate on the main points and leave out less important

material. Answer the following two questions:

a) What are the main points again?

b) Do I remember them (main points)?

Skimming to review is usually done shortly before an examination to revise work that has

previously been studied. You are employing all the elements covered under previewing

and surveying, and then fill in the rest of the text.

3.4. Scanning

Scanning is something called search reading. It is the fastest reading technique and is

used to locate specific information within a text. Firstly, you need to have a clear idea of

the information required and then allow your eyes to glance quickly over the text until the

particular detail is found. Scanning does not involve understanding the whole passage.

The secret here is to concentrate on the detail you require and not let your attention

wander to some interesting paragraph or item that may be irrelevant to the task.

Find the section where you think the detail you are searching for is located and then read

in detail. If the detail you are searching for if there, re-read in depth, making notes. If

the detail is not there go to another site/source. Do not waste time reading the whole

book or chapter, hoping to find information that is not there. You will normally use

scanning to look for a particular name, key word, date, a number or amount, for example,

a particular name in a telephone directory or the meaning of a word in a dictionary. When

scanning, you need to make use of the following tips:

a) Note the numerical or alphabetical clues.

 b) Hold the image of the item you are looking in your mind.

c) Use your finger to guide you (if you wish).

d) Beware of the visuals in the material such as capital letters in the middle of

sentence or numbers that stand out in a written text.

Scanning is usually used in conjunction with other reading activities such as skimming.

As an example, as you read this module, you can scan the contents page for information

on barriers to communication and then skim a certain section to see how relevant the

information is.

ACTIVITY 3.1: What are the differences between skimming and scanning?

3.4.2 Study reading/SQ3R or 4R

This is intensive reading and is usually done slowly and carefully. It involves reading in

order to understand, to remember, and to be critical. Study-reading requires that you

interact with the text rather than just reading the material without thinking. In study-

reading, you will obviously start by skimming the material for an overall impression.

Then, taking a paragraph, section or chapter at a time, you use the SQ3R approach.

Firstly, we need to familiarize ourselves with the acronym SQ3R/4R. It stands for

Survey, Question, and the Rs stand for Read, Review, Recite and Record. Record

presupposes that everything that a student reads ends up being written down either as

notes, reports, assignments or write-ups.

3.4.3.1 Survey the passage to get an idea of what it is about

a) Note how the chapter (or section) you want to read fits into the total plan of the

book. For example, does it provide background information to a series of later

chapters? Or does it elaborate on a topic introduced in a previous chapter?

b) Note the major divisions or main topics of a chapter in order to decide on the

amount of work you are going to over, e.g. the main ideas of the whole chapter or

just the first section.

c) Study the chapter title. Think about what the title says or means and what you

already know about the subject.

d) Read the heading and subheadings. They tell you about the key words and ideas

of the chapter and how it is organized.

e) Read the introduction and the summary of the first and last paragraphs.

f) Read sentences, phrases or words in bold face lettering or in italics.

g) Look at any visual aids e.g. charts and read their captions.

3.4.3.2 Question

a) Question by turning all the main statements into questions.

 b) Ask yourself what you already know e.g. the meaning of chapter title, or what

information you already know on the topic.

c) Ask yourself if you have read some related literature on the topic under review.

d) Is the information contained in the article sufficient to meet the needs of the topic

or argument?

e) What is/are the main point(s) or argument(s) of the writer and how is this different

from the sources you have already used?

f) Ask yourself what you already know, e.g. about the meaning of the chapter title,

or what information you already know on the topic.

g) Ask yourself if you have read some related literature on the topic under review.

h) Is the information contained in the article sufficient to meet the needs of the topic

or argument?

i) Ask the questions you would want answered as you proceed with your reading.

j) Read the passage, article or chapter.

k) Bear in mind, the questions you have asked and determine if they are being

addressed by what you are reading.

There is need to re-read the passage if it is dense or challenging if read for the first time.

Using a pencil (if the book is yours), mark the text by underlining or writing notes in the

margins to help you identify the main points or parts that answer the questions you have

asked above. Select key words or phrases in the sentences and paragraphs, i.e., the most

important words, the ones that convey essential information.

You need to find the topic sentences of each paragraph. This is the sentence that tells the

reader what the paragraph is all about. Make notes as you read or shortly after you have

finished, showing the relationship of the different parts of the passage/article to each

other. Identify linking words and connectors as these can show the development of ideas

or introduce contrasting points. Examples of such linking words can be Firstly

…,Secondly …, To sum up …, To conclude ... These linking words give you the general

direction of the passage.

3.4.3.3 Recite/Recall what you have learnt.

Put your passage/article away and try and remember as much of what you have read as

possible. Now answer the questions you have set yourself to see how much you can

remember without looking at the text. Review cumulatively and routinely to note the

chronological ordering of events, to see if you get these right when you were reciting. In

other words, you are checking the corrections of what you were saying at the recall/recite

stage. The number of correct/wrong responses will indicate whether you understood the

text/passage or not. Now revisit all the areas where you got the information wrong and

re-read for better understanding.

Establish a relationship between the facts you are dealing with so that they easily form

something logical to understand. You can even form your own acronyms or prompters to

help you remember. Look at the acronym ADIDAS (for the sports wear). It stands for
All Day I Dream About Sports! We are sure you can come up with your own to help you

remember the information you read.

Record what you wish to remember as the main points of the passage, that is, what you

deem to the most important facts that you need to have on your finger tips. Recording

forms the most important skill linked to reading, that is, the ability to make notes from

lectures, discussions and reading. The writing of notes on any given text is evidence that

you have already read the text and you have notes for purposes of revision. This brings

us to the next section, which is note- taking.

3.4.3.4 Note- Taking

Note- taking means a personal version of someone else’s ideas, be it a lecturer, an author

or a speaker, with a specific purpose in mind. Because it is impossible, and not

interesting to produce an exact replica of the original lecture or speech, the notes you

make, are in essence, a summary of the proceedings. Notes serve the following

functions:

a) Serve as a record of the main points of a lecture for revision and

examinations.

b) To be added to other information.

c) To be used to prepare a summary for another audience, such as a presentation

to your superiors or work group.

3.4.3.5 Notes in lectures

When you attend a mass lecture or a symposium, you may want to write something to

take home with you. You may also write it to keep a record of the proceedings because it

is your responsibility to report to colleagues or fellow professionals. In the school

system, when the Ministry wants to introduce an innovation, they train a few

representatives at national level and then cascades this to the provinces. The provinces

also cascade the innovation down to the districts until it reaches the school teachers in the

classroom. In such cases, it is important to take accurate notes of the proceedings – at the

meetings so that you will be able to give an unbiased account of what is required of the

people involved. In coming up with good notes, you should use the following strategies:

a) Use headings for the main title and subtitles of the lecture.

b) Underline key words and main points to indicate lecture emphasis.

c) Use space. The organization of your notes should show the relative

importance of different points e.g. you can have:

Main points against the margin

- Secondary points or subheadings indented

- Supporting details further indented.

Abbreviate. Use the commonly accepted abbreviations such as:

 e.g. - example

NB - note well/important

Re: - with reference to

You can invent your own system and shorten words that are regularly used. For example,

with one-syllable words, use the first and last sound, e.g. take - tk

great - grt

chair - chr

With words of two or more syllables, try to use the first syllable, or as much as you need

to make the word recognizable. E.g. organization - org

secretary - sec

engineering - engrg

inform - inf

information - info

Use the context for clues when you read notes. For example, in a lecture, the lecturer

may require students to find information in the library: the shortened notes in that context

can appear as: “Lec says info in lib” (the lecturer says this information can be found in

the library). Be attentive to the lecturer’s emphases. If the lecturer says “This is

important” or “These are three points to note”, take note and highlight this in your notes.

Revise notes as soon after as possible. Some detail will come back as you read. Or you
may want to draw lines to indicate connection between ideas. The notes you have made

are a rough first copy and can be expanded with further reading.

3.4.3.6 Notes from Reading

Getting the main points of a text you have read is very important. Students can achieve

this by following the steps below:

a) Skim-read first to get a general idea of what the text is about and its structure.

b) Then read in detail, the first paragraph, identify the topic sentence or

controlling idea and make note of it, by either underlining (if the text is your

own) or writing it out.

c) Repeat this with all ensuing paragraphs.

d) Read through the topic sentences to see if they contain all the essential

information of the original text. If not, add in the extra detail. Your improved

notes should include the author’s words and phrases.

The direct words or phrases from the writer should be placed in inverted commas and

acknowledged. Failure to acknowledge when you have used another’s words will be

viewed as plagiarism. Plagiarism is a capital offence in academic writing and your

lecturers will give you a zero (0) should they discover that you have used an author’s

ideas as if they were your own. It has already been mentioned that most of the reading

we do will end up being written down in the form of assignments notes, seminar notes,
and for presentations. We have also indicated that it is impossible to copy everything that

we read about. So what we end up with are summaries of what we read. Our next

section looks at how we can deal with large chunks of reading materials that you have to

go through as a university student.

3.4.4.0 Summarizing Paraphrasing and Synthesizing

Summarizing, paraphrasing and synthesizing are skills associated with reading as well as

writing, so you will discuss these three skills again when you deal with reading for

academic purposes. This will not be repetition but emphasis to help you understand the

concepts more. We will now discuss each of the three skills in more detail.

3.4.4.1 Summarizing

The term summary has already been defined in the glossary section of this unit. We will

define it here in more detail. The briefest form of a summary is the heading or title of an

article or passage because it is generally argued that the heading seems to capture

everything that an article/passage is going to say or to discuss. In everyday use, the term

summary usually refers to a prose reduction of an original text. It is written in your own

words, in complete sentences, and, as a rule of thumb, should be a third of the length of

the original passage.

A summary can require straightforward reduction or it can involve selecting information

according to instructions. In short, the summary instruction(s) will determine the

shape/form the summary will take. In general, the skills involved in summary writing are

those we have already discussed under study reading (SQ3R). Use a pencil to work

directly on the passage to be summarized, in order to underline key words or ideas that

will be included in the summary and delete unnecessary phrases. Use the following

strategies in selecting material for a summary:

a) Read the passage slowly and thoroughly in order to understand the message.

b) Check the requirements, i.e., is it for another audience with specific needs? Is

it for a lecturer who wants a more concise message? Or is it for personal

study?

c) Identify key words and topic sentences.

d) Write the main points in point form in your own words.

e) Read the original passage again and check that all points have been included.

f) Choose the most suitable format for the first and final draft (even though we

have said a summary should be written in continuous writing, some can be

written in point form).

3.4.5.0 Paraphrasing

Paraphrasing can be defined as expressing the meaning of a passage in one’s own words

(Cleary 1999). The original writer’s wording and phrasing should not be used if you
decide not to quote directly but to paraphrase. At times, you choose to write the idea

using the same phrases or omitting a few words. This is plagiarism. To avoid

plagiarism, do not refer to the original passage when you write notes that are not direct

quotation for your paraphrase. A good paraphrase will accurately capture the impact of

the original source on meaning and emphasis, but using different vocabulary and

different order in the presentation of the aspects contained in the original text. A

paraphrase will enable you to use a writer’s work in supporting your point/argument in an

academic essay or discussion without necessarily writing out that writer’s exact wording.

You can change the words into your own but when it comes to technical expressions,

these remain unchanged and should be copied as is. Below are some useful hints to bear

in mind when compiling a paraphrase.

a) Understand the source because the ability to paraphrase is evidence of

comprehension of the source you are paraphrasing.

b) Write down the main and supporting points in point form.

c) Look at the original source to ensure that all relevant points have been

included.

d) Compare notes with a colleague and make adjustments.

e) Finally write the paraphrase from your notes NOT from the original source.

f) If there are any eye-catching expressions/phrases that you cannot resist,

include them, but place them in quotation marks.

Remember that there is a world of difference between paraphrasing and quoting. Should

you paraphrase, then use your own words but when you quote, write the passage out

word for word and use quotation marks.

3.4.6.0 Synthesizing

Synthesizing is closely related to summarizing and paraphrasing. In reading for a

presentation or an assignment, you will have to read many sources on a given topic.

There will be sources that will concur on issues and others that will contradict on the

same issue. In other words, two sources can have different approaches or perspectives

on the same topic. Synthesizing is putting together, ideas from the various sources you

have consulted on the topic you are going to write on/about. In synthesizing, we have to

answer the following questions:

a) What are the writer’s views on the topic?

b) Which writers concur in their views on the topic?

c) To what extent do the concurring writers go?

d) For those that differ, which is their point of departure?

e) What is the overall gist of the debate among the writers?

f) Where is your voice I all this?

Remember that you are using the sources to support your case and so we want to hear

what this case you are supporting is. Your presentation or assignment should not be
made up of excerpts of writers agreeing and/or contradicting throughout without your

own line of argument. This view will be dealt with in greater detail in the next unit.

SUMMARY

Reading is a complex process that involves interacting with symbols in order to come up

with meaning. Both the reader and writer of text bring meaning that is based on their

experiences and frame of reference. Readers should have purposes for reading and also

identify the writer’s purpose in writing. Each reading purpose has its own reading style

and readers should select their reading style to suit the reading purpose. Reading

improves with practice. Note-taking happens within lectures and personal reading and

study. Notes should reflect the material being read and the purpose for reading.

Summarizing, paraphrasing and synthesizing are critical in the reading/writing interface.

 UNIT 4: INTRODUCTION TO ACADEMIC WRITING

Specific objectives

By the end of this unit, you should be able to:

a) Give several definitions of academic writing.

b) Discuss what sets academic writing apart from all other types of writing.

c) Discuss the characteristics of academic writing.

d) Demonstrate the ability to paragraph and describe the structure of an ideal

paragraph.

e) Demonstrate the ability to punctuate, using both internal and external

punctuation.

f) Identify the components of academic writing.

g) Identify and describe any two reference and in-text citation styles.

h) Identify the process of gathering information, writing the first draft, editing

and preparing the final draft in summary writing.

Compulsory Reading

http://www.wikipedia.org/wiki/academicwriting

http://www.dartmouth.edu/~writing/material/student/ac.paper/what.shmtt
Courtrell, S. (1999). The Study Handbook. Basingstoke: Macmillan

Sotiriou, P.E. (1993). Integrating college Study Skills: Reasoning in Reading, Listening

and Writing. (3rd ed.) Belmont: Wadsworth Publishing Company.

KEY WORDS

Academic writing: is writing by scholars for other scholars. Academic writing refers to

a certain/particular style of expression.

Claim: is also known as a thesis statement. This is a position you take and argue for in

academic writing.

Thesis statement: this is the same as claim. Without a claim or thesis statement, there is

no academic writing.

Evidence: refers to all facts that you use to support your claim. For example, if your

claim is “Zimbabwe has the most beautiful tourist attractions in Africa”, your evidence

will include mention of Victoria Falls, Great Zimbabwe, Dhlodhlo Monuments, Chinhoyi

Caves and all other attractions you are aware of.

Counterargument: this is information that you provide your would- be critics. You

foresee what your critics are going to say and you give them the answers or explanations

before they ask you.

Audience analysis: being aware of the composition of the people you are going to

address or the person who is going to read what you are writing e.g. age, gender mix,

political affiliation, professional as well as religious grouping etc.

In-text citation: this refers to citing sources to support your claim within the body of the

essay/paper.

Plagiarism: is the bad practice of copying another author’s words or ideas without

acknowledging them. Cleary (1999) likens plagiarism to shoplifting – taking without

paying! It is the most serious crime, which can be committed in academic writing.

References: a list of all the books, articles (in journals), papers and online information

that you referred to in your assignment or in the compilation of your presentation. These

are sources that can be traced to the essay and so should not contain sources that have not

been cited in the body of the assignment.

4.0 Introduction to Academic Writing

We will start by describing what academic writing is and then go on to discuss its

characteristics. We will discuss the components of academic writing, that is, the

structure, and give details of what each aspect of the process means to the whole. The

unit will also look at elements of academic writing that set it apart from all other forms of
writing. The unit will take you step by step, through the writing process, including

sentence construction, paragraphing, punctuation, in-text citation and how we compile

references.

4.1 Academic Writing defined

Academic writing has as many definitions as authorities who have attempted to write on

the concept. Despite the diverse definitions of academic writing, the definitions share

common features as will be realized as the unit progress.

http://en.wikipedia.org.academicwriting defines academic writing as writing by scholars

for other scholars. Now, you may begin to think that this definition excludes you the

tertiary student. Far from it, your being a tertiary student, makes you a member of the

scholars’ fraternity. The assignments you will be required to write in university courses

are all part of academic writing. As a university student, you will be engaged in activities

that scholars have engaged in from time immemorial that is, reading about, arguing about

and writing about ideas. Being a scholar requires that you read, think, argue and write in

a certain way (academic writing).

Academic writing is writing that is devoted to topics and questions that are of interest to

the academic community. What this means is that when you want to write a paper, you

must first find a topic or question that is relevant and appropriate. In the case of

assignments that your lecturers or tutors give you, the academic value of such

assignments has already been determined. Should you come up with your own topic, find
out if the topic is going to be of interest to other students and scholars such as your

lecturers? For example, you may wish to write on Mathematics and Science teaching

methods. This will definitely be of interest to follow students-teachers, practicing

teachers and general educationists. There might be some scholars who may have

researched on the topic before you. In such a situation, you are seen as contributing to

already existing knowledge on teaching methodology in general and teaching

Mathematics and Science in particular. Academic writing obviously differs from

newspaper or magazine articles we have read before or a novel by your favourite write

such as Nick Slaughter, Peter Chain or Danielle Steele. These materials (novels and

magazines) have entertainment value rather than academic significance. Perhaps we need

to emphasis that, not all writing is academic writing, and we can do this by defining

further, what academic writing is all about. We look at the structure of academic writing

in order to distinguish it from other types of writing.

4.2 The Structure of Academic Writing

Academic writing has a set structure that is discernible in pieces of academic writing.

While the order of the components of academic writing do not follow the set order

religiously, one should be able to identify these components wherever they are placed

within a piece of academic writing. Here we will discuss with examples, the structure of

academic writing. Academic writing has the following parts: thesis statement or claim,

evidence, counterargument and audience.

4.2.1 Thesis Statement/Claim

The thesis statement or claim forms the basis of academic writing in that if there is no

claim then there is no argument, and therefore no academic writing. A claim is a guide

that the writer provides so that we know his/her point of view. As a student, you may

come up with a claim that “Today’s students lack discipline, hence the poor performance

in class”. You should be able to compose an essay that brings out the fact that, indeed

students are performing badly because of lack of discipline. In other words, a claim is

specific and provable. Another example of a claim/thesis statement is “The land Rover is

the strongest vehicle ever made”. From such a statement, the reader has an idea of what

the writer is going to say about Land Rover cars.

ACTIVITY 4.1 Think of a general topic of academic interest and formulate a thesis

statement from where you can write an academic essay. Ensure that the thesis statement

is specific and provable.

Now that you have formulated a thesis statement, we wish to go onto the next

component, which is the evidence. We have already said that the claim or thesis

statement should be provable. If you wish to prove something, you need evidence or

facts to support your proof. These facts you use to support your claim or thesis statement

are the evidence.

4.2.2 Evidence
4.2.3 We have made the thesis statement that Land Rovers are the strongest cars that

were ever manufactured. The next question we ask is, “What proof is there to

show that indeed the car in question is the strongest?” We can give facts such as

1) 75% of Land Rovers that were manufactured since 1945 are still on the road.

2) All Land Rovers involved in accidents have never been declared write offs. 3)

The fatalities in Land Rover accidents are the least when compared to other

makes of vehicles. We can have as many pieces of evidence to support the Land

Rover thesis statement and indeed any thesis statement. We can conclude that we

cannot have a good claim/thesis statement if we do not have enough evidence to

support what we are claiming or what we are convinced in. As you read around

this topic, you will come across some books, which do not use the term evidence

but grounds. You often hear the question “On what grounds do you claim to be

the best footballer of your time?”

When a footballer is asked such a question as the one above, the football player has to use

proof/evidence/grounds that point to the fact that he was indeed the best player of his

time. We can also come to the conclusion that if there is no evidence or grounds to

support a claim, then that writing is not academic writing. In addition to the claim and

evidence/grounds, academic writing needs to look at the other side of the argument/topic

being discussed, because the position you take is but only one of the many positions to

the argument. This brings us to the third component of academic writing, which is the

counterargument.
4.2.4 Counterargument

The counterargument arises from the fact that a claim or thesis statement is an arguable

point. Because of this, you, as a writer, should acknowledge in your work, the other side

of the argument. Here you are considering what your opponents are going to say against

your argument. When you have anticipated what your critics are going to say, you decide

how you are going to dispatch them. You may decide to deal with their points one by

one or you can discuss them as one. This will mainly depend on the structure of your

paper.

Going back to the thesis statement that the Land Rover is the strongest car ever

manufactured; one counterargument that comes to mind is the fact that the research can

be biased. Your opponents will raise the concern that the research may be biased since it

was carried out in the United Kingdom. If you have anticipated that this is what they are

going say, you will say it before they say so, and provide your defence. Here is an

example of how this can be said in the course of a speech or a written document, “I am

well aware that some, among you, are of the view that the research might be biased

because it was carried out in the United Kingdom, let me assure you that even though the

study was done in the United Kingdom, the team that did the study comprised members

from Germany, Italy, Sweden, The USA, South Africa and the two Koreas.”

If there were members of your audience who were about to raise that concern, you have

silenced them. Still on the same claim, you can have another counterargument like this,
“Some may say that the Land Rover has the most unattractive shape among all vehicles, I

totally agree but the thrust of the research was on durability not aesthetics of the body.

The counterargument is evidence that you have looked at all possible perspectives of the

topic under discussion. It means you have explored all avenues before taking your point

of view or position. You can convince the hardest of all critics if you do this well. In

academic writing, there is also the idea of who you are addressing in your speech or who

you are writing for. This is important because it affects the tone of your paper, the choice

of words and the examples you will give to illustrate your points. This is what is referred

to as audience analysis.

4.2.5 Audience Analysis

Writers cannot determine why they are writing without also determining who is going to

read what they are writing. University students always assume that their reader is their

lecturers. This is true in as far as assignments are concerned. For general academic

writing, writers must of necessity, remember that they are writing for multiple audiences.

Important to note is the fact that the most immediate audience is the writer himself or

herself. As the writer, you should be the first person to be impressed by what you write

because if you are not impressed, chances are that no one else will be, and you will have

wasted time and energy. The most significant audience is the reader(s). The readers

want writing that tells them something and they are easily put off by tedious uninspired

writing. In determining the audience, consider the following:

4.2.5.1 Level of knowledge of the topic

Consider how much the people you are going to address know about what you are going

to talk about. A lay audience knows nothing or very little about the topic yet you need not

assume that the audience is stupid. An expert audience knows as much as or even more

than you do about the topic. A technical audience has specific technical knowledge of

your topic and is interested in the practical aspect of the topic. A mixed audience

consists of combinations of some or all of the above. If the audience has a low level of

knowledge of your topic, adapt your message (vocabulary) by defining all terms and

providing full explanations. With a knowledgeable audience, half your job has been done

because, all you have to do is to encourage participants to share what they know with

fellow participants.

4.2.5.2 Level of Education

While we are certain of the level of education of lecturers as audience of your written

arguments, the same cannot be said about a general audience, which you do not know and

have never seen. So you need to find out if your audience will be university graduates or

mere Grade Seven certificate holders. At times, you write on a topical issue that may

capture the attention and interest of a wide spectrum of audience, including the lowly

educated. If your audience is less educated, use short sentences and simplified

vocabulary in order to reach them.

4.2.5.3 Occupation
The specific jobs held by your audience and their experience in the workplace will affect

their understanding of your message. The workers on the production line for example,

will perceive your message from a different perspective to that of staff in the finance

department of the same organization. Some jobs enhance an audience’s capacity to read

and understand written material because probably they are always reading various

journals, quarterly reports and so forth, so they are more likely to understand

presentations – both written and oral. Some lowly educated workers will have a great of

knowledge about processes that occur at the workplace. A good example is that f mine

workers who know all processes at the mine because of experience and exposure during

the time they have worked in the various departments in the mine. A presenter will be

surprised at the level of knowledge in such workers.

4.2.5.4 Status

The status of your audience will influence your message. Consider whether your

audience has the power to make decisions, based on your message. Consider also, the

audience status in the community. If the writer has a formal relationship with the

audience, he/she should use a formal style; the inverse is also true.

4.2.5.5 Social Variables

Social variables must be considered as they can influence the way you design and

structure your message. Social variables to consider are age, gender mix,

nationality/culture, mother- tongue and social/political/religious beliefs. Definitely,

messages for an audience of pensioners will be differently structured from that designed
for a group of youth just out of university. The examples you would use to illustrate

points to a male only audience would be different from those composed for a mixed

gender audience.

4.2.5.6 Size

Ask yourself how many people your message is going to reach. In other words, how big

is your audience? The way you formulate your message will depend on the size of the

audience, for example, a message meant for 500 people will differ from that designed for,

say, twenty. You need to plan carefully on how to make 500 people feel that they are

being addressed personally. With a small group, you can manage to keep their attention

but it can be challenging with a big group.

4.2.5.7 Special Biases

In your planning, you need to be aware of some peculiar likes/dislikes of your audience.

For example, do they want to be addressed by first names, surname or title? Do they fuss

about the language you use? You will meet people among your audience, who will

constantly remind you of their titles, from the time the presentation starts, right up to the

end. There are cases where you feel that for a gentleman is Mr and will suffice for the

duration of the presentation, yet someone will correct you/saying he/she is not Mr/s but

professor so and so. You will have to address them using the title they have given you.

This means you may have to ask the other members of the audience about their titles. A
solution to this problem of titles (in an oral presentation) would but to distribute some

name tags and ask each participant to write and display their names and titles. The tags

should be big enough for you to see as you move around and among the participants.

4.2.5.8 Attitudes and Perceptions

Put yourself in the shoes of the audience in order for you to be sensitive to how they will

perceive and react to your message in terms of their needs. It is possible to spend a lot of

time during a presentation or in writing, offending people through ignorance. You can

assault your audience through the wrong jokes or anecdotes that impinge an audience’s

religion or political affiliations. Once this happens, the whole presentation has gone to

waste because the audience switches off and then you talk to yourself. This seems to be

minor but will go a long way in making your presentation a success.

4.2.5.9 Checklist on Audience Analysis

Once you have drawn up a profile of your audience, it will be helpful to ask yourself the

following questions:

a. How much does my audience know about the subject?

b. What is the source of their knowledge? This is because you need to estimate the

depth of that knowledge, that is, whether it was acquired through formal training

or because of their environment. As an example, workers at a mine have

 knowledge on processes that take place in the mine, not because of formal

training but as a result of growing up in that mining environment.

c. What does the audience need to know about the subject? This relates to the level

you have to pitch your writing or presentation. In other words, is it elementary,

intermediate or advanced?

d. What will appeal to my audience? Does the audience need the theoretical aspect

of the subject matter or they may find the practical element relevant?

e. What might provoke a negative reaction in my audience?

f. How can I present the information in a way that will assist my audience to

understand it?

Answering these questions will ensure that you tailor your message to meet the needs of

your audience.

Here is a good example of audience analysis. As we write this Communication Skills

Module, we have done the following analysis:

a. First year students at university are between18 and 20.

b. They have studied advanced level subjects.

c. The students have registered for a range of degree programmes, some for diploma

courses.

d. Both sexes are represented.

 e. The students come from a variety of backgrounds.

f. The majority of the students use English as a second language while a few have

English as their first language. A further few students use English as a foreign

language.

g. All students have literary knowledge gained during their secondary education.

With these points listed above, we found it relatively easy to write a module that all

students can go through with minimal challenges. In writing university assignments,

your audience is your lecturer and so you pitch your assignments to the standard/level

that s/he has instructed you to attain.

ACTIVITY 4.2 Without a thesis statement or claim, there is no argument. Discuss this

statement by looking at the components of academic writing.

4.3.0 Characteristics of Academic Writing

We have defined academic writing; we have also discussed the components of academic

writing. Our objective is to show or demonstrate how academic writing differs from all

other forms of writing. We will do this by looking at the characteristics of academic

writing. You will note that all other types of writing may share a few characteristics but

not all, and not the major ones. Good academic writing should have a good introduction,
should be analytical, interpretive, and cautious about scope. Good academic writing

should be supported and be logical. Good academic writing should be explicit, helpful to

the reader, well- paragraphed and well referenced. Above all, good academic writing

should have a fitting conclusion. We will now discuss each of these characteristics in

detail so that you have a grasp of how academic writing differs from all other styles of

writing.

4.3.1 Introductions and Conclusions

Many students find it difficult to write an introduction for many reasons. Below are some

ways of thinking about introductions. Think of an introduction as a way which will both

remind you where you are going and give the reader a plan of your essay/paper. In other

words, an introduction should outline what your essay or presentation contain. Think of

an introduction like an introduction of a person, when you are explaining who the person

is, that is, what the essay does. It may be easier for some people to write the introduction

last when they know what they are introducing. Think of an introduction as a response to

a question. What is so interesting about this topic? Think of an introduction as a way to

grab the reader’s attention, by opening with something original, lively or controversial.

Above all, DON’T think of an introduction as a formal duty! If it is not interesting, it

will put the reader off!

The introduction and conclusion allows you to address your reader(s) on the overall

purpose and significance of your essay/paper. In general terms, an introduction states the

intention, while the conclusion defines the success/achievement of the essay.

Introductions and conclusions make up the frame of your paper, providing the

opportunity to convince your reader of its value. These two are so important in the

structure of an essay that they have to be well constructed.

There is no single formula for writing introductions and conclusions and the strategy you

adopt will depend on the nature of the assignment, the conventions of the academic

discipline and the internal imperatives of your particular argument. The introduction and

conclusion define the scope and focus of your essay and situate your main point of the

argument.

4.3.2 The Introduction

The introduction serves several purposes:

a) It sets the tone of your paper.

When you are writing an introduction, you are introducing, not only your

argument, but also yourself, the writer. You need to ask yourself what kind of

a person you wish to portray. In academic writing it is advisable to present

yourself as a thoughtful writer who has a good command of the subject, who

can make reasonable judgments on the basis of textual or factual evidence and

is aware of alternative interpretations. So an introduction is a strategy of

persuasion to your readers.

b) An introduction identifies and limits your subject. In other words, it tells the

reader what you are writing about and defines the scope of your inquiry/paper.
c) An introduction orients your reader by explaining the specific context and

rationale of your argument. Every reader looks to the introduction for the

thesis statement/central idea or claim as well as for orientation within the

chosen area of research. In such a scenario, the introduction provides

background or context that will help the reader to understand how your work

fits into the larger picture and why the central idea matters.

d) A good introduction should present your claim/central idea/thesis statement

on what you are writing about. No length is prescribed as to how long a thesis

statement should be, but as a rule of thumb, a thesis statement should be stated

in two/three sentences as you get to the end of the first paragraph.

e) An informative introduction should engage the reader’s attention and persuade

them to continue reading. This is achieved through the presentation of an

original thesis statement on a topical or significant topic. The topic should

come from a well-defined subject area. Such topical areas are in the fields of

politics, information technology, or human rights issues. When introducing

your topic, you can start from the specific and then move on to the general.

Here you use an anecdote, a fact, a quotation that illustrate wider issues. For

example if you wish to write on the practice of ritual murders, you can start by

saying, “The discovery of the mutilated body of a girl in a trench, is a cause of

concern, since it is suspected that she was a victim of ritual murder. Her

murder is not an isolated incident but the tip of the iceberg.” That you call it

“tip of the iceberg” is our indication that more murders are taking place and

that is what you are going to write about.

 Besides starting from the specific and moving to the general, you can also

start from the general and move on to the specific. For example, you can start

by writing about the issue of violence in sport and refer to cases of violence at

Rugby matches, Cricket meeting etc. before zeroing in on a particular case of

violence that occurred at the National Sports Stadium.. you dwell on this

particular incident, by analyzing it and … the less in terms of life,

infrastructure and image of the country.

An introduction can engage readers when the writer poses a significant

problem/question, which helps to focus your inquiry. “Is it true that the world

would be a different place if God was a woman?” Such a question sparks

controversy in the reader and that way you have hooked them up. The readers

want to follow your line of argument and the evidence you will use to support

your argument.

f) Another introduction, especially in extended essays, outlines or describes the

structure of your essay. This way the reader is made aware of “the road they

are to follow” in reading the paper. Here in an introduction that outlines the

structure of an essay, “The paper intends to define the term Impression

Management and to discuss the implications that derive from the definitions.

The essay will discuss the types of Impression Management, illustrating how

the concept is relevant in the workplace. The essay will conclude by

discussing the advantages and disadvantages to concentrating on Impression

management in the schools”. As a reader of such an essay, you will be guided

as to what will come first, what will be discussed next and so forth.
4.3.3 The Challenge of Writing the Introduction

Writing an introduction can be an arduous task or experience. As a scholar you are

always anxious when you come to this task. This is natural. A good introduction can

only be possible if you have already clearly defined your thesis statement. Have your

material ready in the form of essay notes. Organize your ideas into the logical order you

want them discussed during the essay. By arranging your ideas, you come up with your

line of agreement. This is the preparatory work required before you start writing your

introduction. Bear in mind, the following tips:

a) Be prepared to revise your introduction at any point during the writing

process. The reason why you are compelled to change your introduction is

because, in the course of writing, you may stumble upon. Once you have this

new compelling point, it becomes necessary to re do your thesis statement and

also to adjust your introduction.

b) You need to state your purpose of writing early in the essay (in the opening

paragraph). The mistaken thought that students have is that if they state their

central ideas very early in the paragraph, then they will not have anything to

say in the body of the essay. This is not entirely true because your reader is

actually looking to the introduction of a statement of purpose. If the statement

of purpose is not there, then the reader loses interest because his/her

explanations have not been met. Your paper’s success does not only depend

on the introduction of the main/central ideas, but also on how well and

carefully develop the argument is. We are saying you can capture your reader
 by presenting your central claim I the introduction without depriving your

reader of the sense of discovery. In other words, you need to have your reader

on tender looks – the reader wants to know how the argument is going to be

developed and what evidence is going to be used t support it.

c) Avoid formulaic introductions

The formulaic introductions is evidence that you have not prepared. You have

not thought deeply and carefully enough about the subject you are writing

about because an introduction comes from the understanding of the subject

matter. Formulaic introductions are empty because they have nothing

particular about them but just generalizations. Below are two formulaic

introductions (example of).

i. “From the dawn of time …”. Such an introduction gives the reader the

impression that you have not mastered your materials sufficiently enough

to say something of substance about it.

ii. “According to Collins Dictionary the term ….”. Here the writer evades

the specific demands of your subject. While we agree that the definition

of terms is important, the definitions so chosen should be specific to your

material. You can resort to the dictionary only when there are differences

in definition of terms among those who have tried to write on the same

subject you are writing about. Even after consulting the dictionary, you

need to focus on the one definition that appeals to the material you are

writing on.
4.3.3 The Conclusion

While the introduction brings you central ideas into focus, ready for discussion in the

body of your essay, the conclusion also brings your central idea into focus, in light of the

foregoing argument. The aim of the conclusion is the make your readers feel that the

argument has fully achieved the goals you have set in the introduction. Your readers

should feel convinced by your argument and satisfied that all has turned a full circle.

When you write your final introduction and conclusion for an essay, it is advisable that

you bear in mind , one as you do the other.

Writing a conclusion can be challenging, because now that you have completed the main

argument, it may seem as if the only thing left to is to summarise it. Indeed, the

conclusion has elements of a summary but an effective conclusion does not just feel like

a mere summary. You are recapitulating and closing your argument but you still need to

sustain your readers’ interest by highlighting those salient points of the argument. Which

ever way you chose to conclude your essay, remember that your conclusion should

have/give a sense of finality – resting the case.

In conclusions, you should not raise new ides to the fore since we are rounding of. So

much for introductions and conclusions, we will not discuss the characteristics of

academic writing further by looking at other features of academic writing.

4.3 Complexity

The language of academic writing is relatively more complex than spoken language.

Academic writing has longer sentences and words. Its vocabulary is varied and it uses

more noun-based phrases than verb-based phrases. Written presentations or texts are

shorter than oral presentations because in oral presentations you have the opportunity to

digress and give illustrations while in written offerings, you stick to the text that is on

paper. Written language is grammatically more complex than spoken language.

4.4 Formality

Academic writing is relatively formal. In general, the written essay or paper should

avoid:

a) Colloquial words and expressions: “stuff”, “a log lot of”, “thing”, “sort of”

b) Abbreviated ….: “can’t”, “shouldn’t”, “doesn’t”.

c) Two-word verbs: “bring up”, “put off”.

d) Sub headings, numbering and bullet-point in formal essays, but use them in

reports.

e) Asking questions
4.5 Precision

In academic writing we present facts and figures precisely. We need to be precise when

we use information, dates or figures. We do not use “a lot of people” when we can say

50 million. Here is an example of precision: In 1980, after 90 years of colonial rule,

Zimbabwe finally got its independence on 18 April.

4.6 Objectivity

Written language is in general, objective rather than personal. It therefore has very few

(if any) words that refer to the writer(s) or readers. The main emphasis should be on the

information that you want to give and the arguments you want to make, rather than you

(self). For that reason, academic writing tends to use nouns (and adjectives) rather than

verbs and adverbs.

Johns (1997) argues that the language of written texts should distance itself from the

writer in order too create objectivity. This is achieved by avoiding the use of the first

person pronoun ___ “I”, “You”. Academic writing is described as “author evacuated”

meaning the author was removed from the text. Objectivity in also achieved through the

use of the passive voice such as

“It may be argued that….”

“One may argue that …”

By being objective, the work becomes impersonal. In addition, the writing does not

become emotional in its tone.

4.7 Explicitness

Academic writing is explicit about the relationships in the text. The writer should make it

clear to the reader, how the various parts of the text are related. These connections can

be made explicit by the use of different signaling words. Academic writing is explicit in

a number of ways.

a) It is explicit in its signposting of the organization of the ideas in the text. As

you write your essay, you have the responsibility to make it clear to your

reader, how various parts of the text related. To do this, you need to use

signaling words. For example, if your line of argument, you use the signaling

words “However” as the example below will show:

“The Bristol 167 was to be Britain’s great new advanced or American types

such as the Lock head and Douglas DC-6, which did not have the range to fly

the Atlantic non-stop. It was also to be the longest aircraft ever built in

Britain. However, even by the end of the design had run into serious

difficulties.”

Other signaling words are given below:

a) Because – giving reasons for something e.g. the duty-free purchase scheme of

vehicles was discontinued because they discovered it was being grossly

abused.

b) Similarly – when ideas are almost the same. E.g. Christians observe Sabbath

on Saturdays. Similarly, the non-Christians observe Chisi on Tuesdays.

 c) In addition – when you want to give more information. E.g Zimbabwe is

going through one of the most severe droughts. In addition to this, the country

is under sanctions from the West, hence the economic meltdown..

d) For example – when you want to give example. E.g The practice of

“kuzvarirana” has always resulted in deaths when people fight for the

betrothed woman. For example, Chief Ndyire sent his men to go and kill

someone because he had married a woman who was given to him.

Below is a list of signaling words.

1. Time/Order

Ad first, eventually, finally, first. Firstly, in the end, in the first place, in the second

place, lastly, later, next, second, to begin with.

2. Comparison/Similar ideas

In comparison, in the same way, similarly, in the same manner.

3. Contract/Opposite ideas

But, despite of, even so, however, in contrast, on the other hand, still, whereas,

yet.

4. Cause and effect

 Accordingly, as a consequence, as a result, because of this, consequently, for this

reason, hence, in consequence, in order to, wing to this, since, so, so that,

therefore, thus.

5. Examples

For example, for instance. Such as, thus, as follows.

6. Generalization

As a rule, for the most part, generally, in general, normally, on the whole, in most

cases, usually.

7. Stating the obvious

After all, as one might, clearly, it goes without saying, naturally, obviously, of

course, surely.

8. Attitude

Admittedly, certainly, fortunately, luckily, oddly enough, strangely enough,

undoubtedly, unfortunately.

9. Summary/ Conclusion

Finally, in brief, in conclusion, in short, overall, so, then, to conclude, to sum up.

10. Explanation/Equivalence

In other words, namely, or rather, that is to say, this means, to be more precise, to

put it another way.

 11. Addition

Apart from this, as well as, besides, furthermore, in addition, moreover, nor, not

only.. but also, too, what is more.

12. Condition

In that case, then

13. Support

Naturally, as a matter of fact, in fact, indeed

14. Contradiction

Actually, as a matter of fact, in fact

15. Emphasis

Chiefly, especially, in detail, in particular, mainly, particularly

Academic writing is explicit in its acknowledgement of the sources of the ideas in the

text. If you know the source of the ideas you are presenting, acknowledge it. There are

two ways of acknowledging sources, which are in-text citation and reference. In-text

citation happens in the body of the essay while references are compiled at the end of the

essay. It is important to note that you cannot have an item in the reference section if it

has been cited within the body of the essay.

In-text citation – you write the surname of the author and the year of publication of the

source, for example, if you are quoting Farrant which was published in 1986, you simply

write Farrant (1986). If you have a specific page in the book, you include it like this,

Farrant (1986:141).

When making a reference, the name of the author (surname) and initials, the year of

publication, the title of the source, the town of publication an the publishers are recorded.

The examples of a reference source below will illustrate what we mean:

Farrant, J.S. (1986). Principles and Practice of Education. Lagos: Longman

Just to remind you, that sources that appear in your reference section should appear in the

body of your essay because you have cited them in order to support your argument. The

references list is different from a bibliography. A bibliography is the list of books and

articles that you read when researching for your assignment. The references are those

books/articles that you then referred to in compiling your assignment. Most books, you

will note, have both a references list as well as a bibliography. Viewed form another

angle, the references and bibliography dichotomy will depend on the referencing style

being used. Bibliography is normally associated with the Chicago style of referencing,

MLA uses Works Cited while APA and Harvard uses References.

Accuracy

Academic writing uses vocabulary accurately. Most subjects have words with narrow

specific meanings. In academic writing, you need to be accurate in your use of

vocabulary. Do not, for example, confuse adept/adapt/adopt. Words often confused

follow below:
Advise/advice

All ready/already

All together/altogether

Between/among

Biannual/biennial

Capital/capitol

Carat/caret/karat

Sight/cite/site

Good/well

Flair/flare

Activity 5.4 Find meanings to the words listed above and show distinctions in their

meanings.

Hedging

Academic writing is characterized by hedging. Hedging is when you indicate the

strength of the claims you are making in your argument. Hedging ensures that your

contributions to any body of knowledge are acceptable because they are not aggressively
presented. Hedging shows caution on the part of the writer. The following is an example

of language of hedging.

1. introductory verbs: seems, tend, look like, appear to be, believe, think, doubt

2. modal verbs: may, might, could, would, will

3. adverbs of frequency: often, definitely, clearly, probably

4. nodal adverbs: certainly, definitely, clearly, probably, possibly, perhaps,

conceivably

5. modal adjectives: definite, certain, clear, probable, possible

6. modal nouns: assumption, possibility, probability

7. that clauses: It could be the case that …

It might be suggested that …

There is every hope that …

8. to-clauses+adjective:

It may be possible to obtain …

It is important to develop ….

It is useful to study ….

Responsibility
In academic writing, you must be responsible for, and must be able to provide evidence

and justification for any claim you make. You are also responsible for demonstrating an

understanding of the source text. This is done by paraphrasing and summarizing. The

skills of summarizing, paraphrasing and synthesizing were discussed at length in unit 3

when we were talking about reading/writing interface.

Argumentation

In academic writing, the claim/thesis statement of an argument in essay writing demand

reason, clarity and precision. In academic writing, the writer’s purpose is to persuade

readers to accept their claims. As already suggested elsewhere in this unit, claims are

debatable, the readers need to be persuaded to accept the writer’s claims. As Crusins and

Channel (2000:3) argues; an argument is

The process of making what we think clear to ourselves and to others. It

takes us from a vague, private viewpoint to a clearly stated position that

we can defend publicly in speech and in writing.

This definition of “argument” is different from the traditional “combative argument”,

which was meant to be won, and often involved conflicts. Today’s argument simply

supports a previously established decision while others try to establish common ground.

The bottom line is that argument should be appealing to the readers.

Helpful to the reader

Academic writing should be helpful to the reader by announcing what the writer is going

to do. It is helpful to the reader in he sense that it defines parts to the text and clarifies

information. Below is an example of writing that defines parts of the text and give the

reader the direction the essay will take:

This essay will describe the major characteristics of early childhood socialization

in the Shona society. Two contrasting practices will be described. The process

takes place in several stages. This argument is based on substantial research

evidence.

Logical and Supported

Academic writing should be logical and supported. By being logical, we mean that the

writing should show relationship between statements. This is achieved by use of logical

connectives such as therefore, as a result, which are used appropriately.

When we say academic writing should be supported, we mean that everything that you

raise in your argument should be supported by established facts, examples, by references

and by logical deduction. The established facts and examples are the facts that come

from your reading. For example, you are arguing that war is wasteful, you go on to use

statistics of losses in the various that were fought. This includes loss of lives, machinery

and infrastructure.

Before we close this section, let us point out that while the characteristics discussed

above tend to give academic writing style a certain “authority” of detachment, it is never

completely objective. This is because academic writing seeks to persuade the reader to

agree with the writer’s viewpoint. A writer’s point of view is always subjective.
The writing Process

After you have gathered all you need to write an assignment, you now sit down to the

actual task of writing. One thing you will realize is that writing is never a linear process,

which moves from point A right up to point Z. Instead, you will find yourself moving

from your notes to the original texts, and then moving on to lecture notes and then back

to the assignment notes. This is because there is cross referencing to ensure that all

materials relevant and pertinent to the assignment is included. Generally speaking the

stages that we follow in writing an assignment ar as follows:

1. question analysis

2. introduction

3. the discussion (body)

4. citations and references

5. editing the first draft

6. editing the final draft

Now, let us look at the end of the stages in detail.

Question Analysis
There are case where students have been told by their lecturers that they have written “off

topic”. What will have happened is that the students may have set their own questions

and then gone on to answer it instead of tackling the lecturer’s. the student may have

misinterpreted the question altogether. Either way, the student is guilty of missing the

point and may get a borderline pass or a fail. Students can avoid this scenario by

analysisng the question in order to have an idea of the demands of the question.

Generally, a question is made up of an instruction word, content words and special

conditions. While some questions may not have special conditions, invariably, all

questions will have introduction words as well as content word. We now want to give

you an example of a typical question and then identify the three constituents, that is, the

instruction word, the content and special conditions. Below is a question concerning

Economic Structural Adjustment Programme (ESAP);

“Examine the assertion that ESAP caused a lot of suffering among workers in Zimbabwe,

by referring to workers in the textile industry”

If we analyze the question above, we can see that it is divided into the following:

Introduction – Examine

Content – ESAP caused a lot of suffering

Special condition – by referring to workers in the textile industry.

What we have discovered is that students have a few problems in identifying the content

and special conditions. Students have a real problem when it comes to instruction words.
While they can identify instruction words, thsy are not sure what they mean. For that

reason, we have prepared a list of instruction words and what they require you to do:

Account: State reasons for, report on, narrate a series of events or transactions.

Analyse: Identify components and relationship between them; draw out and relate

implications.

Apply: use, utilize, and employ in a particular situation.

Appreciate: make a judgment about the value of

Assess: make a judgment of value, quality, outcomes, results or size

Comment on: discuss, criticize or explain as fully as possible

Criticize: give your judgment of the good and bad points, supporting your opinions

by a discussion of the evidence. (To criticize does not necessarily mean to

attack)

Define: Give the precise meaning of the word or phrase, distinguishing it from

related words
Describe: Give a detailed account or verbal picture in logical sequence or narrative

form.

Discuss: Examine in detail by argument, sifting evidence and explaining pros and

cons.

Enumerate: name and list the main ides one by one, number the items.

Evaluate: judge the worth, the importance or the truth of the concept, giving the

advantages and disadvantages.

Explain: make plain, interpret and account for

Illustrate: Make clear by concrete examples, examples, comparisons or analogies, or

in some subjects. Use a figure or diagram to explain or clarify.

Interpret: Give the meaning, using enough explanation and examples to make it

clear.

Justify: Give reasons for the statement or conclusions or decision.

List: Make a numbered list of words, sentences, ideas etc. (See enumerate)
Outline: Give the main ideas or principles and the important supporting details.

Emphasise the relationship among the parts. The instruction to use outline

form could mean using conventional symbols and progressive indentation

to show parts and their sub-divisions.

Relate: Show how things are connected to one another and to what they affect one

another. Sometimes relate means simply narrate.

Review: Give a survey or summary of the topic, criticizing where appropriate.

State: describe the main points in clear, brief form.

Summarize: Give a concise account of the main points, omitting details and examples.

Trace: Follow the development or history of the subjects. Double question-word-

make sure you give appropriate weight when answering e.g.

Discuss and justify: Justify means support a view point appropriately.

Explain and justify: see previous explanations above

Discuss and identify: Identify means point out a particular one.

Evaluate and indicate: point out, make known, show etc.

Describe and evaluate: give major and minor characteristics of.

Wh – questions e.g.

What: identify something and r explain why something is so.

Why: explain and give reason for

Which: identify one from the other. You may have to provide background

information and give reasons for your choice.

How: give an explanation for something, what it is, why it works that way.

Brainstorming

After interpreting the assignment question, the next stage is to brainstorm. Brainstorming

allows you to fit down every idea relating to the topic that comes to mind. Once you list

down the initial ides, new ideas will be generated from the old ones. A lot of ideas will

be recorded as they pass through the mind. Note that not all the ideas that are generated

during this brainstorming exercise will be included in the essay or assignment. At the
end of the brainstorming exercise, you start removing those you deem irrelevant and beef

up those you are going to use in the essay. You will then go on to the next stage, which

is ordering the point you have gathered.

The writing stage

As already been hinted earlier on, writing is a complex intellectual activity that demands

a flexible and recursive sequence. This is a lot of repetition of processes/activities before

you move to the next stage. In other words, you do not write and move in straight line

but you move forwards and backwards.

Composing the first draft

As a student you will go over and over sentences as you try to construct sensible

sentences in order to come up with the first draft. In the process you try to get the right

word and ideal sentence. Remember that you have already gathered the bulk of your

information during the planning session. The first draft is often called the discovery draft

because you expert to discover something new about the subject you are writing about as

you progress. The discovery draft is not perfect but gives you something to work on. If

there are any additions, subtractions and adjustments to be done, you do all these on the

discovery draft.

Re-writing the rough draft

After compiling the rough or discovery draft, you put aside and allow it to “cool off”.

This is because if you continue working with it, you will fail to pick out areas that need to
be changed/adjusted or even corrected. After a while you will be to detect faulty

sentences, ill-chosen phrases and gaps in thinking. Once the rough draft has been re-

written, it is as good idea to hand it in to your tutor for feedback. When your tutor sends

back your draft, you go over it again, paying attention to what your tutor was noting.

Proofreading

The last stage in the writing process is proof reading. Proof reading is at times known as

“crossing the Ts” and “dotting the Is”. Once all your revisions have been completed, you

need to proof read carefully. Proofreading is a close reading of the final version to

eliminate errors in grammar, spelling and punctuation as well as typographical errors that

may have survived other revisions. Proofreading should be done slowly, preferably

aloud. First of all allow some time to elapse between the final writing/typing and

proofreading. This way the writer is more likely to read with a fresh eye. When

proofreading, pay attention to the following:

a) No words are omitted or carelessly repeated.

b) No words are misspelt.

c) No plurals are left off.

d) No apostrophes are omitted for possessives or contractions.

e) No full stops, dashes, common, colours or quotations marks are left out or use

unnecessarily.

After you have proofreading your essay, you are now confident of allowing it to be read

by your lecture or other scholars.

SUMMARY

Academic writing is a skills that can be learnt and improved. The process which
form the basis of effective writing start with topic selection and end with
handing in of final draft. The stages in the writing process are recursive and
include the thinking, gathering, drafting, revising and editing stages. Academic
essays are written in a style that is objective and analytical.
 Unit 5: Oral communication

Specific Objectives

By the end of the unit, you should be able to

a) State the difference between written and oral communication

b) Understand the value of oral communication

c) Understand the importance of planning presentations

d) Improve the delivery of your own presentations

e) Assess your own and others’ presentations.

Summary

In this unit, we look at an important aspect of communication. This is because we send a

lot of our time communicating orally. We are either talking informally to colleagues,

friends or family members. Formally we talk to colleagues, make presentations during

seminars and talking to your pupils in the classroom. The uni outlines what oral

communication is and compares it with written communication, which you did in the

previous unit. The unit will dell on how to prepare oral presentations, the dos and don’ts

of oral communication. We should be able to come up with a check list of what o look for

when assessing oral presentations.

Compulsory Reading

http://www.blurtit.com/q454362html

http://wikianswers.com

http:www.isfaq.com/education/44623html
Cleary, S. (ed.) (1999). The Communication Handbook. Cape Town: Juta and Co. Ltd.

Additional Reading

Key words

Visual aids: any aids such as flip charts, pictures, chalkboards that enhance oral

presentations

OHP: Overhead projector; an electrical gadget that is used with transparencies as visual

aids

Visual aids: any gadget or implement that enhances oral presentation, e.g. flipcharts,

videos, overhead projectors, white/ chalkboards etc.

Anecdote: short illustrative story used to aid the comprehension of a concept, during

presentation

Rhetorical question: a question posed by a speaker to his/her audience to provoke them

into action. While in most cases the answer is quite easy, the speaker does not require or

expect an answer.

Posture: Body position in relation to her/his audience. Posture refers to whether the body

is erect or slouched forward

Vocalics: the use of the voice to achieve effect during oral presentation. You could be

speaking fast, on a high note or pausing for effect

Gestures: the use of hands, the head or eyes during presentation for illustration

Flipchart: A large wad of newsprint sheets fastened to a board, used for writing and /or

illustration during a presentation

Impromptu speech: a speech delivered off the cuff without any or minimal preparation
5.1 Introduction to oral communication

Oral communication is also known as verbal communication. It is communication

through word of mouth. It means talking directly to individuals as opposed to writing

letters, memos or circulars.

Verbal communication is often taken for granted but it is an important aspect of the

communication process, considering the uses to which oral communication is put. The

greater part of communication in organizations is verbal. The uses to which verbal

communication is put include giving instructions, conveying grievances, making

enquiries, receiving feedback on message sent conducting meetings and holding

interviews. By the way, meetings and interviews are part of oral communication. Because

oral communication is critical to organisational communication, lack of it can cause

serious problems in any workplace.

The effectiveness of verbal communication will depend on a number of factors, chief

among them, mutual comprehension between the speaker and the listener, the tone in

which the utterance has been made, the accompanying nonverbal cues and the attitude of

the listener towards the speaker and the subject under discussion(Cullinan, 1989). Where

there is no mutual comprehension, for example, in a multicultural setup where one

communicant does not understand the language of the other, verbal communication

becomes ineffective. Where the accompanying nonverbal cues contradict the verbal

communication, there may also be communication breakdown between the speaker and
the listener. Verbal communication can also be rendered ineffective if the listener has a

negative attitude either towards the speaker or the subject (Pace and Faules, 1989).

5.2 Uses of Oral Communication

Verbal communication can be categorised into emotive, phatic, cognitive, rhetorical, and

identifying language. Each of these categories has implications for organisational

communication. In other words, we are saying that different workplace will use the

category that best suits them. For example, in a hospital we will expect to hear language

that demonstrates emotions and sympathy for the sick or their relatives. We will discuss

each of the categories in detail below.

5.2.1 Emotive Language

Emotive language is used to express feelings, attitudes, and emotions of a speaker. It is

language that employs emotional connotative words. It can therefore be used both

positively and negatively in an organisation such as a school. For example, emotive

language can be used in the classroom to praise students’ good performance in class.

Through the use of such language, the students will be encouraged to do even better in

class. However, the same emotive language can be used to reprimand students who

constantly come for lecture or lessons late. Use of emotive language negatively should be

used sparingly as it can disparage students.

5.2.2 Phatic language

Phatic communication is not necessarily related to work issues but is used to reinforce

relationship between participants in a communication exchange. Stalley and Stalley

(1992) say that phatic communication is very important in an organisation because, “it

helps us form new relationships, cement existing relationships, tune in to the informal

network, and create a comfortable organizational climate”. In addition, it helps us to

keep abreast with events in the organization. Individuals who do not spend much of their

time on phatic communication are seen as cold.

Oral communication can be used when:

 It is essential to evaluate suitability for a particular task such as in a selection

interview where you must appoint the right person from a number of choices.

 Oral communication can also be used when it is important to pool the knowledge

of several people to arrive at key decisions. This is why there are meetings of key

people in any organization.

 Oral communication is also useful when a delicate or personal matter has to be

communicated to an individual.

 Oral communication can be used where you need to persuade listeners to adopt a

particular course of action, particularly if it involves a change of attitudes and

behaviour.

Oral Communication vs. Written Communication

Oral and written communication display a number of important differences over and

above the obvious distribution in physical form that is speech uses the medium of ‘phonic

substances’ and writing uses the medium of ‘graphic substance’. The differences are

chiefly to do with language use. The speaker and the writer are operating in

fundamentally different communicative situations. The grammar and vocabulary of

speech is different from that of writing. They function as independent methods of

communication.

The status of oral/speech communication and written communication is not the same.

Linguistics has brought to the study of language a revaluation of the relationship between

the spoken and written forms of communication. A much higher status was accorded to

the written than the spoken. Written language is regarded as the repository of the society.

It is not surprising then, that language of all sorts of evaluated against the norm of written

language.

To the scholar this

Written language has one further asset. It is permanent and accessible to all.

- Speech is transitory an in the past there was no mans of seizing it, reliving, speech

events and of making them available to others.

- Grammars have usually been grammars of written language. Thus, school teachers

devote much effort to eradicating the influence of speech on writing. Written

language is held up as a norm for all our uses of language for many people what
 they speak is not language. Social and economic advancement are obtained through

education. Educated men are those that can read and write and it is believed, one

undergoes education in order to be able to read and write.

However, in the present state of education the ability to read and write is now so general

that no special status attaches to it especially in industrially advanced countries.

According to Wilkins (1978) Linguistics had produced a revaluation of the relationships

between writing and speech. The Linguistic attitude attaches the greater importance to

speech. Speech is regarded as the primary manifestation of language, and writing is both

secondary to it and dependent on it. Every individual learns to speak before he learns to

write. In fact when writing is learned, it is as a representation of speech which has been

required previously.

Written communication is a separate linguistic function, differing from oral speech in

both structure and mode of functioning. It is speech in though and images only, lacking

the musical, expressive international qualities of oral communication.

Hall quoted in Wallwork (1978) says, “Writing is essentially a way of representing

speech, almost always in an imperfect and inaccurate way”.

Oral communication and written communication are seen as independent of each other.

Oral is a sloppy careless version of writing. To some people, writing is self-evidently

more ‘important’, more ‘correct’ than oral communication.

There are differences in the areas of grammar and vocabulary. Punctuation in written

language indicates grammatical sections not contrary to popular superstition, natural

pauses to speech.

Speech runs over full stops and commas, but pauses for emphasis, for planning, thinking

and for a certain kind of syntactic marking quite different from that indicated by

punctuation.

According to Wall Work (1978, p. 113) without writing all the beliefs and ideas can exist

for a society only in memory or only when one tells others.

Memory is of paramount importance, and as each of us knows from personal experience,

memory is selective, we tend to remember what we think is important to remember and to

know and no two people will remember the same incident in exactly the same way as can

often be seen in conflicting accounts in court cases, of what happened during some crime.

Since memory is a social function, and is used in ways that are seen to be social relevant.

What is apparently socially irrelevant is forgotten.

With the introduction of writing, this process of passing on a culture ad traditions

inevitably changes. A written record may still be selective, inaccurate, or only one of a

number of possible versions but it can be contemporary and it no longer relies on

memory for its preservation. It exists in its own right.

Writing presents us with a past recognizably different from the present and perhaps from

our memory of the past. Changes and inconsistencies can no longer be simply forgotten

or ignored.

 Written communication tends to carry more conviction than the oral

communication. Written and oral communication are alike n many aspects, but

have independent and possibly mutually influential characteristics.

 Written Language is linear and segmental. It misses the ‘on the sport’ features of

language, the elements that tie it to the context. The speaker’s state of mind, the

reservations, doubts, hesitation, and the weight given to arguments have no place

in written language. Oral/spoken language has aspects like information, it has

prosodic and paralinguistic features.

 Written language has more lexical items and less grammatical items. It is highly

nominalised – that is the creation of noun forms from words that are not

necessarily nouns.

 Written communication represent phenomena as products while spoken language

represent phenomena as process.

 Written language is passive while spoken language is active.

NB Spoken presents the dynamic view through use of active verbs. Phenomena do not

exist but they happen, ‘they are seen as coming into being, moving in and out of the

system .

 Writing is integrated, edited, and slow.

 Spoken is uttered as spurds (idea units) – very rapidly.

Differences

Oral speech Writing

- Speech is time-bound, dynamic and - Writing is space bound,

transient - Participants are usually distant from the

- In speech both participants are usually reader and the writer does not know

present. The speaker has a particular who the reader is going to be.

addressee in mind
- The spontaneity and speed exchanges - Writing allows repeated reading and

makes it difficult to engage in complex close analysis and promote the

advance planning. Pressure to think development of careful organization

while talking promotes looser and compact expression. Units of

construction, repetition, rephrasing, sentences are usually easy to identify

comment clauses. Intonation and through punctuation and layout.

pauses divide long utterances into

manageable chunks but sentences

 boundaries are often unclear
- Because participant are typically in - Lack of visual contact means that

face-to-face interaction, they can rely participants can not rely on context to

on such extra linguistic cues as facial make their meaning clear, nor is there

expression to aid meaning 9feedback0 any immediate feedback.

- Spoken language is regarded as sub- - Written language is standard.

standard.
- Spoken is communalized - Written language is individualistic
- Spoken language can not provide - Written language can be used as

evidence evidence – there is accountability. It

makes history.
- Lexicon is characteristically vague - In writing there is no use of deitic

especially when using words which expression. Language is read and

refer directly to the situation 9diectic interpreted by many settings. More so,

expressions such as that one, in here, there is time lag between production

right now0 and reception of written

communication.
- Many words and constructions are - Words and constructions ar

characteristic of speech. Lengthy characteristic of writing such as

sentences, slang, grammatical balanced syntactic patterns and the

informality such as contracted forms long sentences found in legal

“isn’t, he’s” documents. Certain words are never

spoken, such as the longer spoken, such

as the longer names of chemical

compounds
- Speech is very suited to social or - Writing is very suited to the recording

phatic functions such as passing the of facts and the communication of

 time of day, casual and unplanned ideas and tasks of memory and

discourse. It is good at expressing learning.

social relationships and personal - Written records are easier to keep and

opinions. scan. Text can be read at speed which

suit a person’s ability to learn.

- There is opportunity to rethink an - Errors and other perceived

utterance while it is in progress. inadequacies in our writing can be

However, errors once spoken, cannot eliminated in later drafts without the

be withdrawn. The speaker must live reader ever knowing they were there.

with the consequences. - Interruptions are invisible in the final

- Interruptions and overlapping speech product.

are normal and highly audible.

- Unique features of speech include - Unique features of writing include

most of the prosody. The many pages, lines, capitalization, aspects of

nuances of intonation, as well as punctuation.

contrasts of loudness, tempo, rhythm - Several written genres e.g. time tables,

and other tones of voice cannot be graphs, complex formulae cannot be

written down efficiently. read aloud efficiently but have to be

assimilated visually.
- If we choose to speak, we may intend - If we choose to write, we normally

our utterance to be heard immediately. intend that what we have written

- We may intend our utterance to be should read or should be read aloud.

heard at a later point in time as when - We make the end product in such a

we use a telephone answering way that it will sound like written

machine. language. It will be formal and

 - We may intend that what we say controlled e.g. preparing text for radio

should not be heard as when we speak news readers.

under our breath (sotto voice) - We may write in a way that it will not

- If we intend our utterances to be sound scripted e.g. radio at television

written we speak carefully instructing drama.

the writer to ignore errors.

In terms of context of activity, normally oral communication occurs in the context of

shared social activity. Addressees and hearers are actually present. Writing normally

occurs in isolation. The audience is absent and not always easy to imagine.

In oral communication typically, there is immediate feedback from the people to whom

message is directed. The feedback itself, or its absence, influence the flow of thought. In

written communication, feedback is delayed or nonexistent and is generally expected to

be so by the writer. Face to face talk in the teaching profession enables the teacher and

pupils to interact and have a shared understanding of concepts. The teacher can clarify

issues if students fail to grasp difficult concepts. Questions can be rephrased to enable

understanding. In written communication especially text books. If there are errors they

would wait for another edited version.

In oral communication the development of text is negotiated among the participants in

the interaction. Face to face talk moves from subject to subject. For example, in group

discussions. In written communication the development of text is determined by the

writer. It focuses narrowly on topics and, within topics, there is transparent movement
from subtopic to subtopic. While a particular piece of text may appear to move

spontaneously, freely and to be the product of a moment of inspiration, it is most often

actually the product of several rewrites. The logical arrangement of ideas is normally

seen in essays, dissertations, seminar papers etc. (any form of academic writing).

In oral communication, there is little revising or editing. What little is done is done either

on the spot, or in a later conversation when something triggers it. Writing involves

extensive revising and editing, a process which triggers new, perhaps deeper, insights

about the topic at hand, and which in fact, can be seen as part of the development of the

text as suggested by the maxim “writing is rewriting”.

 Paralinguistic and nonlinguistic signals that accompany the verbal message

support or refute the credibility of the speaker. In writing a sequence of

orthographic symbols on a page is all there is. Credibility must be established

through that sequence with cohesion, adherence to the prescribed rules of formal

writing in the language of the essay and lexical selection being important means

through which it is achieved.

 Oral communication is a medium which is more subject to variation and change.

Writing as a medium of communication is more conservative and especially in the

context of an academic essay, it is highly prescriptive.

 In oral communication there is a mixture of a number of registers in a single

interaction. In writing, register choice is restricted to the upper end of the

 formality scale. Conventions regarding style of expression tend to be somewhat

limiting.

 Oral communication is fluid and flows according to the context of the moment.

The concepts and ideas expressed in talk tend to be dynamic and subject to

modification.

 Writing expresses ideas and concepts that have been frozen onto the page. They

express static ideas that are supposed to stay still, something we tend to signal in

academic English by using a relatively high proportion of nouns and passivised

verbs.

 In speech communication we try to lock the things we talk about together and

treat them as wholes as for example, when we capture everything that is important

in an event by saying a proverb. In writing we try to separate things apart. It is

typical of academic writing that aspects, levels and categories acquire an

importance that is often absent in talk.

 Oral communication is highly contextualized to the situation at the moment of

talking. Interlocutors assume they share relatively large amounts of context on an

number of levels. The results in speakers using a number of techniques which

ensure that addressees and listeners are listening. Writing is recontextualised such

that the text itself, pieces of writing function as self contained packages of the

information.

In oral communication the focus of the speaker is placed on the flow of social

interaction. This entails being context-bound and expecting strongly that the
audience will supply relevant background information and will make appropriate

interpretations while the focus of the academic writer is more heavily on organizing

the information content of the message. In doing so, the writer is isolated from the

immediate context and requires that she/he supply relevant background information.

In oral communication cohesion and evaluation are achieved indirectly through

paralinguistic features such as tone of voice as well as nonverbal gestures such as

facial expressions. In oral communication, it is difficult not to express some

evaluative attitude towards the subject, the participants and the speech event. Whilst

in writing cohesion and evaluation are achieved through arranging information and

making lexical choices. Signaling pieces of information explicitly through

lexicalized discourse markers. Cohesion acquires a different kind of value in essays,

since it contributes to their credibility.

In oral communication much of what is interpreted in talk is unsaid and talking often

suggests much more than writing requires a high degree of explicitness while some of

it can be evocative and suggestive.

In oral communication the allocation of responsibility for communication lies at least

heavily on the listener as it does on the speaker. That is, the listener is responsible for

asking questions if he or she does not understand signal agreement or disagreement if

it is needed. In writing, the allocation of responsibility in communication lies heavily

on the writer. The audience is absent, how could it respond I a way that moves the
 writer forward. Core ideas, supporting points and transitions are explicitly marked.

Foregrounding or backgrounds and logical connections are explicitly exposed.

Writing is a special, careful, elaborated, shuffled, pruned, tidied from of language,

very different from the everyday, spontaneous, precarious adventures of speech which

make up the worlds linguistic activity and are in that sense normal language (Turner

1973:190)

Writing like a human messenger, does not convey exactly the voice of the sender, and

perhaps important tonal indications of how the message is to be taken, writing must

therefore cultivate rhythms and connectives which indicate to a trained reader, the

appropriate emphasis to be given to the items in the text.

Advantages of written communication

 Written communication communicates many times, reaching many. It has

continual rebirth it reaches not only other places but other times.

 Writing involves extensive revising and editing, a process which triggers new,

deeper insights about the topic at hand.

 Written communication tends to carry more conviction than oral communication.

 Written communication provides a permanent record of events.

5.2.2 Disadvantages of written communication

 Written communication though it is permanent, a permanent record may be

embarrassing. Sometimes a letter is written in circumstances of duress such as a

forced resignation, while on other occasions a case may be written to substantiate

a particular claim and that case is then used as evidence for other purposes. Many

instances of this nature should be explored in discussions.

 Written communication tends to be impersonal. It lacks the human contact of a

personal meeting and is usually inadequate where the situation requires a quick

exchange of ideas or comments. Some situations can not be handles by written

correspondence because a meeting is essential – to get immediate response such

as for a job interview, an appraisal.

 In some situations, a written response would be inappropriate. A personal contact

is essential to avoid appearing discourteous. There are several occasions when a

written communication does not display a required degree of human feeling and

appreciation. It can also help build a good relationship with important clients

where the personal touch is both courteous and effective.

 Written words can be misinterpreted. Very often people lie to interpret a message

to say what they want it to say rather than what it actually says. Once the

recipient distorts the meaning of the message, ther may be problems in achieving

effective communication. In the teaching profession, the teacher is there to help

students interpret a written text by interpreting orally to them. Explanations and

clarifications are done orally.

5.2.3 Advantages Oral Communication

When used properly and in the rightful place, oral communication has many powerful

advantages. Oral communication allows for immediate feedback, allows for direct

participation of recipient.

 Feedback if the culmination of good communication and oral communication

can evoke an immediate response from the recipient. If that response is

unclear or you feel that ‘noise’ has interfered with transmission, you can have

a second or even third go at it to ensure that:

- You have not left out a vital element of the message.

- You have not taken for granted that the recipient has some essential

prior knowledge which she/he does not.

- You have not assumed the recipient has understood the

communication when she/he has not.

- You have not used language that has been wrongly interpreted by the

recipient.

 The recipient can seek immediate clarification of some aspects of the

message. Can limit barriers to effective communication by observing the

reactions of the recipients and adjust accordingly. Reactions could be non-

verbal or body language and these assist the communication process at a face-

to face meeting or encounter.

 Skilful use of oral communication an ‘involves’ the recipient. Recipients can

be given the opportunity to express their views and doubts can be dealt with

immediately. Oral communication is therefore direct and immediate.

  Oral communication shows courtesy. It establishes a relationship of trust and

understanding between the speaker and the recipient. Written communication

can then be more personal.

5.2.4 Disadvantages of oral/spoken communication

Not everything about oral communication is good. There are some disadvantages

associated with this form of communication.

 Poor expression is a problem encountered in oral communication. Some people

simply find difficulty in expressing their thoughts orally – especially in front of a

group of people. Another drawback to expression is that we talk socially a great

deal and this encourages a casual approach to and delivery of oral communication

that lets you down in a formal situation.

 In oral communication there is no permanent record. Written record is essential

to ensure that all involved can remember and can understand what has to be done

as a result of the content of the information.

 Oral communication may be expensive in time and money. Personal face-to-face

talk may be time consuming. You may have to travel to meet the recipients of the

communication.

 Oral communication may fuel personal differences. Sometimes you just do not

‘click’ with a person and a personal conversation may bring out animosity that

would not be experiences in a written communication.

Activity 5.1

 Define oral communication

 Identify the major differences between written and oral communication.
 Although oral communication has a number of disadvantages, it is still
better than any other forms of communication in the teaching profession.
Discuss this question with three colleagues in your teaching profession.

Sources

Mawonera, E. and Lee, D. (2002). Communication and Scholarship. Harare: Zimbabwe

Open University.

Ellis, A. and Beattie, G. (1986). The Psychology of Language and Communication.

London: Lawrence Erlbaum

Halliday, M.A.K. (1989). Spoken and Written Language. Oxford: Oxford University

Press.
Chafe, W. L. (1982). “Integration and Involvement in Speaking, Writing and Oral

Literature” In Spoken and Written language: Exploring Oracy and Literacy. Edited by

D. Tannen. Norwood, NJ: Ablex pp.35-50.

Turner, G.W. (1973). Stylistics. London: Penguin Books Ltd.

Wallwork, J. F. (1985). (2nd ed) Language and Linguistics: An Introduction to the Study

of Language. London: Heinemann Educational Books

Goody, J. (1987) The Interface between the written and the oral. New York: Cambridge

University Press.

Wilkins, D.A. (1976). Linguistics in Language Teaching. London: Edward Arnold

Publishers Ltd.

Cleary, et al. (1999). The Communication Handbook. Juta and Co. Ltd.

5.3.0 Preparing Oral Communication

An oral communication/presentation must be carefully planned. Aspects to consider are

analyzing the audience, determining the purpose, preparing the topic, organizing the

presentation, preparing visual aids and the venue and rehearsing the presentation.
5.3.1 Analysing the audience

Start by gathering information about your audience so that your message is oriented

towards their needs. Your maths class might consists of students of different ages

genders, cultures and experiences. Think about how their different profiles might affect

their understanding and enjoyment of your presentation. Also think about the knowledge

your audience has of the subject. Do they have some or n background knowledge.

Because of the diversity of a country’s population, one can not assume everyone thinks

and acts exactly as one does. As you select your speech topic, establish your purpose,

and narrow your subject, think about your listeners. Your effectiveness as speaker

depends upon adapting to your listeners.

Effective oral communication is audience-centered. You can not address your speech to

each person individually but you can identify common feature among your listeners.

The goal of audience analysis is to discover what facets of listeners’ demographic and

psychological characteristics are relevant to your speech purpose and ideas, so that you

can adopt your purposes and ideas to these factors.

5.3.1.1 Demographic analysis

This is the study of observable characteristics in groups of people. Age, gender,

education, group membership, and cultural and ethnic background.

Age

Find out whether your listeners are primarily young, middle-aged or older? Are your

listeners your peers, or are you much younger or older? Watch a nursery school teacher

talk to pre-school children and you will wee how age gapes of twenty years (20 years) or

more can be overcome. Nursery school teachers know that they must adapt to their

young listeners or risk chaos. They adapt partly by simplifying their vocabulary and

shortening their sentences. There is need to recognize what captures their attention.

Devito (1990) argues that different age groups have different attitudes, beliefs and values

simply because they have different experiences. Thus, people have one thing in common,

‘they are different’.

5.3.1.2 Gender

Is the audience predominantly male or female? Do your listeners maintain traditional

gender role or do they assume different roles? Certain topics concern females and are

inappropriate to males. Psychological sex roles may be more important than biological

sex roles. Questions that could guide you are:

a) Do men and women differ in the values they consider important and that are

related to your topic and purpose. Traditionally, men have been found to

place greater importance of theoretical, economical and political values

while women place importance on aesthetic, social and religious values.

 b) Will your topic be perceived as more interesting by men or by women?

Men and women do not respond in the same way to topics such as abortion,

rape and equal rights.

c) Will men or women feel uncomfortable with your topic or purpose?

5.3.1.3 Education

How much do your listeners already know about your subject? Does their experience

allow them to lean? Knowing the educational background of your audience can guide

you I your choice of language, kinds of supporting material and organizational pattern.

Questions to ask:

a) Will the interests and concerns of the audience differ on the basis of their

educational level?

b) Will different educational levels influence how critical the audience will be on

your evidence and argument?

c) Will the different educational levels relate to what the audience know about

your topic?

5.3.1.4 Cultural and Ethnic Background

Nationality, race and the extent to which people identify with a particular culture or

subculture are crucial factors in audience analysis.

Largely due to different training and experiences, the interests, values and goals of

different cultural groups will also vary.

Are members of your audience predominantly from particular cultural groups? The

concept of multicultural society comes into play.

5.3.1.5 Group membership

Do your listeners belong to groups that represent special attitudes or identifiable values?

Are they part of a formal organization? Doctors, Lawyers and Dentists join professional

societies based on occupational similarities.

5.3.1.6 Religion

Religion permeates all topics and issues. Issues such as birth control, abortion and

divorce are closely connected to religion. Does your topic or purpose attack the religious

beliefs of any segment of your audience?

5.3.1.2 Psychological analysis

Social scientists and communication researchers have found it useful to divide people

into psychological groups on the basis of fundamental beliefs, attitudes and values.

Beliefs

Attitudes
 Values

a) Beliefs

A belief is a claim thought by people holding it to accurately represent the

state of affairs in the “real” world. A belief asserts something true or false in

the world. Beliefs arise from first-hand experiences, from public opinion, fro

supporting evidence from authorities or even from blind faith. Some beliefs

are called facts and opinions.

Demonstrated beliefs or beliefs you hold strongly are called facts. Facts are

held with certainty.

An opinion is a belief held with low-to-moderate degree of less than powerful,

or compelling evidence.

An opinion is preceded by:

It is my opinion ----

Perhaps it is true that ---

Consider what your listeners believe to be true.

b) Attitudes
 Attitudes are tendencies to respond positively or negatively to people, objects

or ideas. Attitudes are emotionally weighted. They express individual

preferences and feelings. Attitudes often influence our behaviuor. Therefore,

as a speaker, you should consider the dominant attitudes of your listeners.

Audience may have attitudes towards you, your speech subject or your speech

purpose.

c) Values

Values are the basic concepts organizing one’s orientation of life. They

provide standard for judging the worth of thoughts and actions. These are

habitual ways of looking at the world or responding to problems. Values

include broad categories into which many specific attitudes are grouped

mentally.

Values reasons for holding particular attitudes.

Values underlie an individual’s particular attitudes and beliefs.

5.3.2 Determining the purpose

Consider the result you want from your message. You might want to inform your

audience.

Your purpose might be to persuade the audience to follow a certain line of thinking.

Having a clearly defined purpose, the result that you want from your message – ensures

that your message has a clear focus and that you do not wander off the point. The main

purpose in oral communication are:

 1. To give information

2. to request information

3. to persuade

4. to promote goodwill

5.3.3 Preparing the topic

This involves researching and gathering the information needed for your presentation.

Select your resources appropriately.

Brainstorm ideas – This allows the speaker to jot down points relating to the topic that

has been chosen. You can make use of brainstorming technique such as listing, mind

mapping and outlining.

Consult relevant text books, journals, newspapers and internet so that you have evidence

to justify your claims.

Record the source of information and keep in mind questions that members of the

audience might want answered.

5.3.4 Organizing the presentation

After you have gathered all the information, you need to structure it to ensure that the

ideas are logically presented. The introduction is vital. This is when you attract your
audience’s attention. Your introduction should give your audience a reason for listening.

You can begin with:

 A startling statement

 An appropriate anecdote

 A rhetoric question

 An activity

Make certain that you refer to the audience and the occasion.

Give background information and explain key concepts. Tell your audience how they

can benefit from listening to your presentation. Tell your audience how long the

presentation will take. Give the structure of your presentation so that the audience know

what to expect.

The body of your presentation contains the major points of your talk. Support your ideas,

it is better to give a few, well supported ideas than an endless list of details. Use suitable

evidence such as:

 Statistics

 Examples

 Quotations

 Analogies

 Narratives

Link your ideas by connective devices e.g. in addition to, furthermore, unlike etc.
Conclusion

The conclusion summarizes the main points of your presentation. This allows the

audience to hear the main points three times – in the introduction, body and the

conclusion. Do not add new ideas/points in your conclusion. This confuses your

audience.

5.3.5 Preparing Visual Aids

Using visual aids will make your presentation more interesting for the audience. Be

careful not to use too many visual aids. A visual aid is and aid and should support and

reinforce your presentation, not dominate it. Examples of visual aids are:

 Flipcharts

 Overhead projectors

 White or chalkboards

 Videos

 Data projectors

5.3.6 Preparing the venue

Prepare the venue or check that it I prepared before the time. This serves the

embarrassment that might arise if there are too few seats or if the seating arrangements

are not appropriate for your presentation.

5.3.7 Rehearsing the presentation

Rehearsing the presentation reduces the anxiety associated with speaking in public. This

gives your confidence and feedback on your performance.

5.4 Delivering Oral Communication

During delivery consider vocalics, eye contact, gestures and postures.

5.4.1 Vocalics

Aim to speak naturally, but audibly at the same time. Pay attention to pitch and volume.

Low pitch sounds pleasant and sincere and is easy to listen to.

Pay attention to tone. Most audiences dislike a patronizing speaker who ‘talks down’ to

them. Your tone will help create an open and friendly climate.

5.4.2 Eye contact

Help in establishing a relationship with audience.

5.4.3 Gestures

These gestures convey your belief in and involvement with your topic. Use natural

gestures and avoid distracting mannerisms.

5.4.4 Postures

A good posture conveys confidence.

 Stand tall
  Face your audience

 Allow closer contact with audience

5.4.5 Answering questions

Feedback result in a two-way flow of information so set aside time for questions.

Questions may focus on clarification, elaboration or repetition. Be relaxed and natural

during question time.

5.4.6 Reflecting or evaluating the presentation

Reflect on your performance after the presentation. This will help you improve your

speaking skills.

ACTIVITY 5.2

Explain the role of audience analysis as a crucial step to take when preparing oral

communication.

Sources

Cleary et al. (1999). The communication Hand book. Juta & Co, Ltd.

De Vito, J.A. (1990). The elements of public speaking. New York: Harper and Row,

Publishers
Powers, J.H. (1987). Public speaking: The Lively Art. California: Wadsworth Publishing

Company.

5.5 Visual aids in oral communication

Visual aids are any materials the speaker shows to the audience during the speech. They

are called aids because they help the speaker, complementing the verbal message with a

visual one. Visual aids help speakers produce interesting and effective messages. Each

speaker selects visual aids in mind. Variety can stimulate interest and attention.

5.5.1 Benefits of using Visual Aids

According to Powers (1987, p. 202), there are three most important functions of visual

aids which are to enhance, reinforce and clarify ideas.

Visual aids enhance audience’s attention. It is important to build a variety of attention.

Because visual aids are usually quite different from sentences, revealing a visual aid at an

important moment in your speech can enhance your audience’s attention.

Visual aids help reinforce the spoken word. The spoken word is ephemeral, evanescent,

fleeting. Words you say disappear almost as quickly as you speak them.

Most visual aids are more permanent than the spoken word. They can be left in view for

an extended period of time.

Visual aids help clarify complex ideas. The relative permanence and stability of the

visual aid gives the audience additional time to build up their understanding of how all

the parts relate to the complex whole. There are several types of complex ideas for which

visual aids are especially helpful. Visual aids can be used to accomplish the following

goals:

 Clarify numeral relationships

Many speeches require you to compare and contrast quantities or magnitudes of

one thing, attribute, or quality with those of another.

 Charting Trends

A trend is not a thing, it is an activity that occurs over time. For example,

enrolment of students increase or decrease. Line graphs are especially helpful in

charting trends because they naturally lead the eye to follow the progression of

the trend.

 Illustrate and Dramatize Numerical comparisons

Visuals may also be used to dramatize relative magnitudes, especially when a

disparity between two or more magnitudes is important. Bar graphs are especially

useful in emphasizing relative magnitude due to proportional lengths of their

component elements.

Bar graphs emphasize bulk or size.

 Reveal what something looks like

If an object plays an important role in you speech, yu may want to show an

example of the item to you audience. If size, shape and colour are significant to

understanding your point.

 Reveal relationship of parts to some whole

Visuals help audience visualise the relationship of the parts to one another.

 Make Process Relationships clear

If you are explaining the stages in some process, your audience may find a visual

aid helpful in keeping the steps and their chronological order in mind. The reason

is that visual images are concrete and do not require the same complex cognitive

processing as do abstract words. Listeners may remember a map, a graph, or a

picture and associate it in their minds with a particular idea from the speech.

Visuals can help a speaker to remember the ideas in her speech and the order in

which she has planned to present them.

Devito (1990, p. 255) points out that: audio visual aids are not “added frills”.

They are integral parts of your speech and serve important functions. Audi

visuals add the redundancy necessary to reinforce your message.

 Grown back et al (1995, p. 195) also adds that visual ads add listener

comprehension and memory and ad persuasive impact to the speaker’s message.

The argument is that we understand ideas better and remember them longer if we

see them as well as hear them. Research has demonstrated that bar graphs are

especially essential at making statistical information more accessible to listeners.

Charts and human-interest visuals such as photographs have proven, to help

listeners process and retain data.

Visuals can heighten the persuasive impact of your ideas because they engage the

listeners effectively in the communicative exchange. By satisfying the “show-

me” attitude prevalent among listeners, visual materials provide a crucial means

of meeting listener expectation. The show and tell principle is enhanced by use of

visuals in oral communication.

5.5.2 Types of Visual Aids

Depending upon your speech topic and purpose, you may choose one or several types of

visual support.

5.5. 2.1 Electrically enhanced aids

Films and videos

These are helpful when you want to shoe movement or changes over time. Make sure

that you can operate the equipment properly and quickly. Delays increase your

nervousness and detract from your presentation.

Slides

Slides are useful for showing various scenes or graphics that cannot be described in

words. Slides allow you depict colour, shape, texture and relationships. Using slide

requires familiarity with projection equipment. Photographs and complex graphs are

easier to project with slides.

Video tapes and films

Video tape can be used to present moving images. Video tapes and films can be useful in

illustrating your points. Videos and films dramatically reinforce your claim

Computer graphics

Computers can be used to make charts and tables, they can also be used to produce

images and representations. Recent technological advance permit projection directly

from the computer to the screen: referred to as electronic slides: these are graphics

created on the computer and them projected on to a screen.

Transparencies

These are celluloid sheets that are projected on to a screen with the use of an overhead

projector. You can also photocopy text, graphs or charts onto transparencies. Computer

generated images can be copied onto transparencies. The overhead projector will enlarge
the transparency so that its contents are easily visible to the audience. You can even add

to a transparency by drawing on it while it is being shown.

Nonelectric ally enhanced visual aids

Actual objects

Speakers can often integrate actual objects into their speeches. Using the actual object

should focus audience attention on your speech not serve as distraction.

Models

These are replicas of the actual object. They are useful when explaining complex

structures. Models help to clarify the size of various structures, their position and how

they interface with one another. Models can dramatize your explanation.

Representation of actual objects

Speakers can use pictorial representation of the actual object. You can show your

audience a photograph, a literal drawing or an abstracted, schematic sketch of the object

you are talking about.

Chalk board

In many speaking situations, using the chalkboard is the easiest way to make visual aid.

Chalk board drawings are especially valuable when you want to present an idea step by

step.
Charts

Charts are useful in communicating various types of information. Charts contains large

blocks of information into a simple representation. Charts could be in form of:

 Word charts

 Organizational chart

 Flow chart

 Flip chart

Hand outs

Hand outs refer to one or more sheets of paper given out to audience before or during the

oral presentation. Handouts reinforce the basic message of the speech. Handouts help

listeners to understand and remember difficult or unfamiliar terms.

Graphs

Graphs are pictures of numerical relations. Graphs are useful for showing differences

over time and how a whole is divided into parts and various amounts or sizes. Graphs

can be I form of:

 Bar graph

 Line graph

 Pie graph

Maps

Maps are useful for showing graphic elements as well as changes throughout history,

population density, immigration patterns, and economic conditions.

Diagrams

Diagrams are drawings that show how elements relate to one another in space.

People

Oddly enough, people can function effectively as audio visual aids. For example, to

demonstrate the muscles of the body, different voice patterns or hair styles.

The speaker

Sometimes you can be your own best visual aid. There are three special ways you can be

visual aid during your speech

1. Use descriptive gestures

- If you are describing the size of something show it with your hands or fingers

how big it is

2. Model appropriate postures and movements.

3. Wear appropriate clothing – clothing sets the tone of your mood for your speech.

Most speeches benefit from the additional impact or clarity provided by well-chosen

visual aids. Our eyes supplement our ears as we try to make sense of the speech we are

hearing.

Despite the benefits, there is one major draw back. Visual aids can be a powerful

distraction, drawing attention to themselves rather than the heart of the speech. Visual

aids distract when they are not properly used.

5.6 Types of oral communication in the teaching profession

Types of oral/speech communication which are dominant in the teaching profession are

lectures, tutorials, seminars, group discussions and presentations

5.6.1 Lectures

Lectures are the most popular ways or modes of learning at colleges and universities. A

lecture is not an isolated event: it is part of a network of learning activities. A lecture

provides the basic framework of a course of study and a starting point for student

learning. Lectures are useful for:

 Gathering information and ideas about course material.

 Providing a common ground for subsequent discussion in other learning

situations.

 Give learners a starting point for private study

 Provide a consolidation of main ideas from recent research

 Giving you practical examples and applications related to theories you are

learning

 Giving you a model of how an expert approaches a particular topic.

In lectures the lecturer plays the dominant role of delivering information to

learners/students. Verbal communication is aided by non-verbal communication and the

use of visual aids to enhance clarity and understanding. The lecturer has to bear in mind

the type of learners and the topic under discussion so that the purpose of the speech is

established.
5.6.2 Tutorials

Tutorial is a learning mode that has a few number of students to allow enough

participation and discussion of issues raised in lectures so that explanation is provided to

enhance better understanding learning. The tutor will direct the discussion i progress and

help students on debates or controversial areas. Tutorials are meant to support lectures.

Tutorials allow a topic to be understood more deeply and with greater clarity. Tutorials

provide a forum where students can test their ideas and hear and comment upon those of

others. Tutorials complement lectures. It is an academic process in which every

participant contributes every time. There is room for sharing ideas since everybody

learns fro the other. It is a communication process in which the outcomes and

conclusions are dependent on contributions of the group rather than the tutor. Learning is

based on experience of participants rather than the knowledge of the leader. Learning is

experiential.

Tutorials facilitate learning by:

 Helping to improve one’s ability to think, speak and learn.

 Helping one to understand the subject more deeply, help to clear a particular

problem.

 Help in molding conversational skills of turn-taking and giving participants learn

to listen to the next person’s ideas or point of view.

 Increasing learner’s confidence in a particular subject.

 Enabling one to make a brief presentation on facts, opinions.

 Laying a firm foundation for asking questions and making additional notes.
  Helping students to argue logically, tactfully and critically.

 Improve one’s communicative competence.

 Help learners to evaluate critically each other’s contribution.

In tutorials the tutor defines the aim of the tutorial, prepare a brief introductory

presentation of topic outline, ask questions, point the way forward on discussion, indicate

omission if there were any. The tutor can also rephrase questions asked, supervise turn

taking, summarize the tutorial points raised and conclude the tutorial.

Ways of asking questions in a tutorial may be:

 I am not very clear about, what do you mean by ------?

 Can you explain further -----?

 I am afraid I did not quite get you ----

 Can I get clarification on ------?

 Could you please expand on what you have just said?

 I would like to find out -----

5.6.3 Seminars

A seminar is a group activity. One person prepares a research on a particular topic and

makes an oral presentation to a large group of people. A seminar gives learners an

opportunity to research on a particular topic and chance to participate in the learning

process. While a lecture places the burden of preparation more on the lecturer than the

student, a seminar makes it possible for students to participate in the learning process
right from the preparation stage. Each student is assigned a topic to read about in depth,

produce a scholarly paper and then present it to his/her fellow students for discussion and

criticism.

Benefits of a seminar or an oral learning presentation are:

 Helps the students to understand the subject more deeply.

 Improves student’s ability to think.

 Helps to solve a particular problem.

 Helps the group to make a particular decision.

 Improves student’s oral skills.

 Increases students’ confidence in speaking.

 Helps in discussing ideas.

 Makes one’s experiences available to the insights and understandings of others

who share one’s interests.

 Improves students’ language.

5.6.4 Group discussions

Group discussions are a good learning made in which learners from units with the

intention of sharing ideas on a specific subject matter. Discussions enable students to

engage in a purposeful, systematic and in depth discussion an exchange of ideas on a

particular topic. They encourage an analytical and critical evaluation of the contributions

made by other participants.

They enable students to test the adequacy of their research, reasoning and communication

skills. They provide an independent environment which stimulates original constructive

thought. The group has clearly defined aims and everyone contributes by saying

something. Opinions expressed are supported by facts.

5.6.5 Presentations

A presentation is oral communication prepared by an individual specifically for a group

of audience. It allows individuals growth in terms of research. A learner is given a topic

to work on and present I front of the other learners. This instills confidence in the

learner. Individual presentations promote individual research and learning. The learner

develops experiential learning. The learner can also evaluate herself/himself after

necessary additions that will equip him/her with enough information on a particular

concept or topic.

5.6.6 Public communication

This is a one-way form of communication and is formal in nature. It is a pronounced

social occasion as opposed to a relatively informal unstructured occasion (Stubs and

Moss 1980). Usually the event is planned in advance and there is an agenda. Public

communication tends to occur within a more formal and structured setting than either

interpersonal or small-group communication.

Activity 5.3

Learning can be achieved by making use of different modes of oral communication.

Discuss any two modes of oral communication citing their advantages and
disadvantages.
5.7 Summary

The skills of analysis, organization and effective presentation are increasingly valued in

many careers and occupations. As our economy moves from dominance by

manufacturing to dominance by information, communication skills have become even

more important. Regardless of the field you are in, it is highly likely that career success

and advancement will be helped by your ability to speak in public. Thus, oral

communication becomes crucial. The ability to speak well empowers you to participate

completely in making the decisions that will affect you and others. By improving

presentational skills, you may become more self-confident and more willing to engage in

serious dialogue with others.

In oral presentations, individuals can make use of visual aids to enhance their audience’s

attention, to reinforce the spoken word and to clarify complex ideas. Oral

communication can come in the form of lectures, tutorials, seminars, group discussions,

presentations and public communication.

ASSIGNMENTS

1 Choose five (5) nonverbal communication cues and discuss how these can enhance or

disrupt communication in the classroom. [50]

Submission Date: 21 March 2017

2. Using illustrative examples, show how oral communication can improve the

teaching/learning situation in the classroom. [50]

Submission Date: 13 April 2017