Electrostatics DC Pandey

120 Electricity and Magnetism
24.6 Electric Field

A charged particle cannot directly interact with another particle kept at a distance. A charge produces
something called an electric field in the space around it and this electric field exerts a force on any
other charge (except the source charge itself) placed in it.
Thus, the region surrounding a charge or distribution of charge in which its electrical effects can be
observed is called the electric field of the charge or distribution of charge. Electric field at a point can
be defined in terms of either a vector function E called ‘electric field strength’ or a scalar function V
called ‘electric potential’. The electric field can also be visualised graphically in terms of ‘lines of
force’. Note that all these are functions of position r ( x, y, z ). The field propagates through space
with the speed of light, c. Thus, if a charge is suddenly moved, the force it exerts on another charge a
distance r away does not change until a time r /c later. In our forgoing discussion, we will see that
electric field strength E and electric potential V are interrelated. It is similar to a case where the
acceleration, velocity and displacement of a particle are related to each other.
Electric Field Strength (E )
Like its gravitational counterpart, the electric field strength (often called electric field) at a point in an
electric field is defined as the electrostatic force Fe per unit positive charge. Thus, if the electrostatic
force experienced by a small test charge q 0 is Fe , then field strength at that point is defined as
Fe
E = lim
q0 → 0 q 0
The electric field is a vector quantity and its direction is the same as the direction of the force Fe on a
positive test charge. The SI unit of electric field is N/C. Here, it should be noted that the test charge q 0
should be infinitesimally small so that it does not disturb other charges which produces E. With the
concept of electric field, our description of electric interactions has two parts. First, a given charge
distribution acts as a source of electric field. Second, the electric field exerts a force on any charge
that is present in this field.
An Electric Field Leads to a Force
Suppose there is an electric field strength E at some point in an electric field, then the electrostatic
force acting on a charge +q is qE in the direction of E, while on the charge – q it is qE in the opposite
direction of E.
V Example 24.10 An electric field of 105 N/C points due west at a certain spot.
What are the magnitude and direction of the force that acts on a charge of
+ 2 µC and − 5 µC at this spot?
Solution Force on + 2µC = qE = ( 2 × 10–6 ) (105 )
= 0.2 N (due west) Ans.
Force on – 5 µ C = (5 × 10–6 ) (105 )
= 0.5 N (due east) Ans.
Chapter 24 Electrostatics 121
Electric Field Due to a Point Charge

The electric field produced by a point charge q can be obtained in general terms from Coulomb’s law.
First note that the magnitude of the force exerted by the charge q on a test charge q 0 is
r q0
q + Fe
q + E
E
q –
Fig. 24.10
1 qq
Fe = ⋅ 20
4π ε 0 r
then divide this value by q 0 to obtain the magnitude of the field.
1 q
E= ⋅ 2
4πε 0 r
If q is positive, E is directed away from q. On the other hand, if q is negative, then E is directed
towards q.
The electric field at a point is a vector quantity. Suppose E1 is the field at a point due to a charge q1
and E 2 in the field at the same point due to a charge q 2 . The resultant field when both the charges are
present is
E = E1 + E 2
If the given charge distribution is continuous, we can use the technique of integration to find the
resultant electric field at a point.
V Example 24.11 Two positive point charges q1 = 16 µC and q2 = 4 µC, are

separated in vacuum by a distance of 3.0 m. Find the point on the line between
the charges where the net electric field is zero.
Solution Between the charges the two field contributions have opposite directions, and the net
electric field is zero at a point (say P) where the magnitudes of E1 and E2 are equal. However,
since q 2 < q1 , point P must be closer to q 2 , in order that the field of the smaller charge can
balance the field of the larger charge.
E2 E1
q1 + + q2
P
r1 r2
Fig. 24.11
At P, E1 = E 2
1 q1 1 q2
or = ⋅
4πε 0 r12 4πε 0 r22
r1 q1 16
∴ = = =2 …(i)
r2 q2 4
Also, r1 + r2 = 3.0 m …(ii)
Solving these equations, we get
r1 = 2 m and r2 = 1 m
Thus, the point P is at a distance of 2 m from q1 and 1 m from q 2 . Ans.
Electric Field of a Ring of Charge

A conducting ring of radius R has a total charge q uniformly distributed over its circumference. We
are interested in finding the electric field at point P that lies on the axis of the ring at a distance x from
its centre.
y
dl, dq
r r= x2+R2
R
90°
θ dEx
x
O x P θ
dE
q dEy
Fig. 24.12
We divide the ring into infinitesimal segments of length dl. Each segment has a charge dq and acts as
a point charge source of electric field.
Let dE be the electric field from one such segment; the net electric field at P is then the sum of all
contributions dE from all the segments that make up the ring. If we consider two ring segments at
the top and bottom of the ring, we see that the contributions dEto the field at P from these segments
have the same x-component but opposite y-components. Hence, the total y-component of field due
to this pair of segments is zero. When we add up the contributions from all such pairs of segments,
the total field E will have only a component along the ring’s symmetry axis (the x-axis) with no
component perpendicular to that axis (i.e. no y or z-component). So, the field at P is described
completely by its x-component E x .
Calculation of E x
 q 
dq =   ⋅ dl
 2πR 
1 dq
dE = ⋅ 2
4πε 0 r
 1   dq   x 
∴ dE x = dE cos θ =     
 4π ε 0   x 2 + R 2   x2 + R 2 
 
1 ( dq ) x
= ⋅
4π ε 0 (x 2 + R 2 ) 3/2
x
∴ E x = ∫ dE x = ∫ dq
4πε 0 (x + R 2 ) 3/2
2
 1  qx
or Ex =   2
 4πε 0  ( x + R 2 ) 3/2
From the above expression, we can see that

(i) E x = 0 at x = 0, i.e. field is zero at the centre of the ring. We should expect this, charges on
opposite sides of the ring would push in opposite directions on a test charge at the centre, and the
forces would add to zero.
1 q
(ii) E x = ⋅ for x >> R , i.e. when the point P is much farther from the ring, its field is the
4πε 0 x 2
same as that of a point charge. To an observer far from the ring, the ring would appear like a
point, and the electric field reflects this.
dE x
(iii) E x will be maximum where = 0. Differentiating E x w. r. t. x and putting it equal to zero we
dx
R 2  1 q 
get x = and E max comes out to be, 3  ⋅ 2.
2 3  4πε 0 R 
Ex
Emax
x
R
2
Fig. 24.13
Electric Field of a Line Charge

Positive charge q is distributed uniformly along a line with length 2a, lying along the y-axis between
y = – a and y = + a. We are here interested in finding the electric field at point P on the x-axis.
y
r = x2 + y 2
dy
y r
θ P dEx
O x
x θ
dEy
Fig. 24.14
q
λ = charge per unit length =
2a
q
dq = λ dy = dy
2a
1 dq q dy
dE = ⋅ 2 =
4πε 0 r 4πε 0 2a ( x 2 + y 2 )
q x dy
dE x = dE cos θ = ⋅
4πε 0 2a ( x 2 + y 2 ) 3/ 2
q y dy
dE y = – dE sin θ = – ⋅
4πε 0 2a (x + y 2 ) 3/ 2
2
1 qx a dy q 1
∴ Ex = ⋅ ∫ = ⋅
4π ε 0 2a – a ( x + y )
2 2 3 / 2 4πε 0 x x 2 + a 2
1 q a y dy
and Ey = – ⋅ ∫ =0
4πε 0 2a – a ( x 2 + y 2 ) 3/ 2
Thus, electric field is along x-axis only and which has a magnitude,
q
Ex = …(i)
4πε 0 x x 2 + a 2
From the above expression, we can see that

1 q
(i) if x >> a, E x = ⋅ 2 , i.e. if point P is very far from the line charge, the field at P is the same
4πε 0 x
as that of a point charge.
(ii) if we make the line of charge longer and longer, adding charge in proportion to the total length so
that λ, the charge per unit length remains constant. In this case, Eq. (i) can be written as
1  q 1
Ex = ⋅  ⋅
2πε 0  2a  x x 2 /a 2 + 1
λ
=
2πε 0 x x 2 /a 2 + 1
λ
Now, x 2 / a 2 → 0 as a >> x, E x =
2πε 0 x
Thus, the magnitude of electric field depends only on the distance of point P from the line of
charge, so we can say that at any point P at a perpendicular distance r from the line in any
direction, the field has magnitude
λ
E= (due to infinite line of charge)
2πε 0 r
1
or E∝
r
Thus, E-r graph is as shown in Fig. 24.15.
E
1
E∝ r
r
Fig. 24.15
The direction of E is radially outward from the line.

Note Suppose a charge q is placed at a point whose position vector is rq and we want to find the electric field
at a point P whose position vector is rP. Then, in vector form the electric field is given by
1 q
E= ⋅ (rP – rq )
4 πε 0 | rP – rq |3
Here, rP = xP$i + y P $j + z k$
P
and r = x $i + y
q q q j + zq k
$ $
In this equation, q is to be substituted with sign.
V Example 24.12 A charge q = 1 µC is placed at point (1 m, 2 m, 4 m). Find the

electric field at point P (0, – 4 m, 3 m).
Solution Here, r q = $i + 2$j + 4k$
and r P = – 4$j + 3k$
∴ r P − r q = – i$ – 6$j – k$
or | r P – r q | = (–1) 2 + (–6) 2 + (–1) 2 = 38 m

1 q
Now, = ⋅ ( rP – rq )
4πε 0 | r P – r q |3
Substituting the values, we have

( 9.0 × 109 ) (1.0 × 10–6 )
E= (– $i – 6$j – k$ )
( 38) 3/ 2
= (–38.42 $i – 230.52 $j – 38.42 k$ ) N/ C Ans.
Electric Field Lines

As we have seen, electric charges create an electric field in the space surrounding them. It is useful to
have a kind of “map” that gives the direction and indicates the strength of the field at various places.
Field lines, a concept introduced by Michael Faraday, provide us with an easy way to visualize the
electric field.
“An electric field line is an imaginary line or curve drawn through a region of space so that its tangent
at any point is in the direction of the electric field vector at that point. The relative closeness of the
lines at some place give an idea about the intensity of electric field at that point.”
EQ
Q
EP B
A
P
|EA | > |EB |
Fig. 24.16
The electric field lines have the following properties :

1. The tangent to a line at any point gives the direction of E at that point. This is also the path on
which a positive test charge will tend to move if free to do so.
2. Electric field lines always begin on a positive charge and end on a negative charge and do not start
or stop in mid-space.
3. The number of lines leaving a positive charge or entering a negative charge is proportional to the
magnitude of the charge. This means, for example that if 100 lines are drawn leaving a + 4 µC
charge then 75 lines would have to end on a –3 µC charge.
4. Two lines can never intersect. If it happens then two tangents can be drawn at their point of
intersection, i.e. intensity at that point will have two directions which is absurd.
5. In a uniform field, the field lines are straight parallel and uniformly spaced.
q –q + –
q q
(a) (b) (c)
+ q q + – –q q – + 2q q –
(d) (e) (f)

Fig. 24.17
6. The electric field lines can never form closed loops as a line can never start and end on the
same charge.
7. Electric field lines also give us an indication of the equipotential surface (surface which has the
same potential)
8. Electric field lines always flow from higher potential to lower potential.
9. In a region where there is no electric field, lines are absent. This is why inside a conductor (where
electric field is zero) there, cannot be any electric field line.
10. Electric lines of force ends or starts normally from the surface of a conductor.
INTRODUCTORY EXERCISE 24.3

1. The electric field of a point charge is uniform. Is it true or false?
2. Electric field lines are shown in Fig. 24.18. State whether the electric potential is greater at A or B.
A B
Fig. 24.18
3. A charged particle always move in the direction of electric field. Is this statement true or false?
4. The trajectory of a charged particle is the same as a field line. Is this statement true or false?
5. Figure shows some of the electric field lines due to three point charges q 1, q 2 and q 3 of equal
magnitude. What are the signs of each of the three charges?
q1 q2 q3
Fig. 24.19
6. Four particles each having a charge q, are placed on the four vertices of a regular pentagon.
The distance of each corner from the centre is a. Find the electric field at the centre of the
pentagon.
7. A charge q = − 2.0 µC is placed at origin. Find the electric field at (3 m, 4 m, 0).
24.7 Electric Potential Energy

The electric force between two charges is directed along the line of the charges and depends on the
inverse square of their separation, the same as the gravitational force between two masses. Like the
gravitational force, the electric force is conservative, so there is a potential energy function U
associated with it.
When a charged particle moves in an electric field, the field exerts a force that can do work on the
particle. This work can always be expressed in terms of electric potential energy. Just as gravitational
potential energy depends on the height of a mass above the earth’s surface, electric potential energy
depends on the position of the charged particle in the electric field, when a force F acts on a particle
that moves from point a to point b, the work Wa → b done by the force is given by
b b
Wa → b = ∫ F ⋅ ds = ∫ F cos θ ds
a a
where, ds is an infinitesimal displacement along the particle’s path and θ is the angle between F and ds
at each point along the path.
Second, if the force F is conservative, the work done by F can always be expressed in terms of a
potential energy U. When the particle moves from a point where the potential energy isU a to a point
where it isU b , the change in potential energy is, ∆U = U b – U a . This is related by the work Wa → b as
Wa→ b = U a – U b = – (U b – U a ) = – ∆U …(i)
Here, Wa→ b is the work done in displacing the particle from a to b by the conservative force (here
electrostatic) not by us. Moreover we can see from Eq. (i) that if Wa → b is positive, ∆U is negative
and the potential energy decreases. So, whenever the work done by a conservative force is
positive, the potential energy of the system decreases and vice-versa. That’s what happens when a
particle is thrown upwards, the work done by gravity is negative, and the potential energy increases.
V Example 24.13 A uniform electric field E 0 is directed along positive

y-direction. Find the change in electric potential energy of a positive test charge
q 0 when it is displaced in this field from yi = a to y f = 2a along the y-axis.
Solution Electrostatic force on the test charge, E0
q 0E 0
Fe = q 0 E 0 (along positive y-direction)
∴ W i − f = – ∆U + q0
or ∆U = – Wi − f = – [ q 0 E 0 ( 2a – a )]
= – q0 E0 a Ans.
Fig. 24.20
Note Here, work done by electrostatic force is positive. Hence, the potential energy is
decreasing.
Electric Potential Energy of Two Charges

The idea of electric potential energy is not restricted to the special case of a uniform electric field as in
example 24.13. Let us now calculate the work done on a test charge q 0 moving in a non-uniform
electric field caused by a single, stationary point charge q.
a b
q q0
r
ra
rb
Fig. 24.21
The Coulomb’s force on q 0 at a distance r from a fixed charge q is

1 qq
F= ⋅ 20
4πε 0 r
If the two charges have same signs, the force is repulsive and if the two charges have opposite signs,
the force is attractive. The force is not constant during the displacement, so we have to integrate to
calculate the work Wa→ b done on q 0 by this force as q 0 moves from a to b.
rb rb 1 qq qq 0  1 1
∴ Wa→ b = ∫ F dr = ∫ ⋅ 0 dr =  – 
ra ra 4πε 0 r 2 4πε 0  ra rb 
Being a conservative force this work is path independent. From the definition of potential energy,
qq 0  1 1
U b – U a = − Wa – b =  – 
4πε 0  rb ra 
We choose the potential energy of the two charge system to be zero when they have infinite
separation. This means U ∞ = 0. The potential energy when the separation is r is U r
qq 0  1 1 
∴ Ur – U∞ =  – 
4πε 0  r ∞ 
qq 0 1
or Ur =
4πε 0 r
This is the expression for electric potential energy of two point charges kept at a separation r. In this
expression both the charges q and q 0 are to be substituted with sign. The potential energy is positive if
the charges q and q 0 have the same sign and negative if they have opposite signs. Note that the above
equation is derived by assuming that one of the charges is fixed and the other is displaced. However,
the potential energy depends essentially on the separation between the charges and is independent of
the spatial location of the charged particles. We emphasize that the potential energy U given by the
above equation is a shared property of two charges q and q 0 , it is a consequence of the interaction
between these two charges. If the distance between the two charges is changed from ra to rb , the
change in the potential energy is the same whether q is held fixed and q 0 is moved or q 0 is held fixed
and q is moved. For this reason we will never use the phrase ‘the electric potential energy of a point
charge’.
Electric Potential Energy of a System of Charges
The electric potential energy of a system of charges is given by
1 qi q j
U = ∑
4πε 0 i < j rij
This sum extends over all pairs of charges. We don’t let i = j, because that would be an interaction of a
charge with itself, and we include only terms with i < j to make sure that we count each pair
only once.
Thus, to account for the interaction between q 5 and q 4 , we include a term with i = 4 q2
and j = 5 but not a term with i = 5 and j = 4. q3
For example, electric potential energy of four point charges q1 , q 2 , q 3 and q 4 would q 1
be given by q4
1  q 4 q 3 q 4 q 2 q 4 q1 q 3 q 2 q 3 q1 q 2 q1  Fig. 24.22
U =  + + + + +  …(ii)
4πε 0  r43 r42 r41 r32 r31 r21 
Here, all the charges are to be substituted with sign.
n (n – 1)
Note Total number of pairs formed by n point charges are .
2
V Example 24.14 Four charges q1 = 1 µC, q2 = 2 µC, q3 = – 3 µC and q4 = 4 µC

are kept on the vertices of a square of side 1m. Find the electric potential energy
of this system of charges.
q4 q3
1m
1m
q1 q2
Fig. 24.23
Solution In this problem,

r41 = r43 = r32 = r21 = 1 m
and r42 = r31 = (1) 2 + (1) 2 = 2 m
Substituting the proper values with sign in Eq. (ii), we get
 ( 4)(–3) ( 4)(2) ( 4)(1) (–3)(2) (–3)(1) (2)(1) 
U = (9.0 × 10 9 )(10 –6 )(10 –6 )  + + + + +
 1 2 1 1 2 1 
 5
= ( 9.0 × 10–3 ) –12 + 
 2
= – 7.62 × 10–2 J Ans.
Note Here, negative sign of U implies that positive work has been done by electrostatic forces in assembling
these charges at respective distances from infinity.
V Example 24.15 Two point charges are located on the x-axis, q1 = – 1 µC at

x = 0 and q2 = + 1 µC at x = 1 m.
(a) Find the work that must be done by an external force to bring a third point
charge q3 = + 1 µC from infinity to x = 2 m.
(b) Find the total potential energy of the system of three charges.
Solution (a) The work that must be done on q 3 by an external force is equal to the difference
of potential energy U when the charge is at x = 2m and the potential energy when it is at infinity.
∴ W = U f – Ui
1  q3 q2 q q q q  1  q3 q2 q q q q 
=  + 3 1 + 2 1 –  + 3 1 + 2 1
4πε 0  ( r32 ) f ( r31 ) f ( r21 ) f  4πε 0  ( r32 ) i ( r31 ) i ( r21 ) i 
Here, ( r21 ) i = ( r21 ) f
and ( r32 ) i = ( r31 ) i = ∞
1  q3 q2 q q 
∴ W=  + 3 1 
4πε 0  ( r32 ) f ( r31 ) f 

 (1) (1) (1) (–1)
W = ( 9.0 × 109 ) (10–12 )  +
 (1.0) ( 2.0) 
= 4.5 × 10–3 J Ans.
(b) The total potential energy of the three charges is given by,
1  q 3 q 2 q 3 q1 q 2 q1 
U=  + + 
4πε 0  r32 r31 r21 
 (1) (1) (1) (–1) (1) (–1)
= ( 9.0 × 109 )  + + (10–12 )
 (1.0) (2.0) (1.0) 
= – 4.5 × 10–3 J Ans.
V Example 24.16 Two point charges q1 = q2 = 2 µC are fixed at x1 = + 3 m and

x2 = – 3 m as shown in figure. A third particle of mass 1 g and charge
q3 = – 4 µC are released from rest at y = 4.0 m . Find the speed of the particle as
it reaches the origin.
y
q3 y = 4m
q2 q1
x
O
x 2 = –3 m x1 = 3m
Fig. 24.24
HOW TO PROCEED Here, the charge q3 is attracted towards q1 and q2 both. So, the
net force on q3 is towards origin.
y
q3
Fnet
q2 q1
x
O
Fig. 24.25
By this force, charge is accelerated towards origin, but this acceleration is not
constant. So, to obtain the speed of particle at origin by kinematics we will have to
first find the acceleration at some intermediate position and then will have to
integrate it with proper limits. On the other hand, it is easy to use energy
conservation principle, as the only forces are conservative.
Solution Let v be the speed of particle at origin. From conservation of mechanical energy,
Ui + K i = U f + K f
1  q3 q2 q q q q  1  q3 q2 q q q q  1 2
or  + 3 1 + 2 1  + 0=  + 3 1 + 2 1  + mv
4πε 0  ( r32 ) i ( r31 ) i ( r21 ) i  4πε 0  ( r32 ) f ( r31 ) f ( r21 ) f  2
Here, ( r21 ) i = ( r21 ) f
Substituting the proper values, we have
 (– 4 ) ( 2) (– 4 ) ( 2)  (– 4 ) ( 2) (– 4 ) ( 2)
( 9.0 × 109 )  +  × 10–12 = ( 9.0 × 109 )  +  × 10
–12
 ( 5.0 ) ( 5.0 )   ( 3.0 ) ( 3.0 ) 

1
+ × 10–3 × v 2
2
 16  16 1
∴ ( 9 × 10–3 )  –  = ( 9 × 10–3 )  –  + × 10–3 × v 2
 5  3 2
 2 1
( 9 × 10–3 ) (16)   = × 10–3 × v 2
 15 2
∴ v = 6.2 m/s Ans.

1. A point charge q 1 = 1.0 µC is held fixed at origin. A second point charge q 2 = − 2.0 µC and a
mass 10−4 kg is placed on the x-axis, 1.0 m from the origin. The second point charge is released
from rest. What is its speed when it is 0.5 m from the origin?
2. A point charge q 1 = − 1.0 µC is held stationary at the origin. A second point charge q 2 = + 2.0 µC
moves from the point (1.0 m, 0, 0) to (2.0 m, 0, 0). How much work is done by the electric force
on q 2?
3. A point charge q 1 is held stationary at the origin. A second charge q 2 is placed at a point a, and
the electric potential energy of the pair of charges is –6.4 × 10−8 J. When the second charge is
moved to point b, the electric force on the charge does 4.2 × 10−8 J of work. What is the electric
potential energy of the pair of charges when the second charge is at point b?
4. Is it possible to have an arrangement of two point charges separated by finite distances such
that the electric potential energy of the arrangement is the same as if the two charges were
infinitely far apart? What if there are three charges?
24.8 Electric Potential

As we have discussed in Article 24.6 that an electric field at any point can be defined in two different
ways:
(i) by the field strength E, and
(ii) by the electric potential V at the point under consideration.
Both E and V are functions of position and there is a fixed relationship between these two. Of these,
the field strength Eis a vector quantity while the electric potential V is a scalar quantity. In this article,
we will discuss about the electric potential and in the next, the relationship between E and V.
“Potential is the potential energy per unit charge.” Electric potential at any point in an electric field is
defined as the potential energy per unit charge, same as the field strength is defined as the force per
unit charge. Thus,
U
V= or U = q 0V
q0
The SI unit of potential is volt (V) which is equal to joule per coulomb. So,
1 V = 1 J/C
The work done by the electrostatic force in displacing a test charge q 0 from a to b in an electric field is
defined as the negative of change in potential energy between them, or
∆U = – Wa – b
∴ U b – U a = – Wa – b
Ub Ua Wa – b
We divide this equation by q 0 − =–
q0 q0 q0
Wa – b
or Va – Vb =
q0
U
as V=
q0
Thus, the work done per unit charge by the electric force when a charged body moves from a to b is
equal to the potential at a minus the potential at b. We sometimes abbreviate this difference as
Vab = Va – Vb .
Another way to interpret the potential difference Vab is that the potential at a minus potential at b,
equals the work that must be done to move a unit positive charge slowly from b to a against the
electric force.
(Wb – a ) external force
Va – Vb =
q0
Absolute Potential at Some Point

Suppose we take the point b at infinity and as a reference point assign the value Vb = 0, the above
equations can be written as
(Wa – b ) electric force (Wb – a ) external force
Va – Vb = =
q0 q0
(Wa – ∞ ) electric force (W∞ – a ) external force
or Va = =
q0 q0
Thus, the absolute electric potential at point a in an electric field can be defined as the work done in
displacing a unit positive test charge from infinity to a by the external force or the work done per unit
positive charge in displacing it from a to infinity.
Note The following three formulae are very useful in the problems related to work done in electric field.
(Wa – b ) electric force = q0 (Va – Vb )
(Wa – b ) external force = q0 (Vb – Va ) = – (Wa – b ) electric force
(W∞ – a ) external force = q0Va
Here, q0 , Va and Vb are to be substituted with sign.
V Example 24.17 The electric potential at point A is 20 V and at B is – 40 V.

Find the work done by an external force and electrostatic force in moving an
electron slowly from B to A.
Solution Here, the test charge is an electron, i.e.
q 0 = – 1.6 × 10–19 C
VA = 20 V
and VB = – 40 V
Work done by external force
(WB – A ) external force = q 0 (VA – VB )
= (– 1.6 × 10 –19 ) [(20) – (– 40)]
= – 9.6 × 10 –18 J Ans.
Work done by electric force
(WB – A ) electric force = – (WB – A ) external force
= – (– 9.6 × 10 –18 J )
= 9.6 × 10 –18 J Ans.
Note Here, we can see that the electron (a negative charge) moves from B (lower potential) to A (higher
potential) and the work done by electric force is positive. Therefore, we may conclude that whenever a
negative charge moves from a lower potential to higher potential work done by the electric force is
positive or when a positive charge moves from lower potential to higher potential the work done by the
electric force is negative.
V Example 24.18 Find the work done by some external force in moving a charge
q = 2 µC from infinity to a point where electric potential is 104 V .
Solution Using the relation,
(W∞– a ) external force = qVa
We have, (W∞– a ) external force = ( 2 × 10–6 ) (104 )
= 2 × 10–2 J Ans.
Electric Potential Due to a Point Charge q

1 q q0
⋅
U 4πε 0 r
From the definition of potential, V= =
q0 q0
1 q
or V= ⋅
4πε 0 r
Here, r is the distance from the point charge q to the point at which the potential is evaluated.
If q is positive, the potential that it produces is positive at all points; if q is negative, it produces a
potential that is negative everywhere. In either case, V is equal to zero at r = ∞.
Electric Potential Due to a System of Charges

Just as the electric field due to a collection of point charges is the vector sum of the fields produced by
each charge, the electric potential due to a collection of point charges is the scalar sum of the
potentials due to each charge.
1 qi
V= ∑
4πε 0 i ri
In this expression, ri is the distance from the i th charge, q i , to the point at which V is evaluated. For a
continuous distribution of charge along a line, over a surface or through a volume, we divide the
charge into elements dq and the sum in the above equation becomes an integral,
1 dq
V= ∫
4πε 0 r
1 qi 1 dq
Note In the equation V = Σ
4 πε 0 i ri
or V =
4 πε 0 ∫ r
, if the whole charge is at equal distance r0 from the
point where V is to be evaluated, then we can write,

1 q
V= ⋅ net
4 πε 0 r0
where, qnet is the algebraic sum of all the charges of which the system is made.
Here there are few examples :
Example (i) Four charges are placed on the vertices of a square as shown + 4 µC – 2 µC
in figure. The electric potential at centre of the square is zero as all the charges
are at same distance from the centre and
qnet = 4 µC – 2 µC + 2 µC – 4 µC = 0
– 4 µC +2 µC
Fig. 24.26
Example (ii) A charge q is uniformly distributed over the circumference of a ring in Fig. (a) and
is non-uniformly distributed in Fig. (b).
+ + ++
+ + q + +
+ +
+
+ + +
+q + +
+ + +
+ + +
+ R + R
+
+
+ + +
+ + + ++
(a) (b)
Fig. 24.27
The electric potential at the centre of the ring in both the cases is
R 2+ r 2
1 q
V = ⋅ (where, R = radius of ring)
4 πε 0 R r
C P
and at a distance r from the centre of ring on its axis would be
1 q
V= ⋅ Fig. 24.28
4πε 0 R 2 + r2
V Example 24.19 Three point charges q1 = 1 µC , q2 = – 2 µC and q3 = 3 µC are

placed at (1 m, 0, 0), (0, 2 m, 0) and (0, 0, 3 m) respectively. Find the electric
potential at origin.
Solution The net electric potential at origin is
1  q1 q 2 q 3 
V=  + + 
4πε 0  r1 r2 r3 
 1 2 3
V = ( 9.0 × 109 )  – +  × 10
–6
 1.0 2.0 3.0
= 9.0 × 103 V Ans.
V Example 24.20 A charge q = 10 µC is distributed uniformly over the

circumference of a ring of radius 3 m placed on x-y plane with its centre at
origin. Find the electric potential at a point P (0, 0, 4 m).
Solution The electric potential at point P would be
z
P
r0 4m
+ + + + y
+ +
+ 3m +
x
+ +
+ q
+ +
+ + +
Fig. 24.29 v
1 q
V= ⋅
4πε 0 r0
Here, r0 = distance of point P from the circumference of ring
= ( 3) 2 + ( 4 ) 2 = 5 m
and q = 10 µC = 10–5 C
( 9.0 × 109 ) (10–5 )
V= = 1.8 × 104 V Ans.
( 5.0)
Variation of Electric Potential on the Axis of a Charged Ring

We have discussed earlier that the electric potential at the centre of a charged ring (whether charged
1 q
uniformly or non-uniformly) is ⋅ and at a distance r from the centre on the axis of the ring is
4πε 0 R
1 q
⋅ .From these expressions, we can see that electric potential is maximum at the centre
4πε 0 R + r2
2
and decreases as we move away from the centre on the axis. Thus, potential varies with distance r as
shown in figure.
V
V0
r
r=0
Fig. 24.30
1 q
In the figure, V0 = ⋅
4πε 0 R
Electric Potential on the Axis of a Uniformly Charged Disc

Let us find the electric potential at any point P, a distance x on the axis of a uniformly charged circular
disc, having surface charge density σ. Let us divide the disc into a large number of thin circular strips
and consider a strip of radius r and width dr. Each point of this strip can be assumed to be at equal
distance r 2 + x 2 from point P. Potential at P due to this circular strip is
dr
x P
r
Fig. 24.31
1 dq
dV = ⋅
4πε 0 r2 + x2
Here, dq = σ ( area of strip) or dq = σ (2πrdr )
1 σ (2πrdr )
∴ dV = ⋅
4πε 0 r2 + x2
Thus, the potential due to the whole disc is
R σ R rdr σ
V = ∫ dV = ∫ or V= [ R 2 + x 2 – x]
0 2ε 0 0
r2 + x2 2ε 0
(i) At the centre of the disc, x = 0

σR
∴ V (centre ) = …(i)
2ε 0
(ii) For x >> R , using the Binomial expansion for
1/ 2
 R2  R2
R + x = x 1 + 2 
2 2
≈x+
 x  2x
σ  R2  σR 2 π R 2σ
∴ V= x + – x = =
2ε0  2x  4 ε 0 x 4π ε 0 x
q
or V=
4πε 0 x
as πR 2σ = q, the total charge on the disc.
This is the relation as obtained due to a point charge. Thus, at far away points, the distribution of
charge becomes insignificant. It is difficult to calculate the potential at the points other than on
the axis. However, potential on the edge of the disc can be calculated as under.
Potential on the Edge of the Disc

To calculate the potential at point P, let us divide the disc in large number of rings dr
with P as centre. The potential due to one segment between r and r + dr is given as r
1 dq θ
dV = ⋅ P
4πε 0 r R C
Here, dq = σ (Area of ring)

= σ (2r θ ) dr Fig. 24.32
1 σ (2r θ ) dr
∴ dV = ⋅
4πε 0 r
σ
= ⋅ θ dr
2πε 0
Further, r = 2R cos θ
∴ dr = – 2R sin θ dθ
σ
Hence, dV = – 2Rθ sin θ dθ
2πε 0
0 σR π/2
∴ V =∫ dV = ∫0 θ sin θ dθ
π/2 πε 0
σR
Solving, we get V= …(ii)
πε 0
Comparing Eqs. (i) and (ii), we see that potential at the centre of the disc is greater than the potential at
the edge.
V Example 24.21 Find out the points on the line joining two charges + q and
– 3q (kept at a distance of 1.0 m) where electric potential is zero.
Solution Let P be the point on the axis either to the left or to the right of charge + q at a
distance r where potential is zero. Hence,
P +q 1.0 m –3q +q P –3q
or
r r 1.0 – r
Fig. 24.33
q 3q
VP = – =0
4πε 0 r 4πε 0 (1 + r )
Solving this, we get r = 0.5 m
q 3q
Further, VP = – =0
4πε 0 r 4πε 0 (1 – r )
which gives r = 0.25 m
Thus, the potential will be zero at point P on the axis which is either 0.5 m to the left or 0.25 m to
the right of charge + q. Ans.

1. FindVba if 12 J of work has to be done against an electric field to take a charge of 10–2 C from a
to b.
2. A rod of length L lies along the x-axis with its left end at the origin. It has a non-uniform charge
density λ = αx, where α is a positive constant.
(a) What are the units of α?
(b) Calculate the electric potential at point A where x = – d .
3. A charge q is uniformly distributed along an insulating straight wire of length 2l as shown in
Fig. 24.34. Find an expression for the electric potential at a point located a distance d from the
distribution along its perpendicular bisector.
P
2l
Fig. 24.34
4. A cone made of insulating material has a total charge Q spread uniformly over its sloping
surface. Calculate the work done in bringing a small test charge q from infinity to the apex of the
cone. The cone has a slope length L.
24.9 Relation Between Electric Field and Potential

As we have discussed above, an invisible space is produced across a charge or system of charges in
which any other test charge experiences an electrical force. The vector quantity related to this force is
known as electric field. Further, a work is done by this electrostatic force when this test charge is
moved from one point to another point. The scalar quantity related to this work done is called
potential. Electric field ( E) and potential (V ) are different at different positions. So, they are functions
of position.
In a cartesian coordinate system, position of a particle can be represented by three variable
coordinates x, y and z. Therefore, E and V are functions of three variables x, y and z. In physics, we
normally keep least number of variables. So, sometimes E andV are the functions of a single variable
x or r. Here, x is the x-coordinate along x-axis and r normally a distance from a point charge or from
the centre of a charged sphere or charged spherical shell. From the x-coordinate, we can cover only
x -axis. But, from the variable r, we can cover the whole space.
Now, E and V functions are related to each other either by differentiation or integration. As far as
differentiation is concerned, if there are more than one variables then partial differentiation is done
and in case of single variable direct differentiation is required. In case of integration, some limit is
required. Limit means value of the function which we get after integration should be known to us at
some position. For example, after integrating E, we get V . So, value of V should be known at some
given position. Without knowing some limit, an unknown in the form of constant of integration
remains in the equation. One known limit of V is : potential is zero at infinity.
Conversion of V function into E function
This requires differentiation.
Case 1 When variables are more than one
In this case,
E = E x $i + E y $j + E z k$
∂V
Here, Ex = – = – (partial derivative of V w. r. t. x )
∂x
∂V
Ey = – = – (partial derivative of V w. r. t. y)
∂y
∂V
Ez = – = – (partial derivative of V w. r. t. z )
∂z
 ∂V $ ∂V $ ∂V $ 
∴ E=− i+ j+
∂z 
k
 ∂x ∂y
This is also sometimes written as
E = – gradient V = – grad V = – ∇ V
V Example 24.22 The electric potential in a region is represented as

V = 2x + 3 y – z
obtain expression for electric field strength.
 ∂V $ ∂V $ ∂V $ 
Solution E= –  i+ j+
∂z 
k
 ∂x ∂y
∂V ∂
Here, = ( 2x + 3 y – z ) = 2
∂x ∂x
∂V ∂
= ( 2x + 3 y – z ) = 3
∂y ∂y
∂V ∂
= ( 2x + 3 y – z ) = – 1
∂z ∂z
∴ E = −2$i − 3$j + k$ Ans.
Case 2 When variable is only one In this case, electric potential is function of only one variable
(say r ) and we can write the expression like :
dV
E =−
dr
or E = − slope of V - r graph
Example Electric potential due to a point charge q at distance r is given as
1 q dV 1 q
V= ⋅ ⇒ =− ⋅ 2
4πε 0 r dr 4π ε 0 r
dV 1 q
∴ E=− = ⋅ 2
dr 4 πε 0 r
and we know that this is the expression of electric field due to a point charge.
Note E is a vector quantity. In the above method, if single variable is x and E comes out to be positive, then
direction of E is towards positive x-axis. Negative value of E means direction is towards negative x- axis.
If variable is r, then positive value of E means away from the point charge or away from the centre of
charged spherical body and negative value of E means towards the charge or towards the centre of
charged spherical body.
Let us take an another example : We wish to find E - r graph V
(volt)
corresponding to V - r graph shown in Fig. 24.35.
Electric field E = – 5 V/m for 0 ≤ r ≤ 2 m as slope of V-r graph is 10
5 V/m. E = 0 for 2 m ≤ r ≤ 4 m as slope of V-r graph in this region
is zero. Similarly, E = 5 V/m for 4 m ≤ r ≤ 6 m as slope in this r (m)
region is – 5 V/m. 0 2 4 6
Fig. 24.35
So, the corresponding E - r graph is as shown in Fig. 24.36.
E(V/m)
+5
2 r (m)
4 6
–5
Fig. 24.36
V Example 24.23 The electric potential V at any point x, y, z (all in metre) in

space is given by V = 4x 2 volt. The electric field at the point (1m, 0, 2 m) is
………V/m. (JEE 1992)
 ∂ V $ ∂ V $ ∂V $ 
Solution E=− i+ j+ k  ⇒ V = 4x 2
∂x ∂y ∂z 
∂V ∂V ∂V
Therefore, = 8x and = 0=
∂x ∂y ∂z
E = − 8x$i
or E at (1 m, 0, 2 m) is −8 $i V/m.
Conversion of E into V
We have learnt, how to find electric field E from the electrostatic potential V. Let us now discuss how
to calculate potential difference or absolute potential if electric field E is known. For this, use the
relation
dV = – E ⋅ d r
B B
or ∫A dV = – ∫A E ⋅ d r
B
or VB – V A = – ∫ E ⋅ d r
A
Here, dr = dx $i + dy $j + dz k$
When E is Uniform
Let us take this case with the help of an example.
N
V Example 24.24 Find V ab in an electric field E = (2 $i + 3 $j + 4 k
$) ,
C
where ra = ( $i – 2 $j + k$ ) m and rb = (2 $i + $j – 2 k$ ) m
Solution Here, the given field is uniform (constant). So using,
dV = – E⋅ d r
a
or Vab = Va – Vb = – ∫b E⋅ d r
(1 ,–2 , 1)
=−∫ ( 2 $i + 3 $j + 4 k$ ) ⋅ ( dx $i + dy $j + dz k$ )
(2 , 1 ,–2)
(1 ,–2 , 1)
=–∫ ( 2 dx + 3 dy + 4 dz )
(2 , 1 ,–2)
( 1, – 2, 1)
= − [ 2x + 3 y + 4 z ] (2, 1, – 2)
= – 1V Ans.
Note In uniform electric field, we can also apply V = Ed

Here, V is the potential difference between any two points, E is the magnitude of uniform electric field and d is
the projection of the distance between two points along the electric field.
For example, in the figure for finding the potential difference between points A and B we will have to
keep two points in mind,
B E
A C
d
Fig. 24.37
(i) V A > VB as electric lines always flow from higher potential to lower potential.
(ii) d ≠ AB but d = AC
Hence, in the above figure, V A – VB = Ed
V Example 24.25 In uniform electric field E = 10 N /C , find

A E
2m 2m
B C
2m
Fig. 24.38
(a) V A – V B (b) V B – VC
Solution (a) VB > VA , So, VA – VB will be negative.
Further d AB = 2 cos 60° = 1 m
∴ VA – VB = – Ed AB = (–10) (1) = – 10 volt Ans.
(b) VB > VC , so VB – VC will be positive.
Further, d BC = 2.0 m
∴ VB – VC = (10) ( 2) = 20 volt Ans.
V Example 24.26 A uniform electric field of 100 V/m is directed at 30° with the
positive x-axis as shown in figure. Find the potential difference V BA if OA = 2 m
and OB = 4 m.
y
B
O 30°
x
A
Fig. 24.39
Solution This problem can be solved by both the methods discussed above.
Method 1. Electric field in vector form can be written as
E = (100 cos 30° $i + 100 sin 30° $j ) V/m
= ( 50 3 i$ + 50$j ) V/m
A ≡ (–2m, 0, 0)
and B ≡ ( 0, 4m, 0)
B
∴ VBA = VB – VA = – ∫A E⋅ d r
(0 , 4 m , 0)
=– ∫(−2 m, 0, 0) ( 50 3 i$ + 50 $j ) ⋅ ( dx $i + dy $j + dz k$ )
= – [ 50 3 x + 50 y] ((–02, 4mm, 0, ,0)0)
= – 100 ( 2 + 3 ) V Ans.
Method 2. We can also use, V = Ed
With the view that VA > VB or VB – VA will be negative.
Here, d AB = OA cos 30° + OB sin 30°
3 1
= 2× + 4 × = ( 3 + 2)
2 2
∴ VB – VA = – Ed AB = – 100 ( 2 + 3 ) Ans.
V Example 24.27 A uniform electric field pointing in positive x-direction exists

in a region. Let A be the origin, B be the point on the x-axis at x = + 1 cm and C
be the point on the y-axis at y = + 1 cm. Then, the potentials at the points A, B
and C satisfy (JEE 2001)
(a) V A < V B (b) V A > V B
(c) V A < VC (d) V A > VC
Solution Potential decreases in the direction of electric field. Dotted lines are
equipotential lines.
y
X
A B
Fig. 24.40
∴ V A = VC and V A > VB
Hence, the correct option is (b).
V Example 24.28 A non-conducting ring of radius 0.5 m carries a total charge

of 1.11 × 10 −10 C distributed non-uniformly on its circumference producing an
l=0
electric field E everywhere in space. The value of the integral ∫ l = ∞ − E ⋅ dl
(l = 0 being centre of the ring) in volt is (JEE 1997)
(a) + 2 (b) − 1 (c) − 2 (d) zero
l=0 l=0
Solution −∫ E⋅ dl = ∫ dV = V (centre) − V (infinity)
l=∞ l=∞
but V (infinity) = 0
l=0
∴ −∫ E⋅ dl corresponds to potential at centre of ring.
l=∞
1 q ( 9 × 109 ) (1.11 × 10−10 )

and V (centre) = ⋅ = ≈ 2V
4 πε 0 R 0.5
Therefore, the correct answer is (a).

1. Determine the electric field strength vector if the potential of this field depends on x, y
coordinates as
(a) V = a ( x 2 – y 2 ) (b) V = axy
where, a is a constant.
2. The electrical potential function for an electrical field directed parallel to the x-axis is shown in
the given graph.
V (volt)
20
10
x (m)
–2 0 2 4 8
Fig. 24.41
Draw the graph of electric field strength.

3. The electric potential decreases uniformly from 100 V to 50 V as one moves along the x-axis
from x = 0 to x = 5 m. The electric field at x = 2 m must be equal to 10 V/m. Is this statement true
or false.
4. In the uniform electric field shown in figure, find : A B
(a) VA – VD
1m
(b) VA – VC E = 20 V/m
(c) VB – VD 1m
D C
(d) VC − VD
Fig. 24.42
24.10 Equipotential Surfaces

The equipotential surfaces in an electric field have the same basic idea as topographic maps used by
civil engineers or mountain climbers. On a topographic map, contour lines are drawn passing through
the points having the same elevation. The potential energy of a mass m does not change along a
contour line as the elevation is same everywhere.
By analogy to contour lines on a topographic map, an equipotential surface is a three-dimensional
surface on which the electric potential V is the same at every point on it. An equipotential surface has
the following characteristics.
1. Potential difference between any two points in an equipotential surface is zero.
2. If a test charge q 0 is moved from one point to the other on such a surface, the electric potential
energy q 0V remains constant.
3. No work is done by the electric force when the test charge is moved along this surface.
4. Two equipotential surfaces can never intersect each other because otherwise the point of
intersection will have two potentials which is of course not possible.
5. As the work done by electric force is zero when a test charge is moved along the equipotential
surface, it follows that E must be perpendicular to the surface at every point so that the electric
force q 0 E will always be perpendicular to the displacement of a charge moving on the surface.
Thus, field lines and equipotential surfaces are always mutually perpendicular. Some
equipotential surfaces are shown in Fig. 24.43.
10V 40V
20V 30V
30V 20V
40V 10V E
+ –
40 V 30 V 20 V
Fig. 24.43
The equipotential surfaces are a family of concentric spheres for a point charge or a sphere of charge
and are a family of concentric cylinders for a line of charge or cylinder of charge. For a special case of
a uniform field, where the field lines are straight, parallel and equally spaced the equipotential
surfaces are parallel planes perpendicular to the field lines.
Note While drawing the equipotential surfaces we should keep in mind the two main points.
(i) These are perpendicular to field lines at all places.
(ii) Field lines always flow from higher potential to lower potential.
V Example 24.29 Equipotential spheres are drawn round a point charge. As we

move away from the charge, will the spacing between two spheres having a
constant potential difference decrease, increase or remain constant.
Solution V1 > V2
1 q 1 q
V1 = ⋅ and V2 = ⋅ q
4πε 0 r1 4πε 0 r2 +
r2 r1 V1 V2
q  1 1 q  r2 – r1 
Now, V1 – V2 =  – =  
4πε 0  r1 r2  4πε 0  r1 r2 
( 4πε 0 ) (V1 – V2 ) Fig. 24.44
∴ ( r2 – r1 ) = ( r1 r2 )
q
For a constant potential difference (V1 – V2 ) ,
r2 – r1 ∝ r1 r2
i.e. the spacing between two spheres ( r2 – r1 ) increases as we move away from the charge,
because the product r1 r2 will increase.
24.11 Electric Dipole

A pair of equal and opposite point charges ±q, that are separated by a fixed distance is known as
electric dipole. Electric dipole occurs in nature in a variety of situations. The hydrogen fluoride
molecule (HF) is typical. When a hydrogen atom combines with a fluorine atom, the single electron
of the former is strongly attracted to the later and spends most of its time near the fluorine atom. As a
result, the molecule consists of a strongly negative fluorine ion some (small) distance away from a
strongly positive ion, though the molecule is electrically neutral overall.
p
Every electric dipole is characterized by its electric dipole moment which is –q – +
+q
a vector p directed from the negative to the positive charge. 2a
Fig. 24.45
The magnitude of dipole moment is
p = (2a ) q
Here, 2a is the distance between the two charges.
Electric Potential and Field Due to an Electric Dipole

Consider an electric dipole lying along positive y-direction with its centre at origin.
p = 2aq $j
y
x 2 + z 2 + (y – a)2 A (x, y, z)
+q
+
x 2 + z 2 + (y + a)2
a
x
a
–q –
z
Fig. 24.46
The electric potential due to this dipole at point A ( x, y, z ) as shown is simply the sum of the
potentials due to the two charges. Thus,
1  q q 
V=  – 
4πε 0  x + ( y – a ) 2 + z 2
2 2 2 2 
x + ( y + a) + z 

By differentiating this function, we obtain the electric field of the dipole.
∂V q  x x 
Ex = – =  2 – 2 
∂x 4πε 0 [x + ( y – a ) + z ]
2 2 3 / 2
[x + ( y + a ) + z ] 
2 2 3 / 2
∂V q  y– a y+a 
Ey = – =  2 – 2 
∂y 4πε 0 [ x + ( y – a ) + z ]
2 2 3 / 2
[x + ( y + a ) + z ] 
2 2 3 / 2
∂V q  z z 
Ez = – =  2 – 
∂z 4πε 0 [ x + ( y – a ) 2 + z 2 ]3/ 2 [ x 2 + ( y + a ) 2 + z 2 ]3/ 2 
Special Cases
1. On the axis of the dipole (say, along y-axis)
x = 0, z = 0
q  1 1  2aq
∴ V=  –  =
4πε 0  y – a y + a  4πε 0 ( y 2 – a 2 )
p
or V= (as 2aq = p)
4πε 0 ( y 2 – a 2 )
i.e. at a distance r from the centre of the dipole ( y = r )
p p
V= or Vaxis ≈ (for r >> a)
4πε 0 ( r – a )
2 2
4πε 0 r 2
V is positive when the point under consideration is towards positive charge and negative if it is
towards negative charge.
Moreover the components of electric field are as under
E x = 0, E z = 0 ( as x = 0, z = 0)
q  1 1 
and Ey =  – 2
4πε 0  ( y – a)
2
( y + a) 
4ayq 1 2 py
= or Ey =
4πε 0 ( y – a )
2 2 2 4πε 0 ( y – a 2 ) 2
2
Note that E y is along positive y-direction or parallel to p.

Further, at a distance r from the centre of the dipole ( y = r ).
1 2 pr 1 2p
Ey = or E axis ≈ ⋅ (for r >> a)
4πε 0 ( r 2 – a 2 ) 2 4πε 0 r 3
2. On the perpendicular bisector of dipole

Say along x-axis (it may be along z-axis also).
y = 0, z = 0
1  q q 
∴ V=  –  =0
4πε 0  x 2 + a 2 x 2 + a 2 

or V⊥ bisector = 0
Moreover the components of electric field are as under,
E x = 0, E z = 0
q  –a a 
and Ey =  2 – 2 
4πε 0  ( x + a )
2 3 / 2
(x + a ) 
2 3 / 2
– 2aq
=
4πε 0 ( x 2 + a 2 ) 3/ 2
1 p
or Ey = – ⋅ 2
4πε 0 ( x + a 2 ) 3/ 2
Here, negative sign implies that the electric field is along negative y-direction or antiparallel to p.
Further, at a distance r from the centre of dipole ( x = r ), the magnitude of electric field is
1 p 1 p
E= or E⊥ ≈ ⋅ 3 (for r >> a)
4πε 0 ( r + a 2 ) 3/ 2 4πε 0 r
2 bisector
Electric Dipole in Uniform Electric Field

As we have said earlier also, uniform electric field means, at every point the direction and magnitude
of electric field is constant. A uniform electric field is shown by parallel equidistant lines. The field
due to a point charge or due to an electric dipole is non-uniform in nature. Uniform electric field is
found between the plates of a parallel plate capacitor. Now, let us discuss the behaviour of a dipole in
uniform electric field.
Force on Dipole
Suppose an electric dipole of dipole moment | p| = 2aq is placed in a uniform electric field E at an
angle θ. Here, θ is the angle between p and E. A force F1 = qE will act on positive charge and
F2 = – q E on negative charge. Since, F1 and F2 are equal in magnitude but opposite in direction.
E
+q
F1 p
a A
O
a θ
–q E
F2
B
Fig. 24.47
Hence, F1 + F2 = 0 or F net = 0
Thus, net force on a dipole in uniform electric field is zero. While in a non-uniform electric field it
may or may not be zero.
Torque on Dipole
The torque of F1 about O, τ 1 = OA × F1 = q (OA × E)
and torque of F2 about O is, τ 2 = OB × F2 = – q (OB × E)
= q( BO × E)
The net torque acting on the dipole is
τ = τ 1 + τ 2 = q (OA × E) + q ( BO × E)
= q (OA + BO) × E
= q ( BA × E)
or τ = p× E
Thus, the magnitude of torque is τ = pE sin θ. The direction of torque is perpendicular to the plane of
paper inwards. Further this torque is zero at θ = 0° or θ = 180°, i.e. when the dipole is parallel or
antiparallel to E and maximum at θ = 90°.
Potential Energy of Dipole
When an electric dipole is placed in an electric field E, a torque τ = p × E acts on it. If we rotate the
dipole through a small angle dθ, the work done by the torque is
dW = τ dθ
dW = – pE sin θ dθ
The work is negative as the rotation dθ is opposite to the torque. The change in electric potential
energy of the dipole is therefore
dU = – dW = pE sin θ dθ
Now, at angle θ = 90°, the electric potential energy of the dipole may be assumed to be zero as net
work done by the electric forces in bringing the dipole from infinity to this position will be zero.
+q
90°
–q
Fig. 24.48
Integrating, dU = pE sin θ dθ
θ θ
From 90° to θ, we have ∫90° dU = ∫90° pE sin θ dθ
θ
or U (θ ) – U (90° ) = pE [– cos θ ]90°
∴ U (θ ) = – pE cos θ = – p ⋅ E
If the dipole is rotated from an angle θ 1 to θ 2 , then

Work done by external forces = U (θ 2) – U (θ 1)
or Wext. forces = – pE cos θ 2 – (– pE cos θ 1 )
or Wext. forces = pE (cos θ 1 – cos θ 2)
and work done by electric forces,
Welectric force = – Wext. force = pE (cos θ 2 – cos θ 1)
Equilibrium of Dipole
When an electric dipole is placed in a uniform electric field net force on it is zero for any position of
the dipole in the electric field. But torque acting on it is zero only at θ = 0° and 180°. Thus, we can say
that at these two positions of the dipole, net force and torque on it is zero or the dipole is in
equilibrium
E E
+q
F1
–q +q ⇒
Restoring torque
p –q
F2
θ = 0° When displaced from equilibrium

U = minimum = − pE position a restoring torque
Fnet = 0, τ = 0 acts on the dipole
E E
–q
F1
+q –q
⇒ Torque in opposite
direction
p
+q F2
θ = 180° When displaced from equilibrium

U = maximum = + pE position, torque acts in
Fnet = 0, τ = 0 opposite direction
Fig. 24.49
Of this, θ = 0° is the stable equilibrium position of the dipole because potential energy in this
position is minimum (U = – pE cos 0° = – pE ) and when displaced from this position a torque starts
acting on it which is restoring in nature and which has a tendency to bring the dipole back in its
equilibrium position. On the other hand, at θ = 180°, the potential energy of the dipole is maximum
(U = – pE cos 180° = + pE ) and when it is displaced from this position, the torque has a tendency to
rotate it in other direction. This torque is not restoring in nature. So, this equilibrium is known as
unstable equilibrium position.
Important Formulae
1. As there are too many formulae in electric dipole, we have summarised them as under :
|p| = (2a) q
Direction of p is from −q to + q.
2. If a dipole is placed along y-axis with its centre at origin, then
1  q q 
V( x, y, z) =  – 
4 πε0  x2 + ( y – a)2 + z2 x + ( y + a) + z 
2 2 2

∂V ∂V
Ex = – , Ey = –
∂x ∂y
∂V
and Ez = –
∂z
3. On the axis of dipole x = 0, z = 0
1 p
(i) V=
4 πε0 ( y2 – a 2 )
1 p
= ⋅ 2 if y = r
4 πε0 r – a2
1 p
or Vaxis ≈ if r >> a
4 πε0 r2
(ii) E x = 0 = Ez and
1 2 py
E = Ey = ⋅ (along p )
4 πε0 ( y2 – a2 )2
1 2 pr
= if y = r
4 πε0 (r 2 – a2 )2
1 2p
or Eaxis ≈ ⋅ for r >> a
4 πε0 r 3
4. On the perpendicular bisector of dipole Along x-axis, y = 0, z = 0
(i) V⊥ bisector = 0
(ii) E x = 0, Ez = 0 and
1 p
Ey = – ⋅
4 πε0 ( x2 + a2 )3 / 2
1 p
or E= (opposite to p)
4 πε0 (r 2 + a2 )3 / 2
1 p
≈ ⋅ for r >> a
4 πε0 r 3
5. Dipole in uniform electric field
(i) Fnet = 0
(ii) τ = p × E and |τ| = pE sin θ
(iii) U (θ) = – p ⋅ E = – pE cos θ with U (90° ) = 0
(iv) (Wθ1 → θ 2 )ext. force = pE (cos θ1 – cos θ2 )
(v) (Wθ1 → θ 2 )electric force = pE (cos θ2 – cos θ1 ) = – (Wθ1 → θ 2 )ext. force
(vi) At θ = 0° ,Fnet = 0, τ net = 0, U = minimum (stable equilibrium position)
(vii) At θ = 180°, Fnet = 0, τnet = 0, U = maximum (unstable equilibrium position)
V Example 24.30 Draw electric lines of forces due to an electric dipole.

Solution Electric lines of forces due to an electric dipole are as shown in figure.
– +
q q
Fig. 24.50
V Example 24.31 Along the axis of a dipole, direction of electric field is always
in the direction of electric dipole moment p. Is this statement true or false?
Solution False. In the above figure, we can see that direction of electric field is in the opposite
direction of p between the two charges.
V Example 24.32 At a far away distance r along the axis from an electric dipole
electric field is E. Find the electric field at distance 2r along the perpendicular
bisector.
Solution Along the axis of dipole,
1 2p
E= …(i)
4πε 0 r 3
This electric field is in the direction of p. Along the perpendicular bisector at a distance 2r,
1 p
E′ = …(ii)
4πε 0 ( 2r ) 3
From Eqs. (i) and (ii), we can see that
E
E′ =
16
Moreover, E ′ is in the opposite direction of p. Hence,
E
E′ = − Ans.
16
24.12 Gauss’s Law

Gauss’s law is a tool of simplifying electric field calculations where there is symmetrical distribution
of charge. Many physical systems have symmetry, for example a cylindrical body doesn’t look any
different if we rotate it around its axis.
Before studying the detailed discussion of Gauss's law let us understand electric flux.
Electric Flux (φ)

(i) Electric flux is a measure of the field lines crossing a surface.
N
(ii) It is a scalar quantity with SI units - m 2 or V- m.
C
(iii) Electric flux passing through a small surface dS is given by
dS E
Fig. 24.51
dφ = E ⋅ dS = E dS cos θ …(i)
Here, dS is an area vector, whose magnitude is equal to dS and whose direction is perpendicular
to the surface.
Note If the surface is open, then dS can be taken in either of the two directions perpendicular to the surface,
but it should not change even if we rotate the surface.
If the surface is closed then by convention, dS is normally taken in outward direction.
(iv) From Eq. (i), we can see that maximum value of dφ is E dS, if θ = 90° or electric lines are
perpendicular to the surface. Electric flux is zero, if θ = 90° or electric lines are tangential to the
surface.
E
d φ = E dS dφ = 0
Fig. 24.52
(v) Electric flux passing through a large surface is given by

φ = ∫ dφ = ∫ E ⋅ dS = ∫ E dS cos θ …(ii)
This is basically surface integral of electric flux over the given surface. But normally we do not
study surface integral in detail in physics.
Here, are two special cases for calculating the electric flux passing through a surface S of finite size
(whether closed or open)
Case 1 φ = ES
F E
90° 90° E
E
90°
Closed
S surface E
90°
E 90°
90°
E
E
Fig. 24.53
If at every point on the surface, the magnitude of electric field is constant and perpendicular (to the
surface).
Case 2 φ =0
E
E
S
Closed
surface
Fig. 24.54
If at all points on the surface the electric field is tangential to the surface.
Gauss’s Law
This law gives a relation between the net electric flux through a closed surface and the charge
enclosed by the surface. According to this law,
“the net electric flux through any closed surface is equal to the net charge inside the surface divided
by ε 0 .” In symbols, it can be written as
q
φe = ∫ E ⋅ dS = in …(i)
S
ε0
where, q in represents the net charge inside the closed surface and E represents the electric field at any
point on the surface.
In principle, Gauss’s law is valid for the electric field of any system of charges or continuous
distribution of charge. In practice however, the technique is useful for calculating the electric field
only in situations where the degree of symmetry is high. Gauss’s law can be used to evaluate the
electric field for charge distributions that have spherical, cylindrical or plane symmetry.
Simplified Form of Gauss's Theorem

Gauss’s law in simplified form can be written as under
q q
ES = in or E = in …(ii)
ε0 Sε 0
but this form of Gauss’s law is applicable only under the following two conditions :
(i) The electric field at every point on the surface is either perpendicular or tangential.
(ii) Magnitude of electric field at every point where it is perpendicular to the surface has a constant
value (say E).
Here, S is the area where electric field is perpendicular to the surface.
Applications of Gauss’s Law

As Gauss’s law does not provide expression for electric field but provides only for its flux through a
closed surface. To calculate E we choose an imaginary closed surface (called Gaussian surface) in
which Eq. (ii) can be applied easily. Let us discuss few simple cases.
Electric field due to a point charge

The electric field due to a point charge is everywhere radial. We wish to
find the electric field at a distance r from the charge q. We select Gaussian
surface, a sphere at distance r from the charge. At every point of this
sphere the electric field has the same magnitude E and it is perpendicular q
E
to the surface itself. Hence, we can apply the simplified form of Gauss’s r
law,
q
ES = in
ε0
Fig. 24.55
Here, S = area of sphere = 4πr 2 and
q in = net charge enclosing the Gaussian surface = q
q
∴ E ( 4π r 2 ) =
ε0
1 q
∴ E= ⋅ 2
4πε 0 r
It is nothing but Coulomb’s law.
Electric field due to a linear charge distribution
Consider a long line charge with a linear charge density (charge per unit +
+
length) λ. We have to calculate the electric field at a point, a distance r from +
the line charge. We construct a Gaussian surface, a cylinder of any arbitrary +
length l of radius r and its axis coinciding with the axis of the line charge.
This cylinder have three surfaces. One is curved surface and the two plane r
parallel surfaces. Field lines at plane parallel surfaces are tangential (so flux l E E
passing through these surfaces is zero). The magnitude of electric field is
having the same magnitude (say E) at curved surface and simultaneously the
electric field is perpendicular at every point of this surface.
Hence, we can apply the Gauss’s law as +
+
q +
ES = in
ε0 Fig. 24.56
Here, S = area of curved surface = (2πrl)
Curved surface Plane surface

Fig. 24.57
and q in = net charge enclosing this cylinder = λl

λl
∴ E (2πrl) = E
ε0
λ
∴ E=
2πε 0 r
1
i.e. E∝ r
r Fig. 24.58
or E-r graph is a rectangular hyperbola as shown in Fig. 24.58.
Electric field due to a plane sheet of charge
Figure shows a portion of a flat thin sheet, infinite in size with constant surface charge density σ
(charge per unit area). By symmetry, since the sheet is infinite, the field must have the same
magnitude and the opposite directions at two points equidistant from the sheet on opposite sides. Let
us draw a Gaussian surface (a cylinder) with one end on one side and other end on the other side and
of cross-sectional area S 0 . Field lines will be tangential to the curved surface, so flux passing through
this surface is zero. At plane surfaces electric field has same magnitude and perpendicular to surface.
+
+
+ +
+ +
+ + +
+ + +
+ + + +
+ + + +
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+ S0
+ + + +
+ + + +
+ + + +
E +
+
+
+
+
+
+
+ E
+ + + +
+ + + +
+ + + +
+ + + +
+ + + +
+ + +
+ + +
+ +
+ +
+
+
Fig. 24.59
q in
Hence, using ES =
ε0
(σ ) ( S 0 )
∴ E (2S 0 ) =
ε0
σ
∴ E=
2ε 0
Thus, we see that the magnitude of the field is independent of the distance from the sheet. Practically,
an infinite sheet of charge does not exist. This result is correct for real charge sheets if points under
consideration are not near the edges and the distances from the sheet are small compared to the
dimensions of sheet.
Electric field near a charged conducting surface
When a charge is given to a conducting plate, it distributes itself over the entire outer surface of the
plate. The surface density σ is uniform and is the same on both surfaces if plate is of uniform thickness
and of infinite size.
This is similar to the previous one the only difference is that this time charges are on both sides.
++ +
+ + ++ + +
+ + +
++ +++++ + +
++ ++++ + + +
++ ++++++ + + S0
++ +++ ++ + +
++ ++++++ + +
E ++ + ++++ + + E
++ ++++++ + +
++ ++++++ + +
++ ++++++ + +
++ ++++++ + +
++ ++++++
++ ++++
++ ++
Fig. 24.60
q in
Hence, applying ES =
ε0
Here, S = 2S 0 and q in = (σ ) (2S 0 )
(σ ) (2S 0 )
∴ E (2S 0 ) =
ε0
σ
∴ E=
ε0
Thus, field due to a charged conducting plate is twice the field due to plane sheet of charge. It also has
same limitations.
Later, we will see that the electric field near a charged conducting surface of any shape is σ/ε 0 and it is
normal to the surface.
Note In case of closed symmetrical body with charge q at its centre, the electric flux linked with each half will
φ q
be = . If the symmetrical closed body has n identical faces with point charge at its centre, flux
2 2ε0
φ q
linked with each face will be = .
n n ε0
Extra Points to Remember

Net electric flux passing through a closed surface in uniform electric field is zero.
V Example 24.33 An electric dipole is placed at the centre of a sphere. Find the
electric flux passing through the sphere.
Solution Net charge inside the sphere q in = 0. Therefore, according to Gauss’s law net flux
passing through the sphere is zero. Ans.
– +
–q +q
Fig. 24.61
V Example 24.34 A point charge q is placed at the centre of a cube. What is the
flux linked
(a) with all the faces of the cube?
(b) with each face of the cube?
(c) if charge is not at the centre, then what will be the answers of parts (a) and (b)?
Solution (a) According to Gauss’s law,
q in q
φtotal = = Ans.
ε0 ε0
(b) The cube is a symmetrical body with 6 faces and the point charge is at its centre, so electric
flux linked with each face will be
φ q
φeach face = total = Ans.
6 6ε 0
(c) If charge is not at the centre, the answer of part (a) will remain same while that of part
(b) will change.

1. In figure (a), a charge q is placed just outside the centre of a closed hemisphere. In figure
(b), the same charge q is placed just inside the centre of the closed hemisphere and in
figure (c), the charge is placed at the centre of hemisphere open from the base. Find the
electric flux passing through the hemisphere in all the three cases.
(a) (b) (c)
q
q
q
Fig. 24.62
2. Net charge within an imaginary cube drawn in a uniform electric field is always zero. Is this
statement true or false?
3. A hemispherical body of radius R is placed in a uniform electric field E. What is the flux linked
with the curved surface if, the field is (a) parallel to the base, (b) perpendicular to the base.
4. A cube has sides of length L = 0.2 m. It is placed with one corner at the origin as shown in figure.
The electric field is uniform and given by E = (2.5 N/C) $i − (4.2 N/C) $j. Find the electric flux
through the entire cube.
z
x
Fig. 24.63 v
24.13 Properties of a Conductor

Conductors (such as metals) possess free electrons. If a resultant electric field exists in the conductor
these free charges will experience a force which will set a current flow. When no current flows, the
resultant force and the electric field must be zero. Thus, under electrostatic conditions the value of E
at all points within a conductor is zero. This idea, together with the Gauss’s law can be used to prove
several interesting facts regarding a conductor.
Excess Charge on a Conductor Resides on its Outer Surface

Consider a charged conductor carrying a charge q and no currents are flowing in it. Now, consider a
Gaussian surface inside the conductor everywhere on which E = 0.
++ Gaussian (E = 0)
+ +
+ + surface
+ +
+ + +
+
+
+ +
+ Conductor +q
+ +
+ +
+ +
+ +
+ +
+
++ + +
Fig. 24.64
Thus, from Gauss’s law,

q in
∫ E ⋅ dS = ε 0
S
We get, q in = 0, as E = 0
Thus, the sum of all charges inside the Gaussian surface is zero. This surface can be taken just inside
the surface of the conductor, hence, any charge on the conductor must be on the surface of the
conductor. In other words,
“Under electrostatic conditions, the excess charge on a conductor resides on its outer surface.”
σ
Electric Field at Any Point Close to the Charged Conductor is
ε0
Consider a charged conductor of irregular shape. In general, surface charge E
∆S
density will vary from point to point. At a small surface ∆S, let us assume it to be a
constant σ. Let us construct a Gaussian surface in the form of a cylinder of E=0
cross-section ∆S. One plane face of the cylinder is inside the conductor and other
outside the conductor close to it. The surface inside the conductor does not
contribute to the flux as E is zero everywhere inside the conductor. The curved
surface outside the conductor also does not contribute to flux as Eis always normal
to the charged conductor and hence parallel to the curved surface. Thus, the only
contribution to the flux is through the plane face outside the conductor. Thus, from Fig. 24.65
Gauss’s law,
q in
∫ E ⋅ dS = ε 0
S
(σ ) ( ∆ S )
or E∆ S =
ε0
σ
or E=
ε0
Note (i) Electric field changes discontinuously at the surface of a conductor. Just inside the conductor it is zero
σ σ
and just outside the conductor it is . In fact, the field gradually decreases from to zero in a small
ε0 ε0
thickness of about 4 to 5 atomic layers at the surface.
(ii) For a non-uniform conductor the surface charge density (σ) varies inversely as the radius of curvature (ρ)
of that part of the conductor, i.e.
1
σ∝
Radius of curvature ( ρ )
++ + + +
++ ++
E2 + 2 ++
+ +
+ 1 + E1
+ +
+ +
+ +++
++
+ + + ++
Fig. 24.66
For example in the figure, ρ1 < ρ2 ∴ σ1 > σ2

σ
or E1 > E2 as E=
ε0
Electric Field and Field Lines are Normal to the Surface of a Conductor
Net field inside a conductor is zero. It implies that no field lines enter a conductor. On the surface of a
conductor, electric field and hence field lines are normal to the surface of the conductor.
+ + +
+ +
+
– + + +
– + + 90°
+ +
– E=0 +
– + + +
– + +
– + +
+
+ + +
+ +
Fig. 24.67
If a conducting box is immersed in a uniform electric field, the field lines near the box are somewhat
distorted. Similarly, if a conductor is positively charged, the field lines originate from the surface and
are normal at every point and if it is negatively charged the field lines terminate on the surface
normally at every point.
Cavity Inside a Conductor

Consider a charge + q suspended in a cavity in a conductor. Consider a Gaussian surface just outside
the cavity and inside the conductor. E = 0 on this Gaussian surface as it is inside the conductor. Hence,
from Gauss’s law,
q in
∫ E ⋅ dS = ε 0 gives q in = 0
+ + + + + +
Gaussian
+ + surface + +
+ +
– – + +
–
– –
+ – +q – + + – – +
– +
–q –
– – + – – +
+ –– +
+ +q + +
+ +
+ + + +
+ +
(a) (b)
Fig. 24.68
This concludes that a charge of – q must reside on the metal surface of the cavity so that the sum of
this induced charge – q and the original charge + q within the Gaussian surface is zero. In other
words, a charge q suspended inside a cavity in a conductor induces an equal and opposite charge – q
on the surface of the cavity. Further as the conductor is electrically neutral a charge + q is induced on
the outer surface of the conductor. As field inside the conductor is zero, the field lines coming from q
cannot penetrate into the conductor. The field lines will be as shown in Fig. (b).
The same line of approach can be used to show that the field inside the cavity of a conductor is zero
when no charge is suspended in it.
Electrostatic shielding
Suppose we have a very sensitive electronic instrument that we want to protect from external electric
fields that might cause wrong measurements. We surround the instrument with a conducting box or
we keep the instrument inside the cavity of a conductor. By doing this charge in the conductor is so
distributed that the net electric field inside the cavity becomes zero and the instrument is protected
from the external fields. This is called electronic shielding.
The Potential of a Charged Conductor Throughout its Volume is Same
In any region in which E = 0 at all points, such as the region very far from all charges or the interior of
a charged conductor, the line integral of Eis zero along any path. It means that the potential difference
between any two points in the conductor are at the same potential or the interior of a charged
conductor is an equipotential region.
24.14 Electric Field and Potential Due to Charged Spherical Shell

or Solid Conducting Sphere
Electric Field
At all points inside the charged spherical conductor or hollow spherical shell, electric field E = 0, as
there is no charge inside such a sphere. In an isolated charged spherical conductor any excess charge
on it is distributed uniformly over its outer surface same as that of charged spherical shell or hollow
sphere. The field at external points has the same symmetry as that of a point charge. We can construct
a Gaussian surface (a sphere) of radius r > R . At all points of this sphere the magnitude of electric
field is the same and its direction is perpendicular to the surface.
q
+ + +
+ +
+ +
+ +
r +
E
+ R
+ +
+ + +
+ +
Gaussian
surface
Fig. 24.69
Thus, we can apply

q in q
ES = or E ( 4π r 2 ) =
ε0 ε0
1 q
∴ E= ⋅ 2
4πε 0 r
Hence, the electric field at any external point is the same as if the total charge is concentrated at
centre.
At the surface of sphere r = R ,
1 q
∴ E= ⋅ 2
4πε 0 R
Thus, we can write E inside = 0 E
1 q σ
1 q =
E surface = 4πε0 R 2 ε0 1
4πε 0 R 2 E∝
r2
1 q
E outside = ⋅
4πε 0 r 2 O R r
Fig. 24.70
The variation of electric field (E) with the distance from the
centre ( r ) is as shown in Fig. 24.70.
Note (i) At the surface graph is discontinuous
1 q q/ 4 πR 2 σ
(ii) Esurface = ⋅ 2 = =
4 πε 0 R ε0 ε0
Potential
1 q
As we have seen, E outside = ⋅ 2
4πε 0 r
 – dVoutside  1 q  dV 
∴  = ⋅ E = – 
 dr  4πε 0 r 2  dr 
V – q r dr
∴ ∫0 dVoutside = 4πε 0 ∫∞ r 2 (V∞ = 0)
1 q 1
∴ V= ⋅ or V ∝
4πε 0 r r
Thus, at external points, the potential at any point is the same when the whole charge is assumed to be
concentrated at the centre. At the surface of the sphere, r = R
1 q
∴ V= ⋅
4πε 0 R
At some internal point electric field is zero everywhere, V
therefore, the potential is same at all points which is equal to the 1 q σR
=
potential at surface. Thus, we can write 4πε0 R ε0 1
V∝
r
1 q
Vinside = Vsurface = ⋅
4πε 0 R
O R r
1 q Fig. 24.71
and Voutside = ⋅
4πε 0 r
The potential (V ) varies with the distance from the centre ( r ) as shown in Fig. 24.71.
24.15 Electric Field and Potential Due to a Solid Sphere of Charge

Electric Field
Positive charge q is uniformly distributed throughout the volume of a + + + + Gaussian
+ + +
solid sphere of radius R. For finding the electric field at a distance r + + surface
+ + + + +
( < R ) from the centre let us choose as our Gaussian surface a sphere of + +
+ + + +r ++ + +
+
radius r, concentric with the charge distribution. From symmetry, the + + + +
+ + + + +
magnitude E of electric field has the same value at every point on the r ++ + + + + +
Gaussian surface and the direction of E is radial at every point on the + R
+ +
+ + +
surface. So, applying Gauss’s law + +
q
ES = in …(i) Fig. 24.72
ε0
4 
Here, S = 4πr 2 and q in = (ρ)  πr 3 
3 
q
Here, ρ = charge per unit volume =
4
πR 3
3
Substituting these values in Eq. (i)

1 q
We have, E= ⋅ 3 ⋅ r or E ∝r
4πε 0 R
At the centre r = 0, so E =0
1 q
At surface r = R, so E= ⋅ 2
4πε 0 R
To find the electric field outside the charged sphere, we use a spherical Gaussian surface of radius
r ( > R ). This surface encloses the entire charged sphere, so q in = q, and Gauss’s law gives
q 1 q
E ( 4π r 2 ) = or E = ⋅ 2
ε0 4πε 0 r
1
or E∝
r2
Notice that if we set r = R in either of the two expressions for E (outside and inside the sphere), we
1 q
get the same result, E= ⋅ 2 E
4πε 0 R
1 q
this is because E is continuous function of r in this case. By contrast, 4πε0 R 2 1
E∝
r
for the charged conducting sphere the magnitude of electric field is r2
∝
E
discontinuous at r = R (it jumps from E = 0 to E = σ/ε 0 ).
Thus, for a uniformly charged solid sphere we have the following O R r
formulae for magnitude of electric field : Fig. 24.73
1 q
E inside = ⋅ ⋅r
4πε 0 R 3
1 q
E surface = ⋅ 2
4πε 0 R
1 q
E outside = ⋅ 2
4πε 0 r
The variation of electric field (E) with the distance from the centre of the sphere (r) is shown in
Fig. 24.73.
Potential
The field intensity outside the sphere is
1 q
E outside = ⋅ 2
4πε 0 r
dVoutside
= – E outside
dr
∴ dVoutside = – E outside dr
V r 1 q
or ∫∞ dVoutside = – ∫∞ 4πε 0 ⋅ r 2 dr
1 q 1
∴ V= ⋅ as V∞ = 0 or V ∝
4πε 0 r r
1 q
At r = R , V= ⋅
4πε 0 R
1 q
i.e. at the surface of the sphere potential is VS = ⋅
4πε 0 R
The electric intensity inside the sphere,
1 q
E inside = ⋅ 3 ⋅r
4πε 0 R
dVinside
= – E inside
dr
∴ dVinside = – E inside dr
V 1 q r
∴ ∫VS dVinside = – 4πε 0 ⋅ R 3 ∫R r dr
r
1 q r2 
∴ V – VS = – ⋅ 3 
4πε 0 R  2 
R
1 q
Substituting VS = ⋅ , we get
4πε 0 R
1 q
V= (1.5 R 2 − 0.5 r 2 ) V
4πε 0 R 3 3 1 q
2 4πε0 R
3 1 q 3 1 q
At the centre r = 0 andVc =  ⋅  = Vs , i.e. potential at
2  4πε 0 R  2 4πε0 R
the centre is 1.5 times the potential at surface.

Thus, for a uniformly charged solid sphere we have the following O R r
formulae for potential : Fig. 24.74
1 q
Voutside = ⋅
4πε 0 r
1 q
Vsurface = ⋅
4πε 0 R
1 q 3 1 r 2 
and Vinside = ⋅  – 
4πε 0 R  2 2 R 2 
The variation of potential (V) with distance from the centre (r) is as shown in Fig. 24.74. For inside
points variation is parabolic.
 1 
List of formulae for field strength E and potential V  k = 
 4 πε 0 
Table 24.1
Charge E V
S.No.
Distribution Formula Graph Formula Graph
1. Point charge kq kq
E= E V= V
r2 r
r r
2. Uniformly charged Ei = 0 E Vi = Vs =
kq V
spherical shell R
q σ σR
Es = k ⋅ = =
R 2
ε0 Es ε0 Vs
kq kq
Eo = Vo =
r2 r
R r R r
3. Solid sphere of kqr kq

Ei = E Vi = . R 2 − 0.5 r 2 )
(15 V
charge R3 R3 1.5Vs
kq kq
Es = Es Vs =
R Vs
R2
kq
Kq Vo =
Eo = r
r2 R r R r
4. On the axis of kqx kq

E= E V= V
uniformly charged (R 2 + x2 )3 / 2 R + x2
2
ring
At centre At centre
x=0 x=0
∴ E=0 kq
∴ V=
R x R x
2
5. Infinitely long line λ λ r  Not required

E= E
PD = ln  2 
charge 2 π ε0 r 2 π ε0  r1 
r
Final Touch Points

1. Permittivity Permittivity or absolute permittivity is a measure of resistance that is encountered when
forming an electric field in a medium. Thus, permittivity relates to a material's ability to resist an
electric field (while unfortunately, the word “permit” suggests the inverse quantity).
The permittivity of a medium describes how much electric field (more correctly, flux) is generated per
unit charge in that medium. More electric flux (per unit charge) exists in a medium with a low
permittivity. Vacuum has the lowest permittivity (therefore maximum electric flux per unit charge). Any
other dielectric medium has K -times (K = dielectric constant) the permittivity of vacuum. This is
because, due to polarization effects electric flux per unit charge deceases K - times (K > 1).
2. Dielectric constant ( K ) Also known as relative permittivity of a given material is the ratio of
permittivity of the material to the permittivity of vacuum. This is the factor by which the electric force
between the two charges is decreased relative to vacuum. Similarly, in the chapter of capacitors we
will see that it is the ratio of capacitance of a capacitor using that material as a dielectric compared to
a similar capacitor that has vacuum as its dielectric.
3. Electric field and potential due to a dipole at polar coordinates ( r , θ )
E
Eθ
Er
φ
A
r
p θ
O
p cos θ
or V =
4πε 0 r 2
The electric field E can be resolved into two components E r and E θ , where
2p cos θ
Er = ⋅
1
or
4πε 0 r3
1 p sin θ
and Eθ =
4πε 0 r 3
The magnitude of resultant electric field E = E r2 + E θ2

p
or E = 1 + 3 cos 2 θ
4πε 0 r 3
Its inclination φ to OA is given by
Eθ p sin θ/4πε 0r 3
tan φ = =
Er 2p cos θ/4πε 0r 3
tan θ
or tan φ =
2
4. Force between two dipoles The force between two dipoles varies inversely with the fourth power
of the distance between their centres or
F ∝
1
r4
p1 p2
In the, figure, a dipole on left with dipole moment p1 interacts with the dipole on the right with dipole
moment p 2. We assume that the distance between them is quite large. The electric field of the dipole
on the left hand side exerts a net force on the dipole on the right hand side. Let us now calculate the
net force on the dipole on right hand side.
The electric field at the centre of this dipole
2p
E = ⋅ 1
1
4πε 0 r 3
6p
∴ dE = – ⋅ 41 dr
1
4πε 0 r
Now, the electric field at the point where – q charge of the dipole lies is given by
E 1 = E + | dE |
and force on – q is qE 1 (towards left)
Similarly, electric field at the point where + q charge of the dipole lies is
E 2 = E – | dE |
and force on + q is qE 2 (towards right)
–q p2 +q
– +
dr dr
r
E
∴ Net force on the dipole is

F = q E1 – q E 2 (towards left)
= 2q | dE |
6 ( 2qdr ) p1
=
4πε 0 r 4
6p1 p2
or F = [as 2q (dr ) = p2]
4πε 0 r 4
Thus, if p1 | | p 2, the two dipoles attract each other with a force given by the above relation.
5. Earthing a conductor Potential of earth is often taken to be zero. If a conductor is connected to the
earth, the potential of the conductor becomes equal to that of the earth, i.e. zero. If the conductor was
at some other potential, charges will flow from it to the earth or from the earth to it to bring its potential
to zero.
Solved Examples
TYPED PROBLEMS
Type 1. To find electric potential due to charged spherical shells
Concept
To find the electric potential due to a conducting sphere (or shell) we should keep in mind
the following two points
(i) Electric potential on the surface and at any point inside the sphere is
1 q
V = ⋅ (R = radius of sphere)
4πε 0 R
(ii) Electric potential at any point outside the sphere is
1 q
V = ⋅ (r = distance of the point from the centre)
4πε 0 r
For example, in the figure shown, potential at A is C qC
1 qA q q  qB
VA =  + B + C B
4πε 0  rA rB rC  qA
A
1 qA q q 
Similarly, potential at B is V B =  + B + C
4πε 0  rB rB rC 
1 qA q q 
and potential at C is, VC =  + B + C
4πε 0  rC rC rC 
V Example 1 Three conducting spherical shells have charges q, − 2q and 3q as

shown in figure. Find electric potential at point P as shown in figure.
3q
–2q
q
r
R
P
2R 3R
Solution Potential at P,
VP = V q + V −2q + V3 q
kq k (2q) k (3q)
= − +
r r 3R
 1 1
= kq  −  Ans.
 R r
1
Here, k=
4πε 0
V Example 2 Figure shows two conducting thin concentric shells of radii r and 3r.
The outer shell carries a charge q. Inner shell is neutral. Find the charge that will
flow from inner shell to earth after the switch S is closed.
q
r
S
3r
Solution Let q′ be the charge on inner shell when it is earthed.

Potential of inner shell is zero.
1  q′ q
∴ + =0
4πε 0  r 3r 
q
∴ q′ = –
3
q
i.e. + charge will flow from inner shell to earth. Ans.
3
Type 2. Based on the principle of generator
Concept
A generator is an instrument for producing high voltages in the million volt region. Its
design is based on the principle that if a charged conductor (say A) is brought into contact
with a hollow conductor (say B), all of its charge transfers to the hollow conductor no matter
how high the potential of the later may be. This can be shown as under:
B
rA qA qB
rB
1 qA q 
In the figure, VA =  – B
4πε 0  rA rB 
1 qA q 
and VB =  – B
4πε 0  rB rB 
qA  1 1
∴ VA – VB =  – 
4πε 0 rA rB 
From this expression the following conclusions can be drawn :
qB
qA
B
A
(i) The potential difference (PD) depends on q A only. It does not depend on q B .
(ii) If q A is positive, then V A – V B is positive (as rA < rB ), i.e. V A > V B . So if the two spheres
are connected by a conducting wire charge flows from inner sphere to outer sphere
(positive charge flows from higher potential to lower potential) till V A = V B or
V A – V B = 0. But potential difference will become zero only when q A = 0, i.e. all charge
q A flows from inner sphere to outer sphere.
(iii) If q A is negative, V A – V B is negative, i.e. V A < V B . Hence, when the two spheres are
connected by a thin wire all charge q A will flow from inner sphere to the outer sphere.
Because negative charge flows from lower potential to higher potential. Thus, we see
that the whole charge q A flows from inner sphere to the outer sphere, no matter how
high q B is. Charge always flows from A to B, whether q A > q B or q B > q A ,
V A > V B or V B > V A .
V Example 3 Initially the spheres A and B are at potentials V A and VB . Find the
potential of A when sphere B is earthed.
B
Solution As we have studied above that the potential difference between these two spheres
depends on the charge on the inner sphere only. Hence, the PD will remain unchanged because
by earthing the sphere B charge on A remains constant. Let V′A be the new potential at A. Then,
VA – VB = V ′A – VB′
but VB′ = 0 as it is earthed. Hence,
V ′A = V A – VB Ans.
Type 3. Based on the charges appearing on different surfaces of concentric spherical shells
Concept
Figure shows three concentric thin spherical shells A, B and C of radii a, b and c. The shells
A and C are given charges q1 and q 2 and the shell B is earthed. We are interested in finding
the charges on inner and outer surfaces of A, B and C. To solve such type of problems we
should keep the following points in mind :
q6
C q5
B q4
q3
A q1
q1 q2
a
b
c
(i) The whole charge q1 will come on the outer surface of A unless some charge is kept
inside A. To understand it let us consider a Gaussian surface (a sphere) through the
material of A. As the electric field in a conducting material is zero. The flux through
this Gaussian surface is zero. Using Gauss’s law, the total charge enclosed must
be zero.
q1
Gaussian
surface
(ii) Similarly, if we draw a Gaussian surface through the material of B we can see that
q3 + q1 = 0 or q3 = – q1
and if we draw a Gaussian surface through the material of C, then
q5 + q 4 + q3 + q1 = 0 or q5 = – q 4
(iii) q5 + q 6 = q 2 . As q 2 charge was given to shell C.
(iv) Potential of B should be zero, as it is earthed. Thus,
VB = 0
1  q1 q3 + q 4 q5 + q 6 
or + + =0
4πε 0  b b c 
So, using the above conditions we can find charges on different surfaces.
We can summarise the above points as under
1. Net charge inside a closed Gaussian surface drawn in any shell is zero. (provided the
shell is conducting).
2. Potential of the conductor which is earthed is zero.
3. If two conductors are connected, they are at same potential.
4. Charge remains constant in all conductors except those which are earthed.
5. Charge on the inner surface of the innermost shell is zero provided no charge is kept
inside it. In all other shells charge resides on both the surfaces.
6. Equal and opposite charges appear on opposite faces.
V Example 4 A charge q is distributed uniformly on the

surface of a solid sphere of radius R. It is covered by a
concentric hollow conducting sphere of radius 2R. Find the R q
charges on inner and outer surfaces of hollow sphere if it is
earthed. 2R
Solution The charge on the inner surface of the hollow sphere should be q′
– q, because if we draw a closed Gaussian surface through the material of –q
the hollow sphere the total charge enclosed by this Gaussian surface q
should be zero. Let q′ be the charge on the outer surface of the hollow
sphere.
Since, the hollow sphere is earthed, its potential should be zero. The
potential on it is due to the charges q, – q and q′, Hence,
1  q q q′ 
V = – + =0
4πε 0 2R 2R 2R 
∴ q′ = 0 Ans.
Therefore, there will be no charge on the outer surface of the hollow sphere.
V Example 5 Solve the above problem if thickness of the hollow sphere is

considerable.
q′
q
–q
R
r
R2
R3 P
Solution In this case, we can set V = 0 at any point on the hollow sphere. Let us select a point
P a distance r from the centre, were R2 < r < R3 . So,
VP = 0
1  q q q′ 
∴  – +  =0
4πε 0  r r R3 
∴ q′ = 0 Ans.
i.e. in this case also there will be no charge on the outer surface of the hollow sphere.
V Example 6 Figure shows three concentric thin spherical shells A, B and C of

radii R, 2R and 3R. The shell B is earthed and A and C are given charges q and
2q, respectively. Find the charges appearing on all the surfaces of A, B and C.
A
B
C
Solution Since, there is no charge inside A. The whole charge q given 2q + q′

to the shell A will appear on its outer surface. Charge on its inner surface q′ –q′
will be zero. Moreover if a Gaussian surface is drawn on the material of
q –q
shell B, net charge enclosed by it should be zero. Therefore, charge on its
inner surface will be – q. Now let q′ be the charge on its outer surface, R
then charge on the inner surface of C will be – q′ and on its outer surface 2R
will be, 2q – (– q′ ) = 2q + q′ as total charge on C is 2q.
Shell B is earthed. Hence, its potential should be zero. 3R
VB = 0
1  q q q′ q′ 2q + q′ 
∴  – + – + =0
4πε 0 2R 2R 2R 3R 3R 
Solving this equation, we get
4
q′ = –
q
3
4 2
∴ 2q + q′ = 2q – q = q
3 3
Therefore, charges on different surfaces in tabular form are given below :
Table 24.2
A B C
Inner surface 0 –q 4
q
3
Outer surface q 4 2
– q q
3 3
Type 4. Based on finding electric field due to spherical charge distribution
Concept
According to Gauss’s theorem, at a distance r from centre of sphere,
kq  1 
E = 2in k = 
r  4 πε 0 
Here, q in is the net charge inside the sphere of radius r . If volume charge density (say ρ) is
constant, then
4
q in = ( volume of sphere of radius r )(ρ) = πr 3 ρ
3
If ρ is variable, then q in can be obtained by integration. ρ (r)
Passage (Ex. 7 to Ex. 9)

The nuclear charge ( Ze) is non-uniformly distributed within a d
nucleus of radius R. The charge density ρ(r ) (charge per unit
volume) is dependent only on the radial distance r from the centre
of the nucleus as shown in figure. The electric field is only along
r
the radial direction. a R
V Example 7 The electric field at r = R is (JEE 2008)

(a) independent of a
(b) directly proportional to a
(c) directly proportional to a 2
(d) inversely proportional to a
Solution At r = R, from Gauss’s law
qin Ze 1 Ze
E (4πR2) = = or E= ⋅
ε0 ε0 4 π ε 0 R2
E is independent of a.
∴ The correct option is (a).
V Example 8 For a = 0, the value of d (maximum value of ρ as shown in the

figure) is (JEE 2008)
ρ (r)
r
a R
3Ze 3Ze 4Ze Ze
(a) (b) (c) (d)
4πR 3
πR 3
3πR 3
3πR3
Solution For a = 0, ρ
 d  d
ρ(r ) =  − ⋅ r + d
 R 
R  d 
∫0 (4πr )  d − r dr = net charge = Ze
2
Now,
 R 
3Ze r
Solving this equation, we get d= R
πR3
∴ The correct option is (b).
V Example 9 The electric field within the nucleus is generally observed to be

linearly dependent on r. This implies (JEE 2008)
R 2R
(a) a = 0 (b) a = (c) a = R (d) a =
2 3
Solution In case of solid sphere of charge of uniform volume ρ(r)
density
1 q
E= ⋅ ⋅ r or E ∝r
4πε 0 R3
Thus, for E to be linearly dependent on r, volume charge density
should be constant. r
R
or a=R
∴ The correct option is (c).
Type 5. Based on calculation of electric flux
Concept
(i) To find electric flux from any closed surface, direct result of Gauss's theorem can be
used,
q
φ = in
ε0
(ii) To find electric flux from an open surface, result of Gauss's theorem and concept of
symmetry can be used.
(iii) To find electric flux from a plane surface in uniform electric field,
φ = E ⋅ S or ES cos θ
can be used.
(iv) Net electric flux from a closed surface in uniform electric field is always zero.
V Example 10 The electric field in a region is given by E = a$i + b$j . Here, a and b
are constants. Find the net flux passing through a square area of side l parallel to
y-z plane.
Solution A square area of side l parallel to y-z plane in vector form can be written as,
S = l2 $i
Given, E = a i$ + b $j
∴ Electric flux passing through the given area will be,
φ = E⋅ S
= (a $i + b $j) ⋅ (l 2 $i )
= al2 Ans.
V Example 11 Figure shows an imaginary cube of side a. A

λ
uniformly charged rod of length a moves towards right at a +++++
constant speed v. At t = 0, the right end of the rod just touches the v
left face of the cube. Plot a graph between electric flux passing
a
through the cube versus time.
Solution The electric flux passing through a closed surface depends on the net charge inside
the surface. Net charge in this case first increases, reaches a maximum value and finally
decreases to zero. The same is the case with the electric flux. The electric flux φ versus time
graph is as shown in figure below.
φ
λa
ε0
t
a 2a
v v
V Example 12 The electric field in a region is given by E = αx $i. Here, α is a

constant of proper dimensions. Find
(a) the total flux passing through a cube bounded by the surfaces, x = l , x = 2l , y = 0, y = l,
z = 0 , z = l.
(b) the charge contained inside the above cube.
y
Solution (a) Electric field is along positive x-direction.
Therefore, field lines are perpendicular to faces ABCD B F
and EFGH. At all other four faces field lines are E
A
tangential. So, net flux passing through these four faces x
will be zero. C G
Flux entering at face ABCD At this face x = l z
D H
B
A E = αl
D
∴ E = α l$i
∴ Flux entering the cube from this face,
φ1 = ES = (αl) (l2) = αl3
Flux leaving the face EFGH At this face x = 2l F
∴ E = 2α li$
E = 2αl
∴ Flux coming out of this face E
φ2 = ES = (2 αl) (l ) 2
= 2αl3
G
∴ Net flux passing through the cube,
φnet = φ2 – φ1 = 2 αl3 – αl3 H
= αl3 Ans.
(b) From Gauss’s law,
q
φnet = in
ε0
qin = (φnet ) (ε 0 )
= α ε 0l3 Ans.
V Example 13 Consider the charge configuration and a spherical q2

Gaussian surface as shown in the figure. When calculating the flux + q1
of the electric field over the spherical surface, the electric field will
be due to (JEE 2004)
– q1
(a) q2
(b) only the positive charges
(c) all the charges
(d) + q1 and − q1
Solution At any point over the spherical Gaussian surface, net electric field is the vector sum
of electric fields due to + q1 , − q1 and q2
∴ The correct option is (c)..
Note Don't confuse with the electric flux which is zero (net) passing over the Gaussian surface as the net charge
enclosing the surface is zero.
V Example 14 A point charge q is placed on the top of a cone of semi vertex angle
q ( 1 – cos θ )
θ. Show that the electric flux through the base of the cone is .
2ε 0
HOW TO PROCEED This problem can be solved by the method of symmetry. Consider
a Gaussian surface, a sphere with its centre at the top and radius the slant length of
the cone. The flux through the whole sphere is q/ ε 0 . Therefore, the flux through the
base of the cone can be calculated by using the following formula,
S q
φe =   ⋅
S0  ε0
Here, S 0 = area of whole sphere
and S = area of sphere below the base of the cone.
Solution Let R = slant length of cone = radius of Gaussian sphere
c q
θ θ R
A B
∴ S 0 = area of whole sphere = (4 πR2)

S = area of sphere below the base of the cone
= 2πR2 (1 – cos θ )
S q
∴ The desired flux is, φ= ⋅
 S0  ε 0
(2πR2) (1 – cos θ ) q
= ⋅
(4πR2) ε0
q (1 – cos θ )
= Proved
2ε 0
Note S = 2 πR 2 ( 1 – cos θ ) can be calculated by integration.

At θ = 0°, S = 2πR2 (1 – cos 0° ) = 0
θ = 90°, S = 2πR2 (1 – cos 90° ) = 2πR2
and θ = 180°, S = 2πR2 (1 – cos 180° ) = 4πR2
Proof
dS = (2πr ) Rdα
= (2πR sin α ) Rdα as r = R sin α
= (2πR2) sin α dα
θ
∴ S = ∫ (2πR2) sin α dα
0
∴ S = 2πR2 (1 – cos θ )
r
Rd α
dα
θq α
R
c
Students are advised to remember this result.
Type 6. Based on E-r and V-r graphs due to two point charges
Concept
kq  1 
(i) E= k = 
r 2
 4πε 0 
kq
and V =± (due to a point charge)
r
(ii) As r → 0, E → ∝ and V → ± ∝
As r → ∝, E → 0 and V → 0
(iii) E is a vector quantity. Due to a point charge, its direction is away from the charge and
due to negative charge it is towards the charge. Along one dimension if one direction is
taken as positive direction then the other direction is taken as the negative direction.
+ve +ve
+q –q
E = –ve E = +ve E = +ve E = –ve
(iv) V is a scalar quantity. On both sides of a positive charge it is positive and it is negative
due to negative charge.
+q –q
V = +ve V = +ve V = –ve V = –ve
(v) Between zero and zero value, normally we get either a maximum or minimum value.
V Example 15 Draw E - r and V - r graphs due to two point charges + q and −2q
kept at some distance along the line joining these two charges.
Solution E - r graph
+q –2q
P
E 0 E –∝ E +∝ E +∝ E –∝ E 0
r 0 r 0 r 0 r 0 r 0 r 0
(I) (II) (III)
In region I E due to + q is towards left (so negative) and E due to −2q is towards right
(so positive). Near + q, electric field of + q will dominate. So, net value will be negative. At some
point say P both positive and negative values are equal. So, E p = 0. Beyond this point, electric
field due to −2q will dominate due to its higher magnitude. So, net value will be positive. E p = 0
and E ∝ (towards left) is also zero. Between zero and zero we will get a maximum positive value.
In region II E due to + q and due to −2q is towards right (so positive). Between the value + ∝
and + ∝ the graph is as shown in figure.
In region III E due to + q is towards right (so positive) and E due to −2q is towards left
(so negative). But electric field of −2q will dominate due to its higher magnitude and lesser
distance. Hence, net electric field is always negative.
V - r graph
M P
+q –2q
V 0 V +∞ V +∞ V –∞ V –∞ V 0
r ∞ r 0 r 0 r 0 r 0 r ∞
The logics developed in E - r graph can also be applied here with V - r graph. At point P, positive
potential due to + q is equal to negative potential due to −2q. Hence, V p = 0, so this point is near
2q. Same is the case at M.
Type 7. E - r and V - r graphs due to charged spherical shells of negligible thickness
Concept
According to Gauss’s theorem,
kq in  1 
E= k = 
r 2
 4πε 0 
So, only inside charges contribute in the electric field.
kq
V = = constant (inside the shell)
R
kq
V = ≠ constant (outside the shell)
r
Here, q is the charge on shell.
V Example 16 Draw E - r and V - r graphs due to two charged spherical shells as

shown in figure (along the line between C and ∝).
–2q
C
R ∞
2R
Solution
E - r graph
–2q
C
R ∞
PM NT
2R
E
E0 Kq
E0 =
R2
E0 4
O r
E0
–
4
C to P qin = 0
⇒ E =0
kq
At M E = 2 ( radially outwards, say positive) = E 0 (say)
R
kq kq E
At N E= = = 0 (radially outwards)
(2R)2 4R2 4
E
From M to N Value will decrease from E 0 to 0
4
k (−2q + q)
At T E= (radially inwards)
(2R)2
E
=− 0
4
E0
From T to ∞ Value changes from − to zero.
4
V - r graph
From C to P Points are lying inside both the shells. Hence, potential due to both shells is
constant.
kq k (2q)
∴ V = − =0
R 2R
From M to N Potential of −2q will remain constant but potential of q will decrease. So, net
value comes out to be negative. At N or T
kq k (2q)
V = −
2R 2R
kq
=− = − V0 (say )
2R
From T to ∞ Value will change from −V 0 to zero. The correct graph is as shown below.
C
∞
kq
V V0 =
2R
O r
–V0
Type 8. Based on motion of a charged particle in uniform electric field
Concept
(i) In uniform electric field, force on the charged particle is
F = qE
or qE force acts in the direction of electric field if q is positive and in the opposite
direction of electric field if q is negative.
(ii) Acceleration of the particle is therefore,
F qE
a= =
m m
This acceleration is constant. So, path is therefore either a straight line or parabola. If
initial velocity is zero or parallel to acceleration or antiparallel to acceleration, then
path is straight line. Otherwise in all other cases, path is a parabola.
V Example 17 An electron with a speed of 5.00 × 10 6 m/ s enters an electric field of

magnitude 103 N /C, travelling along the field lines in the direction that retards its
motion.
(a) How far will the electron travel in the field before stopping momentarily?
(b) How much time will have elapsed?

(c) If the region with the electric field is only 8.00 mm long (too short from the electron to
stop with in it), what fraction of the electron’s initial kinetic energy will be lost in that
region?
u2 u2 mu 2
Solution (a) s = = =
2a 2 (qE /m) 2qE
(9.1 × 10− 31 ) (5 × 106 )2
=
2 × 1.6 × 10− 19 × 103
= 7.1 × 10−2 m = 7.1 cm Ans.
u u mu
(b) t= = =
a qE /m qE
(9.1 × 10− 31 ) (5 × 106 )
=
(1.6 × 10− 19 ) (103 )
= 2.84 × 10−8 s Ans.
(c) Loss of energy (in fraction)
1 1
mu 2 − mv2
2 2 u2
= =1 − 2
1 u
mu 2
2
u 2 − 2as 2as 2qEs
=1 − = 2 =
u2 u mu 2
2 × 1.6 × 10− 19 × 103 × 8 × 10− 3
=
9.1 × 10−31 × (5 × 106 )2
= 0.11 Ans.
V Example 18 A charged particle of mass m = 1 kg and charge q = 2 µC is thrown

from a horizontal ground at an angle θ = 45° with speed 20 m/s. In space a
horizontal electric field E = 2 × 10 7 V /m exist. Find the range on horizontal
ground of the projectile thrown.
y
Solution The path of the particle will be a parabola, but along x-axis E
also motion of the particle will be accelerated. Time of flight of the
projectile is
u
2uy 2uy 2 × 20 cos 45°
T= = = =2 2 s
ay g 10 θ
x
Horizontal range of the particle will be
1
R = uxT + a xT 2
2
qE (2 × 10–6 ) (2 × 107 )
Here, ax = = = 40 m/s 2
m 1
1
∴ R = (20 cos 45° ) (2 2 ) + (40) (2 2 )2
2
= 40 + 160
= 200 m Ans.
Type 9. To find potential difference between two points when electric field is known
Concept
In Article 24.9, we have already read the relation between Eand V. There we have taken a
simple case when electric field was uniform. Here, two more cases are possible depending
on the nature of E.
When E has a Function Like f 1 (x)i$ + f 2 ( y)$j + f 3 (z )k$
In this case also, we will use the same approach. Let us take an example.
V Example 19 Find the potential difference VAB between A (2m, 1m, 0) and
B ( 0, 2m , 4m ) in an electric field,
E = ( x $i – 2 y $j + z k$ ) V / m
Solution dV = – E ⋅ dr
A ( 2, 1 , 0 )
∫B dV = – ∫( 0, 2, 4) (xi$ – 2 y$j + z k$ ) ⋅ (dx$i + dy$j + dz k$ )
( 2, 1 , 0 )
∴ V A − VB = − ∫ (xdx − 2 ydy + zdz )
( 0 , 2, 4 )
( 2, 1 , 0 )
 x2 z2 
or V AB = –  – y2 + 
2 2 ( 0, 2, 4)
= 3 volt Ans.
When E ⋅ dr becomes a Perfect Differential.
Same method is used when E ⋅ dr becomes a perfect differential. The following example will
illustrate the theory.
V Example 20 Find potential difference V AB between A (0, 0, 0) and B (1m, 1m, 1m)
in an electric field (a) E = y$i + x $j (b) E = 3x 2 y$i + x 3 $j
Solution (a) dV = – E ⋅ dr
A ( 0, 0, 0)
∴ ∫B dV = – ∫(1, 1, 1) ( yi$ + x$j) ⋅ (dx$i + dy$j + dz k$ )
( 0, 0, 0)
or V A – VB = – ∫(1, 1, 1) ( y dx + x dy)
( 0, 0, 0)
or V AB = – ∫(1, 1, 1) d (xy) [as y dx + x dy = d (xy)]
∴ V AB = – [xy]((01 ,, 01 ,, 01)) = 1 V Ans.

(b) dV = – E ⋅ dr
A ( 0, 0, 0)
∴ ∫B dV = – ∫(1, 1, 1) (3x2yi$ + x3 $j) • (dx$i + dy$j + dz k$ )
( 0, 0, 0)
or V A – VB = – ∫(1, 1, 1) (3x2ydx + x3 dy)
( 0, 0, 0)
=– ∫(1, 1, 1) d (x3 y)
∴ V AB = – [x3 y]((01 ,, 10 ,, 10)) = 1 V Ans.

Type 10. Based on oscillations of a dipole
Concept
In uniform electric field, net force on a dipole is zero at all angles. But net torque is zero for
θ = 0° or 180°. Here, θ = 0° is the stable equilibrium position and θ = 180° is unstable
equilibrium position. If the dipole is released from any angle other than 0° or180°, it rotates
towards 0°. In this process electrostatic potential energy of the dipole decreases. But
rotational kinetic energy increases. At two angles θ1 and θ 2 , we can apply the equation
U θ1 + K θ1 = U θ2 + K θ2
1 1
or − pE cos θ1 + Iω 12 = − pE cos θ 2 + Iω 22
2 2
Moreover, if the dipole is displaced from stable equilibrium position (θ = 0° ), then it starts
rotational oscillations. For small value of θ, these oscillations are simple harmonic in
nature.
V Example 21 An electric dipole of dipole moment p is placed in a uniform

electric field E in stable equilibrium position. Its moment of inertia about the
centroidal axis is I. If it is displaced slightly from its mean position, find the
period of small oscillations.
Solution When displaced at an angle θ from its mean position, the magnitude of restoring
torque is
τ = – pE sin θ
For small angular displacement sin θ ≈ θ
τ = – pE θ
τ  pE 
The angular acceleration is α= =–  θ=–ω θ
2
I  I 
E E
+q
τ
–q
p
+q
⇒ θ
–q
pE 2π I
where, ω2 = ⇒ T= = 2π Ans.
I ω pE
Type 11. Based on the work done (by external forces) in moving a charge from one point to another
point
Concept
If kinetic energy of the particle is not changed, then
W = ∆U = U f − U i = q(V f − V i ) or q( ∆U )
Here, q is the charge to be displaced and V i and V f are the initial and final potentials.
V Example 22 Two identical thin rings, each of radius R, are coaxially placed a
distance R apart. If Q1 and Q2 are respectively the charges uniformly spread on
the two rings, the work done in moving a charge q from the centre of one ring to
that of the other is (JEE 1992)
q(Q1 − Q2 ) ( 2 − 1)
(a) zero (b)
2 ( 4πε 0 R )
q 2(Q1 + Q2 )
(c) (d) q(Q1 / Q2 ) ( 2 + 1) 2 ( 4πε 0R )
( 4πε 0R )
1 Q1 1 Q2 1  Q2 
Solution VC1 = VQ1 + VQ2 = + = Q1 + 
4 πε 0 R 4π ε 0 R 2 4π ε 0R  2
Q1 Q2
R√2
R
C1 R C2
1  Q1 
Similarly, VC2 =  Q2 + 
4π ε 0R  2
∴ ∆V = VC1 − VC2
1  1 
= (Q1 − Q2) − (Q1 − Q2)
4πε 0R  2 
Q1 − Q2
= ( 2 − 1)
2 (4π ε 0R)
W = q∆V = q (Q1 − Q2) ( 2 − 1) / 2 (4π ε 0R)
∴ The correct option is (b).
Miscellaneous Examples
V Example 23 Five point charges each of value + q are placed on five vertices of a
regular hexagon of side ‘a’ metre. What is the magnitude of the force on a point
charge of value – q coulomb placed at the centre of the hexagon?
Solution q1 q2
r
–q q3
r
60°
q5 a q4 a /2
a /2 1
= cos 60° =
r 2
∴ a=r
q1 = q2 = … = q5 = q
Net force on – q is only due to q3 because forces due to q1 and due to q4 are equal and opposite
so cancel each other. Similarly, forces due to q2 and q5 also cancel each other. Hence, the net
force on – q is
1 (q) (q)
F = ⋅ (towards q3 )
4π ε 0 r2
1 q2
or F = ⋅ 2 Ans.
4π ε 0 r
V Example 24 A point charge q1 = 9.1 µC is held fixed at origin. A second point

charge q2 = – 0.42 µC and a mass 3.2 × 10 −4 kg is placed on the x-axis, 0.96 m
from the origin. The second point charge is released at rest. What is its speed
when it is 0.24 m from the origin?
Solution From conservation of mechanical energy, we have
Decrease in electrostatic potential energy = Increase in kinetic energy
1 q q 1 1
or mv2 = Ui – U f = 1 2  – 
2 4π ε 0  ri rf 
q1q2  rf – ri 
=  
4π ε 0  rri f 
q1q2  rf – ri 
∴ v=  
2π ε 0m  rr i f 
(9.1 × 10–6 ) (– 0.42 × 10–6 ) × 2 × 9 × 109  0.24 – 0.96 

=  
3.2 × 10–4  (0.24) (0.96)
= 26 m/s Ans.
V Example 25 A point charge q1 = – 5.8 µC is held stationary at the origin. A

second point charge q2 = + 4.3 µC moves from the point ( 0.26 m, 0, 0) to
( 0.38 m, 0, 0). How much work is done by the electric force on q2 ?
Solution Work done by the electrostatic forces = Ui – U f
q1q2 1 1
=  – 
4π ε 0  ri rf 
q1q2  rf – ri 
=  
4π ε 0  ri rf 
(– 5.8 × 10–6 ) (4.3 × 10–6 ) (9 × 109 ) (0.38 – 0.26)
=
(0.38) (0.26)
= – 0.272 J Ans.
V Example 26 A uniformly charged thin ring has radius 10.0 cm and total charge
+ 12.0 µC. An electron is placed on the ring’s axis a distance 25.0 cm from the
centre of the ring and is constrained to stay on the axis of the ring. The electron is
then released from rest.
(a) describe the subsequent motion of the electron.
(b) find the speed of the electron when it reaches the centre of the ring.
Solution (a) The electron will be attracted towards the centre C of the ring. At C net force is
zero, but on reaching C, electron has some kinetic energy and due to inertia it crosses C, but on
the other side it is further attracted towards C. Hence, motion of electron is oscillatory about
point C.
+
+ +
+ +
+
+
C + e–
+ P
+
+ R
+
+ r
+
+ +
+
(b) As the electron approaches C, its speed (hence, kinetic energy) increases due to force of
attraction towards the centre C. This increase in kinetic energy is at the cost of electrostatic
potential energy. Thus,
1
mv2 = U i – U f
2
= U P – U C = (– e) [VP – VC ] …(i)
Here, V is the potential due to ring.
1 q
VP = ⋅ (q = charge on ring)
4π ε 0 r
(9 × 109 ) (12 × 10–9 )
= = 401 V
( (10)2 + (25)2 ) × 10–2
1 q
VC = ⋅
4π ε 0 R
(9 × 109 ) (12 × 10–9 )
= = 1080 V
10 × 10–2
Substituting the proper values in Eq. (i), we have
1
× 9.1 × 10–31 × v2 = (– 1.6 × 10–19 ) (401 – 1080)
2
∴ v = 15.45 × 106 m/s Ans.
V Example 27 Two points A and B are 2 cm apart and a uniform electric field E
acts along the straight line AB directed from A to B with E = 200 N / C. A particle
of charge + 10 –6 C is taken from A to B along AB. Calculate
(a) the force on the charge
(b) the potential difference VA – VB and
(c) the work done on the charge by E
Solution (a) Electrostatic force on the charge,

F = qE = (10–6 ) (200)
= 2 × 10–4 N Ans.
(b) In uniform electric field,
PD, V = E⋅d
or VA – VB = 200 × 2 × 10–2
=4 V Ans.
(c) W = (2 × 10 ) (2 × 10 ) cos 0°
–4 –2
= 4 × 10–6 J Ans.
V Example 28 An alpha particle with kinetic energy 10 MeV is heading towards a

stationary tin nucleus of atomic number 50. Calculate the distance of closest
approach. Initially they were far apart.
Solution Due to repulsion by the tin nucleus, the kinetic energy of the α-particle gradually
decreases at the expense of electrostatic potential energy.
2e v=0
+ + +50e
v
∴ Decrease in kinetic energy = increase in potential energy

1
or mv2 = U f – Ui
2
1 1 qq
or mv2 = ⋅ 1 2–0
2 4πε 0 r
1 (2e) (50e)
∴ r= ⋅
4πε 0 (KE)
Substituting the values,
(9 × 109 ) (2 × 1.6 × 10–19 ) (1.6 × 10–19 × 50)
r=
10 × 106 × 1.6 × 10–19
= 14.4 × 10–15 m Ans.
V Example 29 Three point charges of 1 C , 2 C and 3 C are placed at the corners of

an equilateral triangle of side 1 m. Calculate the work required to move these
charges to the corners of a smaller equilateral triangle of side 0.5 m.
Solution Work done = U f – U i
1  1 1
=  –  [q3 q2 + q3 q1 + q2q1 ]
4π ε 0  rf ri 
 1 1
= 9 × 109  –  [(3)(2) + (3)(1) + (2)(1)]
 0.5 1
= 99 × 109 J Ans.
Note Work done by electrostatic forces is Ui – Uf but work done by external forces is Uf – Ui . Sometimes in a
simple way it is asked, find the work done. It means Uf – Ui .
V Example 30 Consider a spherical surface of radius 4 m centred at the origin.

Point charges + q and – 2q are fixed at points A ( 2 m, 0, 0) and B (8 m, 0, 0)
respectively. Show that every point on the spherical surface is at zero potential.
Solution Let P (x, y, z ) be any point on the sphere. From the property of the sphere,
x2 + y2 + z 2 = (42) = 16 …(i)
Further, PA = (x – 2) + y + z 2 2 2
…(ii)
and PB = (x – 8)2 + y2 + z 2 …(iii)

1  q 2q 
VP = –
4πε 0  PA PB 

1  q 2q 
=  – 
4πε 0  (x – 2) + y2 + z 2
2
(x – 8)2 + y2 + z 2 

1  q 2q 
=  – 
4πε 0  x + y + z 2 + 4 – 4x
2 2
x2 + y2 + z 2 + 64 – 16x 

1  q 2q 
=  – 
4πε 0  16 + 4 – 4x 16 + 64 – 16x 
1  q q 
=  – 
4πε 0  20 – 4x 20 – 4x 
=0 Proved
V Example 31 The intensity of an electric field depends only on the coordinates x

and y as follows
a ( x $i + y $j)
E=
x2 + y2
where, a is a constant and $i and $j are the unit vectors of the x and y-axes. Find the
charge within a sphere of radius R with the centre at the origin.
Solution At any point P (x, y, z ) on the sphere a unit vector y
perpendicular to the sphere radially outwards is ∧
n
x y z dS P (x,y,z)
n$ = $i + $j + k$
x + y +z
2 2 2
x + y +z
2 2 2
x + y +z
2 2 2
x
x $ y $ z $ O
= i+ j+ k as x2 + y2 + z 2 = R2
R R R
Let us find the electric flux passing through a small area dS at
point P on the sphere, z
 ax2 ay2 
dφ = E ⋅ n$ dS =  + 2 
dS
 R (x 2
+ y2
) R (x 2
+ y ) 
 a
=   dS
 R
Here, we note that dφ is independent of the coordinates x, y and z. Therefore, total flux passing
through the sphere
a  a
φ = ∫ dφ = ∫ dS =   (4πR2)
R  R
= 4πaR
From Gauss’s law,
qin qin
φ= or (4πaR) =
ε0 ε0
∴ qin = 4πε 0aR Ans.
V Example 32 Find the electric field caused by a disc of radius a with a uniform
surface charge density σ (charge per unit area), at a point along the axis of the
disc a distance x from its centre.
Solution We can assume this charge distribution as a collection of concentric rings of charge.
dA = (2πr ) dr
dq = σ dA = (2πσr ) dr dr
1 (dq)x
dE x = ⋅ x P
4πε 0 (x2 + r 2)3/ 2 dEx
r
 1  (2πσr dr ) x
= 
 4πε 0  (x2 + r 2)3/ 2
a
∴ E x = ∫ dE x
0
a (2πσr dr ) x
=∫
0 4π ε 0 (x2 + r 2)3/ 2
σx a r dr
=
2ε 0 ∫0 (x2 + r 2)3/ 2
σ  1 
or Ex = 1 – 
2ε 0  a /x + 1 
2 2

1
If the charge distribution gets very large, i.e. a >> x, the term becomes negligibly
a /x + 1
2 2
σ
small, and we get E = .
2ε 0
Thus, we can say that electric field produced by an infinite plane sheet of charge is independent
of the distance from the sheet. Thus, the field is uniform, its direction is everywhere
perpendicular to the sheet.
V Example 33 A non-conducting disc of radius a and uniform positive surface

charge density σ is placed on the ground with its axis vertical. A particle of mass
m and positive charge q is dropped, along the axis of the disc from a height H
with zero initial velocity. The particle has q/m = 4 ε 0 g / σ.
(a) Find the value of H if the particle just reaches the disc.
(b) Sketch the potential energy of the particle as a function of its height and find its
equilibrium position.
Solution Potential at a height H on the axis of the disc V(P). The P (q, m)
charge dq contained in the ring shown in figure, dq = (2πrdr )σ
Potential of P due to this ring
1 dq x H
dV = ⋅ , where x = H 2 + r 2
4πε 0 x
1 (2πrdr ) σ σ rdr
dV = ⋅ =
4πε 0 H 2 + r 2 2ε 0 H 2 + r2 O
dr
r
∴ Potential due to the complete disc, a
r=a σ r=a rdr
VP = ∫ dV = ∫r = 0
r=0 2ε 0 H 2 + r2
σ
VP = [ a2 + H 2 – H ]
2ε 0
Potential at centre, O will be
σa
VO = (H = 0)
2ε 0
(a) Particle is released from P and it just reaches point O. Therefore, from conservation of
mechanical energy
decrease in gravitational potential energy = increase in electrostatic potential energy
(∆ KE = 0 because K i = K f = 0)
∴ mgH = q [VO – VP ]
 q  σ 
or gH =     [a – a2 + H 2 + H ] …(i)
 m  2ε 0 
q 4ε 0 g qσ
= ⇒ = 2g P q,m
m σ 2ε 0m
Substituting in Eq. (i), we get
gH = 2 g [a + H – a2 + H 2] H
H
or = (a + H ) – a2 + H 2
2 a O
H
or a2 + H 2 = a +
2
H2
or a2 + H 2 = a2 + + aH
4
3 2 4
or H = aH or H = a and H = 0
4 3
∴ H = (4 /3) a Ans.
(b) Potential energy of the particle at height H = Electrostatic potential energy
+ gravitational potential energy
∴ U = qV + mgH
Here, V = Potential at height H
σq
∴ U = [ a 2 + H 2 – H ] + mgH …(ii)
2ε 0
– dU
At equilibrium position, F = =0
dH
Differentiating Eq. (ii) w.r.t. H,
σq   1 1   σq 
or mg +   (2H ) – 1 = 0  = 2mg 
2ε 0  2 a2 + H 2   0
2 ε 
 H 
∴ mg + 2mg  – 1 = 0
 a 2 + H 2 
2H 2H
or 1+ – 2 =0 ⇒ =1
a2 + H 2 a2 + H 2
H2 1
or = or 3H 2 = a 2
a + H2 4
2
a
or H= Ans.
3
From Eq. (ii), we can see that
U = 2 mga at H = 0 and U
a
U = U min = 3 mga at H =
3 2mga
Therefore, U-H graph will be as shown.
a 3mga
Note that at H = , U is minimum.
3
a
Therefore, H = is stable equilibrium position. O H
3 a/ 3
V Example 34 Four point charges + 8 µC, – 1 µC, – 1 µC and + 8 µC are fixed at

the points – 27/2 m, – 3 /2 m, + 3 /2 m and + 27/2 m respectively on the
Y-axis. A particle of mass 6 × 10 –4 kg and charge + 0.1 µC moves along the –X
direction. Its speed at x = + ∞ is v0 . Find the least value of v0 for which the
particle will cross the origin. Find also the kinetic energy of the particle at the
origin. Assume that space is gravity free.
Solution In the figure, y
q = 1 µC = 10– 6 C
27/2 m B +Q
q0 = + 0.1 µC = 10–7 C
m = 6 × 10–4 kg 3/2 m A –q
and Q = 8 µC = 8 × 10–6 C x v0 m
O
Let P be any point at a distance x from origin O. P q0 x
Then, – 3/2 m C –q
3
AP = CP = + x2 – 27/2 m D +Q
2
27
BP = DP = + x2
2
Electric potential at point P will be

2kQ 2kq
V = –
BP AP
1
where, k= = 9 × 109 Nm2/ C2
4πε 0
 8 × 10
–6
10–6 
∴ V = 2 × 9 × 109  – 
27 3
 + x2 + x2
 2 2 

V = 1.8 × 104 
8 1
 27
–  …(i)
3
 + x2 + x2
 2 2 
∴ Electric field at P is
dV   1  27 
– 3/ 2
 1  3 
– 3/ 2
E=– = − 1.8 × 104 (8)  –   + x2 – (1)  –   + x2  (2x)
dx   2  2   2  2  
E = 0 on x-axis where
8 1
3/ 2
= 3/ 2
 27  3 2
 + x2  +x
2  2 
(4)3/ 2 1
⇒ 3/ 2
= 3/ 2
 27  3 2
 + x2  +x
2  2 
 27  3 
⇒  + x2 = 4  + x2
2  2 
5
This equation gives x=± m
2
The least value of kinetic energy of the particle at infinity should be enough to take the particle
5
upto x = + m because
2
5
at x = + m, E = 0 ⇒ Electrostatic force on charge q0 is zero or Fe = 0
2
5
for x > m, E is repulsive (towards positive x-axis)
2
5
and for x < m, E is attractive (towards negative x-axis)
2
5
Now, from Eq. (i), potential at x= m
2
V = 1.8. × 104 
8
–
1 
 27 5 3 5
 + + 
 2 2 2 2 
V = 2.7 × 10 V
4
5
Applying energy conservation at x = ∞ and x = m
2
1
mv02 = q0V …(ii)
2
2q0V
∴ v0 =
m
2 × 10–7 × 2.7 × 104
Substituting the values, v0 =
6 × 10–4
v0 = 3 m/s Ans.
∴ Minimum value of v0 is 3 m/s.
From Eq. (i), potential at origin (x = 0) is
 8 1 
V 0 = 1.8 × 104  – = 2.4 × 104 V
27 3 
 
 2 2 
Let T be the kinetic energy of the particle at origin.
Applying energy conservation at x = 0 and at x = ∞
1
T + q0V 0 = mv02
2
1
But, mv0 = q0V
2
[ from Eq. (ii)]
2
∴ T = q0 (V – V 0 )
T = (10–7 ) (2.7 × 104 – 2.4 × 104 )
T = 3 × 10−4 J Ans.
5
Note E = 0 or Fe on q0 is zero at x = 0 and x = ± m . Of these x = 0 is stable equilibrium position and
2
5
x=± m is unstable equilibrium position.
2
Exercises
LEVEL 1
Assertion and Reason
Directions : Choose the correct option.
(a) If both Assertion and Reason are true and the Reason is correct explanation of the Assertion.
(b) If both Assertion and Reason are true but Reason is not the correct explanation of Assertion.
(c) If Assertion is true, but the Reason is false.
(d) If Assertion is false but the Reason is true.
1. Assertion : An independent negative charge moves itself from point A to point B. Then,
potential at A should be less than potential at B.
Reason : While moving from A to B kinetic energy of electron will increase.
2. Assertion : When two unlike charges are brought nearer, their electrostatic potential
energy decreases.
Reason : All conservative forces act in the direction of decreasing potential energy.
3. Assertion : At a point electric potential is decreasing along x-axis at a rate of 10 V/m.
Therefore, x-component of electric field at this point should be 10 V/m along x-axis.
∂V
Reason : Magnitude of Ex =
∂x
4. Assertion : Electric potential on the surface of a charged sphere of radius R is V . Then
R V
electric field at a distance r = from centre is . Charge is distributed uniformly over the
2 2R
volume.
Reason : From centre to surface, electric field varies linearly with r. Here, r is distance from
centre.
5. Assertion : Gauss’s theorem can be applied only for a closed surface.
Reason : Electric flux can be obtained passing from an open surface also.
6. Assertion : In the electric field E = ( 4i$ + 4$j) N/ C, electric potential at A( 4 m , 0) is more than
the electric potential at B( 0, 4 m ).
Reason : Electric lines of forces always travel from higher potential to lower potential.
7. Assertion : Two charges − q each are fixed at points A and B. When a third charge − q is
moved from A to B, electrical potential energy first decreases than increases.
–q –q
A B
Reason : Along the line joining A and B, the third charge is in stable equilibrium position at
centre.
8. Assertion : A small electric dipole is moved translationally from higher potential to lower
potential in uniform electric field. Work done by electric field is positive.
Reason : When a positive charge is moved from higher potential to lower potential, work
done by electric field is positive.
9. Assertion : In case of charged spherical shells, E-r graph is discontinuous while V -r graph is
continuous.
Reason : According to Gauss’s theorem only the charge inside a closed surface can produce
electric field at some point.
10. Assertion : If we see along the axis of a charged ring, the magnitude of electric field is
minimum at centre and magnitude of electric potential is maximum.
Reason : Electric field is a vector quantity while electric potential is scalar.
Objective Questions
1. Units of electric flux are
N-m2 N
(a) (b)
C2 C2 - m2
(c) volt-m (d) volt- m3
2. A neutral pendulum oscillates in a uniform electric field as shown in figure. If a positive charge
is given to the pendulum, then its time period
(a) will increase (b) will decrease

(c) will remain constant (d) will first increase then decrease
3. Identify the correct statement about the charges q1 and q2, then
q1 q2
(a) q1 and q2 both are positive (b) q1 and q2 both are negative
(c) q1 is positive q2 is negative (d) q2 is positive and q1 is negative
4. Three identical charges are placed at corners of an equilateral triangle of side l. If force
between any two charges is F, the work required to double the dimensions of triangle is
(a) −3 Fl (b) 3 Fl
(c) (−3 /2) Fl (d) (3 /2) Fl
5. A proton, a deuteron and an alpha particle are accelerated through potentials of V, 2 V and 4 V
respectively. Their velocity will bear a ratio
(a) 1 : 1 : 1 (b) 1 : 2 : 1
(c) 2 : 1 : 1 (d) 1 : 1 : 2
6. Electric potential at a point P , r distance away due to a point charge q kept at point A is V . If
twice of this charge is distributed uniformly on the surface of a hollow sphere of radius 4r with
centre at point A, the potential at P now is
(a) V (b) V /2
(c) V /4 (d) V /8
7. Four charges + q , − q , + q and − q are placed in order on the four consecutive corners of a square
of side a. The work done in interchanging the positions of any two neighbouring charges of the
opposite sign is
q2 q2
(a) (− 4 + 2 ) (b) (4 + 2 2 )
4πε 0a 4πε 0a
q2 q2
(c) (4 − 2 2 ) (d) (4 + 2 )
4πε 0a 4πε 0a
8. Two concentric spheres of radii R and 2R are charged. The inner sphere has a charge of 1 µC
and the outer sphere has a charge of 2 µCof the same sign. The potential is 9000 V at a distance
3R from the common centre. The value of R is
(a) 1 m (b) 2 m
(c) 3 m (d) 4 m
9. A ring of radius R is having two charges q and 2q distributed on its two half parts. The electric
 1 
potential at a point on its axis at a distance of 2 2 R from its centre is  k = 
 4πε 0 
3kq kq
(a) (b)
R 3R
kq kq
(c) (d)
R 3R
10. A particle A having a charge of 2.0 × 10−6 C and a mass of 100 g is fixed at the bottom of a
smooth inclined plane of inclination 30°. Where should another particle B having same charge
and mass, be placed on the inclined plane so that B may remain in equilibrium?
(a) 8 cm from the bottom (b) 13 cm from the bottom
(c) 21 cm from the bottom (d) 27 cm from the bottom
11. Four positive charges ( 2 2 − 1) Q are arranged at the four corners of a square. Another charge
q is placed at the centre of the square. Resulting force acting on each corner charge is zero if q is
7Q 4Q
(a) − (b) −
4 7
(c) − Q (d) − ( 2 + 1) Q
12. A proton is released from rest, 10 cm from a charged sheet carrying charged density of
− 2.21 × 10−9C/ m 2. It will strike the sheet after the time (approximately)
(a) 4 µs (b) 2 µs
(c) 2 2 µs (d) 4 2 µs
13. Two point charges +q and −q are placed a distance x apart. A third charge is so placed that all
the three charges are in equilibrium. Then,
(a) unknown charge is − 4q/ 9
(b) unknown charge is − 9q/4
(c) it should be at (x/3) from smaller charge between them
(d) None of the above
14. Charges 2q and − q are placed at ( a , 0) and ( −a , 0) as shown in the y
figure. The coordinates of the point at which electric field intensity is
zero will be ( x , 0), where
–q + 2q
(a) − a < x < a (b) x < − a x
(c) x > − a (d) 0 < x < a
15. Five point charges (+ q each) are placed at the five vertices of a regular hexagon of side 2a.
What is the magnitude of the net electric field at the centre of the hexagon?
1 q q
(a) (b)
4πε 0 a 2 16πε 0a 2
2q 5q
(c) (d)
4πε 0a 2 16πε 0a 2
16. Two identical small conducting spheres having unequal positive charges q1 and q2 are
separated by a distance r. If they are now made to touch each other and then separated again to
the same distance, the electrostatic force between them in this case will be
(a) less than before (b) same as before
(c) more than before (d) zero
17. Three concentric conducting spherical shells carry charges + 4Q on the inner shell − 2Q on the
middle shell and + 6Q on the outer shell. The charge on the inner surface of the outer shell is
(a) 0 (b) 4 Q
(c) − Q (d) − 2 Q
18. 1000 drops of same size are charged to a potential of 1 V each. If they coalesce to form a single
drop, its potential would be
(a) V (b) 10 V
(c) 100 V (d) 1000 V
19. Two concentric conducting spheres of radii R and 2R are carrying
charges Q and − 2Q, respectively. If the charge on inner sphere is
doubled, the potential difference between the two spheres will
(a) become two times
(b) become four times
(c) be halved
(d) remain same Q
–2Q
20. Charges Q , 2 Q and − Q are given to three concentric conducting spherical
shells A, B and C respectively as shown in figure. The ratio of charges on
the inner and outer surfaces of shell C will be
3 −3 A B C
(a) + (b)
4 4
3 −3
(c) (d)
2 2
21. The electric field in a region of space is given by E = 5$i + 2$j N/ C . The flux of E due to this field
through an area 1 m2 lying in the y -z plane, in SI units, is
(a) 5 (b) 10
(c) 2 (d) 5 29
22. A charge Q is placed at each of the two opposite corners of a square. A charge q is placed at each
of the other two corners. If the resultant force on each charge q is zero, then
(a) q = 2 Q (b) q = − 2 Q
(c) q = 2 2 Q (d) q = − 2 2 Q
23. A and B are two concentric spherical shells. If A is given a charge + q while B
B is earthed as shown in figure, then
(a) charge on the outer surface of shell B is zero A
(b) the charge on B is equal and opposite to that of A
(c) the field inside A and outside B is zero
(d) All of the above
24. A solid sphere of radius R has charge ‘q’ uniformly distributed over its volume. The distance
from its surface at which the electrostatic potential is equal to half of the potential at the centre
is
(a) R (b) 2R
R R
(c) (d)
3 2
25. Four dipoles each of magnitudes of charges ± e are placed inside a sphere. The total flux of E
coming out of the sphere is
4e
(a) zero (b)
ε0
8e
(c) (d) None of these
ε0
26. A pendulum bob of mass m carrying a charge q is at rest with its string making an angle θ with
the vertical in a uniform horizontal electric field E. The tension in the string is
mg
(a) (b) mg
sin θ
qE qE
(c) (d)
sin θ cos θ
27. Two isolated charged conducting spheres of radii a and b produce the same electric field near
their surfaces. The ratio of electric potentials on their surfaces is
a b
(a) (b)
b a
a2 b2
(c) 2 (d) 2
b a
28. Two point charges + q and − q are held fixed at ( − a , 0) and ( a , 0) respectively of a x - y coordinate
system, then
(a) the electric field E at all points on the x-axis has the same direction
(b) E at all points on the y-axis is along $i
(c) positive work is done in bringing a test charge from infinity to the origin
29. A conducting shell S1 having a charge Q is surrounded by an uncharged concentric conducting

spherical shell S 2. Let the potential difference between S1 and that S 2 be V . If the shell S 2 is
now given a charge − 3Q, the new potential difference between the same two shells is
(a) V (b) 2 V
(c) 4 V (d) − 2 V
30. At a certain distance from a point charge, the field intensity is 500 V/m and the potential is
− 3000 V. The distance to the charge and the magnitude of the charge respectively are
(a) 6 m and 6 µC (b) 4 m and 2 µC
(c) 6 m and 4 µC (d) 6 m and 2 µC
31. Two point charges q1 and q2 are placed at a distance of 50 m from each other in air, and interact
with a certain force. The same charges are now put in oil whose relative permittivity is 5. If the
interacting force between them is still the same, their separation now is
(a) 16.6 m (b) 22.3 m
(c) 28.4 m (d) 25.0 cm
32. An infinite line of charge λ per unit length is placed along the y-axis. The work done in moving
a charge q from A ( a , 0) to B ( 2a , 0) is
qλ qλ  1
(a) ln 2 (b) ln  
2π ε 0 2π ε 0  2
qλ qλ
(c) ln 2 (d) ln 2
4π ε 0 4π ε 0
33. An electric dipole is placed perpendicular to an infinite line of charge at some +

+
distance as shown in figure. Identify the correct statement. +
(a) The dipole is attracted towards the line charge +
+ p
(b) The dipole is repelled away from the line charge +
+
(c) The dipole does not experience a force +
(d) The dipole experiences a force as well as a torque +
+
34. An electrical charge 2 × 10−8 Cis placed at the point (1, 2, 4) m. At the point (4, 2, 0) m, ++
the electric
(a) potential will be 36 V
(b) field will be along y-axis
(c) field will increase if the space between the points is filled with a dielectric
35. If the potential at the centre of a uniformly charged hollow sphere of radius R is V , then electric
field at a distance r from the centre of sphere will be (r > R )
r
VR Vr VR VR
(a) (b) (c) (d)
r2 R2 r R2 + r 2
36. There is an electric field E in x-direction. If the work done on moving a charge of 0.2 C through a
distance of 2 m along a line making an angle 60° with x-axis is 4 J, then what is the value of E?
(a) 3 N/C (b) 4 N/C
(c) 5 N/C (d) 20 N/C
37. Two thin wire rings each having radius R are placed at a distance d apart with their axes
coinciding. The charges on the two rings are + Q and − Q. The potential difference between the
centres of the two rings is
Q 1 1 
(a) zero (b)  − 
4πε 0  R R +d 
2 2

Q Q 1 1 
(c) (d)  − 
4πε 0d 2 2πε 0  R R2 + d 2 
38. The electric field at a distance 2 cm from the centre of a hollow spherical conducting shell of
radius 4 cm having a charge of 2 × 10−3 C on its surface is
(a) 1.1 × 1010 V /m (b) 4.5 × 10−10 V /m
(c) 4.5 × 1010 V /m (d) zero
39. Charge Q is given a displacement r = a$i + b$j in an electric field E = E1$i + E2$j. The work done is
(a) Q (E1a + E 2b) (b) Q (E1a )2 + (E 2b)2
(c) Q (E1 + E 2) a 2 + b2 (d) Q E12 + E 22 a 2 + b2
Subjective Questions
Note You can take approximations in the answers.
1. A certain charge Q is divided into two parts q and Q − q , which are then separated by a certain
distance. What must q be in terms of Q to maximize the electrostatic repulsion between the two
charges?
2. An α-particle is the nucleus of a helium atom. It has a mass m = 6.64 × 10−27 kg and a charge
q = + 2e = 3.2 × 10−19 C. Compare the force of the electric repulsion between two α-particles
with the force of gravitational attraction between them.
3. What is the charge per unit area in C/ m 2 of an infinite plane sheet of charge if the electric field
produced by the sheet of charge has magnitude 3.0 N/C?
4. A circular wire loop of radius R carries a total charge q distributed uniformly over its length. A
small length x (<< R ) of the wire is cut off. Find the electric field at the centre due to the
remaining wire.
5. Two identical conducting spheres, fixed in space, attract each other with an electrostatic force
of 0.108 N when separated by 50.0 cm, centre-to-centre. A thin conducting wire then connects
the spheres. When the wire is removed, the spheres repel each other with an electrostatic force
of 0.0360 N. What were the initial charges on the spheres?
6. Show that the torque on an electric dipole placed in a uniform electric field is
τ = p× E
independent of the origin about which torque is calculated.
y
7. Three point charges q , – 2q and q are located along the x-axis as
shown in figure. Show that the electric field at P ( y >> a ) along the P
y-axis is,
y
1 3qa2 $
E= – j
4πε 0 y 4 a a
x
q –2q q
Note This charge distribution which is essentially that of two electric dipoles is called an electric quadrupole. Note
that E varies as r – 4 for a quadrupole compared with variations of r – 3 for the dipole and r – 2 for a monopole
(a single charge).
8. A charge q is placed at point D of the cube. Find the electric flux passing through the face
EFGH and face AEHD.
B F
E
A
C G
D H
9. Point charges q1 and q2 lie on the x-axis at points x = − a and x = + a respectively.

(a) How must q1 and q2 be related for the net electrostatic force on point charge + Q, placed at
x = + a / 2, to be zero?
(b) With the same point charge +Q now placed at x = + 3a /2 .
10. Two particles (free to move) with charges +q and +4q are a distance L apart. A third charge is
placed so that the entire system is in equilibrium.
(a) Find the location, magnitude and sign of the third charge.
(b) Show that the equilibrium is unstable.
11. Two identical beads each have a mass m and charge q. When placed in a hemispherical bowl of
radius R with frictionless, non-conducting walls, the beads move, and at equilibrium they are a
distance R apart (figure). Determine the charge on each bead.
R R
m m
R
12. Three identical small balls, each of mass 0.1 g, are suspended at one point on silk thread
having a length of l = 20cm . What charges should be imparted to the balls for each thread to
form an angle of α = 30° with the vertical?
13. Three charges, each equal to q, are placed at the three corners of a square of side a. Find the
electric field at fourth corner.
14. A point charge q = − 8.0 nC is located at the origin. Find the electric field vector at the point
x = 1.2 m , y = − 1.6 m.
15. Find the electric field at the centre of a uniformly charged semicircular ring of radius R. Linear
charge density is λ.
16. Find the electric field at a point P on the perpendicular bisector of a uniformly charged rod. The
length of the rod is L, the charge on it is Q and the distance of P from the centre of the rod is a.
17. Find the direction of electric field at point P for the charge distribution as shown in figure.
y y y
–Q
+Q –Q
P P P
x x x
+Q +Q +Q
(a) (b) (c)

18. A clock face has charges − q , − 2q , − 3q ,…−12q fixed at the position of the corresponding
numerals on the dial. The clock hands do not disturb the net field due to point charges. At what
time does the hour hand point in the direction of the electric field at the centre of the dial.
19. A charged particle of mass m = 1 kg and charge q = 2 µC is thrown from a horizontal ground at
an angle θ = 45° with the speed 25 m/ s. In space, a horizontal electric field E = 2 × 107 V/ m
exists in the direction of motion. Find the range on horizontal ground of the projectile thrown.
Take g = 10 m/s 2.
20. Protons are projected with an initial speed vi = 9.55 × 103 m/ s into a region where a uniform
electric field E = (–720 $j) N/ C is present, as shown in figure. The protons are to hit a target that
lies at a horizontal distance of 1.27 mm from the point where the protons are launched. Find
E = (–720 ^j ) N/C
Vi θ Target
Proton
beam
1.27 mm
(a) the two projection angles θ that result in a hit and

(b) the total time of flight for each trajectory.
21. At some instant the velocity components of an electron moving between two charged parallel
plates are vx = 1.5 × 105 m/ s and v y = 3.0 × 106 m/ s. Suppose that the electric field between the
plates is given by E = (120 N/ C) $j .
(a) What is the acceleration of the electron?
(b) What will be the velocity of the electron after its x-coordinate has changed by 2.0 cm?
22. A point charge q1 = + 2 µC is placed at the origin of coordinates. A second charge, q2 = − 3 µC, is
placed on the x-axis at x = 100 cm. At what point (or points) on the x-axis will the absolute
potential be zero?
100 cm
x
q1 q2
Q
23. A charge Q is spread uniformly in the form of a line charge density λ = on the sides of an
3a
equilateral triangle of perimeter 3a. Calculate the potential at the centroid C of the triangle.
24. A uniform electric field of magnitude 250 V/ m is directed in the positive x-direction. A + 12µC
charge moves from the origin to the point ( x , y ) = ( 20.0 cm, 5.0 cm ).
(a) What was the change in the potential energy of this charge?
(b) Through what potential difference did the charge move?
25. A small particle has charge −5.00 µC and mass 2.00 × 10−4 kg. It moves from point A, where the
electric potential is V A = + 200 V, to point B, where the electric potential is V B = + 800 V. The
electric force is the only force acting on the particle. The particle has speed 5.00 m/ s at point A.
What is its speed at point B? Is it moving faster or slower at B than at A? Explain.
26. A plastic rod has been formed into a circle of radius R. It has a positive charge P
+Q uniformly distributed along one-quarter of its circumference and a negative
charge of −6Q uniformly distributed along the rest of the circumference z
(figure). With V = 0 at infinity, what is the electric potential –6Q
(a) at the centre C of the circle and R
C
(b) at point P, which is on the central axis of the circle at distance z from the centre?
+Q
27. A point charge q1 = + 2.40 µC is held stationary at the origin. A second point charge
q2 = − 4.30 µC moves from the point x = 0.150 m, y = 0 to the point x = 0.250 m , y = 0.250 m.
How much work is done by the electric force on q2?
28. A point charge q1 = 4.00 nC is placed at the origin, and a second point charge q2 = − 3.00 nC is
placed on the x-axis at x = + 20.0 cm. A third point charge q3 = 2.00 nC is placed on the x-axis
between q1 and q2. (Take as zero the potential energy of the three charges when they are
infinitely far apart).
(a) What is the potential energy of the system of the three charges if q3 is placed at x = + 10.0 cm?
(b) Where should q3 be placed to make the potential energy of the system equal to zero?
29. Three point charges, which initially are infinitely far apart, are placed at the corners of an
equilateral triangle with sides d. Two of the point charges are identical and have charge q. If
zero net work is required to place the three charges at the corners of the triangles, what must
the value of the third charge be?
30. The electric field in a certain region is given by E = ( 5 i$ − 3 $j) kV/ m . Find the difference in
potential VB − VA . If A is at the origin and point B is at (a) (0, 0, 5) m, (b) (4, 0, 3) m.
31. In a certain region of space, the electric field is along + y-direction and has a magnitude of
400 V/ m . What is the potential difference from the coordinate origin to the following points?
(a) x = 0, y = 20 cm, z = 0 (b) x = 0, y = −30 cm, z = 0
(c) x = 0, y = 0, z = 15 cm
32. An electric field of 20 N/C exists along the x-axis in space. Calculate the potential difference
V B − V A where the points A and B are given by
(a) A = (0, 0), B = (4 m, 2 m) (b) A = (4 m, 2 m), B = ( 6 m, 5 m)
33. The electric potential existing in space is V ( x , y , z ) = A ( xy + yz + zx ).
(a) Write the dimensional formula of A.
(b) Find the expression for the electric field.
(c) If A is 10 SI units, find the magnitude of the electric field at (1 m, 1 m, 1 m)
34. An electric field E = ( 20 $i + 30 $j) N/C exists in the space. If the potential at the origin is taken to
be zero, find the potential at ( 2 m , 2 m ).
35. In a certain region of space, the electric potential is V ( x , y , z ) = Axy − Bx 2 + Cy , where A, B

and C are positive constants.
(a) Calculate the x, y and z - components of the electric field.
(b) At which points is the electric field equal to zero?
36. A sphere centered at the origin has radius 0.200 m. A −500 µC point charge is on the x-axis at
x = 0.300 m. The net flux through the sphere is 360 N-m 2 / C. What is the total charge inside the
sphere?
37. (a) A closed surface encloses a net charge of −3.60 µC. What is the net electric flux through the
surface?
(b) The electric flux through a closed surface is found to be 780 N-m2 /C. What quantity of charge is
enclosed by the surface?
(c) The closed surface in part (b) is a cube with sides of length 2.50 cm. From the information given
in part (b), is it possible to tell where within the cube the charge is located? Explain.
3 $ 4 $
38. The electric field in a region is given by E = E0 i + E0 j with E0 = 2.0 × 103 N/C. Find the flux
5 5
of this field through a rectangular surface of area 0.2 m 2 parallel to the y-z plane.
E0x $
39. The electric field in a region is given by E = i. Find the charge contained inside a cubical
l
volume bounded by the surfaces x = 0, x = a , y = 0, y = a , z = 0 and z = a. Take E0 = 5 × 103 N/ C,
l = 2 cm and a = 1 cm .
40. A point charge Q is located on the axis of a disc of radius R at a distance b from the plane of the
disc (figure). Show that if one-fourth of the electric flux from the charge passes through the
disc, then R = 3 b.
Q
41. A cube has sides of length L. It is placed with one corner at the origin as shown in figure. The
electric field is uniform and given by E = − B $i + C $j − D k$ , where B, C and D are positive
constants.
z
S2 (top)
S6 (back)
S3 (right side)
S1 (left side)
L
y
L
L
x S5 (front) S4 (bottom)
(a) Find the electric flux through each of the six cube faces S1 , S 2, S3 , S 4 , S5 and S 6.
(b) Find the electric flux through the entire cube.
42. Two point charges q and −q are separated by a distance 2l. Find the flux of electric field
strength vector across the circle of radius R placed with its centre coinciding with the mid-point
of line joining the two charges in the perpendicular plane.
43. A point charge q is placed at the origin. Calculate the electric flux through the open
hemispherical surface : ( x − a )2 + y 2 + z 2 = a 2 , x ≥ a
44. A charge Q is distributed over two concentric hollow spheres of radii r and R (> r ) such that the
surface charge densities are equal. Find the potential at the common centre.
45. A charge q0 is distributed uniformly on a ring of radius R. A sphere of equal radius R is
constructed with its centre on the circumference of the ring. Find the electric flux through the
surface of the sphere.
46. Two concentric conducting shells A and B are of radii R and 2R. A charge + q is placed at the
centre of the shells. Shell B is earthed and a charge q is given to shell A. Find the charge on
outer surface of A and B.
47. Three concentric metallic shells A, B and C of radii a , b and c ( a < b < c) have surface charge
densities, σ , − σ and σ respectively.
σ
–σ
σ
A
B
C
(a) Find the potentials of three shells A , B and C.

(b) It is found that no work is required to bring a charge q from shell A to shell C, then obtain the
relation between the radii a , b and c.
48. A charge Q is placed at the centre of an uncharged, hollow metallic sphere of radius a,
(a) Find the surface charge density on the inner surface and on the outer surface.
(b) If a charge q is put on the sphere, what would be the surface charge densities on the inner and
the outer surfaces?
(c) Find the electric field inside the sphere at a distance x from the centre in the situations
(a) and (b).
49. Figure shows three concentric thin spherical shells A, B and C of radii a , b and c respectively.
The shells A and C are given charges q and −q respectively and the shell B is earthed. Find the
charges appearing on the surfaces of B and C.
b
a q
–q
A
c B
C
50. Three spherical shells have radii R , 2R and 3R respectively. Total charge on A and C is 3q. Find
the charges on different surfaces of A, B and C . The connecting wire does not touch the shell B.
C B A
R
2R
3R
51. In the above problem, the charges on different surfaces if a charge q is placed at the centre of
the shell with all other conditions remaining the same.
52. A solid sphere of radius R has a charge +2Q. A hollow spherical shell of radius 3R placed
concentric with the first sphere that has net charge −Q.
+2Q
R
3R
–Q
(a) Find the electric field between the spheres at a distance r from the centre of the inner sphere.
[R < r < 3R]
(b) Calculate the potential difference between the spheres.
(c) What would be the final distribution of charges, if a conducting wire joins the spheres?
(d) Instead of (c), if the inner sphere is earthed, what is the charge on it?
53. Three concentric conducting spherical shells of radii R , 2R and 3R carry charges Q , − 2Q and
3Q, respectively.
3Q
–2Q
Q
2R R
3R
(a) Find the electric potential at r = R and r = 3R, where r is the radial distance from the centre.
5
(b) Compute the electric field at r = R
2
(c) Compute the total electrostatic energy stored in the system.
The inner shell is now connected to the external one by a conducting wire, passing through a very
small hole in the middle shell.
(d) Compute the charges on the spheres of radii R and 3R.
5
(e) Compute the electric field at r = R.
2
LEVEL 2
Single Correct Option
1. In the diagram shown, the charge + Q is fixed. Another charge + 2q and mass M is projected
from a distance R from the fixed charge. Minimum separation between the two charges if the
1
velocity becomes times of the projected velocity, at this moment is (Assume gravity to be
3
absent)
V
30°
+Q +2q
R
3 1 1
(a) R (b) R (c) R (d) None of these
2 3 2
2. A uniform electric field of strength E exists in a region. An electron enters a point A with
velocity v as shown. It moves through the electric field and reaches at point B. Velocity of
particle at B is 2 v at 30° with x-axis. Then,
y
2v
30°
v B (2a, d)
x
(0, 0) A(a, 0)
3mv2 $
(a) electric field E = − i
2ea
3mv3
(b) rate of doing work done by electric field at B is
2ea
(c) Both (a) and (b) are correct
(d) Both (a) and (b) are wrong
3. Two point charges a and b whose magnitudes are same, positioned at a certain distance along
the positive x-axis from each other. a is at origin. Graph is drawn between electrical field
strength and distance x from a. E is taken positive if it is along the line joining from a to b.
From the graph it can be decided that
(a) a is positive, b is negative (b) a and b both are positive

(c) a and b both are negative (d) a is negative, b is positive
Note Graph is drawn only between a and b.

4. Six charges are placed at the vertices of a rectangular hexagon as shown in the figure. The
electric field on the line passing through point O and perpendicular to the plane of the figure as
a function of distance x from point O is ( x > > a )
+Q –Q
+Q –Q
O
+Q –Q
a
Qa 2Qa 3Qa
(a) 0 (b) (c) (d)
π ε 0x3 π ε 0x3 π ε 0x3
5. If the electric potential of the inner shell is 10 V and that of the outer shell is 5 V, then the
potential at the centre will be
a
2a
(a) 10 V (b) 5 V (c) 15 V (d) zero

6. A solid conducting sphere of radius a having a charge q is surrounded by a concentric
conducting spherical shell of inner radius 2a and outer radius 3a as shown in figure. Find the
 1 
amount of heat produced when switch is closed  k = 
 4πε 0 
a
S
3a 2a
kq2 kq2 kq2 kq2

(a) (b) (c) (d)
2a 3a 4a 6a
7. There are four concentric shells A, B, C and D of radii a , 2a , 3a and 4a respectively. Shells
B and D are given charges + q and − q respectively. Shell C is now earthed. The potential
 1 
difference V A − VC is  k = 
 4πε 0 
kq kq kq kq
(a) (b) (c) (d)
2a 3a 4a 6a
8. Potential difference between centre and surface of the sphere of radius R and uniform volume
charge density ρ within it will be
ρ R2 ρ R2
(a) (b)
6 ε0 4 ε0
ρ R2 ρ R2
(c) (d)
3 ε0 2 ε0
9. A positively charged disc is placed on a horizontal plane. A charged particle is released from a
certain height on its axis. The particle just reaches the centre of the disc. Select the correct
alternative.
(a) Particle has negative charge on it
(b) Total potential energy (gravitational + electrostatic) of the particle first increases, then
decreases
(c) Total potential energy of the particle first decreases, then increases
(d) Total potential energy of the particle continuously decreases
10. The curve represents the distribution of potential along the straight line joining the two
charges Q1 and Q2 (separated by a distance r) then which of the following statements are
correct?
y
Q2
x
Q1 A B C
1. |Q1| > |Q2|

2. Q1 is positive in nature
3. A and B are equilibrium points
4. C is a point of unstable equilibrium
(a) 1 and 2 (b) 1, 2 and 3
(c) 1, 2 and 4 (d) 1, 2, 3 and 4
11. A point charge q1 = q is placed at point P. Another point charge q2 = − q is placed at point Q. At
some point R( R ≠ P , R ≠ Q ), electric potential due to q1 is V1 and electric potential due to q2 is
V 2. Which of the following is correct?
(a) Only for some points V1 > V 2
(b) Only for some points V 2 > V1
(c) For all points V1 > V 2
(d) For all points V 2 > V1
12. The variation of electric field between two charges q1 and q2
along the line joining the charges is plotted against distance
from q1 (taking rightward direction of electric field as positive)
as shown in the figure. Then, the correct statement is r
q1 q2
(a) q1 and q2 are positive and q1 < q2
(b) q1 and q2 are positive and q1 > q2
(c) q1 is positive and q2 is negative q1 <| q2|
(d) q1 and q2 are negative and| q1| < | q2|
13. A charge q is placed at O in the cavity in a spherical uncharged

conductor. Point S is outside the conductor. If q is displaced from O
towards S (still remaining within the cavity) q S
(a) electric field at S will increase O
(b) electric field at S will decrease
(c) electric field at S will first increase and then decrease
(d) electric field at S will not change
14. A uniform electric field of 400 V/m is directed at 45° above the x-axis as shown in the figure. The
potential difference V A − V B is given by
y(cm)
(0, 2)
A
45° (3, 0)
B x(cm)
(a) 0 (b) 4 V
(c) 6.4 V (d) 2.8 V
15. Initially the spheres A and B are at potentials V A and V B respectively. Now, sphere B is
earthed by closing the switch. The potential of A will now become
B
A
(a) 0 (b) V A (c) V A − VB (d) VB

16. A particle of mass m and charge q is fastened to one end of a string of A
length l. The other end of the string is fixed to the point O. The whole
E
system lies on a frictionless horizontal plane. Initially, the mass is at rest
l
at A. A uniform electric field in the direction shown is then switched on.
Then,
60°
2qEl O B
(a) the speed of the particle when it reaches B is
m
qEl
(b) the speed of the particle when it reaches B is
m
(c) the tension in the string when the particle reaches at B is qE
(d) the tension in the string when the particle reaches at B is zero
17. A charged particle of mass m and charge q is released from rest from the position ( x0 , 0) in a
uniform electric field E0$j. The angular momentum of the particle about origin
(a) is zero (b) is constant
(c) increases with time (d) decreases with time
18. A charge + Q is uniformly distributed in a spherical volume of radius R. A particle of charge

+ q and mass m projected with velocity v0 from the surface of the spherical volume to its
centre inside a smooth tunnel dug across the sphere. The minimum value of v0 such that it
just reaches the centre (assume that there is no resistance on the particle except electrostatic
force) of the spherical volume is
Qq Qq
(a) (b)
2πε 0mR πε 0mR
2Qq Qq
(c) (d)
πε 0mR 4πε 0mR
19. Two identical coaxial rings each of radius R are separated by a distance of 3R. They are
uniformly charged with charges + Q and − Q respectively. The minimum kinetic energy with
which a charged particle (charge + q) should be projected from the centre of the negatively
charged ring along the axis of the rings such that it reaches the centre of the positively charged
ring is
Qq Qq Qq 3Qq
(a) (b) (c) (d)
4πε 0R 2πε 0R 8πε 0R 4πε 0R
20. A uniform electric field exists in x-y plane. The potential of points A( 2 m , 2 m ), B( −2 m , 2 m )
and C ( 2 m , 4 m ) are 4 V , 16 V and 12 V respectively. The electric field is
(a) (4$i + 5$j) V /m (b) (3i$ + 4$j) V /m
(c) − (3$i + 4$j) V /m (d) (3$i − 4$j) V /m
21. Two fixed charges − 2Q and + Q are located at points ( − 3a , 0) and ( + 3a , 0) respectively. Then,
which of the following statement is correct?
(a) Points where the electric potential due to the two charges is zero in x-y plane, lie on a circle of
radius 4a and centre (5a , 0)
(b) Potential is zero at x = a and x = 9a
(c) Both (a) and (b) are wrong
(d) Both (a) and (b) are correct
22. A particle of mass m and charge − q is projected from the origin with a horizontal speed v into
an electric field of intensity E directed downward. Choose the wrong statement. Neglect
gravity
y
– q, m x
v
(a) The kinetic energy after a displacement y is qEy

qE
(b) The horizontal and vertical components of acceleration are a x = 0, a y =
m
1  qEx2
(c) The equation of trajectory is y =  
2  mv2 
1
(d) The horizontal and vertical displacements x and y after a time t are x = vt and y = ayt2
2
23. A particle of charge −q and mass m moves in a circle of radius r around an infinitely long line
charge of linear charge density + λ. Then, time period will be
+λ
r q
m 4π 2m 3
(a) T = 2πr (b) T 2 = r
2 kλ q 2 kλ q
1 2 kλ q 1 m
(c) T = (d) T =
2 πr m 2 π r 2 kλ q
1
where, k=
4 πε 0
24. A small ball of mass m and charge + q tied with a string of length l, rotating in a vertical circle
under gravity and a uniform horizontal electric field E as shown. The tension in the string
will be minimum for
E
l
θ m q
 qE 
(a) θ = tan −1   (b) θ = π
 mg 
 qE 
(c) θ = 0° (d) θ = π + tan −1  
 mg 
25. Four point charges A, B, C and D are placed at the four corners of a square of side a. The energy
required to take the charges C and D to infinity (they are also infinitely separated from each
other) is
+q A B +q
–q –q
D C
q2 2q2
(a) (b)
4πε 0a πε 0a
q2 q2
(c) ( 2 + 1) (d) ( 2 − 1)
4πε 0a 4πε 0a
26. Two identical positive charges are placed at x = − a and x = a. The correct variation of potential
V along the x-axis is given by
V
V
(a) (b)
+a x
–a O
x
–a O +a
V
(c) V (d)
x
–a O +a
x
–a O +a
27. Two identical charges are placed at the two corners of an equilateral triangle. The potential
energy of the system is U . The work done in bringing an identical charge from infinity to the
third vertex is
(a) U (b) 2 U
(c) 3 U (d) 4 U
28. A charged particle q is shot from a large distance towards another charged particle Q which is
fixed, with a speed v. It approaches Q up to a closest distance r and then returns. If q were given
a speed 2v, the distance of approach would be
q v
Q
r
(a) r (b) 2r
(c) r/2 (d) r/4
29. Two identical charged spheres are suspended by strings of equal length. The strings make an
angle of 30° with each other. When suspended in a liquid of density 0.8 g/ cc, the angle remains
the same. The dielectric constant of the liquid is [density of the material of sphere is 1.6 g/ cc]
(a) 2 (b) 4
(c) 2.5 (d) 3.5
30. The electrostatic potential due to the charge configuration at point P b
as shown in figure for b < < a is +q –q
2q
(a) a
4πε 0a
P
2qb2
(b) a
4πε 0a3
–q
qb2 +q
(c)
4πε 0a3 b
(d) zero
31. The figure shows four situations in which charged particles are at equal distances from the
origin. If E1 , E2, E3 and E4 be the magnitude of the net electric fields at the origin in four
situations (i), (ii), (iii) and (iv) respectively, then
y y y y
–5q –5q –q
x x x x
2q O –3q 3q O –2q 4q O –q q O –4q
5q 4q
(i) (ii) (iii) (iv)
(a) E1 = E 2 = E3 = E 4 (b) E1 = E 2 > E3 > E 4

(c) E1 < E 2 < E3 = E 4 (d) E1 > E 2 = E3 < E 4
1
32. An isolated conducting sphere whose radius R = 1 m has a charge q = nC. The energy density
9
at the surface of the sphere is
ε0
(a) J/m3 (b) ε 0 J/m3
2
ε0
(c) 2 ε 0 J/m3 (d) J/m3
3
33. Two conducting concentric, hollow spheres A and B have radii a and b respectively, with A
inside B. Their common potentials is V . A is now given some charge such that its potential
becomes zero. The potential of B will now be
(a) 0 (b) V (1 − a /b)
(c) Va /b (d) Vb /a
34. In a uniform electric field, the potential is 10 V at the origin of coordinates and 8 V at each of
the points (1, 0, 0), (0, 1, 0) and ( 0, 0, 1). The potential at the point (1, 1, 1) will be
(a) 0 (b) 4 V (c) 8 V (d) 10 V
35. There are two uncharged identical metallic spheres 1 and 2 of radius r separated by a distance
d ( d >> r ). A charged metallic sphere of same radius having charge q is touched with one of the
sphere. After some time it is moved away from the system. Now, the uncharged sphere is
earthed. Charge on earthed sphere is
q q
(a) + (b) −
2 2
qr qd
(c) − (d) −
2d 2r
36. Figure shows a closed dotted surface which intersects a conducting uncharged sphere. If a
positive charge is placed at the point P, the flux of the electric field through the closed surface
(a) will remain zero (b) will become positive

(c) will become negative (d) data insufficient
37. Two concentric conducting thin spherical shells A and B having radii rA and rB (rB > rA ) are
charged to QA and − QB (|QB|>|QA|). The electrical field along a line passing through the
centre is
E E
(a) (b)
rB
O rA x O rA rB x
(c) (d) None of these

rB
O rA x
38. The electric potential at a point ( x , y ) in the x-y plane is given by V = − kxy. The field intensity
at a distance r in this plane, from the origin is proportional to
(a) r 2 (b) r
(c) 1/r (d) 1 /r 2
More than One Correct Options

1. Two concentric shells have radii R and 2 R charges qA and qB and potentials 2 V and ( 3/ 2) V
respectively. Now, shell B is earthed and let charges on them become qA ′ and qB ′. Then,
B
A
(a) qA /qB = 1 /2
(b) qA′ /qB ′ = 1
(c) potential of A after earthing becomes (3 /2) V
(d) potential difference between A and B after earthing becomes V /2
2. A particle of mass 2 kg and charge 1 mC is projected vertically with a velocity 10 ms −1. There is
a uniform horizontal electric field of 104 N/C, then
(a) the horizontal range of the particle is 10 m (b) the time of flight of the particle is 2 s
(c) the maximum height reached is 5 m (d) the horizontal range of the particle is 5 m
3. At a distance of 5 cm and 10 cm from surface of a uniformly charged solid sphere, the potentials
are 100 V and 75 V respectively. Then,
50
(a) potential at its surface is 150 V (b) the charge on the sphere is × 10−10 C
3
(c) the electric field on the surface is 1500 V/m (d) the electric potential at its centre is 25 V
4. Three charged particles are in equilibrium under their electrostatic forces only. Then,
(a) the particles must be collinear
(b) all the charges cannot have the same magnitude
(c) all the charges cannot have the same sign
(d) the equilibrium is unstable
5. Charges Q1 and Q2 lie inside and outside respectively of a closed surface S. Let E be the field at
any point on S and φ be the flux of E over S.
(a) If Q1 changes, both E and φ will change
(b) If Q2 changes, E will change but φ will not change
(c) If Q1 = 0 and Q2 ≠ 0, then E ≠ 0 but φ = 0
(d) If Q1 ≠ 0 and Q2 = 0, then E = 0 but φ ≠ 0
6. An electric dipole is placed at the centre of a sphere. Mark the correct options.
(a) The flux of the electric field through the sphere is zero
(b) The electric field is zero at every point of the sphere
(c) The electric field is not zero at anywhere on the sphere
(d) The electric field is zero on a circle on the sphere
7. Mark the correct options.
(a) Gauss’s law is valid only for uniform charge distributions
(b) Gauss’s law is valid only for charges placed in vacuum
(c) The electric field calculated by Gauss’s law is the field due to all the charges
(d) The flux of the electric field through a closed surface due to all the charges is equal to the flux
due to the charges enclosed by the surface
8. Two concentric spherical shells have charges + q and − q as shown in figure. Choose the correct
options.
–q
+q
A B C
(a) At A electric field is zero, but electric potential is non-zero

(b) At B electric field and electric potential both are non-zero
(c) At C electric field is zero but electric potential is non-zero
(d) At C electric field and electric potential both are zero
9. A rod is hinged (free to rotate) at its centre O as shown in figure. E
+q
Two point charges + q and + q are kept at its two ends. Rod is
placed in uniform electric field E as shown. Space is gravity free.
Choose the correct options. O
(a) Net force from the hinge on the rod is zero
(b) Net force from the hinge on the rod is leftwards +q
(c) Equilibrium of rod is neutral
(d) Equilibrium of rod is stable
10. Two charges + Q each are fixed at points C and D. Line AB is the A
bisector line of CD. A third charge + q is moved from A to B, then from
B to C.
C B D
(a) From A to B electrostatic potential energy will decrease
(b) From A to B electrostatic potential energy will increase
(c) From B to C electrostatic potential energy will increase
(d) From B to C electrostatic potential energy will decrease
Comprehension Based Questions

Passage I (Q. No. 1 to 3)
There are two concentric spherical shell of radii r and 2r. Initially, a charge Q is given to the
inner shell and both the switches are open.
2r S2 S1
r
1. If switch S1 is closed and then opened, charge on the outer shell will be
(a) Q (b) Q/2
(c) − Q (d) − Q/2
2. Now, S 2 is closed and opened. The charge flowing through the switch S 2 in the process is
(a) Q (b) Q/4
(c) Q/2 (d) 2Q/3
3. The two steps of the above two problems are repeated n times, the potential difference between
the shells will be
 Q 
1  Q 
1
(a) 
n+1  (b)  
2  4 πε 0 r  4πε 0r 
2n
1  Q  1  Q 
(c) n   (d) n − 1  
2 2πε 0r  2  2 πε 0 r 
Passage II (Q. No. 4 to 7)
A sphere of charge of radius R carries a positive charge whose volume charge density depends
 r
only on the distance r from the ball’s centre as ρ = ρ0 1 −  , where ρ0 is a constant. Assume ε as
 R
the permittivity of space.
4. The magnitude of electric field as a function of the distance r inside the sphere is given by
 r r2 
ρ0  r r2 
ρ0
(a) E =  −  (b) E =  − 
ε
3 4R  ε
4 3R 
ρ r r2  ρ r r2 
(c) E = 0  +  (d) E = 0  + 
ε 3 4R  ε 4 3R 
5. The magnitude of the electric field as a function of the distance r outside the ball is given by
ρ 0R3 ρ 0R3
(a) E = (b) E =
8εr 2 12εr 2
ρ R2 ρ R2
(c) E = 0 3 (d) E = 0 3
8εr 12εr
6. The value of distance rm at which electric field intensity is maximum is given by
R 3R
(a) rm = (b) rm =
3 2
2R 4R
(c) rm = (d) rm =
3 3
7. The maximum electric field intensity is
ρ0R ρ0ε
(a) Em = (b) Em =
9ε 9R
ρ0R ρ0R
(c) Em = (d) Em =
3ε 6ε
Passage III (Q. No. 8 to 10)

A solid metallic sphere of radius a is surrounded by a conducting spherical shell of radius
b ( b > a ). The solid sphere is given a charge Q. A student measures the potential at the surface of
the solid sphere as V a and the potential at the surface of spherical shell as V b. After taking these
readings, he decides to put charge of − 4Q on the shell. He then noted the readings of the
potential of solid sphere and the shell and found that the potential difference is ∆V . He then
connected the outer spherical shell to the earth by a conducting wire and found that the charge
on the outer surface of the shell as q1.
He then decides to remove the earthing connection from the shell and earthed the inner solid
sphere. Connecting the inner sphere with the earth he observes the charge on the solid sphere as
q2. He then wanted to check what happens if the two are connected by the conducting wire. So he
removed the earthing connection and connected a conducting wire between the solid sphere and
the spherical shell. After the connections were made he found the charge on the outer shell as q3 .
Answer the following questions based on the readings taken by the student at various stages.
8. Potential difference ( ∆V ) measured by the student between the inner solid sphere and outer
shell after putting a charge − 4Q is
(a) V a − 3 Vb (b) 3(V a − Vb )
(c) V a (d) V a − Vb
9. q2 is
 a
(a) Q (b) Q  
 b
(c) − 4Q (d) zero
10. q3 is
Q (a + b) Qa 2
(a) (b)
a−b b
Q (a − b) Qb
(c) (d) −
b a
Match the Columns

1. Five identical charges are kept at five vertices of a regular hexagon. Match the following two
columns at centre of the hexagon. If in the given situation electric field at centre is E. Then,
Column I Column II q q
(a) If charge at B is removed, then (p) 2E B C
electric field will become
(b) If charge at C is removed, then (q) E A D q
electric field will become
(c) If charge at D is removed then (r) zero F E
electric field will become q q
(d) If charges at B and C both are (s) 3E
removed, then electric field will
become
Note Only magnitudes of electric field are given.

2. In an electric field E = ( 2i$ + 4$j) N/C, electric potential at origin is 0 V. Match the following two
columns.
Column I Column II
(a) Potential at (4 m, 0) (p) 8 V

(b) Potential at (−4 m, 0) (q) – 8 V
(c) Potential at (0, 4 m) (r) 16 V
(d) Potential at (0, – 4 m) (s) – 16 V
3. Electric potential on the surface of a solid sphere of charge is V . Radius of the sphere is 1m.
Match the following two columns.
Column I Column II
R (p) V
(a) Electric potential at r = 4
2
(b) Electric potential at r = 2R (q) V
2
R
(c) Electric field at r = (r) 3V
2 4
(d) Electric field at r = 2R (s) None of these
4. Match the following two columns.

Column I Column II
(a) Electric potential (p) [ MLT–3 A −1 ]

(b) Electric field (q) [ML3 T−3 A −1 ]
(c) Electric flux (r) [ML2 T−3 A −1 ]
(d) Permittivity of free space (s) None of these
5. Match the following two columns.

Column I Column II
(a) Electric field due to (p)
charged spherical shell
(b) Electric potential due to (q)

charged spherical shell
(c) Electric field due to (r)

charged solid sphere
(d) Electric potential due to (s) None of these

charged solid sphere
1. A 4.00 kg block carrying a charge Q = 50.0 µC is connected to a spring for which k = 100 N/ m.
The block lies on a frictionless horizontal track, and the system is immersed in a uniform
electric field of magnitude E = 5.00 × 105 V/ m, directed as shown in figure. If the block is
released from rest when the spring is unstretched (at x = 0 ).
m, Q
E
k
x=0
(a) By what maximum amount does the spring expand?

(b) What is the equilibrium position of the block?
(c) Show that the block’s motion is simple harmonic and determine its period.
(d) Repeat part (a) if the coefficient of kinetic friction between block and surface is 0.2.
2. A particle of mass m and charge −Q is constrained to move along the axis of a ring of radius a.
The ring carries a uniform charge density +λ along its length. Initially, the particle is in the
centre of the ring where the force on it is zero. Show that the period of oscillation of the particle
when it is displaced slightly from its equilibrium position is given by
2ε 0ma 2
T = 2π
λQ
3. Three identical conducting plane parallel plates, each of area A are held with equal separation
d between successive surfaces. Charges Q , 2Q , and 3Q are placed on them. Neglecting edge
effects, find the distribution of charges on the six surfaces.
4. A long non-conducting, massless rod of length L pivoted at its centre and balanced with a
weight w at a distance x from the left end. At the left and right ends of the rod are attached
small conducting spheres with positive charges q and 2q respectively. A distance h directly
beneath each of these spheres is a fixed sphere with positive charge Q.
(a) Find the distance x where the rod is horizontal and balanced.
(b) What value should h have so that the rod exerts no vertical force on the bearing when the rod is
horizontal and balanced?
Note Ignore the force between Q (beneath q) and 2q and the force between Q (beneath 2q) and q. Also the force
between Q and Q.
5. The electric potential varies in space according to the relation V = 3x + 4 y. A particle of mass
10 kg starts from rest from point (2, 3.2) m under the influence of this field. Find the velocity of
the particle when it crosses the x-axis. The charge on the particle is +1 µC. Assume V ( x , y ) are
in SI units.
6. A simple pendulum with a bob of mass m = 1 kg, charge q = 5 µC and string length l = 1 m is
given a horizontal velocity u in a uniform electric field E = 2 × 106 V/ m at its bottommost point
A, as shown in figure. It is given that the speed u is such that the particle leaves the circle at
point C. Find the speed u (Take g = 10 m/ s2)
60°
B
E
u
A
7. Eight point charges of magnitude Q are arranged to form the corners of a cube of side L. The
arrangement is made in manner such that the nearest neighbour of any charge has the
opposite sign. Initially, the charges are held at rest. If the system is let free to move, what
happens to the arrangement? Does the cube-shape shrink or expand? Calculate the velocity of
each charge when the side-length of the cube formation changes from L to nL. Assume that the
mass of each point charge is m.
8. There are two concentric spherical shells of radii r and 2r. Initially, a charge Q is given to the
inner shell. Now, switch S1 is closed and opened then S 2 is closed and opened and the process is
repeated n times for both the keys alternatively. Find the final potential difference between
the shells.
2r
S2 S1
r
9. Two point charges Q1 and Q2 are positioned at points 1 and 2. The field intensity to the right of
the charge Q2 on the line that passes through the two charges varies according to a law that is
represented schematically in the figure. The field intensity is assumed to be positive if its
direction coincides with the positive direction on the x-axis. The distance between the charges
is l.
E
a
1 2
x
l
b
(a) Find the sign of each charge.

Q1
(b) Find the ratio of the absolute values of the charges
Q2
(c) Find the value of b where the field intensity is maximum.
10. A conducting sphere S1 of radius r is attached to an insulating handle. Another conducting
sphere S 2 of radius R (> r ) is mounted on an insulating stand, S 2 is initially uncharged. S1 is
given a charge Q. Brought into contact with S 2 and removed. S1 is recharged such that the
charge on it is again Q and it is again brought into contact with S 2 and removed. This procedure
is repeated n times.
(a) Find the electrostatic energy of S 2 after n such contacts with S1.
(b) What is the limiting value of this energy as n → ∞?
11. A proton of mass m and accelerated by a potential difference V gets into a uniform electric field
of a parallel plate capacitor parallel to plates of length l at mid-point of its separation between
plates. The field strength in it varies with time as E = at , where a is a positive constant. Find
the angle of deviation of the proton as it comes out of the capacitor. (Assume that it does not
collide with any of the plates.)
12. Two fixed, equal, positive charges, each of magnitude 5 × 10−5 C are located at points A and B
separated by a distance of 6 m. An equal and opposite charge moves towards them along the
line COD, the perpendicular bisector of the line AB. The moving charge when it reaches the
point C at a distance of 4 m from O, has a kinetic energy of 4 J. Calculate the distance of the
farthest point D which the negative charge will reach before returning towards C.
A +q
3m
D O C
4m
3m
B +q
13. Positive charge Q is uniformly distributed throughout the volume of a sphere of radius R. A
point mass having charge +q and mass m is fired towards the centre of the sphere with velocity
v from a point A at distance r(r > R ) from the centre of the sphere. Find the minimum velocity v
so that it can penetrate R 2 distance of the sphere. Neglect any resistance other than electric
interaction. Charge on the small mass remains constant throughout the motion.
14. Two concentric rings placed in a gravity free region in yz-plane one of radius R carries a charge
+ Q and second of radius 4R and charge −8Q distributed uniformly over it. Find the minimum
velocity with which a point charge of mass m and charge +q should be projected from a point at
a distance 3R from the centre of rings on its axis so that it will reach to the centre of the rings.
15. An electric dipole is placed at a distance x from centre O on the axis of a charged ring of radius
R and charge Q uniformly distributed over it.
R
–q +q
O
x
2a
(a) Find the net force acting on the dipole.

(b) What is the work done in rotating the dipole through 180°?
16. A point charge −q revolves around a fixed charge +Q in elliptical orbit. The minimum and
maximum distance of q from Q are r1 and r2 , respectively. The mass of revolving particle is m.
Q > q and assume no gravitational effects. Find the velocity of q at positions when it is at r1 and
r2 distance from Q.
17. Three concentric, thin, spherical, metallic shells have radii 1, 2, and 4 cm and they are held at
potentials 10, 0 and 40 V respectively. Taking the origin at the common centre, calculate the
following:
(a) Potential at r = 1.25 cm
(b) Potential at r = 2.5 cm
(c) Electric field at r = 1.25 cm
18. A thin insulating wire is stretched along the diameter of an insulated circular hoop of radius R.
A small bead of mass m and charge −q is threaded onto the wire. Two small identical charges
are tied to the hoop at points opposite to each other, so that the diameter passing through them
is perpendicular to the thread (see figure). The bead is released at a point which is a distance x0
from the centre of the hoop. Assume that x0 << R.
+Q y
R
x
(–q, m)
x0
+Q
(a) What is the resultant force acting on the charged bead?

(b) Describe (qualitatively) the motion of the bead after it is released.
x
(c) Use the assumption that << 1 to obtain an approximate equation of motion, and find the
R
displacement and velocity of the bead as functions of time.
(d) When will the velocity of the bead will become zero for the first time?
19. The region between two concentric spheres of radii a and b (> a ) contains volume charge
C
density ρ(r ) = , where C is a constant and r is the radial distance as shown in figure. A point
r
charge q is placed at the origin, r = 0.
Find the value of C for which the electric field in the region between the spheres is constant (i.e.
r independent).
r a
q
b
20. A non-conducting ring of mass m and radius R is charged as shown. The charge density, i.e.
charge per unit length is λ. It is then placed on a rough non-conducting horizontal plane. At
time t = 0, a uniform electric field E = E0i$ is switched on and the ring starts rolling without
sliding. Determine the friction force (magnitude and direction) acting on the ring when it starts
moving.
y
+
++
+
+
x
––
–––
–
21. A rectangular tank of mass m0 and charge Q over it is placed on a smooth horizontal floor. A
horizontal electric field E exists in the region. Rain drops are falling vertically in the tank at
the constant rate of n drops per second. Mass of each drop is m. Find velocity of tank as function
of time.
22. In a region, an electric field E = 15 N/C making an angle of 30° with the horizontal plane is
present. A ball having charge 2C, mass 3 kg and coefficient of restitution with ground 1/2 is
projected at an angle of 30° with the horizontal in the direction of electric field with speed
20 m/s. Find the horizontal distance travelled by ball from first drop to the second drop.
E
30°
Answers
Introductory Exercise 24.1
1. No, as attraction can take place between a charged and an uncharged body too.
2. Yes
3. Record gets charged when cleaned and then by induction, it attracts dust particles.
4. −2.89 × 10 5 C

2 2
3  q
⋅  
C 1 q
1. 2.27 × 1039 2. [M–1 L–3 T 4 A2 ] , 3.   4.
V-m 4 πε0  a  2 πε0  a 
5. No 6. Induction → Conduction → Repulsion 7. Yes
$
8. No 9. (– 4$i + 3 j ) N

1. False 2. At A 3. False 4. False
1 q
5. q1 and q3 are positive and q2 is negative 6. ⋅
4 πε0 a2
$
7. – (4.32 $i + 5.76 j ) × 10 2 N/C

1. 18.97 m/s 2. – 9 mJ 3. – 10.6 × 10 –8 J 4. No, Yes

 L 
× α L – d ln  1 +  
C 1
1. 1.2 × 103 V 2. (a) (b)
m2 4 πε0   d
1 q  l2 + d2 + l  Qq
3. V = ⋅ ln   4.
4 πε0 2l  l 2 + d 2 – l  2 πε0L

$ $
1. (a) E = – 2a (x$i – y j ) (b) E = – a ( y$i + x j )
E (V/m)
2.
5
–2 2 4 8
x (m)
–5
3. False 4. (a) Zero (b) 20 V (c) – 20 V (d) – 20 V

q q
1. (a) Zero (b) (c) 2. True 3. (a) Zero (b) πR 2E 4. Zero
ε0 2ε 0
Exercises
LEVEL 1
Assertion and Reason
1. (b) 2. (a,b) 3. (d) 4. (b) 5. (b) 6. (d) 7. (a,b) 8. (d) 9. (c) 10. (b)
Objective Questions
1. (c) 2. (a) 3. (b) 4. (c) 5. (d) 6. (b) 7. (c) 8. (a) 9. (c) 10. (d)
11. (a) 12. (a) 13. (d) 14. (b) 15. (b) 16. (c) 17. (d) 18. (c) 19. (a) 20. (d)
21. (a) 22. (d) 23. (d) 24. (c) 25. (a) 26. (c) 27. (a) 28. (b) 29. (a) 30. (d)
31. (b) 32. (b) 33. (a) 34. (a) 35. (a) 36. (d) 37. (d) 38. (d) 39. (a)
Q Fe qx
1. q = = 3.1 × 1035
2. 3. 5.31 × 10 –11 C/ m2 4.
2 Fg 8 π 2 ε0R 3
q
5. ±3 µC, m 1 µC 8. , zero 9. (a) q1 = 9q2 (b) q1 = − 25q2
24ε0
4q L
10. (a) Third charge is − at a distance of from q between the two charges.
9 3
1/2
 4 π ε0 mgR 2  q
11.   12. 3.3 × 10 –8 C 13. (2 2 + 1)
 3  8 πε0 a2
$ λ Q
14. (14.4 j − 10.8 $i ) N/C 15. 16.
2 π ε0R 2 π ε0 a L2 + 4a2
17. (a) Along positive y-axis (b) Along positive x-axis (c) Along positive y-axis
18. 9.30 19. 312.5 m 20. (a) 37° and 53° (b) 1.66 × 10 −7 s, 2.2 × 10 –7 s
$ $
21. (a) (−2.1 × 1013 j ) m /s 2 (b) (1.5$i + 2.0 j ) × 10 5 m/s
Q
22. At x = 40 cm and x = − 200 cm 23. V = 2.634
4 π ε0a
24. (a) −6 × 10 −4 J (b) 50 V 25. 7.42 m/s, faster

−5Q −5Q
26. (a) (b) 27. – 0.356 J
4 π ε0R 4 π ε0 R 2 + z 2
28. (a) –3.6 × 10 –7 J (b) x = 0.0743 m 29. −q/2
30. (a) zero (b) − 20 kV 31. (a) −80 V (b) 120 V (c) 0 V
32. (a) –80 V (b) – 40 V
$
33. (a) [MT –3 A–1] (b) − A{( y + z )$i + (x + z ) j + (x + y )k}
$ (c) 20 3 N/C 34. –100 V
35. (a) E x = − Ay + 2Bx , E y = − Ax − C , E z = 0, (b) x = − C /A, y = − 2BC /A , any value of z

2
2
N- m N- m2
36. 3.19 nC 37. (a) −4.07 × 10 5 (b) 6.91 nC (c) No 38. 240 39. 2.2 × 10 –12 C
C C
41. (a) φs1 = − CL2 , φs 2 = − DL2 , φs 3 = CL2 , φs 4, = DL2 , φs 5 = − BL2 , φs = BL2 (b) zero
6
q  1  q 1 − 1 
42. 1 −  43.  
ε0  1 + (R /l )2  2ε 0  2

Q  R + r  q0
44.  2 
2
45. 46. 2q, Zero
4 πε0 R + r  3ε0
σ σ  a2  σ  a2 b2 
47. (a) VA = (a − b + c), VB =  − b + c , VC =  − + c (b) c = a + b
ε0 ε0  b  ε0  c c 
−Q Q −Q Q + q Q
48. (a) , (b) , (c) in both situations
4 πa 2 4 πa 2 4 πa 2 4 πa 2 4 πε0 x 2
− bq 
q, inner surface of C → 
b
49. Inner surface of B → − q, outer surface of B →  , outer surface of
c  c 
C →  − 1 q
b
c 
50. A B C
6 18
Inner Surface 0 – q q
11 11
6 18 9
Outer Surface q – q q
11 11 11
51. A B C
4
Inner Surface – q –2q q
3
4 2
Outer Surface 2q – q q
3 3
Q Q Q
52. (a) (b) (c) zero on inner and Q on outer (d)
2 πε0 r 2 3 πε0R 3
Q Q −Q $r (c) Q
2
Q 7Q −3Q
53. (a) , (b) (d) Q1 = , Q2 = (e) $r
4 πε0R 6 πε0R 25 π ε0R 2
4 π ε0R 2 2 50 π ε0R 2
LEVEL 2
Single Correct Option
1.(a) 2.(a) 3.(a) 4.(b) 5.(a) 6.(c) 7.(d) 8.(a) 9.(c) 10.(a)
11.(c) 12.(a) 13.(d) 14.(d) 15.(c) 16.(b) 17.(c) 18.(d) 19.(a) 20.(d)
21.(d) 22.(a) 23.(a) 24.(d) 25.(c) 26.(c) 27.(b) 28.(d) 29.(a) 30.(c)
31.(a) 32.(a) 33.(b) 34.(b) 35.(c) 36.(c) 37.(a) 38.(b)
More than One Correct Options

1.(a,d) 2.(a,b,c) 3.(a,b,c) 4.(all) 5.(a,b,c) 6.(a,c) 7.(c,d) 8.(a,b,d) 9.(b,c) 10.(b,c)
Comprehension Based Questions

1.(c) 2.(c) 3.(a) 4.(a) 5.(b) 6.(c) 7.(a) 8.(d) 9.(b) 10.(c)
Match the Columns

1. (a) → s (b) → q (c) → r (d) → p
2. (a) → q (b) → p (c) → s (d) → r
3. (a) → s (b) → q (c) → q (d) → p
4. (a) → r (b) → p (c) → q (d) → s
5. (a) → p (b) → q (c) → r (d) → s
1. (a) 0.5 m (b) 0.25 m (c) 1.26 s (d) 0.34 m 3. 3Q , − 2Q , 2Q , 0, 0, 3Q
L  Qq  3Qq
4. (a) 1 + 2
(b) 5. 2.0 × 10 −3 m/s
2  (4 π ε0 ) Wh  (4 π ε0 ) W
Q 2 (1 − n) (3 6 + 2 − 3 3) 1  Q 
6. 6 m/s 7. shrink, 8.  
4nmπ Lε0 6 2n + 1  4 π ε0r 
2
l + a l
9. (a) Q2 is negative and Q1 is positive (b)   (c)
 a   l + a
2 /3
  −1
 a 
QR   R  
n
qn2 Q 2R
10. (a) , where qn = 1 −    (b)
8 π ε0R r   R + r   8 π ε0r 2

1
 al 2 m   1 Qq  r – R 3  2
11. θ = tan–1   12. 72 m 13.   + 
 4V 2eV   2 πε 0 Rm  r 8 
Qq  3 10 – 5  aqQ R 2 – 2x 2 aqQx
14.   15. (a) (b)
2 πε0 mR  5 10  2 πε0 (R 2 + x 2 )5 /2 πε0 (R 2 + x 2 )3 /2
 
Q q r2 Qq r1
16. , 17. (a) 6 V (b) 16 V (c) 1280 V/ m
2 πε0 mr1 (r1 + r2 ) 2 πε0 mr2 (r1 + r2 )
2kQqx
18. (a) F = – (b) Periodic between ± x0
(R 2 + x 2 )3 /2
2Qqk π 2 mR 3 1
(c) x = x0 cos ω t , v = – ω x0 sin ω t , where ω = (d) t = , Here k =
mR 3 2Qqk 4 πε 0
q
19. C = 20. f = λRE 0 along positive x-axis
2 πa 2
 t 
21. v = QE   22. 70 3 m
 0
m + mnt 

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120  Electricity and Magnetism

24.6 Electric Field

Electric Field Due to a Point Charge

V Example 24.11 Two positive point charges q1 = 16 µC and q2 = 4 µC, are

Electric Field of a Ring of Charge

From the above expression, we can see that

Electric Field of a Line Charge

From the above expression, we can see that

The direction of E is radially outward from the line.

In this equation, q is to be substituted with sign.

V Example 24.12 A charge q = 1 µC is placed at point (1 m, 2 m, 4 m). Find the

or | r P – r q | = (–1) 2 + (–6) 2 + (–1) 2 = 38 m

Substituting the values, we have

Electric Field Lines

The electric field lines have the following properties :

(a) (b) (c)

(d) (e) (f)

INTRODUCTORY EXERCISE 24.3

24.7 Electric Potential Energy

V Example 24.13 A uniform electric field E 0 is directed along positive

Electric Potential Energy of Two Charges

The Coulomb’s force on q 0 at a distance r from a fixed charge q is

V Example 24.14 Four charges q1 = 1 µC, q2 = 2 µC, q3 = – 3 µC and q4 = 4 µC

Solution In this problem,

V Example 24.15 Two point charges are located on the x-axis, q1 = – 1 µC at

Substituting the values, we have

V Example 24.16 Two point charges q1 = q2 = 2 µC are fixed at x1 = + 3 m and

 ( 5.0 ) ( 5.0 )   ( 3.0 ) ( 3.0 ) 

INTRODUCTORY EXERCISE 24.4

24.8 Electric Potential

Absolute Potential at Some Point

V Example 24.17 The electric potential at point A is 20 V and at B is – 40 V.

Electric Potential Due to a Point Charge q

Electric Potential Due to a System of Charges

point where V is to be evaluated, then we can write,

V Example 24.19 Three point charges q1 = 1 µC , q2 = – 2 µC and q3 = 3 µC are

V Example 24.20 A charge q = 10 µC is distributed uniformly over the

Variation of Electric Potential on the Axis of a Charged Ring

Electric Potential on the Axis of a Uniformly Charged Disc

(i) At the centre of the disc, x = 0

Potential on the Edge of the Disc

Here, dq = σ (Area of ring)

INTRODUCTORY EXERCISE 24.5

24.9 Relation Between Electric Field and Potential

V Example 24.22 The electric potential in a region is represented as

V Example 24.23 The electric potential V at any point x, y, z (all in metre) in

Note In uniform electric field, we can also apply V = Ed

V Example 24.25 In uniform electric field E = 10 N /C , find

= – [ 50 3 x + 50 y] ((–02, 4mm, 0, ,0)0)

V Example 24.27 A uniform electric field pointing in positive x-direction exists

V Example 24.28 A non-conducting ring of radius 0.5 m carries a total charge

1 q ( 9 × 109 ) (1.11 × 10−10 )

INTRODUCTORY EXERCISE 24.6

Draw the graph of electric field strength.

24.10 Equipotential Surfaces

V Example 24.29 Equipotential spheres are drawn round a point charge. As we

24.11 Electric Dipole

Electric Potential and Field Due to an Electric Dipole

Note that E y is along positive y-direction or parallel to p.

120 Electricity and Magnetism