PSY108 SU1

Nature-nurture controversy – Long standing dispute over relative importance of nature (heredity)
and nurture (environment) in their influence on behavior and mental processes. E.g. ADHD-genetic
component vs environmental causes.

Empiricists, like Locke (1979), gave all credit for human development to experience and believed
that we arrived in this world as blank tablets devoid of knowledge or skills. Nativists sided with
Rousseau (1979), arguing that what we bring into the world at birth affects our development the
most.

In the field of child development, advances in technology and methodology have rapidly expanded
our ability to test for and map infants’ psychological states which has led scientists to conclude that
infants are born ready to perform many feats and are able to participate in shaping their
environment. Newborns can follow a moving face and express preferences for sights, sounds, tastes,
and textures. Researchers infer what newborns are thinking, seeing, and feeling by using techniques
that measure how long they look at something or how intensely they suck on a pacifier when
presented with stimuli. Researchers can also record and measure electrical responses in the brain,
the degree of pupil dilation, and changes in heart rate. Using such indicators, it is possible to
determine a baby’s preferences and abilities, such as whether a baby is more interested in stripes or
spots and whether the baby recognises his/her mother.

One of the first researchers to use a baby’s ability to express distinct preferences was Fantz (1985).
He was able to show that babies preferred whole faces over faces made up of jumbled parts of the
face, thus demonstrating their cognitive capacities.

But it was Piaget (1954) who contributed most to understanding the cognitive development of
children. Piaget posed a variety of problems for children to solve; and after comparing their
responses, he demonstrated that understanding of the world varies with age. Piaget theorised that
each child passes through four distinct levels of understanding in a fixed sequence, or series of
stages – some children more slowly than others. However, today’s researchers have shown that
infants and children know more than we think they know – and they know it much earlier.

Baillargeon (1986) demonstrated that even six-month-old infants understand the concept of object
permanence. DeLoache (1994) has shown that changes in children’s ability to use symbols occur
between the ages two and a half and three. Another well-known experiment that uses the visual cliff
has clearly shown that infants develop a fear of heights at about eight and a half months, which is
around the time they learn to crawl.

Researchers have identified activity level and shyness as personality traits that show genetic
influence. Kagan, who specialises in the study of inherited behavioural differences between timid
and bold children, found that being born shy does not necessarily mean a lifetime of shyness (Kagan,
Reznick, & Sniedman, 1980). Even inherited tendencies can be modified by learning, training, and
experience. A study by Suomi, Mineka, & DeLizio (1985) showed how shyness decreased when shy
baby monkeys were placed with extremely nurturant foster mothers, demonstrating that both
nature and nurture play a significant role in many complex behaviours.
Developmental psychology looks at the physical, perceptual, cognitive, language, moral, social, and
emotional development in the human. The lifespan perspective considers progress or changes that
occur during the different stages of human development-prenatal stage, neonatal period, infancy,
early childhood, childhood, adolescence, young adulthood, middle adulthood, and late adulthood.
Various aspects of human development will be explored from the life-span perspective.

Prenatal, Neonatal, and Infancy

At conception, the human baby’s physical development can be affected by prenatal factors such as
infectious agents (rubella, mumps, malaria, Aids …), prescription and over-the-counter drugs,
caffeine, alcohol, smoking, and others. As soon as the baby is born, the newborn baby’s reflexes are
tested for normality

Infant Reflexes

Grasping - when something is placed in the palm of the hand, the hand grasps tightly

Sucking - touching the lips causes the infant to suck

Rooting - a touch on the cheek causes the head to turn in that direction

Moro - when the baby is startled, its arms and legs extend and then are gradually moved back to the
body with a clasping motion

Walking - when held upright, infants take small steps

Babinski - toes spread out when the bottom of the foot is stroked

During this neonatal period, newborns have shown preferences for certain tastes (sweetness),
smells (banana), sounds (human voices), and sights (faces). These abilities enable the newborn to
seek healthy nourishment and recognise their caregivers’ by their face and voices, thus maximising
the infants’ chances of survival. These abilities are believed to be innate as shown in a research study
conducted by Simion, Valenza, Umilta, and Barba (1998) where newborns were found to spend more
time looking at upright pattern of three blobs in the appropriate locations for the eyes and the
mouth, rather the inverted position of the blobs. It was concluded that babies had the innate ability
to recognise facial patterns.

Are emotions hard-wired in infants? According to Bridges (1932) different emotions develop through
maturation and social conditioning, although all the basic emotions appear before the age of two
years. Yet others claim that emotions are innate and further argue that a baby’s smile, although
haphazard initially, is designed to invite parents to take care of them (Izard, Fantauzzo, Castle,
Haynes et al, 1995). By the time the baby is about two months old, the baby will start to smile
socially.
Physical development takes place in ordered stages of motor development. Moving from one stage
to the next depends on physical maturity, in other words, the development of the body and the
nervous system. The baby’s “readiness” will determine how quickly skills are learned.

Each stage of motor

development is important.
Crawling, for example, helps
the infant’s peripheral vision
to develop which facilitates the
perception of depth. Once a
baby has been crawling, the
baby starts to
perceive depth and would
show reluctance in crawling
across the Visual Cliff.
Each stage of motor development is important. Crawling, for example, helps the infant’s peripheral
vision to develop which facilitates the perception of depth. Once a baby has been crawling, the baby
starts to perceive depth and would show reluctance in crawling across the Visual Cliff.

When the child is at that stage

of crawling, many will also
start to experience stranger
anxiety which, as the
name suggests, is where the
child expresses anxiety and
often distress when
approached by a stranger.
The onset of stranger anxiety
is apparently the same for all
cultures, and the child tends to
cling on to the
main caregiver during this
phase (Kagan, 1976). The
emotional relationship
between the child and the
main caregiver is known as
“attachment”. This bond lays
the foundation for future
relationships with
others. Ainsworth (1989) took
advantage of the stranger
anxiety phase and developed a
systematic way of
measuring children’s
attachment styles with their
mothers using the Strange
Situation. The three
attachments styles are as
follows:
• Secure – the child becomes
upset when mother leaves the
room but responds with joy on
her
return moments later
• Avoidant – the child shows
indifference to mother’s
departure and shows little
reaction on her
return
• Anxious-ambivalent – the
child reacts with great distress
when mother leaves the room
and proves
difficult to console even when
she returns
There are three qualitatively
different adult attachment
styles:
• Secure – have high self-
esteem and confidence levels
• Avoidant/dismissing – tend
to be emotionally distant and
lack confidence in others
•
Ambivalent/resistant/preoccup
ied – often doubt their own
self-worth and often worry
about being
abandoned by their partners
Language Development
Psycholinguist Noam
Chomsky proposed that
humans were innately
programmed to recognise and
use
language. He didn’t believe
that language could be learned
through learning principles
like operant
conditioning. However, the
Behaviourists believed that
language was learned through
imitation and
rewards. It was also believed
that early communication with
parents determined ones
communications
skills. These two opposing
views contribute to the nature
versus nurture debate on
language acquisition.
Chomsky believes that we are
born with the ability to use
language (nature) while the
Behaviourists
believe that we learn to use
language (nurture) through the
various principles of learning.
Learning language is a unique
human accomplishment. How
a baby learns to talk so quickly
with so little
help stimulates intense
scientific interest and debate.
Until the late 1950s, linguists
assumed that children
learned to speak by imitating
their parents. But observations
of young children reveal that
early language
patterns are unique.
Research has shown that
biology does play a role in
language acquisition. Children
all over the world follow
the same steps as they learn
the sounds, words, and rules of
their own language. Babies
start off by cooing
which involves producing the
“oo” sound. This progresses to
babbling where the “b”, “d”,
“m”, and “g”
sounds are produced. You may
have noticed that “mother” in
most languages start or include
the “m”
sound while “father” starts
with or has the “d” or “b”
sound. This phase is followed
by the single-word
stage and, subsequently, the
production of simple two word
sentences. The fact that every
child goes
through the same sequences
suggests that learning depends
on some form of biological
maturation.
Scientists believe that a
developmental timetable
regulates both the maturation
of the brain and the
muscles in the mouth and
tongue that are needed for
communication.
Cognitive Development – The
process by which mental
abilities change over time
Piaget’s stage theory is
described with:
- Schemas: Mental structures
that guide your interpretation
of concepts and events
- Assimilation: Mental
process that incorporates new
information into existing
schemas
- Accommodation: Mental
process that modifies schemas
in order to accommodate new
information
When the child is at that stage of crawling, many will also start to experience stranger anxiety which,
as the name suggests, is where the child expresses anxiety and often distress when approached by a
stranger. The onset of stranger anxiety is apparently the same for all cultures, and the child tends to
cling on to the main caregiver during this phase (Kagan, 1976). The emotional relationship between
the child and the main caregiver is known as “attachment”. This bond lays the foundation for future
relationships with others. Ainsworth (1989) took advantage of the stranger anxiety phase and
developed a systematic way of measuring children’s attachment styles with their mothers using the
Strange Situation. The three attachments styles are as follows:

• Secure – the child becomes upset when mother leaves the room but responds with joy on her
return moments later

• Avoidant – the child shows indifference to mother’s departure and shows little reaction on her
return

• Anxious-ambivalent – the child reacts with great distress when mother leaves the room and
proves difficult to console even when she returns

There are three qualitatively different adult attachment styles:

• Secure – have high self-esteem and confidence levels

• Avoidant/dismissing – tend to be emotionally distant and lack confidence in others

• Ambivalent/resistant/preoccupied – often doubt their own self-worth and often worry about
being abandoned by their partners

Language Development

Psycholinguist Noam Chomsky proposed that humans were innately programmed to recognise and
use language. He didn’t believe that language could be learned through learning principles like
operant conditioning. However, the Behaviourists believed that language was learned through
imitation and rewards. It was also believed that early communication with parents determined ones
communications skills. These two opposing views contribute to the nature versus nurture debate on
language acquisition. Chomsky believes that we are born with the ability to use language (nature)
while the Behaviourists believe that we learn to use language (nurture) through the various
principles of learning.

Learning language is a unique human accomplishment. How a baby learns to talk so quickly with so
little help stimulates intense scientific interest and debate. Until the late 1950s, linguists assumed
that children learned to speak by imitating their parents. But observations of young children reveal
that early language patterns are unique.

Research has shown that biology does play a role in language acquisition. Children all over the world
follow the same steps as they learn the sounds, words, and rules of their own language. Babies start
off by cooing which involves producing the “oo” sound. This progresses to babbling where the “b”,
“d”, “m”, and “g” sounds are produced. You may have noticed that “mother” in most languages start
or include the “m” sound while “father” starts with or has the “d” or “b” sound. This phase is
followed by the single-word stage and, subsequently, the production of simple two word sentences.
The fact that every child goes through the same sequences suggests that learning depends on some
form of biological maturation. Scientists believe that a developmental timetable regulates both the
maturation of the brain and the muscles in the mouth and tongue that are needed for
communication.

Cognitive Development – The process by which mental abilities change over time

Piaget’s stage theory is described with:

- Schemas: Mental structures that guide your interpretation of concepts and events

- Assimilation: Mental process that incorporates new information into existing schemas

Example: A 2-year-old child sees a man who is bald on top of his head and has long frizzy
hair on the sides. To his father’s horror, the toddler shouts “Clown, clown” (Siegler et al.,
2003).

- Accommodation: Mental process that modifies schemas in order to accommodate new

information

Example: In the “clown” incident, the boy’s father explained to his son that the man was
not a clown and that even though his hair was like a clown’s, he wasn’t wearing a funny
costume and wasn’t doing silly things to make people laugh.
With this new knowledge, the boy was able to change his schema of “clown” and make
this idea fit better to a standard concept of “clown”

Piaget’s Stages of Cognitive Development:

- Sensorimotor

Birth to about age 2

Child relies heavily on innate motor responses to stimuli

Sensorimotor intelligence, Mental representations, Object permanence

- Preoperational

About age 2 to age 6 or 7

Marked by well-developed mental representation and the use of language

Egocentrism, Animalistic thinking, Centration, Irreversibility

- Concrete operational

About age 7 to about 11

Child understands conservation but is incapable of abstract thought

Conservation, Mental operations

- Formal operational

From about age 12 on

Abstract thought appear

Social and Emotional Development

Socialisation – The lifelong process of shaping an individual’s behaviour patterns, values, standards,
skills, attitudes and motives to conform to those regarded as desirable in a particular society.

Factors influencing social and emotional development:

- Parenting styles
Moral Development

Kohlberg’s Stages of Moral Reasoning

- Level 1: pre-conventional morality

Stage 1: Individual obeys rules in order to avoid punishment.

Stage 2: Individual conforms to society's rules in order to receive rewards.

- Level 2: conventional morality

Stage 3: Individual behaves morally in order to gain approval from other people.

Stage 4: Conformity to authority to avoid censure and guilt.

- Level 3: post-conventional morality

Stage 5: Individual is concerned with individual rights and democratically decided laws.

Stage 6: Individual is entirely guided by his or her own conscience.

Critiques of Kohlberg’s theory: Culture and morality, Gender and morality

Adolescence – Developmental period beginning at puberty and ending at adulthood

Puberty – Onset of sexual maturity

Menarche – Onset of menstruation, which signals puberty in girls

Cognitive Development

Hormones rise to high levels

- The frontal lobes undergo a “remodel”

- Processes information through the amygdala rather than the frontal cortex

Piaget’s theory – Formal Operational Stage

- Systematic, scientific thinking

- Abstract thinkers

- Hypothetic-deductive reasoning

Social and Emotional Issues

• Erikson’s Theory: Identity vs. Identity Confusion

- Defining who you are, what you value and direction in life

- Commitments to vocation, personal relationships, sexual orientation, ethnic group, ideals

- Resolution of “identity crisis” or exploration

• The increasing influence of peers

• Identity crisis

• Period of turmoil

Adulthood

Early and Emerging Adulthood

Intimacy vs isolation

- Intimacy: Capacity to make a full commitment

- Isolation: Inability to connect with others in meaningful ways

Exploration and experimentation of work, lifestyle, and worldviews

Erik Erikson

Generativity - Concern for guiding the next generation. Virtue of care.

Stagnation - People who do not find an outlet for generativity become self-indulgent or stagnant

The midlife crisis

Stressful crisis of identity – The second adolescence

Triggered by review of one’s life and awareness of mortality

Erikson’s Theory (Ego Integrity versus Despair)

Ego Integrity

- Feel whole, complete, satisfied with achievements

- Serenity and contentment

- Associated with psychosocial maturity

Despair

- Feel many decisions were wrong, but now time is too short

- Bitter and unaccepting of coming death

- Expressed as anger and contempt for others

Last Developmental Problems

- Vision

- Hearing

- Thinking, learning, and problem solving

- Memory

- Sexual functioning

- Social interaction

- Emotions
m
Flow - A state of being
completely engaged in the
activity
- Diminished awareness of
self and time
- The challenge of the activity
is matched by a person’s skills
Flow - A state of being completely engaged in the activity

- Diminished awareness of self and time

- The challenge of the activity is matched by a person’s skills