Highway drainage may be defined as the process of interception and removal of water from over, under

and the vicinity of the road surface. Road drainage is very important for safe and efficient design of the
roadway and hence is an essential part of highway design and construction.

Installation of drainage systems are generally required in road constructions. Although drainage designs
are relatively simple and drainage works are inexpensive, they play one of the most crucial roles in
operation, in regards with the construction and maintenance of urban roads and highways.

Need and Importance

The continued presence of water on the road surface weakens the pavement causing potholes and ruts;
similarly, the presence of water in the subgrade reduces its bearing power and load dispersion capacity.
Loss of subgrade support leads to the failure of the road pavement under traffic loads. Hence, efficient
drainage is an imperative need.

Lack of drainage or inadequate drainage has been the primary reason for the failure of highway
pavements. The importance of drainage in the successful maintenance and operation of highways is
reflected in the maxim- “There are just three factors necessary for a good road: drainage, drainage and
more drainage.”

In fact, constructing an efficient drainage system for the road is considered to be a cheaper, yet effective
method to enhance its life than the current practice of the designing pavements for soaked subgrade
conditions, which leads to the formation of thicker road sections.

Requirements of a Good Drainage System

A good drainage system should prevent the following ill-effects of excess surface water and of ground
water on the pavement and on the subgrade:

a) Reduction of the strength of the pavement.

b) Spoiling the pavement surface by the formation of potholes and ruts.

c) Seeping of surface water through the pavement layers, shoulders, and the sides into the
subgrade.

d) Reduction in the bearing power of the subgrade through continued presence of water.

e) Volume changes in the subgrade and consequent settlements and deleterious effects.

f) Soil erosion around the pavement.

g) Slope failures in the case of cuttings and embankments for the roads.

h) Capillarity and frost action, weakening the subgrade.

Types of Drainage Systems

a. Surface Drainage

b. Sub-surface Drainage

c. Cross Drainage
a,

The provision of surface drainage is thought of at the initial stage of location or alignment of the
highway. In fact, the surface drainage forms one of the essential considerations for the location of a
highway and it is seen that all the streams flow away from the highway. Thus, the drainage problem is
reduced to tackling the water which falls within the roadway boundary only

Surface drainage consists of the arrangements made for the quick and effective draining of water that
collects on the pavement surface, shoulders, slopes of embankments and cuttings and adjoining land up
to the right of way. This water is let off into natural or artificial channels sufficiently farther away such
that the functioning of the highway is not impeded in any manner.

Basic Functions of Surface Drainage:

• The maintain the road surface completely dry from water.

• To collect the drained off water from the road surface.

• Increase the stability of the road or highway.

• By using the gravitational force, carrying of collected water into nearby stream or river

Methods of Surface Drainage

(1) Side drains for road in embankment

For roads in embankment, the side drains are provided on one or both sides of the road beyond the
shoulder, as shown in the figure. The side drains are constructed at a minimum distance of about 2
m from the edge of embankment so that the water flowing in the drains does not enter the
earthwork.

These drains are also helpful in arresting the rainwater falling on the adjacent land parallel to the
road and it is thus not allowed to reach the embankment. The water flowing in the side drain can
then be suitably disposed off without causing any harm to the roadway.

(2) Side drains for road in cutting

For roads in cutting, the side drains are provided on either side of the formation, as shown in the
figure. These drains are carefully designed and it is to be seen that they do not overflow under any
circumstances and making the roadway submerged in water.

The open deep side drains may prove to be dangerous and unsightly especially in cases where there
is a restriction of space. In such circumstances, the covered drains or pipe drains or ditches filed
properly with suitable materials like coarse sand and gravel may be provided

For Drainage of City or Urban Roads

The surface drainage of city or urban roads is radically different than that of the rural highways. In
urban roads, the land width is limited, and the open drains cannot be provided as they are unsightly,
occupy more space, and serve as a source of danger to the traffic. The underground drains or sewers
are, therefore, an essential requirement of street construction and are not so often necessary on
rural highways.

Following are the two commonly adopted ways of providing drainage to the urban roads:

(3) Catch basin for road drain system

A catch basin is a structure in the form of a chamber which is provided along the sewer line to admit
clear rainwater free from silt, grit debris, etc. into the combined sewer (Cement Concrete, 2021).

It consists of a basin or chamber constructed of walls. At the bottom of the basin, space is provided
for the accumulation of impurities. At the top of the basin, cover with perforations is fixed and at
the pavement edge or curb, openings are kept to admit rainwater into the basin. A hood is provided
to prevent the escape of sewer gas which may find its way through the sewer line.

The catch basin provides a temporary storage of impurities contained in rainwater. Hence, it
demands periodical cleaning. Otherwise, the organic matter decomposes and gives out bad smell. It
also then forms a breeding place for mosquitoes and causes annoyance to persons passing or living
nearby.

(4) Inlets for road drain system

An inlet is an opening through which stormwater is admitted and conveyed to the stormwater
sewer. The inlets are located or placed by the sides of roads at a distance of about 30 m to 60 m.
The inlets are so located that storm water is collected in a short period and there is no flooding or
accumulation of a huge quantity of storm water on the roads. The inlets are connected to nearby
manholes by pipeline.

The inlet leads the storm water directly to the sewer and hence, its design should be made in such a
way that the least opportunity is given for stormwater to stop. The openings of the inlet therefore
should be of such pattern that the chances of clogging are brought down to the minimum possible
extent.

b. Sub-surface Drainage System

Subsurface drainage is concerned with removing water that percolates through or is contained in
the underlying subgrade. This water, typically the result of a high-water table or exceptionally wet
weather, can accumulate under the pavement structure by two chief means: Gravity flow and
Capillary rise.

Moisture changes in the subgrade occur due to percolation of rainwater and seepage flow, as also
due to the phenomenon of capillary rise. The aim of subsurface drainage is to keep the ground
water table (GWT) sufficiently below the level of the subgrade – at least 1.2 m.

Subsurface drainage is a process of removal of moisture (water) beyond the surface. It is natural
that if the materials composing the road structure are placed on the wet, retentive, or un-drained
soil will get quickly disintegrated by traffic.

Factors increasing the sub-soil moisture content are as follows:

• Increase in ground water table.

• Surface water percolation through joints and cracks.

• Rise of the moisture above ground water table which is caused by the capillary action

Functions of sub-surface drainage:

• It prevents and controls the moisture content of the road sub-grade.

• To maintain the bearing capacity of the sub-grade soil by restricting the entry of water into it.

• To reduce the capillary rise, because sometimes due to capillary action, the water rises into the
sub-grade from the ground water

The main object of sub-surface drainage is to keep the highest water table level fairly with the level
of subgrade so that the subgrade and pavement layers are not subjected to excessive moisture.

Sub-surface Drainage methods

(i) Methods to control capillary rise

When there are chances for water to reach the level of subgrade through the capillary rise, it
becomes necessary to arrest such action by providing suitable capillary cut-off between the
subgrade and highest water table level. When the construction of road in embankment is in
progress, the capillary cut-off may be provided in one of the following ways:

(a) Inserting an impermeable or a bituminous layer

(b) Providing a layer of granular material of suitable thickness

(ii) Methods to control seepage flow

If the ground is sloping and the seepage zone is at a depth of about 600 mm to 900 mm from the
edge of road, the perforated drainpipe with filter material is provided as shown in the first figure, to
lower the seepage line. The trench for laying the drainpipe is kept above the sloping impervious
layer.

If the road is partly in cutting and partly in embankment, as shown in the second figure, the seepage
flow can be arrested on the cutting side by perforated drainpipe and the water can be disposed-off
through cross drainpipes on the sloping side.

(iii) Methods to lower water tables

In order to bring down the level of water table for roads running in flat country with low
embankments, the longitudinal sub-surface drains or pipe drains are placed below the surface of the
ground in the permeable saturated stratum The pipe drains may be of vitrified clay with open joints
butting against each other or they may be perforated at top. They may also be constructed of
cement concrete or brick masonry with covering of perforated sheet.

The longitudinal pipe drains may be laid on both sides of the road, as shown in the first figure, or in
the center of the road, as shown in the second figure, depending upon the moisture conditions.
These pipes are placed in the trench when placed on sides with proper slope and they discharge the
water into the surface drain. The pipe drains are usually laid on both the sides of the road.

If the soil is relatively less permeable, longitudinal as well as transverse drains may be needed to
lower the ground water table.

The transverse drains are laid with suitable slope, and they discharge the water into the longitudinal
drains. They are kept inclined at an angle of about 60° and staggered in plan. They are placed at a
distance of 6 m to 20 m depending upon the moisture conditions.

The diameter of L-drain pipes varies from 150 mm to 200 mm. In addition to longitudinal drains,
Cross drains (C-drains) or transverse drains consisting porous pipes or perforated pipes are laid cross
from the center of the road and opened to the L-drains with slope of 1 in 50.

The action of pipe drains will depend on the hydrostatic pressure, the water in the soil at the level of
the drain is under pressure due to the hydrostatic head of the sub-soil water. This water under
pressure then is forced into the drain through the open joints and thus the flow is started. The flow
of water is continued till the head of outside water is less than the resistance offered by the soil to
the flow of water.

Cross Drainage

A cross drainage work is a structure carrying the discharge from a natural stream across a canal
intercepting the stream. Canal comes across obstructions like rivers, natural drains and other canals.
The various types of structures that are built to carry the canal water across the above-mentioned
obstructions or vice versa are called cross drainage works. This type of structure is costlier one and
needs to be avoided as much as possible. Cross drainage works can be avoided in two ways:

a. By changing the alignment of canal water way

Type – 1: Canal over drainage [HFL < FSL]

AQUEDUCT

In an aqueduct, the canal bed level is above the drainage bed-level so canal is to be constructed
above drainage. A canal trough is to be constructed in which canal water flows from upstream to
downstream. This canal trough is to be rested on number of piers. The drained water flows through
these piers upstream to downstream. Aqueduct is similar to a bridge, instead of roadway or railway,
canal water are carried in the trough and below that the drainage water flows under gravity and
possessing atmospheric pressure.

Type – 1: Canal over drainage [HFL < FSL]

SYPHON AQUEDUCT

In a syphon aqueduct, canal water is carrier above the drainage but the high flood level (HFL) of
drainage is above the canal trough. The drainage water flows under syphonic action and there is no
presence of atmospheric pressure in the natural drain. The construction of the syphon aqueduct
structure is such that, the flooring of drain is depressed downwards by constructing a vertical drop
weir to discharge high flow drain water through the depressed concrete floor. Syphonic aqueducts
are more often constructed and better preferred than simple Aqueduct, though costlier

Type – 2: Drainage over canal (HFL > FSL)

SUPER PASSAGE

Super passage structure carries drainage above canal as the canal bed level is below drainage bed
level. The drainage trough is to be constructed at road level and drainage water flows through this
from upstream to downstream and the canal water flows through the piers which are constructed
below this drainage trough as supports. The full supply level of canal is below the drainage trough in
this structure. The water in canal flows under gravity and possess the atmospheric pressure. This is
simply a reverse of Aqueduct structure

CANAL SYPHON

In a canal syphon, drainage is carried over canal similar to a super passage but the full supply level of
canal is above than the drainage trough.so the canal water flows under syphonic action and there is
no presence of atmospheric pressure in canal. When compared, super passage is more often
preferred than canal Syphon because in a canal Syphon, big disadvantage is that the canal water is
under drainage trough so any defective minerals or sediment deposited cannot be removed with
ease like in the case of a Syphon Aqueduct.

Type – 3: Drainage admitted into canal (HFL = FSL)

In this case, the drainage water is to be mixed up with canal water, here the cost of construction is
less but silt clearance and maintenance of canal water becomes really difficult. So the structures
falling under this category are constructed with utmost care

LEVEL CROSSING

When the bed level of canal is equal to the drainage bed level, then level crossing is to be
constructed. This consists of following steps:

a. Construction of weir to stop drainage water behind it

Functioning of a level crossing: In peak supply time of canal water parallel to drainage, both the
regulators are opened to clear the drainage water from that of canal for certain time interval. Once
the drainage is cleared, the head regulator is closed down. Anyhow, cross regulator is always in
open condition throughout year to supply canal water continuously.

CANAL INLETS

In a canal inlet structure, the drainage water to be admitted into canal is very less. The drainage is
taken through the banks of a canal at inlet. And then this drainage mixed with canal travels certain
length of the canal, after which an outlet is provided to create suction pressure and suck all the
drainage solids, disposing it to the watershed area nearby. There are many disadvantages in use of
canal inlet structure, because the drainage may pollute canal water and also the bank erosion may
take place causing the canal structure to deteriorate so that maintenance costs are high. Hence this
type of structure is rarely constructed