1

INDUR
INSTITUTE OF ENGINEERING AND TECHNOLOGY
PONNALA (V), SIDDIPET (M), MEDAK (Dist.)-502 277.

HEAT TRANSFER
Laboratory manual
3nd Year IInd Sem. MECH

R18 Regulations

PREPARED AND VERIFIED BY

Mr. M.UDAYA KUMAR

Associate Professor

DEPARTMENT

OF

MECHANICAL ENGINEERING

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PREFACE
Study of Heat Transfer will make student to identify the effect of energy transfer
across the boundaries in the form of heat through Mechanical Component. Since
many components may get fail when they are subjected to temperature gradient,
that’s why being a Mechanical Engineer one should be able to identify those
failure criterion before it may occur in specimen.

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COURSE OBJECTIVES:

The objective of Heat Transfer lab is to learn the fundamental concepts of Heat dissipation,
temperature gradient, thermal conductivity, heat treatment, Heat transformation of different
metals when its subjected to temperature difference, Thermal stress, strain, deformation of
material with applications to Heat Exchanger, Heat Pipe and Extended surfaces. Detailed study of
engineering properties of materials is also of interest. Fundamentals of applying Thermal
equilibrium, Conduction, convection and radiation equations are emphasized. The students are
introduced to advanced concepts of Film wise and drop wise condensation method of Thermal
analysis. The course builds on the fundamental concepts of Thermal Science. The students will:
 

1. Gain a fundamental understanding of the concepts of conduction, convection and

radiation in crystal structures of different metals and non-metals.
2. Study of Heat Transfer may give brief understanding of physical changes in microscopic
changes in component material with application of Temperature gradient.
3. Gain a fundamental understanding of the concepts of Thermal stress and strain by
analysis of Heat and Mass Transfer.
4. Study engineering properties of materials, Thermal deformation and its relationship with
failure criterion.
5. Learn fundamental principles of Thermal equilibrium, Heat flux, Heat dissipation capacity
etc.
6. Analyze determinate and indeterminate Heat dissipation capacity of Fins, Shafts,
connecting rods and bars etc.
7. Be able to perform Thermal analysis by hand computations and by using computer
software and design thermally sound component, which can withstand upto the
maximum extent.

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COURSE OUTCOMES:
    Students successfully completing of this course will have a clear and thorough understanding of
the fundamental concepts of Heat and mass dissipation through any component and basic
analysis and design skills from the thermal aspects. The students will have the ability to perform
heat transfer analysis, heat treatment, and transformation of different metals.
The students will be able to or have: 
1. Gain a fundamental understanding of the concepts of conduction, convection and
radiation in crystal structures of different metals and non-metals.
2. Study of Heat Transfer may give brief understanding of physical changes in microscopic
changes in component material with application of Temperature gradient.
3. Gain a fundamental understanding of the concepts of Thermal stress and strain by
analysis of Heat and Mass Transfer.
4. Study engineering properties of materials, Thermal deformation and its relationship with
failure criterion.
5. Learn fundamental principles of Thermal equilibrium, Heat flux, Heat dissipation capacity
etc.
6. Analyze determinate and indeterminate Heat dissipation capacity of Fins, Shafts,
connecting rods and bars etc.
7. Be able to perform Thermal analysis by hand computations and by using computer
software and design thermally sound component, which can withstand upto the
maximum extent.

INDUR INSTITUTE OF ENGINEERING AND TECHNOLOGY

MECHANICAL DEPARTMENT
LAB CODE
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1. Students should report to the concerned labs as per the time table schedule.
2. Students who turn up late to the labs will in no case be permitted to perform the experiment scheduled
for the day.
3. After completion of the experiment, certification of the concerned staff in-charge in the observation
book is necessary.
4. Staff member in-charge shall award marks based on continuous evaluation for each experiment out of
maximum 10 marks and should be entered in the notebook.
5. Students should bring a note book of about 100 pages and should enter the readings/observations into
the note book while performing the experiment.
6. The record of observations along with the detailed experimental procedure of the experiment performed
in the immediate last session should be submitted and certified by the staff member in-charge.
7. Not more than three students in a group are permitted to perform the experiment on a setup.
8. The group-wise division made in the beginning should be adhered to, and no mix up of student among
different groups will be permitted later.
9. The components required pertaining to the experiment should be collected from stores in-charge after
duly filling in the requisition form.
10. When the experiment is completed, students should disconnect the setup made by them, and should
return all the components/instruments taken for the purpose.
11. Any damage of the equipment or burn-out of components will be viewed seriously either by putting
penalty or by dismissing the total group of students from the lab for the semester/year.
12. Students should be present in the labs for the total scheduled duration.
13. Students are required to prepare thoroughly to perform the experiment before coming to Laboratory.
14. Procedure sheets/data sheets provided to the students’ groups should be maintained neatly and to be
returned after the experiment.

HEAT TRANSFER LAB

LIST OF EXPERIMENTS
1. Heat Transfer for Composite Wall Apparatus.

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2. Heat Transfer Through Lagged Pipe Apparatus

3. Thermal Conductivity of Insulating Powder.

4. Pin-Fin Apparatus.

5. Forced Convection

6. Natural Convection.

7. Parallel Flow/Counter Flow Heat Exchanger

8. Emissivity Measurement Of Radiating Surface

9. Stefan Boltzmann Apparatus

10. Condensation In Drop Wise And Film Wise Forms

11. Critical heat flux apparatus

12. Film wise and Drop wise condensation apparatus

ExperimentNo.1

HEAT TRANSFER FOR COMPOSITE WALL APPARATUS

AIM: - To find out total thermal resistance and total thermal conductivity if composite slab

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SPECIFICATION:-

1. Slab assembly arranged symmetrically on both sides of the slab.

2. Nichrome heater wound on mica heater of 300-Watt capacity.
3. Dimmer stat open type, 230v, 0-2 amp, single phase.
4. Volt meter.
5. Ammeter.
6. Digital temperature indicator.
7. Enclosure size : 300x300x300 mm.
8. Slab diameter =200 mm.
9. Thickness of mild steel = 20 mm.
10. Thickness of Bakelite= 12 mm.
11. Thickness of wood= 12 mm.
12. Total thickness of slab= 44 mm

THEORY:-

The apparatus consists of central heater sandwiched between two sheets. These types of slab provided on
both sides of heater, which forms composite structure. A small hand press is provided to ensure perfect
contact between the slabs. A dimmer stat is provided to vary heat input of heaters and it is measured by a
digital volt meter and ammeter. Thermocouples are embedded between interfaces of slabs. A digital
temperature indicator is provided to measure temperature at various points.

PROCEDURE:-

Arrange the plates in proper fashion on both sides of heater plates.

1. Operate the hand press to ensure perfect contact between plates.

2. Close the box by acrylic cover sheet to achieve proper environmental condition.
3. Start the main switch.
4. By adjusting the dimmer knob give heat input to heater. (say 80V, 90V etc.)
5. Take the readings of all (8) thermocouples at an interval of 10 min. Until the final steady state.
6. Note down the reading in observation table.
7. Make dimmer knob to “zero” position and then put main switch off.
8. Repeat the procedure for different heat input.

OBSERVATION TABLE:-

Sl. V I T1 T2 T3 T4 T5 T6 T7 T8

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No, Volts amps °C °C °C °C °C °C °C °C

FORMULAE:-

1. Heat input
Q = V x I ……..Watts
2
2. TAavg = T1 + T2 ….°C
2
3. TBavg = T3 + T4…. °C
2
4. TCavg = T5 + T6…. °C
2
5. TD avg = T7+ T8…. °C
2
6. Area of Slab
A = π d2
4
Where “d” is diameter of slab. (Effective dia. = 300 mm)

7. Thermal Resistance of Slab ( R )

R = TA avg + TD avg …. °C/W
Q
8. Thermal Conductivity ( K )
K= Q x t …. W/m k
A (TA avg - TD avg )

Where “t” is thickness of slab

PRECAUTIONS:-

i) Keep the dimmer stat to zero before starting the experiment.

ii) While removing plates do not disturb thermocouples.

Use the selector switch knob and dimmer knob gently.

RESULT: Total thermal resistance and total thermal conductivity if composite slab is ………….

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ExperimentNo.2

HEAT TRANSFER THROUGH LAGGED PIPE

APPARATUS
AIM:

To plot the radial temperature distribution in the composite cylinder and to determine the thermal
conductivity of the pipe insulation

APPARATUS DESCRIPTION :

The apparatus consists of a metal pipe with two layers of insulation. An electric heating coil wound on a
silica rod is placed at the center. The ends are thickly insulated to prevent heat loss so that heat flows only
in a radial direction. Three thermocouples each are placed at different radii to measure the temperature
distribution within the cylinder.

TECHNICAL DATA:

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Location of thermocouples 1, 2, 3 at a radius = mm

Location of thermocouples 4, 5, 6 at a radius = mm
Location of thermocouples 7, 8, 9 at a radius = mm
Location of thermocouples 10, 11, 12 at a radius = mm
Length of the pipe = 450 mm

THEORY:

Consider one dimensional radial heat flow through a hallow cylinder, under steady state
conditions:

Q = 2  KL (T1-T2)
ln (r2/r3)

Where T1& T2 are the inner and outer wall temperature r 1& r2 are the inner and outer radii of the pipe.
K = Thermal conductivity of the material.

PROCEDURE:

1.Connect the equipment to a 230 V, 5 amps, 50 Hz electrical source

2.Turn the dimmer stat knob clockwise and fix the heat input to a desired wattage.
3.Allow the equipment to stabilize and attain steady state
4.Turn the thermocouple selector switch knob clockwise and note down temperatures T 1 to T12.
5.Repeat the experiment for different heat inputs.
OBSERVATION TABLE:

Sl. Heat Input Temp. at Radius Temp. at Radius Temp. at Radius

No r10C r20C r30C
V A Watts
Temp.

Radius

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CALCULATIONS:

At r1 = 25mm,
T1+T2+T3
t1 = --------------- = °C
3

At r2 = 50 mm, t2=T4+T5+T6+T7+T8+T9= ° C
6

At r3 = 62.5 mm, t3 =T10+T11+T12 =°C

3
From the above readings, plot the temperature vs. radius to get radial temperature distribution.
2 KL (t2-t3)
q = -----------------
In r3/r2

Qln r3/r2 26.25 ln 0.0625/0.05

K = --------------------- = --------------------------
2 L (t2-t3) 2 x 0.5 (47.66 –37.33)

K = W/mK

PRECAUTIONS:
1. Never switch on main power supply before ensuring that all on/off switches given on the panel are at
off position
2. Never run the apparatus if power supply is less than 180 or above 230 volts.
3. Before switch ON main power supply please Ensure that variac knob is at zero position, provided on
the panel
4. Please operate the thermocouple selector knob & variac knob gently.

RESULT:The radial temperature distribution in the composite cylinder and to determine the thermal
conductivity of the pipe insulation is shown by Plotting the Graph.

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ExperimentNo.3

THERMAL CONDUCTIVITY OF INSULATING POWDER

AIM:
To determine the thermal conductivity of insulating powder at various heat inputs.

SPECIFICATIONS:
1. Radius of inner sphere = 50mm
2. Radius of outer sphere = 100 mm

THEORY:
i) Forier Law Of Heat Conduction:

Having lower thermal conductivity are called insulators. Examples for good conductors
include all metals. While asbestos, magnesia, glass wool etc., are some the examples for
insulators.
The radial heat conduction for single hollow sphere transferring heat from inside to outside is
given by
q = 4π K ri ro (Ti-To)
ro – ri
This law states that rate of heat flow through a surface is directly proportional to the area
normal to the surface and the temperature gradient across the surface.
q A d T
dX

q = -KA d T
dX

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Negative sign indicates that the heat flows from higher temperature to the
lower temperature. K is called the thermal conductivity.

ii) Thermal Conductivity:

This can be defined as the amount of heat that can flow per unit time across a unit cross sectional area
when the temperature gradient is unity. The units of thermal conductivity are w/m-K. Materials
having higher thermal conductivity are called conductors while those

Where,

q = rate of heat transfer in watts=VXI

K = Thermal conductivity w/m-k

ri = radius of inner sphere in meters

ro= radius of outer sphere in meters

Ti=Temperature of the inner sphere

To=Temperature of the outer sphere

The apparatus consists of two concentric copper spheres. Heating coil is provided in the inner
sphere. The space between the inner and outer spheres are filled by the insulating powder whose thermal
conductivity is to be determined. The power supply to the heating coil is adjusted by using variac.
Chromel-Alumel thermocouples are used to record the temperatures. Thermocouples 1 to 6 are embedded
on the surface of inner sphere and 7 to 12 are embedded on the outer shell surface.
PROCEDURE:

1. Connect the unit to an AC source 240 V 5amps and switch on the MC

2. Operate the Variac slowly to increase the heat input to the heater and adjust the voltage to any
desired voltage (do not exceed 150V)
3. Maintain the same heat input throughout the experiment until the temperatures reaches a steady
state.
4. Note down the following readings provided in the Observation table.
5. Repeat the experiment for other heat inputs.

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OBSERVATION TABLE:

Heat Input Inner Surface temp C Outer Surface temp C

Sl V A Watt T1 T2 T3 T4 T5 T6 T7 T8 T9 T10 T11 T12

.
0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0
N Volt amp C C C C C C C C C C C C
o.

Average Ti = T1 to T6
0
6 C

Average To = T7 to T12
0
6 C
K= q x( ro-ri)
4 ro x ri (Ti-To) w /m0K

Plot the graph K vs. Heat Input

RESULT: The thermal conductivity of insulating powder at various heat inputs

Is……………….

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ExperimentNo.4
PIN-FIN APPARATUS

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AIM:
To determine the value of heat transfer co-efficient under forced condition and to find
a) Theoretical values of temperatures along the length of fin
b) Effectiveness and efficiency of the Pin-Fin for insulated and boundary conditions

SPECIFICATIONS:

Length of the fin, ‘L’ = 150mm

Diameter of the fin, ‘df’ = 12mm
Thermal conductivity of fin material (brass) = 110.7 W/m2–K
Diameter of the orifice, ‘do’ = 20 mm
Width of the duct, ‘W’ = 150 mm
Breadth of the duct, ‘B’ = 100 mm
Coefficient of discharge of the orifice, ‘Cd’ = 0.62
Density of manometric fluid (mercury)= 13.6 x 1000 kg/m 3
THEORY:

The heat transfer from a heated surface to the ambient surrounding is given by the relation, q = h A T. In
this relation hc is the convective heat transfer coefficient, T is the temperature difference & A is the area
of heat transfer. To increase q, h may be increased or surface area may by increased. In some cases it is
not possible to increase the value of heat transfer coefficient & the temperature difference T & thus the
only alternative is to increase the surface area of heat transfer. The surface area is increased by attaching
extra material in the form of rod (circular or rectangular) on the surface where we have to increase the
heat transfer rate. "This extra material attached is called the extended surface or fin."
The fins may be attached on a plane surface, then they are called plane surface fins. If the fins are
attached on the cylindrical surface, they are called circumferential fins. The cross section of the fin may
be circular, rectangular, triangular or parabolic.
Temperature distribution along the length of the fin is

 T-T cosh [m(L-x)]

= =
0 To-T cosh (mL)

where, T = Temperature at any distance x on the fin

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T0 = Temperature at x = 0

T = Ambient temperature

L = Length of the fin

Where,h = convective heat transfer coefficient

hc P P = Perimeter of the fin
m= A = area of the fin
KA K = Thermal conductivity of the fin

Heat flow, ‘q’ = 0 hc PKA tanh mL

Effectiveness of a fin is defined as the ratio of the heat transfer with fin to the heat transfer from the
surface without fins.

For end insulated condition

h PKA tan h mL
= 0 --------------------------
h A 0

PK
 = ------- tanh (mL)
hA

The efficiency of a fin is defined as the ratio of the actual heat transferred by the fin to the maximum heat
transferred by the fin if the entire fin area were at base temperature.

h PKA tan h mL
f = 0
h PL0

tan h mL
f =
m

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PROCEDURE:
1. Connect the equipment to electric power supply.
2. Keep the thermocouple selector switch to zero position.
3. Turn the Variac (dimmerstat) clockwise and adjust the power input to the heater to the desired value
and switch on the blower.
4. Set the air–flow rate to any desired value by adjusting the difference in mercury levels in the
manometer and allow the unit to stabilize.
5. Note down the temperatures, T1 to T6 from the thermocouple selector switch.
6. Note down the difference in level of the manometer and repeat the experiment for different power
inputs to the heater.

OBSERVATION TABLE:

Sl. Heat Input Pressure drop, ‘h’ Temperatures, 0C

No.
mm of mercury,
V A T1 T2 T3 T4 T5 T6

CALCULATIONS:

d0
 = d0 = Diameter of the Orifice
dp dp = Diameter of the pipe

Velocity of Orifice

2gh (m –a) 1

VO= Cd
a (1-)

m = density of manometric fluid = 13.6 x 10³ kg/m³

a = density of air = 1.17 kg/m³

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Velocity at orifice x cross sectional area of orifice

Va = Velocity of air in the duct =
Cross sectional area of duct
V0 x (d0²)/4
Va =
WxB

where, dp = diameter of pipe

d0 = diameter of orifice

W = Width of the duct

B = Breadth of duct

Average surface temperature of fin is given by

T1 + T2 + T3 + T4 + T5
Ts = + 273.15 K
5

T = T6 = Ambient temperature = + 273.15 K

Tm = Mean temperature = Ts + T
2
Properties of air at _____0C

ν= , Pr = , K =

Va df
Re = ----------- = Re = Reynolds number
ν Pr = Prandtl number
Nu= Nusselt number

The relationship for Nu is

n 1/3
Nu = C Re Pr

For Re = 0.4 to 4.0 C = 0.989 and n = 0.33

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Re = 4 to 40 C = 0.911 and n = 0.385

Re = 40 to 4000 C = 0.683 and n = 0.466

Re = 4000 to 40,000 C = 0.293 and n = 0.618

Re = 40,000 to 400,000 C = 0.27 and n = 0.805

Nu k
h=
df

Thermal conductivity of fin material, ‘K’ = 110.7 W/m–K

hP
m= --------
KA

Temperature distribution is given by

T- T Cosh m (L-x)
------ = ------------------
To-T Cosh mL

Therefore, T = T + (To- T) Cosh m (L-x)

Cosh mL

x1 = 0.045 T1 =
Distance Temperature from Temperature °C
from calculation x2 = 0.075 T2 =
x, m Experiment °C
x3 = 0.105 T3 =

x4 = 0.135 T4 =

Effectiveness of fin = PK x tanh mL

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hA

Efficiency of fin = __tanh mL

mL

RESULT:

The value of heat transfer co-efficient under forced condition are found..
a) Theoretical values of temperatures along the length of fin
b) Effectiveness and efficiency of the Pin-Fin for insulated and boundary conditions.

ExperimentNo.5
FORCED CONVECTION
AIM:

To determine the convective heat transfer coefficient and the rate of heat transfer by forced convection for
flow of air inside a horizontal pipe.

SPECIFICATIONS :
Specimen : Copper Tube
Size of the Specimen : I.D. 25mm x 300mm long
Heater : Externally heated, Nichrome wire Band Heater
Ammeter : Digital type, 0-20amps, AC

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Voltmeter : Digital type, 0-300volts, AC

Dimmerstat for heating Coil : 0-230v, 2amps
Thermocouple Used : 7 nos.
Centrifugal Blower : Single Phase 230v, 50 hz, 13000rpm
Manometer : U-tube with mercury as working fluid
Orifice diameter, ‘do’ : 20 mm
G. I pipe diameter, ‘dp’ : 40 mm
THEORY:

Convective heat transfer between a fluid and a solid surface takes place by the movement
of fluid particles relative to the surface. If the movement of fluid particles is caused by means of
external agency such as pump or blower that forces fluid over the surface, then the process of
heat transfer is called forced convection.
In convectional heat transfer, there are two flow regions namely laminar & turbulent. The
non-dimensional number called Reynolds number is used as the criterion to determine change
from laminar to turbulent flow. For smaller value of Reynolds number viscous forces are
dominant and the flow is laminar and for larger value of Reynolds numbers the inertia forces
become dominant and the flow is turbulent. Dittus–Boelter correlation for fully developed
turbulent flow in circular pipes is,
Nu = 0.023 (Re) 0.8 (Pr) n

Where,n = 0.4 for heating of fluid

n = 0.3 for cooling of fluid

Nu = Nusselt number = hd
K
Re = Reynolds Number = Vd
υ

Pr = Prandtl Number = μ cp
k
The apparatus consists of a blower to supply air. The air from the blower passes through a flow
passage, heater and then to the test section. Air flow is measured by an orifice meter placed near the test
section. A heater placed around the tube heats the air, heat input is controlled by a dimmerstat.
Temperature of the air at inlet and at outlet is measured using thermocouples. The surface temperature of

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the tube wall is measured at different sections using thermocouples embedded in the walls. Test section is
enclosed in a asbestos rope where the circulation of rope is avoid the heat loss to out side.

PROCEDURE:

1. Start the blower after keeping the valve open, at desired rate.
2. Put on the heater and adjust the voltage to a desired value and maintain it as constant
3. Allow the system to stabilize and reach a steady state.
4. Note down all the temperatures T1 to T7, voltmeter and ammeter readings, and manometer readings.
5. Repeat the experiment for different heat input and flow rates.

OBSERVATION TABLE:

Room Temperature TR = ………. + 273.15 K

Sl. Air temp. °C Tube surface

No Heater input Temperature °C
Diff. in
Voltmeter Ammeter VI Manometer Inlet Outlet T T T T T
reading V reading I watts reading hm T1 T7 2 3 4 5 6

volts amps mm

CALCULATIONS:

1. Mass density of air ρa = P kg/m³

RTR

Where, P = Atmospheric Pressure = 101325 N/m²

R = Gas constant for air = 287 J/kg K

TR = Room temperature in K

2. Pressure drop across orifice meter in ‘m of air

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ρm hm
ha =
ρa
Where, ρm = Mass density of mercury = 13600 kg /m3

hm = Differential manometer reading of mercury

3) Velocity of air at the orifice

V o = Cd 2gha m/s

1- (do/dp)4

4) Velocity of air in the tube

Vo (d²o/4) Vo d²o m/s

Va = =
(d²s/4) d²s

(Note: Change in density of air with temperature is neglected i.e., ρa = constant)

5. Average surface temperature of the tube

0
Ts = T2 + T3 +T4 +T5 +T6 + 273.15 K
5

6. Mean temperature of air

0
T∞ = T1 + T7 + 273.15 K
2
0
Properties of air are taken at Tm = Ts + T∞ ……… K
2

At temperature Tm, kinematic viscosity ‘ν’, Prandtl number ‘Pr’ and thermal conductivity ‘k’ are taken
from properties of air table

6. Reynolds Number Re = Va x ds
ν

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8. Nusselt number Nu = 0.023 Re0.8 Pr0.3

9. Nu = h x ds
k
Forced convective heat transfer h = Nu k W/m²-K
ds
10. Rate of heat transfer

Q = h A (T∞ – Ts)

Q = h π ds ls (T∞ – Ts)…… watt

RESULT: The convective heat transfer coefficient and the rate of heat transfer by forced convection for
flow of air inside a horizontal pipe is…………………………..

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ExperimentNo.6
NATURAL CONVECTION

AIM:

To find out heat transfer coefficient and heat transfer rate from vertical cylinder in natural convection.

SPECIFICATIONS:

Specimen : Stainless Steel tube,

Size of the Specimen : I.D 38mm / O.D 44mm, 450mm length

Heater : Nichrome wire type heater along its length

Thermocouples used : 8nos.

Ammeter : Digital type, 0-2amps, AC

Voltmeter : Digital type, 0-300volts, AC

Dimmerstat for heating coil : 0-230 V, 2 amps, AC power

Enclosure with acrylic door : For visual display of test section (fixed

THEORY:

Natural convection heat transfer takes place by movement of fluid particles within to solid
surface caused by density difference between the fluid particles on account of difference in temperature.
Hence there is no external agency facing fluid over the surface. It has been observed that the fluid

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adjacent to the surface gets heated, resulting in thermal expansion of the fluid and reduction in its density.
Subsequently a buoyancy force acts on the fluid causing it to flow up the surface. Here the flow velocity
is developed due to difference in temperature between fluid particles.

The following empirical correlations may be used to find out the heat transfer coefficient for
vertical cylinder in natural convection.

¼ 5
Nu = 0.53 (Gr. Pr) for Gr.Pr<10

¼ 5 8
Nu = 0.56 (Gr.Pr) for 10< Gr. Pr <10

1/3 8 12
Nu = 0.13 (Gr.Pr) for 10 < Gr.Pr<10

Where,Nu = Nusselt number = hL

k

Gr = Grashof number = L3 β g (Ts –Ta)

ν²

Pr = Prandtl number = µcp

k
β = Volumetric coefficient of thermal expansion

For ideal gases β = 1

Tf

Where ‘Tf’ is the absolute film temperature at which the properties are taken.

The apparatus consists of a stainless steel tube fitted in a rectangular duct in a vertical position.
The duct is open at the top and bottom and forms an enclosure and serves the purpose of undisturbed
surroundings. One side of the duct is made of acrylic sheet for visualization. A heating element is kept in
the vertical tube, which heats the tube surface. The heat is lost from the tube to the surrounding air by
natural convection. Digital temperature indicator measures the temperature at different points with the
help of seven temperature sensors, including one for measuring surrounding temperature. The heat input
to the heater is measured by Digital Ammeter and Digital Voltmeter and can be varied by a dimmerstat.

PROCEDURE:

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1.Ensure that all ON/OFF switches given on the panel are at OFF position.
2.Ensure that variac knob is at zero position, provided on the panel.
3.Now switch on the main power supply (220 V AC, 50 Hz).
4.Switch on the panel with the help of mains ON/OFF switch given on the panel.
5.Fix the power input to the heater with the help of variac, voltmeter and ammeter provided.
6.Take thermocouple, voltmeter & ammeter readings when steady state is reached.
7.When experiment is over, switch off heater first.
8.Adjust variac to zero position.
9.Switch off the panel with the help of Mains On/Off switch given on the panel.
10. Switch off power supply to panel.

OBSERVATION TABLE:

Sl. V I VI Thermocouple readings °C

No. Volts Amps watts T1 T2 T3 T4 T5 T6 T7 T8

chamber

CALCULATIONS:

1. Ts= T1 + T2 + T3 + T4 + T5 + T6 + T7+ 273.15 ºK

7

Ta = Surrounding ambient temperature = T8 = + 273.15 º K

1. Obtain the properties of air at a mean temperature of

Tm = (Ts + Ta) ºK
2
2. Volumetric coefficient of thermal expansion
β= 1
Tm
3. Grashof Number, Gr = L3 β g (Ts – Ta)

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ν²

where,ν =kinematic viscosity

6. Rayleigh Number Ra = Gr.Pr

7. Nusselt Number Nu = hL
K
The following correlations are used to find Nusselt Number

Nu = 0.53 (Ra) 1/4 for Ra< 105

Nu = 0.56 (Ra) 1/4 for 105< Ra < 108

Nu = 0.13 (Ra) 1/3 for 108< Ra < 1012

8. Free convective heat transfer coefficient

h = Nu k W/m²–K
L
9. Heat transfer rate by convection

Qc = h A (Ts – Ta)

Qc = h π d L (Ts –Ta) watt

10. Heat Input to the coil

Qi = V x I watt

PRECAUTIONS:

1. Never switch on main power supply before ensuring that all on/off switches given on the panel are at
off position
2. Never run the apparatus if power supply is less than 180 or above 200 volts.

RESULT: Heat transfer coefficient and heat transfer rate from vertical cylinder in natural convection.
Is…………..

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ExperimentNo.7

PARALLEL FLOW/COUNTER FLOW HEAT EXCHANGER

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AIM:

To determine LMTD, effectiveness and overall heat transfer coefficient for parallel and counter
flow heat exchanger

SPECIFICATIONS:

Specimen material : Copper tube

Size of the specimen :  12.5mm x 1500 mm long
Outer Shell material : G.I
Size of the Outer Shell : 40 mm
Geyser capacity : 1 ltr, 3 kW

THEORY:

Heat exchanger is a device in which heat is transferred from one fluid to another. Common
examples of heat exchangers are:
i. Condensers and boilers in steam plant
ii. Inter coolers and pre-heaters
iii. Automobile radiators
iv. Regenerators
CLASSIFICATION OF HEAT EXCHANGERS:

1. Based on the nature of heat exchange process:

i. Direct contact type – Here the heat transfer takes place by direct mixing of hot and cold fluids
ii. Indirect contact heat exchangers – Here the two fluids are separated through a metallic wall.
ex. Regenerators, Recuperates etc.
2. Based on the relative direction of fluid flow:
i. Parallel flow heat exchanger – Here both hot and cold fluids flow in the same direction
ii. Counter flow heat exchanger – Here hot and cold fluids flow in opposite direction
iii. Cross-flow heat exchangers – Here the two fluids cross one another

LOGARTHEMIC MEAN TEMPERATURE DIFFERENCE (LMTD):

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This is defined as that temperature difference which, if constant, would give the same rate of heat
transfer as usually occurs under variable conditions of temperature difference.
For Parallel flow:

Thi

Tho

1 2

Temp 0C

Tco

Tci Thi Thi

Length of the specimen (mm)

LMTD = (Tho – Tco) – (Thi –Tci) = θ2 – θ1 OR (HTD –LTD)

ln Tho-Tco ln θ2 ln HTD
Thi -Tci θ1 LTD

where, HTD = higher temperature difference

LTD = lower temperature difference
Tho = Outlet temperature of hot fluid
Tco = Outlet temperature of cold fluid
Thi = Inlet temperature of hot fluid
Tci = Inlet temperature of cold fluid
For Counter flow:

LMTD =(Thi – Tci) - (Tho –Tci) = θ2 – θ1

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lnThi – Tco lnθ2

Tho – Tci θ1

Thi

1

Tco Tho

2

Tci

Temp 0C

Length of the specimen (mm)

OVERALL HEAT TRANSFER COEFFICINET:

The rate of heat transfer between hot and cold fluid is given by

Q =Uo Ao / LMTD
Where, Uo is overall heat transfer coefficient based on outer surface area of tubes, W/m²-K

Ao is the total outer surface area of tubes, m²

EFFECITIVENESS:

Effectiveness of a heat exchanger is defined as the ratio of actual heat transfer rate to the
theoretical maximum possible heat transfer rate.

Effectiveness: ε = Q
Qmax
It can be shown that

ε = Thi –Tho if mh ch< mc cc

Thi – Tci

and ε = Tco – Tci if mc cc< mh ch

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Thi - Tci

where, mh and mc are the mass flow rate of hot and cold fluids respectively in kg/s; c h and cc are
the specific heat of hot and cold fluids respectively in J/kg–K.

The apparatus consists of a concentric tube heat exchanger. The hot fluid namely hot water is
obtained from the Geyser (heater capacity 3 kW ) & it flows through the inner tube. The cold fluid i.e.
cold water can be admitted at any one of the ends enabling the heat exchanger to run as a parallel flow or
as a counter flow exchanger. Measuring jar used for measure flow rate of cold and hot water. This can be
adjusted by operating the different valves provided. Temperature of the fluid can be measured using
thermocouples with digital display indicator. The outer tube is provided with insulation to minimize the
heat loss to the surroundings.

PROCEDURE:

1. First switch ON the unit panel

2. Start the flow of cold water through the annulus and run the exchanger as counter flow or parallel
flow.
3. Switch ON the geyser provided on the panel & allow to flow through the inner tube by regulating
the valve.
4. Adjust the flow rate of hot water and cold water by using rotameters & valves.
5. Keep the flow rate same till steady state conditions are reached.
6. Note down the temperatures on hot and cold water sides. Also note the flow rate.
7. Repeat the experiment for different flow rates and for different temperatures. The same method is
followed for parallel flow also.
OBSERVATION TABLE:

PARALLEL FLOW

Hot water flow rate Cold water flow rate Temperature of cold Temp. of hot
Sl. No.
mh, kg/s mc, kg/s water in °C water in °C

Inlet Outlet
1. Inlet Tci Outlet Tco
Thi Tho

2.

3.

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4.

5.

COUNTER FLOW

Hot water flow rate Cold water flow rate Temperature of cold Temp. of hot
Sl. No.
mh, kg/s mc, kg/s water in °C water in °C

Inlet Outlet
Inlet Tci Outlet Tco
Thi Tho

CALCULATIONS:

1. Heat transfer from hot water

Qh = mh Cph (Thi –Tho) watts
Mh = mass flow rate of hot water kg/sec
Cph = Specific heat of hot water = 4186.8 J kg-K
2. Heat gain by the cold fluid
Qc = mc Cpc (Tco- Tci) watts
mc = Mass flow of cold fluid, kg/s
Cpc = Specific heat of cold fluid = 4186.8 J/kg -K
3. Q = Qh + Qc watts
2

4. LMTD = θ2 – θ1 °C

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lnθ2
θ1
θ1 = Thi – Tci and θ2 = Tho – Tco for parallel flow heat exchanger

θ1 = Tho – Tci and θ2 = Thi – Tcofor counter flow heat exchanger

5. Overall heat transfer coefficient based on outside surface area of inner tube
Uo = Q W/m² oK
Ao x LMTD

Where, Ao =π do l m²
do = Outer diameter of the tube = 0.0125 m
l = length of the tube = 1.5 m
6. Effectiveness:
Find Ch = mh cph and Cc = mccpc

Effectiveness = Thi – Tho if Ch< Cc

Thi - Tci

And Effectiveness = Tco – Tci if Cc< Ch

Thi –Tci

This is applicable both for Parallel and counter flow heat exchanger

7. Effectiveness using NUMBER OF TRANSFER UNIT (NTU) method

i) NTU = Uo Ao
Cmin

Note: if Ch<Cc then Ch = Cmin, Cc =Cmax

And if Cc<Ch then Cc = Cmin, Ch = Cmax

ii) Effectiveness of parallel flow heat exchanger

1 + Cmin
-NTU
1–e Cmax

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є= ----------------------
1 + Cmin
Cmax

iii) Effectiveness of counter flow heat exchanger

1 - Cmin
1 – e-NTU Cmax
є = -----------------------------
1 - Cmin e-NTU 1 - Cmin
Cmax Cmax

RESULT: The LMTD, effectiveness and overall heat transfer coefficient for parallel and counter
flow heat exchanger is ………………….

ExperimentNo.8

EMISSIVITY MEASUREMENT OF RADIATING SURFACE

AIM: To determine the emissivity of gray surface

SPECIFICATIONS:

Specimen material : Brass

Specimen Size :  150 mm, 6 mm thickness ( gray & black body )
Voltmeter : Digital type, 0-300v
Ammeter : Digital type, 0-3 amps
Dimmer stat : 0-240 V, 2 amps

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Temperature Indicator : Digital type, 0-300°C, K type

Thermocouple Used : 7 nos.
Heater : Sand witched type Nichrome heater,400 W
D.P.D.T Selector Switch : 6A

THEORY:

Any hot body maintained by a constant heat source, loses heat to surroundings by conduction,
convection and radiation. If two bodies made of same geometry are heated under identical conditions,
the heat loss by conduction and convection can be assumed same for both the bodies, when the
difference in temperatures between these two bodies is not high. In such a case, when one body is
black & the other body is gray from the values of different surface temperatures of the two bodies
maintained by a constant power source emissivity can be calculated. The heat loss by radiation
depends on:
a) Characteristic of the material
b) Geometry of the surface and
c) Temperature of the surface
The heat loss by radiation when one body is completely enclosed by the other body is given by

Q= σ A1 (T14 –T24)
1
1 + A11 – 1
ε1 A2 ε2

If a body is losing heat to the surrounding atmosphere, then the area of atmosphere A 2>>
area of body A1. Thus if anybody is losing heat by radiation to the surrounding atmosphere
equation (1) takes the form.

Q = σ A1 ε (T14 – T24)

where, σ = Stefan Boltzmann constant = 5.6697 x 10-8 W/m² K4

A1 = Surface area in m²

ε = Emissivity

T1 = surface temperature of the body in K and

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T2 = surrounding atmospheric temperature in K

Let us consider a black body & a gray body with identical geometry being heated under identical
conditions, assuming conduction & convection heat loss to remain the same. Let Q b and Qg be the heat
supplied to black & gray bodies respectively.

If heat input to both the bodies are same,

Qb = Qg

Assuming, heat loss by conduction and convection from both bodies to remain same.

Heat loss by radiation by the black body = heat loss by radiation by the gray body
σ x Ab x εb x (Tb4 –Ta4) = σ x Ag x εg x (Tg4 –Ta4)

As geometry of two bodies are identical,

A = Ag = Ab and εb = 1 for black body.

Therefore, εg = (Tb4 –Ta4)

(Tg4 –Ta4)

Where,

Suffix ‘b’ stands for black body,

Suffix ‘g’ stands for gray body,

Suffix ‘a’ stands for ambient.

The experimental set up consists of two circular brass plates of identical dimensions. One of the
plates is made black by applying a thick layer of lamp black while the other plate whose emissivity is to
be measured is a gray body. Heating coils are provided at the bottom of the plates. The plates are
mounted on asbestos cement sheet and kept in an enclosure to provide undisturbed natural convection
condition. Three thermocouples are mounted on each plate to measure the average temperature. One
thermocouple is in the chamber to measure the ambient temperature or chamber air temperature. The heat
input can be varied with the help of variac for both the plates , that can be measured using digital volt and
ammeter.

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PROCEDURE:

1.Switch on the electric mains.

2.Operate the dimmerstat very slowly and give same power input to both the heaters
say 50 V by using/operating cam switches provided.

3.When steady state is reached note down the temperatures T 1 to T7 by rotating the temperature
selection switch.
4. Also note down the volt & ammeter reading
5. Repeat the experiment for different heat inputs.

OBSERVATION TABLE:

Sl. Temperature of Temperature of Chamber

No. Heater input black surface °C gray surface °C Temperature
°C

V I VxI T1 T2 T3 T4 T5 T6
T7
Watts

CALCULATIONS:

1. Temperature of the black body

Tb = (T1 + T2 + T3) + 273 .15 K

3
2. Temperature of the gray body

Tg = (T4 + T5 + T6) + 273 .15 K

3
3. Ambient temperature

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Ta = (T7 + 273.15) K

4. Heat input to the coils = V x I watt

5. Emissivity of gray body,

εg = (T4b –T4a)

(T4g –T4a)

RESULT: The emissivity of gray surface Is……………………..

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ExperimentNo.9

STEFAN BOLTZMANN APPARATUs

AIM:

To determine the value of Stefan Boltzmann constant for radiation heat transfer.

SPECIFICATIONS:

Specimen material : Copper

Size of the disc :  20mm x 0.5mm thickness
Base Plate :  250mm x 12mm thickness (hylam)
Heater : 1.5 kW capacity, immersion type
Copper Bowl :  200mm
Digital temperature indicator : 0 -199.9° C
Thermocouples used : 3 nos. on hemisphere
Stop Watch : Digital type
Overhead Tank : SS, approx. 10 liter capacity
Water Jacket :  230 mm, SS
Mass of specimen, ‘m’ : 5 gm

THEORY:

Stefan Boltzmann law states that the total emissive power of a perfect black body is proportional
to fourth power of the absolute temperature of black body surface
Eb = σT4

where, σ = Stefan Boltzmann constant = 5.6697 x 10-8 W/(m² K4)

The apparatus consists of a flanged copper hemisphere fixed on a flat non-conducting plate. A
test disc made of copper is fixed to the plate. Thus the test disc is completely enclosed by the hemisphere.
The outer surface of the hemisphere is enclosed in a vertical water jacket used to heat the hemisphere to a
suitable constant temperature. Three Cr-Al thermocouples are attached at four strategic places on the
surface of the hemisphere to obtain the temperatures. The disc is mounted on an ebonite rod which is

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fitted in a hole drilled at the center of the base plate. Another Cr-Al thermocouple is fixed to the disc to
record its temperature. Fill the water in the SS water container with immersion heater kept on top of the
panel.
PROCEDURE:

1. Remove the test disc before starting the experiment.

2. Heat the water in the SS container to its boiling point.
3. Allow the boiling water into the container kept at the bottom containing copper hemisphere until
it is full. Allow sufficient time to attain thermal equilibrium which is indicated by the four
thermocouples provided on the hemisphere.
4. Insert the test disc fixed on the ebonite rod sleeve completely inside and lock it. Start the stop
clock simultaneously.
5. Note down the temperature of the test disc at an interval of about 15 sec for about 15 to 20
minutes.

OBSERVATION TABLE:

Let Td = Temperature of the disc before inserting into the plate in K

Temperature of the
Thermocouple
copper hemisphere ° C
T1

T2

T3

T4

Temperature – time response of test disc:

Time t sec Temperature T5 ° C

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CALCULATIONS:

1. Plot the graph of temperature of the disc v/s time to obtain the slope (dT/dt) of the line,
which passes through/nearer to all points.

2. Average temperature of the hemisphere

Tavg = (T1 + T2 + T3) + 273.15 K
3

3. Td = Temperature of the disc before inserting to test chamber º K (ambient)

4. Rate of change of heat capacity of the disc = m CpdT

dt
Net energy radiated on the disc = σ Ad (Tavg4 – Td4)

Where, Ad = area of the disc = πd² m2

4
d = 20 mm
Cp = specific heat of copper = 0.38 kJ/kg–K

Rate of change of heat capacity of the disc = Net energy radiated on the disc

m CpdT = σ Ad (T4avg – T4d)

dt

Thus ‘σ’ can be evaluated as shown

m CpdT
dt
σ =
Ad (Tavg4 – Td4)

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RESULT:The value of Stefan Boltzmann constant for radiation heat transfer is………..

ExperimentNo.10

CONDENSATION IN DROP WISE AND FILM WISE FORMS

AIM: To determine the Total heat transferred to the surface in drop wise form.

SPECIFICATIONS:

1. Heater – Immersion type, cap. 2K W

2. Voltmeter - Range: 0 – 300 V
3. Ammeter - Range : 0 – 20 amp

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4. Temperature Indicator (Digital type) Range: 0-400° C

5. power required – A.C. Single Phase 230 V. 15amps
6. Thermocouple Used: Teflon coated, Chromal – Alumal (Ch-Al )
7. Diameter of the copper tube d = 16mm.
8. Length of the copper tube l= 300mm.
9. Capacity of boiler max.2Kg/Cm2
10. Glass tube dia = 150mm, lenth =300mm, thickness =5mm.
THEORY:

Condensation is the change in phase from the vapour state to the liquid or solid state. It can be
considered as taking place either within a bulk material or on a cooled surface and is accompanied by
simultaneous heat and mass transfer.
Condensation plays a significant role in the heat rejection parts of the Rankine Power Cycle and
the vapour compression refrigeration cycle, which generally involve pure substances.
Dehumidification in air conditioning and the production of liquefied petroleum gases, liquid nitrogen
and liquid oxygen and exampled in which condensation in a mixture takes place. Condensation on a
cooled surface occurs in one of two ways: film or drop wise condensation.
In film condensation the liquid condensate forms a continuous film, which covers the surface and
takes place when the liquid wets the surface. This film flows over the surface under the action of gravity
or other body, surface tension and shear stresses due to vapour flow. Heat transfer to the solid surface
takes place through the film, which forms the greatest part of the thermal resistance.
In drop wise condensation the vapour impinges on the cool wall, reducing its energy and thereby
liquidifying and forming drops, which grow by direct condensation of vapour on the drops and by
coalescence with neighboring drops until the drops are swept off the surface by their action of gravity or
the drops move they coalesce with other droplets in their path, sweeping a portion of the surface clean so
that condensation can begin a new. The details of drop wise condensation are not completely
understood but it is known to take place under circumstances where the liquid does not wet the
surface.
Drop wise condensation of steam has heat transfer co-efficient 2 to 10 times as large as
film condensation. However, it has been difficult to sustain drop wise condensation
commercially for long periods of time.

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The condensing chamber CC1 consists of the Gold Plated copper tube GPCT and emissivity CC2
is the plain copper tube PCT of identical dimensions. Boiler is provided to prepare steam which will be
allowed inside the chamber.

Pump circulates cooling water through the tubes. Inlet (suction) of the pump is connected to the sump. By
operating valve & flow control valves, experiments to be carried out at different flow rates. Rota meter
R1 & R2 measures water flow rate. T1 measures the water inlet temperature to the system. The two tubes
GPCT & PCT are the water inlet temperature of the system. The two tubes GPCT & PCT are connected
in series for the water circuit. Thermocouples T2, T3, T4 & T5 enable measurement of vapor&surface
temperature of the two tubes. Thermocouples T7 & T8 measure the water outlet temperature. T6 measure
steam temperature of high pressures.

T1 = water inlet temperature

T2 = surface temperature in plane copper tube

T3 = vapour temperature in PCT glass column

T4 = vapour temperature in GPCT glass column

T5 = surface temperature in gold plated copper tube

T6 = steam inlet temperature

T7 = water outlet temperature of PCT

T8 = water outlet temperature of GPCT

PROCEDURE:

1. First switch on the main power

2. Fill the water in boiler with the help of motor. Water level indicates in glass tube at the front of
boiler.
3. Then switch on the heater button.
4. Wait for 30 to 40 min for getting required pressure.
5. Start the motor and adjust the flow rate by operating valves.
6. Allow the steam slowly to the chambers by opening valve ( valve is fixed on steam flow pipe)
7. The system is allowed to come to steady state
Note down the temperatures T1, T2, T3, T4, T5, T6, T7, T8, and

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OBSERVATION TABLE:

Sl. Water Temperatures 0C Heater input

flow
No.
rate Q
cc/sec

Rt1 Rt2 T1 T T T T5 T6 T7 T V in volt I in amp

2 3 4 8

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CALCULATIONS:

1) Heat input to boiler = V x I

2) Heat carried away by water, film wise form (at plane copper tube )
Qfw = Mfw x Cpfw xΔT
where Mfw = mass flow-rate of water in kg/hr
Cpfw = 4.187 KJ/Kg OK
ΔT = (T7 - T1)

(T3-T7) - (T3-T2)
LMTD (film wise) =
ln (T3-T7)
(T3-T2)

Total heat transferred to the surface in film wise form.

Qfw = ho ao (LMTDfw)

where ao = πdol

Qfw
ho (fw) =
ao (LMTDfw)

3) Heat carried away by water, drop wise form (at gold plated copper tube)

Qdw = Mdw x Cpdw xΔT

where Mdw = mass flow-rate of water in kg/hr

Cpdw = 4.187 KJ/Kg OK

ΔT = (T8 - T1)

(T4-T8) - (T4-T5)
LMTD (drop wise) =
ln (T4-T8)
(T4-T5)

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Total heat transferred to the surface in drop wise form.

Qdw = ho ao (LMTDdw)

where ao = πdol

Qdw
ho(dw) =
ao (LMTDdw)

RESULT: Total heat transferred to the surface in drop wise form is………….

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ExperimentNo.11

THERMAL CONDUCTIVITY OF METAL ROD

AIM:

To determine the thermal conductivity of given metal rod.

SPECIFICATIONS :

Specimen material : Brass rod

Size of the Specimen : 20 mm, 450mm long
Cylindrical shell : 300mm long
Voltmeter : Digital type, 0-300volt, AC
Ammeter : Digital type, 0-20amp, AC
Dimmer for heating Coil : 0-230v, 12amps
Heater : Band type Nichrome heater, 250 W
Thermocouple used : 11 nos.
Temperature indicator : Digital type, 0-400 , Cr-Al
THEORY:

From Fourier’s law of heat conduction

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Q = -k A dT
dx

where, Q = Rate of heat conducted, W

A = Area of heat transfer, m²

k = Thermal conductivity of the material, W/m-K

dT = Temperature gradient
dx

Thermal conductivity is a property of the material and may be defined as the amount of heat
conducted per unit time through unit area, when a temperature difference of unit degree is maintained
across unit thickness.
The apparatus consists of a brass rod, one end of which is heated by an electric heating coil while
the other end projects into the cooling water jacket. The rod is insulated with glass wool to minimize the
radiation and convection loss from the surface of the rod and thus ensure nearly constant temperature
gradient throughout the length of the rod. The temperature of the rod is measured at five different
locations. Theheater is provided with a dimmer stat for controlling the heat input. Water is circulated
through the jacket and its flow rate and temperature rise can be measured

PRODEDURE:

1. Power supply is given to the apparatus.

2. Give heat input to the heater by slowly rotating the dimmer and adjust the voltage to say 25 V, 50
V, etc
3. Start the cooling water supply through the jacket and adjust its flow rate so that the heat is taken
away from the specimen constantly.
4. Allow sufficient time for the apparatus to reach steady state.
5. Take readings of voltmeter and ammeter.
6. Note the temperatures along the length of the specimen rod at 5 different locations.
7. Note down the inlet & outlet temperatures of cooling water and measure the flow rate of water.
8. Repeat the experiment for different heat inputs

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OBSERVATION TABLE:

Voltmeter Ammeter Heat Water temp Volume

Metal rod thermocouple reading 0
Reading Reading input ( C) flow
0
‘V’ ( C) rate of
‘I’ VxI
water, V
(volt) (W) Inlet Outlet cc/min
(A)
T1 T2 T3 T4 T5 T6 T7 T8 T9 T10 T11

CALCULATION:

Plot the variation of temperature along the length of the rod. From the graph, obtain dT/dx, which
is the slope of the straight line passing through/near to the points in the graph. Assuming no heat loss,
heat conducted through the rod = heat carried away by the cooling water

-k x A x dT/dx = mf Cp (T11 – T10)

Where, ‘k’ = thermal conductivity of metal rod, (W/m-K)

‘A’ = Cross sectional area of metal rod = πd²/4 (m²)

‘d’ = diameter of the specimen = 20 mm

‘Cp’ = Specific heat of water = 4.187 kJ/kg-K

Thus, the thermal conductivity ‘k’ of metal rod can be evaluated.

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-k = mf Cp (T11 – T10)

A x dT/dx

RESULT:The thermal conductivity of given metal rod is……………

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ExperimentNo.12

HEAT TRANSFER FOR UNSTEADY STATE HEAT TRANSFER

AIM:Determining the temperature at any desired interval of the time.

SPECIFICATION:

1. D.C Buzzer : 10 – 30 volt.

2. Oil Heater : 1 kW
3. digital temperature indicator : 1200 deg C
4. Thermocouple : Al – Cr type.
5. Specimens Material : Copper.
6. Fuse : 4 Amp.

THEORY:

Unsteady state designates a phenomenon which is time dependent. Conduction of heat in

unsteady state refers to the transient conditions where in, heat flow and temperature distribution at any
point of the system varies with time.
Transient conditions occur in heating or cooling of metal billets, cooling of I.C engine cylinder,
brick burning and vulcanization of rubber.

Unsteady state heat transfer equipment have oil heater located at left bottom of equipment.
Specimen to be held in chuck which is at the top of oil heater. Thermocouple No. 1 is located inside the
specimen. No. 2 thermocouple measures the atmospheric temperature. No. 3 thermocouple measures the
oil temperature.
Digital temperature indicator indicates respective temperatures of thermocouples as we select it
by selector switch. Heater ON/OFF toggle switch and buzzer ON/OFF toggle switch is provided on the
control panel.
Obtain the specimen temperature at any interval of time by practical and by theoretical methods
and observe the heating and cooling curves of unsteady state.

PROCEDURE:

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1. Put ‘ON’ the mains switch.

2. Fill the oil jar up to ¾th of its height.
3. Insert the thermocouple in jar having tag No. 3
4. Keep thermocouple No. 2 near to the specimen inside the transparent chamber
5. Start the oil heater by putting heater’s toggle switch in downward direction.
6. Keep the selector switch at No. 3 and observe the oil temperature.
7. When the oil temperature reaches up to 95 0 insert the specimen in oil jar. At the same time note
down the specimen temperature and start the stop watch.
8. Note down the specimen reading for every 10 sec. Check the oil temperature by selecting No. 3
on selector switch.
9. Take the readings of specimen temperature till it comes nearly to hot oil temperature.
10. Now put the specimen inside the rectangular chamber. At the same time put OFF the heater.
11. Take the atmosphere temperature by selecting No.2 and specimen temperature. Note the specimen
temperature reading till it comes closer to atmospheric temperature.
12. Put OFF the main switch.

OBSERVATION:

1. Heating:
Sl. No. Oil Temperature Specimen temperature ‘T2’ in 0C Time in
at interval of 10 sec. second
‘T1’ in 0C

2. Cooling:

Sl. No. Atmospheric Specimen temperature ‘T2’ in Time in

temp. ‘T3’ in 0C 0
C at interval of 10 sec. second

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CALCULATION:

Specimen material: Copper

Specimen diameter, d = 30 mm

Specimen radius, r = 15mm

Specimen length, l = 30mm = 0.03mm

Characteristic length for Cylinder 1 = π x r2 x L = rL

2 πr (r+L) 2(r+L)
Biot No. Bi = hl/k

Fourier No. Fo = α t / L2

Grashof no. Gr = βgρ2 d3 ΔT

μ2

where, β = 1/T

T = max. temp. in 0 K

g = acceleration due to gravity = 9.81 m/s2

ρ = density of medium at mean temp. from the table Kg/m 3

ΔT = Difference between surrounding temp. and specimen temp.

μ = Dynamic viscosity of the medium from the table in N-s/m 2

d = diameter of the specimen in m.

Pr = Prandtl number of medium at mean temperature from table.

K = Thermal conductivity of medium at mean temp. from table W/m- 0K

Mean temperature, T = Tmax + Tmin

2
In case of the cooling,

Tmax = Specimen temp. (Just after the hot oil bath)

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Tmin = Atmosphere temp.

In case of inserting specimen into the hot oil bath

Tmax = Hot oil temp.

Tmin = Specimen temp. before inserting into oil bath .

RaD = Gr x Pr

The following equations are used for the constant wall temp. case for all values of Prandtl no.

NuD = .36 + .518 RaD1/4 10-6< RaD> 109 {1+

(.559/Pr)9/16}4/9

NuD = .6 + ( .387 RaD 1/6 )2 109 < RaD > 1012

{1 + (.559/Pr)9/16}8/24

Nusselt no. NuD =hd/k

Where h = heat transfer coeff. In W/m20K

d = diameter of the specimen in m.

K = Thermal conductivity of the medium at mean temp. from the table in W/m0K. (In
cooling, medium is air and in heating, medium is hot oil).

h = NuD K/ d

Characteristic length of the cylinder 1 = r L

2(r+ L)
Biot no. Bi = hl/k

Fourier no. Fo = α t / L2

Where k = thermal conductivity of specimen material

α = Coeff of the thermal expansion of the specimen material in /0C

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t = Time in sec.

t – ta = e-(Bi x Fo)
ts – ta

where, t = temp. of the specimen at time interval of ‘t’ sec.

ta = atmospheric temp. in 0C

ts = Specimen temp. 0C

In case of the cooling,

ta= atmospheric temp.

ts = specimen temp.

In case of the heating

ta = specimen temp. (initial)

ts = hot oil temp.

Plot the graph of temperature difference v/s time for heating and cooling.

RESULT: Obtain the temperature at any desired interval of the time.

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