MODULE IN GENERAL

PHYSICS 2

The Authors

Engr. Cesar O. Viloria

Charles B. Aglugob
 ACKNOWLEDGEMENT

Foremost, the authors would like to express the sincerest gratitude to the
following who in one way or another helped us finish this manuscript:

Dean Engr. Wilfredo Basilio for allowing us write this module.

Dr. Lucila B. Diesta for the continuous encouragement, for her
patience, enthusiasm, and immense knowledge she extended to us.

Faculty of SHS Department-Antipolo Campus, for the motivation they

shared to us.

To our Family who help us go through with sleepless nights to finish this
manuscript.

Above all, to our Almighty God who provides us strength and wisdom to
accomplish this module.

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 TABLE OF CONTENTS

Title page i
Acknowledgement ii
Table of Contents iii-iv
Unit 1: ELECTROSTATIC PHENOMENON
Electric Charge 1
Law of Conservation of Electric Charge 2-3
Coulomb’s Law 4
Electric field 5
Electric Flux 6
Unit 2: ELECTRIC POTENTIAL
Electrostatic Phenomenon 7
Electric potential energy 8-9
Equipotential lines 10-11
Unit 3: CAPACITANCE AND DIELECTRIC
Capacitance 12-14
Dielectric 14-15
Unit 4: CURRENT, RESISTANCE AND ELECTROMOTIVE FORCE
Current, Resistance and Electromotive force 16-17
Factors affecting resistance 17-18
Electromotive force 18-19
DC Circuits 19
Series - Parallel Circuits 19-27
Physiological effect 28
Unit 5: MAGNETISM

Magnetic Field 29-35

Electromagnets 36-37
Electric motor 37-39
Generator 40
Transformer 41-43

4
Unit 6: LIGHT AS AN
ELECTROMAGNETIC WAVES
Properties of EM waves 45-46
Reflection of light 46-47
Refraction of light 47-50
Unit 7: GEOMETRIC OPTICS

Plane mirrors 51-52

Spherical mirrors 52-55
Thin lenses 55-58
Unit 8: INTERFERENCE AND DIFFRACTION
Interference 59-61
Diffraction 61-62
Unit 9: RELATIVE MOTION
Consequences of the theory of relativity 63-65
Velocity-addition formula 65
Photoelectric effect 65-66
Radiation 66-67
Bibliography 68
Activities 69-117
About the Authors 118

5
 UNIT
ELECTROSTATIC

1 PHENOMENON

Learning Outcomes
o Describe using a diagram charging by rubbing and charging by induction.
o Explain the role of electron transfer in electrostatic charging by rubbing.
o Describe experiments to show electrostatic charging by induction
.
o State that there are positive and negative charges, and that charge is measured in coulombs.
o Predict charge distributions, and the resulting attraction or repulsion, in a system of charged
insulators and conductors.
o Calculate the net electric force on a point charge exerted by a system of point
o a force.
Describe an electric field as a region in which an electric charge experiencescharges
o Draw electric field patterns due to systems with isolated point charges.
o Use in calculations the relationship between the electric field and the electric force on a test
charge.
o Calculate the electric field due to a system of point charges using Coulomb’s law and the
superposition principle.
o Predict the trajectory of a point charge in a uniform electric field

Introduction:

Electricity comes from the word electron, a Greek word, which means “amber”.
The “amber effect” is literally called static electricity. In one demonstration, Benjamin
Franklin made the arbitrary choice of calling the positive and one negative. He also
contended that an equal amount of the opposite charge is produced on another object
when a certain amount of charge is induced on one object.

Electric Charge

Electric charge is conserved and

it is quantized with units of e. An
atom that loses an electron becomes
positively charged – in this case it is a
known as positive ion. Consequently,
an atom that gains an electron
becomes negatively charged –a
negative ion.
Some materials may be polarized
– such that their atoms interchange in
response to an external charge. Figure 1
shows a charged object can attract a
neutral one. It shows how the transfer of
charges is done from one object to
another.

1
 Charge Concepts

Opposite charges attract, like charges repel.

Law of Conservation of Charge:

✔ The total amount of electric charge produced in this process is zero.

✔ Symbol: q, Q
✔ Unit: C, Coulomb named after Charles de Coulomb
✔ Our body contains more than 1 x 10 28 or
10,000,000,000,000,000,000,000,000,000 electrons.
✔ The net charge of an object is the excess of either positive or negative
charges as a result of the transfer of electrons.

Table 1: The mass and charge of three basic particles of atom.

Particle Charge, (C) Mass, (kg)

electron -1.6x10-19 9.109x10-31

proton +1.6x10-19 1.673x10-27

neutron 0 1.675x10-27

The number of electrons present in a charge object is

given by
𝑞
𝑡𝑜𝑡𝑎𝑙
# 𝑒𝑙𝑒𝑐𝑡𝑟𝑜𝑛𝑠 =
1.6 𝑥 10−19
Another essential principle in electrical phenomena is the
conservation of charge: The total charge of an isolated
system remains constant.

For example, a system has two electrically neutral bodies, say, rubber rod and fur. The
electrons are held tightly in the rubber than in fur such that when they are rubbed, the
electrons are moved from the fur to the rubber rod. Therefore, the rubber contains excess
electrons this means that it has a net negative charge. The fur, which has lost electrons, will
have a net positive charge.

Ways to Charge a neutral object by:

1. Conduction: interaction occurs between charged object and neutral object. (Figure 2)

• Consequence: two objects with the same charges.

2. Induction: no interaction occurs between charged object and neutral object. (Figure 3)

• Consequence: two objects with opposite charge

2
3. Friction: Rubbing two materials together can rub electrons off from one
object to another.

Conduction

Inductio
n

3
Insulators and Conductors

Conductor: Are materials that allow electrons to pass through them. Most
metals are conductors. A conductor is a material in which excess charge freely
flows. Metals are naturally excellent conductors because their valence (outer shell)
electrons are not confined to any one atom. Instead electrons are free to roam
about a metal object. Metal are excellent conductors of electricity (and heat) for
this reason. If a conductor carries excess charge, the excess is distributed over the
surface of the conductor.
Insulator: Are materials that hinders the flow of electrons. Non-metals are
mostly insulators. An insulator is a material in which excess charge stay where it is
deposited. This means that the charge does not move. Most nonmetallic material
are good insulators. Valence electrons are much more tightly bound to the atoms
and are not free to roam from one atom to another. Insulators are useful for
studying electrostatics (the study of charge that can be localized and contained).
Scientists are engrossed with the study of a special kind of materials called the
Semiconductors.Semiconductors have properties intermediate between
conductors and insulators; their properties change with their chemical composition.
For instance, silicon used in computer chips, have electrical conductivity between
that of conductors and insulators. Photoconductive materials become conductors
when light shines on them

Coulomb’s Law
Coulomb’s Law states that the magnitude of the electric force between two-point
charges is directly proportional to the product of the charges and indirectly proportional
to the square of distance that separates them. This relationship is summarized in the
following equations:

Where: k = 8.988 x 109 Nm2 / C2

Charge (q) or Q is measured in Coulomb (C).

Example problem 1 : Two charges 2 C and 3C are positioned 0.5 meters from each
other. What force does the 2C charge feel as a result of the 3 C charge?

Solution: F = 8 x 10⁹ nm²/ C² x 2C x 3C

( 0.5 m)²

= 2.1 x 1011 N (repulsive)

Example 2: Two other charges 2C and -1Care positioned 2 meters from each
other. What force does the 2C charge feel as a result of the -1C charge?

Solution: F = 8 .99 x 10⁹ nm²/ C² x 2C x -1C

( 2 m)²

4
 = -4.5 x 109 N (attractive) or 4.5 x 109 N (attractive) =

The force is along the line connecting the two charges, if opposite the force is attractive,
and repulsive if the charges are the same. Figure 4 below shows how the Forces are
directed between charges. Figure 4a shows a repulsion between two positive
charges. Figure 4b is an attraction between a positive charge and a negative
charge while the repulsion between two negative charges is shown in figure 4c.

The forces acting on the two charges are action-reaction forces.

ELECTRIC FIELDS

Figure 5 shows the direction of the

electric field of a positive and negative
charges. A positively charged particle
creates outward electric fields.
A negatively charged particle creates
inward electric fields. A neutrally
charged particle does not produce
outward nor inward electric fields

while a neutrally charge object

cancels out the electric fields
produced by its positive and negative
charge due to attractive force.

a) Unlike charges attract, see figure

6.a and 6.b on the behavior of the
electric field lines
b) Like charges repel, see figure 6.c
for the behavior of the electric
By Definition: E=F /q field lines.
e 0
5
Where: E is the electric field, (N/C),

Fe is electric force (N), qo test charge(C)

Newton per Coulomb (N / C) is the SI unit for Electric

field. DERIVATION of the formula for electric field

based on Coulomb’s Law:

Electric flux

Electric flux defined as the rate of flow of the electric field through a given area.
Electric flux is proportional to the number of electric field lines going through an
imaginary surface. Electric flux is useful in association with Gauss' law. The electric
flux on a planar area is defined as the product of electric field and the component
of the area perpendicular to the field. If the area is not planar, then the estimation
of the flux usually requires an area integral since the angle will be continually
changing.

Gauss's Law

The net electric flux out in a closed surface is equivalent to the ration of charge
enclosed and its permittivity. Gauss' law is a powerful tool for the evaluation of
electric fields when they are produced from charge distributions of enough
symmetry to apply it. If the charge distribution lacks enough symmetry for the
application of Gauss' law, then the field is taken as the sum of the point charge
fields of individual charge elements.

6
 UNIT
ELECTRIC

2
POTENTIAL

Learning Outcomes
o Relate the electric potential with work, potential energy, and electric field
o Evaluate the potential at any point in a region containing point charges
o Determine the electric potential function at any point due to highly symmetric
continuous- charge distributions
o Infer the direction and strength of electric field vector, nature of the electric field
sources, and electrostatic
o electric field vector, nature of the potential surfaces given the equipotential lines
o Infer the distribution of charges at the surface of an arbitrarily shaped conductor
o Calculate the electric field in the region given a mathematical function
describing its potential in a region of space
o Perform an experiment involving electric fields and equipotential lines and analyze
the data
o identifying and analyzing discrepancies between experimental results and
theoretical expectations when appropriate
o Solve problems involving electric potential energy and electric potentials in
contexts such as, but not limited to, electron guns in CRT TV picture tubes,
conditions for merging of charge liquid drops, and Van de Graaff generators

Introduction

A huge amount of electric potential energy can be stored in clouds. In lightning, the
potential difference between the clouds and the Earth can become so extreme that stray
electrons in the air are accelerated to a kinetic energy large enough to knock electrons out
of atoms of the air. The air becomes a conductor as the ionized atoms and free electrons
flow quickly thereby colliding with much more atoms and causing rapid ionization. The
massive flow of charge reduces the potential difference, and the discharge quickly ceases.
The energy released when the ions and electrons recombine to form atoms appears as
light.

Lightning: An electrostatic phenomenon

7
 The concept of energy is extremely valuable in dealing with the subject of
mechanics. For one thing, energy is a conserved quantity and is thus an important
tool for understanding nature. Furthermore, we saw that many problems could be
solved using the energy concept even though a detailed knowledge of the forces
involved was not possible, or when a calculation involving Newton’s Laws would
have been too difficult.
The energy point of view can be used in electricity, and it is especially useful.
It not only extends the law of conservation of energy, but it gives us another way
to view electrical phenomena. Energy is also a tool in solving problems more easily
in many cases than by using forces and electric fields.

Electric Potential Energy

To apply conservation of energy, we need to define electric potential energy

as for other types of potential energy. The work done by a conservative force in
moving an object between any two positions does not depend on the path taken.
The electrostatic force between any two charges is conservative since it is position
– dependent force. Thus, potential energy, PE, can be defined for the electrostatic
force. Suppose point charge a and b is separated by a distance the charge in
potential energy between the two points a and b equals the negative of the work
done by the conservative force to move an object from a to b: ∆ PE = -W

Thus, the change in electric potential energy, PE

b - PEa, when a point charge q moves from some point a
to another point b , as the negative of the work done by the electric force to move
the charge from a to b. For example, consider the electric field between two equally
but oppositely charged parallel plates; we assume their separation is small
compared to their width and height, so the field E will be uniform over most of the
region

The work done (W) by the electric field (E) to move the charge for a distance (d) is

W = Fd = qEd where we used the equation, F = q E.

The charge in electric potential energy equals the negative of the work done by the
electric force:
PE
b - PEa = q E d for this case of uniform electric field E

Electric Potential and Potential Difference

The electric field is defined as the force per unit charge. Primarily, it is essential to
define electric potential as the electric potential energy per unit charge. The
symbol used for electric potential is V. If a positive test charge q has electric potential energy PE a at a
point, the electric potential V
a at that point is Va = PEa / q Only differences in potential energy are
physically meaningful. Hence only the difference in potential, or the potential
difference, between two points a and b is measurable. If positive work is done by
an electric force on a charge, the kinetic energy increases and the potential energy
decreases. The difference in potential energy,

PE - PE , is equivalent to the negative of the work, W , done by the electric field to move the charge from a to b;
b a ba
hence, potential difference V is
ba

V =V -V = PE - PE /q=W /q
ba b a b a ba 8
Example 1. Electron in T.V. tube. From rest, an electron in the picture tube of a television
set is accelerated through a potential difference Vba = Vb - Va = 5000V

a) What change in electric potential energy of the electron will take place?
b) As a result of this acceleration, what is the speed of the electron considering that its
mass is m = 9.1 x 10-31 kg ?

Approach: The electron, accelerated toward the positive plate, will decrease in potential
energy by an amount ∆PE = qVba. The potential energy lost is equal to the Kinetic Energy gained (Energy conservation)

Solution: a) The charge on an electron is q = -e = - 1.6 x 10-19 C. Therefore its change in

potential energy is:

∆PE = q V = - 1.6 x 10-19 C x 5000V = - 8 x 10-16 J

ba
The negative sign specifies a decrease in potential energy. The potential difference, V
ba, has a positive sign since the final potential V b
is higher than the initial potential V ; negative electrons are attracted
a toward a positive electrode and repelled
away from a negative electrode.

c) The potential energy lost by the electron becomes kinetic energy KE. From
conservation of energy, ∆KE + ∆PE = 0 so ∆KE = -∆KE
½ mv2 - 0 = -q (V - V ) = -q V
b a ba

Where initially kinetic energy is held zero since we are given that the electron started from
rest. We solve for v:

𝑣=
√− 2qVba / m

𝑣 = √− 2 (− 1.6 x 10−19 C) ( 5000V) / 9.1 X 10−31 kg

𝑣 = 4.2 X107 m/sec

Note: The potential energy does not depend on the mass, only on the charge and potential
difference. The speed does not depend on m.

Relation between Electric Potential and Electric Field

The properties of any charge distribution can be defined either in terms of electric
field or in terms of electric potential. Electric potential is often easier to use since it is
scalar, whereas electric field is a vector. There is a nearby connection between the potential
and the field. Let us consider the situation of a uniform electric field like that of a two parallel plates whose difference of
potential is V
ba . The work done by the electric field to transfer a positive charge q from a to b is
equal to the negative of the change in potential energy.

W
= - q (V a - V b ) = -q V ba we can also express the work done as the product of force and the distance,
where the force on q is F = qE, so W = Fd = q E d where d is the distance between points a
and b. We now establish the two expressions for W equal and find qV
a = - q E d , or

V = E d however to solve for E, we find E = - V /d

ba ba

We understand that the units for electric field can be expressed as volts per unit meter , V /
m as well as newtons per coulomb. Generally, these are equivalent since

9
 1 N /C = 1N-m/ C-m = 1 J/C-m = 1V / m.

The minus sign tells us that E points in the direction of decreasing potential V.

Example 2. Electric Field obtained from Voltage. Two parallel plates are charged that
able to create a potential difference of 50V. The two plates are separated by 0.050m,
estimate the magnitude of the electric field in the space between the plates.

Solution: The magnitude of the electric field is:

E = V /d = 50V / 0.050m = 1000V / m

ba
Equipotential Lines

The electric potential can be shown diagrammatically by drawing equipotential lines

or, in three dimensions, equipotential surfaces. An equipotential surface is one on which all
points are at the equal potential. Such that the potential difference between any two points
on the surface is zero, and no work is needed to transfer a charge from one point to
another on an equipotential surface. An equipotential surface must be perpendicular to the
electric field at any point. If this were not so – that is if there were a component of E
parallel to the surface – it would require work to move the charge along the surface against
this component of E and this would contradict the idea that it is an equipotential
surfaces.

Electric field lines (purple) and cross

sections of equipotential surfaces (gold)
for figure 8a a uniform electric field, figure
8b the field due to a point charge, and
figure 8c the field due to

The fact that the electric field lines and equipotential surfaces are equally
perpendicular helps us locate the equipotential when the electric field lines are
identified. In a normal two-dimensional drawing, we show equipotential lines,
which are the intersections of equipotential surfaces with the plane of the drawing.
The equipotential lines for the case of two equal but oppositely charge is called
electric dipole. There can be no electric field within a conductor in the static case,
for otherwise the free electrons would feel a force and would move.

10
The Electron Volt, a Unit of energy

Joule, named after James Joule, is a huge unit for dealing with energies of electrons,
atoms, or molecules. For this reason, the unit electron volt (eV) is used. One eV is
expressed as the energy obtained by a particle carrying a charge whose magnitude equals
that on the electrons (q = e) as a consequence of moving through a potential difference of
1V. Since the charge on an electron has magnitude 1.6 X 10 -19 C, and then the change in
potential energy equals qV , 1eV is equal to 1.6 X 10-19 C X 1V = 1.6 X 10-19 J

A potential difference of 1000V causes an electron to accelerate and therefore lose

1000eV of potential energy and hence gain 1000eV or KeV (kiloelectrons volt) of kinetic
energy. On the other hand, if a particle with a charge identical to twice the magnitude of
the charge on the electron (= 2e =
3.2 X 10-19 C) moves through a potential difference of 1000V, its energy will change by
2000eV.
Electric Potential Due to Point Charges

The electric potential at a distance r from a single point charge Q can be derived
from the expression for its electric field using calculus. The potential in this case is usually
taken to be zero at infinity: this is also where the electric field (E = kQ / r 2 ) is zero . The
result is

V =k Q/r = 1 Q / 4π Ԑ r where k = 8.99 X 109 N m2 / C2

o

Example 3. Potential due to a positive or a negative charge

Determine the potential at appoint 0.50 m a) from a 20 micro coulomb point charge
b) -20 micro coulomb point charge.

Solution:

a) From a distance of 0.50 m from a positive charge 20 micro coulomb charge, the
potential is:

V =k Q / r = 8.99 X 109 N m2 / C2 ( 20 X 10-6 / .50 m) = 3.6 X 105 V

b) For the negative charge

V = k Q / r = 8.99 X 109 N m2 / C2 ( -20 X 10-6 / .50 m) = -3.6 X 105 V

Note: Potential can be positive or negative. In contrast to calculations of electric field

magnitudes, for which we usually ignore the sign of the charges, it is important to
include a charge sign when we find electric potential.

Example 4. Work done to bring two positive charges close together

11
 UNIT
CAPACITANCE AND

3
Learning Outcomes
DIELECTRICS

o Deduce the effects of simple capacitors (e.g., parallel-plate, spherical, cylindrical) on the
capacitance, charge, and potential difference when the size, potential difference, or charge
is changed
o Calculate the equivalent capacitance of a network of capacitors connected in series/parallel
o Determine the total charge, the charge on, and the potential difference across each
capacitor in the network given the capacitors connected in series/parallel
o Determine the potential energy stored inside the capacitor given the geometry and
the potential difference across the capacitor
o Predict the effects on the final potential difference and change in potential energy of
a capacitor when either the geometry or charge is changed
o Determine the energy density and the electric field inside a capacitor with a
given configuration
o Describe the effects of inserting dielectric materials on the capacitance, charge,
and electric field of a capacitor
o Solve problems involving capacitors and dielectrics in contexts such as, but not limited to,
charged plates, electroscopes, batteries, camera flash lamps, Geiger counters, and
coaxial cables.
Capacitors
Capacitance
A capacitor is a device
that has the capacity to store
electric charge, and contains
of two conducting objects
placed nearby each other
but not
touching. Capacitors are
commonly used in electronic
circuits. They store charge
which can later be released
like in a camera flash, and
as backup energy in
computers when power fails.
In circuits,
capacitors have the primary function in blocking surges of charge and energy to protect
circuits. Very thin capacitors aid as memory for the ones and zeroes of the binary code in
the random-access memory (RAM) of computers.

For a given capacitor, the amount of charge Q obtained by each plate is proportional to the
magnitude of the potential difference V between them.

12
Q = C V the proportionality constant C is called the capacitance of the capacitor.
Capacitance is expressed in coulombs per volt or farad (F). Common capacitors have
capacitance between 1pF (pico farad = 10-12F) to 103μ F (microfarad = 10-6F ). The
capacitance C generally has no dependence on Q or V. Its value depends primarily on the
size, shape, and relative position of the two conductors as well as on the material that
separates them. In a parallel plate capacitor whose plates have area A and are separated
by a distance d of air, the capacitance is given by

C = Ԑ A/d
o
We see that C depends only on geometric factors, A and d, and not on Q or V. The constant Ԑ is the
o permittivity of free
-12 2 2
space, which has the value 8.85 X 10 C /Nm

Capacitors in Parallel

When a potential difference V is supplied across number of capacitors connected in parallel,

that potential difference V is supplied across each capacitor. The net charge q stored on the
capacitors is the sum total of the charges stored on all the capacitors. Capacitors that are in
parallel can be substituted with a corresponding capacitor that has the same net charge q
with similar potential difference V of the actual capacitors.

q
1 = C1V q
2 = C2V q V
3
Q=q +q q =C
1 2+ 3 eq V
C V+C V+C =C
1 2 3V eqV
C =C +C +C
eq 1 2 3

As shown in figure 11, several

capacitors are connected in
series and if a potential
difference V is applied across
these capacitors, the capacitors
have identical charge q. The
applied potential difference is
equivalent to the sum of the
potential differences across all
the capacitors. In series
connection among capacitors,
they can be replaced with an
equal capacitor that has
identical charge q and the
equivalent total potential
difference V as the actual series
capacitance.

13
 q
V=V+
1 V + V2=
3
C eq
q q q q
+ + =
C1 C2 C3 C
eq
1 1 1 1
= + +
C C1 C2 C3
eq

Example 1. Capacitor calculations.

a)Consider a parallel plate capacitor whose plates are 20 cm X 3 cm and are separated by a 1
mm air gap. Calculate its capacitance.

b) Calculate the charge on each plate in letter (a) if across the two plates a 12V battery is
connected?

C) What electric field between the plates is produced?

d) Given the air gap d, what is the area of the plates needed to achieve a

capacitance of 1F? Solution: a) The area A = (20 X 10-2 m) (3 X 10-2 m) = 6 X 10-3

m2

The capacitance is then:

C=Ԑ
o A/d = 8.85 X 10-12 C2/ N m2 ( 6X10-3 m2 / 1 X 10-3 m = 53 pF
b) Charge on each plate is: Q = CV = (53 X 10-12F) (12V) = 6.4

X 10-10 C c) E = V / d = 12V / 1 X 10-3 m = 1.2 X 104 V / m

d) A = Cd / Ԑ = ( 1F ) ( 1 X 10-3 m ) / 9 X 10-12 C2 / N m2 ) = 108 m2

o

DIELECTRICS

There is an insulating sheet of materials in most capacitors like that of a paper or

plastic called a dielectric between the plates. The purpose of dielectric includes the following
first, dielectrics don’t readily break down as air, so that even without a charge passing
across the gap higher voltages can be applied. Moreover, even without touching dielectric
allows the plates to be placed closer together and this allows an increase in the capacitance
because the distance d is small. Lastly, it is experimentally found that when the dielectric
fills the space between the two conductors, an increase in the capacitance by a factor K is
observed, this is known as the dielectric constant. Hence, for a capacitor of parallel-plate:

C =KԐ (A/d)
o

14
Above equation can also be written as

C = Ԑ A / d such that Ԑ K Ԑ is called the permeability of the material.

o

The potential difference between the plates, V is given by Q = Co V

O o

Storage of Electrical Energy

Electrical energy is stored in a charged capacitor by separating positive and negative

charges. The work done to charge it is equal to the energy stored in the capacitor. The total
effect of charging a capacitor is to remove charge from one plate then add the charge to
the other plate. This is what happens when a battery is connected to a capacitor. Initially,
no work is required to move the first bit of charge when the capacitor is uncharged. As
more charge is transferred, work is needed to move charge against increasing voltage V.
The work required to lightly increase the amount of charge ∆q, if a potential difference V is
moved across the plates is

∆W = - V ∆q.

The total work needed to move total charge Q is equivalent to moving all the charge Q
across a voltage equal to the average voltage during the process. The average voltage is

(V -0)/2 =V /2
f f

where V is the final voltage, so the work to move the total voltage Q from one plate to the other is:
f

W =Q V /2
f

Thus we can then express that the electric potential energy, PE, stored in the
capacitor is PE = energy = ½ Q Vf where V between the plates is the potential difference and Q is the charge on each
plate. Since Q = CV we can also write

PE = ½ QV = ½ CV2 =½ Q2 / C

Example 1. Energy Stored in Capacitor. An energy is stored in 150μF capacitor of a

camera flash unit connected to a 200 V source. Calculate the amount of electric energy can
be stored?

Solution: PE = ½ CV2 = ½ ( 150 X 10-6F) ( 200 V )2 = 3 J

15
 UNIT CURRENT, RESISTANCE AND
ELECTROMOTIVE FORCE

4
Learning Outcomes
o Distinguish between conventional current and electron flow
o Apply the relationship charge = current x time to new situations or tosolve related problems
o Relate the drift velocity of a collection of charged particles to the electrical current and
current density
o Describe the effect of temperature increase on the resistance of a metallic conductor
o Describe the ability of a material to conduct current in terms of resistivity and conductivity
o Apply the relationship of the proportionality between resistance and the length and cross-
sectional area of a wire to solve problems
o Differentiate ohmic and non-ohmic materials in terms of their I-V curves
o Define electromotive force (emf) as the work done by a source in driving a unit charge
around a complete circuit
o Differentiate emf of a source and potential difference (PD) across a circuit
o Use the the relationship R = V/I to solve problems
o Given an emf source connected to a resistor, determine the power supplied or dissipated by
each element in a circuit
o Describe the physiological effects of electrical shock; electrical hazards; safety devices
and procedures
o Solve problems involving current, resistivity, resistance, and Ohm’s law in contexts such as,
but not limited to, batteries and bulbs, household wiring, selection of fuses, and accumulation
of surface charge in the junction between wires made of different materials

Current, Resistance and Electromotive Force

Whenever an electric charge Q flows form one point to another trough a conductor
electric Current I, or electricity exists in that conductor.

I (current) = Q (Flow of charge) /t (time taken to transfer this charge)

The SI unit of current is called Ampere (A) named after Andre’ Marie Ampere which is
equivalent to coulomb per second, C/s.

Example 1. A steady current of 5A is maintained in a metallic conductor. What charge Q in

coulombs is transferred through it in 1 minute?

Solution: Q = It = 5A x 60 s = 300C

Ohm’s Law which states that “There is a direct proportionality between Current and Voltage but
an inverse proportionality between Current and Resistance.”

16
 I = V/R

Where:
I = current in

Ampere, A V =

voltage in volts, V

R = resistance in Ohms, Ω

Example 2. What current is in an electric iron having a hot resistance of 22 Ω when

connected across a
220V line?

I = V/R = 220V/22 Ω = 10A

Example 3. What is the current through an electric toaster of 10 Ω resistance when it is

connected to a
220V source?

Solution:

I = V/R = 220V/ 10 Ω = 22A

Resistance

There is a dependence on the amount of electric current in a circuit with the voltage source
across it. The greater the voltage, the greater the current. Another factor that influences
the amount of current is the resistance of the conductor to the flow of charge on the
electrical circuit. Any device that contributes appreciable resistance to the flow of charge is
called resistor. The unit of resistance is ohm (Ω).

Factors affecting Resistance:

A) Length of the conductor;

B) Cross sectional area of the conductor; and
C) Resistivity of the material as shown below.
Material ρ (Ω·m) at20 °C

Silver 1.59 x 10-8

Copper 1.68 x 10-8

Aluminum 2.65 x 10-8

Tungsten 5.6 x 10-8

Iron 9.71 x 10-8

Gold 2.44 x 10-8

17
 The factors affecting the Resistance of a conductor is given by the formula:
R = ρ L/A

Where ρ = is a constant called resistivity, which depends on the material of which the
conductor is
made. Resistivity is expressed in ohm-meter, Ω-m. Thus

R (Ω) = ρ (Ω m) L(m)/ A (m2)

Temperature affects the resistance - The higher the resistance is, the higher is the
resistance that will oppose the flow of electrons on the conductor.

Formula:

R =R (1 + αt )
o

Where: R = resistance at a certain oC,

R = resistance at 0 oC
o

α = temperature coefficient of the conductor

Another formula in solving the value of resistance is given by Ohm’s Law:

R = V/I

wherein: R = resistance, V = potential difference, I = current

Problem 1. A copper rod 2m long and 8mm in diameter has a resistivity of 1.76 x 10 -8 Ω m.
Calculate its
resistance.

Solution:

R=ρL

= 1.76 x 10-8 Ω m x 2m / ¼ π (8x10-3 m)2

= 6.99 x 10-4 Ω

Problem 2. A coil of insulated copper wire has a resistance of 3.35 Ω at 0 0C. Determine its
resistance at 50 0C. The copper wire has a temperature coefficient of resistance equal to
0.00426/K.

Solution:

R =R (1 + αt ) = 3.35 Ω x (1 + 0.00426/K x 50 K) = 4.06 Ω

t o

Problem 3. A coil copper wire has a resistance of 5 Ω at 00C. Calculate the resistance at
800C? For
copper with α = 4.3 X 10-3 / 0C.

Given: R = 5 Ω at 00C Find R at 5 Ω at 800C

18
Solution:
Rt = Ro (1 + αt ) = 6.72Ω
Electromotive Force
Electromotive force is another term for voltage or potential difference in the case of Direct Current
source , the source of electricity are Batteries. Batteries comes out of different forms like:
A,AA.AAA dry cells, button batteries for watches, 9V, battery for a motor bike, cars, and battery for
laptop and cell phones. Voltage is determined by the product of electric current and resistance.
Formula: emf = IR from Ohm s Law V = IR

Potential Difference, P.D. = IR

Problem 1. What potential difference is required to pass 3A through 28 Ω?

P.D. = IR = 3A x 28 Ω = 84V

Problem 2. What is the voltage across an electric hotplate which draws 5A from the line if its
resistance is 24 Ω when heated?

V = IR = 5A x 24 Ω = 120 volts
Problem 3. What is the electromotive force of a battery with internal resistance of 1 Ω and 2 A
current?

Emf = IR = 2A x 1 Ω = 2 volts

Direct Current Circuits

The two kinds of circuits are:
Series and Parallel circuits

For series circuit:

A) Resistance, R = R1 + R2 + R3 +… Rn The total resistance is equal to the sum of the individual
resistances. B) Potential Difference (V). The total potential difference across a circuit connected in
series is equal to the sum of the individual potential differences passing through the circuit V = V1 +
V2 + V3+… Vn C) Current (I), the total current is equal to the individual currents. I = I1 = I2 = I3=...
In

For parallel circuit:

A) Resistance, 1 / RT = 1/R1 + 1/R2 + 1/R3+… 1/Rn
B) Potential Difference (V), the total potential difference across the circuit is equal to the individual
potential difference.

19
 V = V = V = V =... V
1 2 3 n
D) Current (I). The total current across a circuit connected in series is equal to the sum
of the individual currents passing through the circuit

I=I +I + I .........
1 2 3

Comparison between Series and parallel circuit:

Series Circuit Parallel Circuit

Electrons has only one pathway Electrons has 2 or
to flow more
pathways
The glow of light is dim The glow of light is bright
When one bulb is busted When one bulb is busted the
the others will not operate others will still operate

Parallel Circuit Circuit Diagram of Parallel circuit

Series Circuit Series Circuit Diagram

20
Series Circuit Diagram

Problem 1. Two resistors with resistances of 12 Ω and 5 Ω are connected in series and is
connected to a 18V battery of internal resistance r = 1 Ω, calculate a) the electric current in
the circuit b) potential difference across the 12 Ω and 5 Ω resistances, c) the potential
difference across the battery terminals when it is delivering current.

Solution:

a) I = emf = 18V = 1A
R (12 + 5 + 1) Ω
b) P.d. across 12 Ω = I R12
= 1 x 12 = 12V
P.d. across 5 Ω =IR = 1x5 = 5V
5

c) P.d. across terminals emf – Ir

= 18V – (1A x 1 Ω) = 17V

Problem 2. An electrical instrument has 30 Ω resistance and operates best with 50 mA. A
dry cell of emf 1.60V and internal resistance 0.06 Ω is available. What is the resistance R to
be connected in series with the instrument and cell in order to limit the current to 50mA?
Calculate the potential difference across the instrument?

Solution:

I = emf / R

0.05 = 1.6 / 0.06 + 30 + R

R = 1.94 Ω

P.d. across instrument = IR

instrument

= 0.05 A x 30 Ω = 1.5V
Problem 3. How many 40 Ω resistors connected in parallel are needed to transport 15A on

a 120V line? Solution:

The resistance of the circuit is to be R = V/I

Since the resistance of the circuit is to decreased let x= number of parallel resistors
required, the resistors should be in parallel

1/R = 1/R + 1/R + 1/R +… 1/R

T 1 2 3 n

1/8 = 1/40 + 1/40 + 1/40………= x/40

21
 X = 40 /8 = 5 resistors

Problem 4. A battery of 24V and a resistance of 0.7 Ω is connected to three 15 Ω coils

connected in parallel and connected in series across a 0.3 Ω resistor. Determine the a)
Electric current across circuit b) Electric current in each parallel resistors c) the potential
difference through the parallel resistors & across the 0.3 Ω resistor d) the voltage on the
terminals of the battery.

Solution:

a)Parallel Group Resistance R1:

1 /R = 1 /15 + 1 /15 + 1/15 = 3/15 R =5Ω
1 1

I = emf/ total R = 24V / (5 + 0.7 +0.3) Ω = 4A

b)Since the three parallel resistances are equal, the current is the same in each and is 1/3 of
the total current or 1/3 x 4A = 1.33A

c) P.d. across parallel group = IR1

=4A x 5Ω = 20 V

P.d. across 0.3 Ω = IR = 4A x .3 Ω=1.2V

2

d) Terminal Voltage = potential drop in external circuit = 20 + 1.2 = 21.2V

= emf – Ir = 24V – 4A x 0.7 Ω = 21.2V

Figure 14 shows a simple direct current circuit. The circuit is composed of a battery, a
switch, load (bulb) and connecting wires. The principles and formulas are discussed in the
preceding discussions.

Electric circuits maybe series, parallel or a series-parallel circuits combination. Ohm’s Law
formulas are
used in direct current circuits:

22
 V =IR I=V/R R = V/I

Where: V = voltage, volts I = Current, A R = resistance, Ω

Basic electric circuit consists of the following symbols

wires crossing but not making

or electrical contact

wires making electrical contact

switch

open closed button switch

battery

light bulb

mains 220V supply, e.g.,

wall socket

electrical resistance

other loads

Example 1. Find the total current across the circuit?

Solution: The 3Ω and 7Ω

are in parallel; their total
R is found
resistance, 1,
from

1/R = 1/3 + 1/7 = 2.1Ω

1

Then the total resistance

across the entire circuit is
23 given as
 R = 2.1Ω + 5Ω + 0.4Ω = 7.5Ω and the battery current is I = V/R = 30/7.5 = 4 A

Example 2. Determine the amount of electric current flowing across the circuit.

b) Resistors 7Ω, 1Ω and 10Ω

are in series; their combined
resistance is 18Ω. Since 18Ω is
connected in parallel with 6Ω;
their net resistance R1 is given by

1/R 1/18 + 1/6 = 4.5Ω

1 =

Thus, the total resistance

across the entire circuit is R =
4.5 + 2 + 8 + 0.3 = 14.8Ω

And the battery current is I = V

/R
= 20 / 14.8 = 1.35A

Example 3. Determine the amount of electric current flowing across the circuit.

C) Resistance 5 Ω and 19Ω are connected in

series;
their joint resistance is 24Ω. Their joint
resistance is 24 Ω is in parallel with 8Ω; their combined
resistance R is
1 given by:

1/R = 1/24 + 1/8 R = 6Ω

1 1

Now R
1 = 6Ω is in series with 15Ω; their joint resistance = 6 +
15 = 21 Thus 21Ω. Thus 21Ω are in parallel
with 9Ω; their joint resistance is determined by
1/R = 1/21 + 1/9 R = 6.3Ω
2 2

Thus, the total resistance R across the entire circuit is given by R = 6.3 +2 + 0.2
= 8.5 and the battery current is I = V / R = 17 / 8.5 = 2 A

Analysis of Combination Circuits

The principle in understanding
the combination circuits
includes using the meaning of
total resistance for parallel
circuits to convert the
combination circuit into a
series connection. Figure 16
and Figure 17 show how a
parallel combination is
converted into series circuits
and how the analysis to be
conducted in the

24
usual manner. In the previous lesson, the technique in determining the total resistance of
parallel circuits are equal to the sum of the resistance of one resistance divided by the
number of resitance.
Circuit Analysis:

Example 4: Figure 18.a shows a series-parallel combination. The purpose for this example
is to calculate the current across the circuit and the voltage drop across each resistor.

To solve for the combined

resistance of the parallel
resistors, we have:
1/R
23 = 1/R2 + 1/R3

1/R = 1/8Ω + 1/8Ω

23

R = 4Ω
23

Hence, the total resistance

across the circuit is given
by
RT = R1 + R23 + R4 = 5 Ω + 4 Ω + 6 Ω
RTt = 15 Ω
Using Ohm’s law (IT= ΔVT / RT) to determine the total current across
circuit gives us. IT= ΔVT / RT
= (60 V)/ (15 Ω)
IT= 4 A
Since I =I =I = I =... I for series connections we then conclude that I =I =I = I , so that:
T 1 2 3 n T 1 23 4

I = 4A
1

I = 4A since the two resistors are identical, so we conclude that I

23 2
= 2A and I = 2A
I = 4A 3
4

In order to calculate the voltage drop across each resistor in the circuit we recall
Ohm’s Law such that:

25
ΔV = IR
ΔV1 = I1R1 = (4A)(5 Ω) ΔV1 = 20 V
ΔV23 = I23R23 = (2A)(8 Ω) ΔV23 = 16 V

But V = V = V = V =... V for parallel circuits so

T 1 2 3 n

that V = V = V Therefore, V = 16V and V = 16V

23 2 3 2 3

ΔV4 = I4R4 = (4A)(6 Ω) ΔV4 = 24 V

The result of our computations is summarized in figure 18b.

Example 5: The next example shows the same type of combination (series-parallel
combination) as in figure 18a. The purpose of this is to determine the current across the
circuit and the voltage drop across each resistor.

Since resistors 2 and 3 are in parallel connection, we use the rules for parallel
connections such that,
1 / R23 = 1/R2 + 1/R3
1 / R23 = 1/(4Ω) + 1/(12Ω)
1 / R23 = 0.333 Ω-1

26
 R23 = 1 / (0.333 Ω-1)
R23 = 3.00Ω this is the combined resistance of
resistors 2 and 3 R23 is then connected in series to the rest of the
resistors so that we now use

RT = R1 + R23 + R4 in order to calculate the total resistance across the circuit,

RT = R1 + R23 + R4
=5Ω+3Ω+8Ω
RT = 16Ω
Using Ohm’s law (IT= ΔVT / RT) to determine the total current across
circuit gives us. IT= ΔVT / RT
= (24 V)/ (16 Ω)
IT= 1.5A
Since I =I =I = I =... I for series connections we then conclude that I =I =I = I , so that:
T 1 2 3 n T 1 23 4
I = 1.5A
1
I =
23
1.5A I =
4
1.5A

In order to calculate the voltage drop across each resistor in the circuit we recall Ohm’s
Law such that: ΔV = IR

ΔV1 = I1R1 = (1.5A) (5Ω) ΔV1 = 7.5 V

ΔV23 = I23R23 = (1.5A) (3Ω)ΔV23 = 4.5 V

But V =V
T 1 = V2 = V3=... Vn for parallel circuits so that V23 =V
2 =V
3
Therefore, V = 16V and V = 16V
2 3

ΔV4 = I4R4 = (1.5A) (8Ω) ΔV4 = 12 V

Since I and I are parallel, the individual
2 3 current
across each resistor is given by

I = ΔV /R
2 2 2

= (4.5V)/(4Ω)

I = 1.125A
2

I3 = ΔV3/R3
= (4.5V)/(12Ω)
I3 = 0.375A

The result of our computations is summarized in figure 18d.

27
Table below shows the physiological effect of an amount of current that
enters a living organism.
Current (A)
Physiological Effect
0.001 Threshold of feeling

0.005 (G1) Accepted maximum harmless current

0.007 (G2) Paralyzed muscles. Cannot open hands to break the

circuit
0.015 (G3) Pain possible fainting and exhaustion

0.1 - 0.3 (G4) Heart stops its rhythmic pumping & flutters
uselessly (
ventricular fibrillation) blood stops flowing & causes
death due to lack of oxygen in the brain after a few
minute
Above 0.3 (G5) Ventricular paralysis & burns

28
 UNIT
MAGNETISM

5
Learning Outcomes
o Describe the interaction between poles of magnets
o Differentiate electric interactions from magnetic interactions
o Evaluate the total magnetic flux through an open surface
o Explain why the magnetic flux on a closed surface is zero
o Draw the magnetic field pattern around (1) a bar magnet, and (2) between the poles of
two bar magnets
o Describe the motion of a charged particle in a magnetic field in terms of its
speed, acceleration, cyclotron radius, cyclotron frequency, and kinetic energy
o Evaluate the magnetic force on an arbitrary wire segment placed in a uniform magnetic
field

MAGNETIC FIELDS

In 1819, a Danish physicist and chemist named Hans Christian Oersted, during his class
demonstration brought a compass needle close a wire through which he could make electric
current flow. He noticed that as the switch was closed, the compass needle deflected as if it
the wire constitutes magnetic property. His findings paved the way in the discovery of the
relationship between electricity and magnetism (electromagnetism). This principle is best
described in figure 19 where it shows how magnetism is created by electricity along a
conductor.

29
Figure 20 describes how two wires that carries electric current exerts force on each other.
The forces that the two wires exert on each other is just like two magnets wherein it could
be attractive force or repulsive force depending on the direction of current in both the
wires. Attractive force takes place on figure 20a while figure 20b shows how repulsive force
takes place between the two wires.

The direction of magnetic

force, magnetic field and
electric current in a
current- carrying
conductor is
simultaneously
determined by the
right-handrule as shown
in figure 21. In order to
make strong magnetic
fields from a current-
carrying wire the
following techniques
may be considered:

1. Increase the number

of coils (turns) of the
wire.
2. Increase the amount
of current across the
circuit.
3. Using an iron core
4. Concentrate the
magnetic field of the
coils in their center.

Wires that are turned into coils of wire is called solenoid. It is the most common form of
electromagnetic device.

30
 Nature of Electromagnetism

The magnetic field of a

current-carrying coil is similar to the
field produced by a disk- shaped
permanent magnet as shown in figure
22. The comparison between a coil
and disk-shaped permanent magnet is
shown in figure 23.

Due to the force acting on the

moving charges along the wire it
causes the magnetic force on a
wire so that charges moving
across the magnetic field
experiences a force perpendicular
to both the magnetic field and to
the direction of current as in
figure 24.

For an instance, a magnetic field

that creates a strength of 1 tesla
(1T) produces a force of 1 Newton
on a 1 coulomb of charge moving
along 1 meter of conductor every
second as seen in figure 25.

31
Field strength near a wire:

The field of a straight wire is directly

proportional to the electric current in the
wire and is indirectly proportional to the
radius of the wire.

A charge moving perpendicular to a

magnetic field as shown in figure 26a
moves in a circular orbit while a charge
moving at an angle to a magnetic field
as in figure 26b moves in a spiral.

B=μ
o I/r
Where: B = magnetic field, in

Tesla, I = Current, A r=

radius, meter Magnetic fields

in a coil

At the center of a coil, the magnetic field

comes from the whole circumference of
the coil.
B=μ NI/r
o

Where:

B = magnetic field expressed in

Tesla N = number of turns of

the wire 32
I = current, A

r = radius of coil

Different Sources of magnetic field:

A. Magnetic field produced by a moving charge

(Biot- Savart Law) Any moving charge
provides a magnetic field with magnitude
given by the Biot-Savart Law:

μ𝑜 qv sin θ
𝐵= 4πr2
Where:

μ
o = 1.257 x 10-6 T∙m/A, permeability of free space, a property of the
material that allows passage of magnetic field lines
through it
q = the magnitude of the moving

charge v = the speed of the

moving charge

r = the radial distance from the moving charge where the field is being measure

Example 1. An electron travels at a speed of 2.2 x 106 m/s in a circle of radius r = 5.3 x
10-11m about the nucleus according to the Bohr’s model of hydrogen atom. Determine the
value of the magnetic field at the nucleus of the atom due to the motion of the electron.
μ𝑜 qv sin θ
𝐵= 4πr2
= (1.257x 10-6 Tm/A)(1.6 x10-19 C)(2.2 x106 m/s)

4π (5.3 x 10-11)2

B = 12.53T

B. Magnetic field produced by a long straight current carrying wire. A current carrying
wire provides a concentric magnetic field with the wire itself as the axis. The
magnitude gets smaller as you measure farther from the wire. Its magnitude can be
determined by:
μ𝑜 I
𝐵 = 2πr
r = distance of a point from the axis of wire
I = the magnitude of current carried by the wire

In determining the direction of the field lines, right hand rule is being applied. The thumb
points to the current direction while the four-fingers when curled gives the direction of the
field lines.

33
Example 2. Two parallel wires are separated 5 cm apart and carries current of 7A and 6A,
repectively. Determine the magnetic field provided by the 7A wire on the other wire.

Given: r = 5 cm

I = 7A
Required:

B =?
μ𝑜 I
Solution: 𝐵 = 2πr

= 1.257x 10-6
Tm/A ( 7A)

2π (0.05 m)

B = 2.8 x 10-5 T

C. The magnetic field across the center of a circular current carrying coil with radius r
and N loops. If a straight current carrying wire is bent such as to form a circle, the
magnetic field at its center will have a magnitude equivalent to:

μ𝑜N I
𝐵 = 2πr

Example 3. A thoroughly wound flat circular coil of wire has 125 turns has a measured
diameter of 10 cm that carries a current of 3A. Calculate the magnetic field at its center.

Given: N =125 turns

d = 10

cm I =

3A

Required: B =?

Solution

B=μ N I / 2r
o

=1.257x 10-6 Tm/A)(125) (3A) = 4.71x 10-3 T

2 (0.05 m)

34
 D. Magnetic field at the interior of a current carrying solenoid of length L
If the straight current carrying wire is bent in a series of circle whose length is longer than
its diameter (a
solenoid), the magnitude of the magnitude of the magnetic field at its central axis is given
as: μ NI
𝑜
𝐵= L
Where
N = number of

turns I =

magnitude

L= length of the solenoid

Example 4. A solenoid of radius 1m with 850 turns and length of 2.5 m is wound around a
pigeon cage. What current must flow so that the solenoid field just cancels the earth’s (4.2
x 10-5 T) magnetic field.
Given N = 850

turns L = 2.5m

B = 4.2 x 10-5 T

Required: I =?

Solution:

I=B
L

μ N
o

= (4.2 x 10-5 T)( 2.5m) = 0.098 A

(1.257x 10-6 Tm/A)(850)

Example 5. Two concentric solenoids carry currents in opposite directions. The inner
solenoid has 40 turns per cm. The outer solenoid 20 turns per cm. The inner coil carries an
electric current of 0.8 A a) Calculate the current needed in the outer coil so that its fields
cancels the field produced by the inner coil b) How large a field is produced by the inner
coil?

Given:
N = 40 turns per cm N = 20
i o

turns per cm

35
Electromagnets and Electric Motor

∙ When electric current flows in a coil of

wire the current creates a magnetic
property on the wire. This coil of wire is
called Electromagnets. It is thus called
electromagnets because the magnetic
property of the wire is brought about by
the electric current passing through it.
∙ A simple illustration of an electromagnet
is shown in figure 29 wherein it consists
of a coil of wire wrapped around a rod of
iron or steel.

The Principle of Electromagnets:

∙ One of the uses of electromagnets is in electric motor. This device converts electrical
energy into mechanical energy with the use of electromagnets in it. Figure 30 shows
the orientation of an electric motor.
∙ In the figure, the circular disk is called the rotor because it has the tendency to
rotate during the operation.
∙ The disk continues spinning as long as the external magnet is reversed every time
the subsequent magnet in the circular disk passes by.

36
Commutation

Commutation is the process of reversing the electric current across the electromagnet which
is controlled by a commutator, a switch that makes commutation to happen.

Electric Motors

A very common example of electric moto is shown in the figure 32. Basically, an electric
motor have three key components:

Rotor, the rotating element with magnets

An immovable magnet surrounding the rotor
A switch called commutator that controls electromagnets from north to
south at the right place for the rotor to continue spinning.

37
 Inside a simple electric
motor is a rotating part
that includes the
electromagnets, is called
the armature. The Figure
33 is the inside part of a
small battery-powered
electric motor.

The permanent magnets are located fixed in placed outside the electromagnet as in
figure 34. The wires from each of the three coils are attached at the end of the
rotating armature to a three metal plates (commutator).

When the rotor inside the electric motor spins, the three plates come into contact
together with the positive and negative brushes. Current then flows from the
brushes to the coils.
38
 Induction and Electric Generator
➢ An electric current is produced If
you move a magnet nearby a coil of
wire.
➢ The process of creating electric
current from a moving magnet is
called electromagnetic induction.
This process is brought about by a
moving magnet that
creates/induces the flow of electric
current.

Electromagnetic Induction

Electric Current is only induced into a coil if and only if the magnet is in motion because a
changing magnetic field is what produces the current.

Figure 36 shows that a

stationary or not moving
magnetic field, does not
create a current.

An increasing magnetic field induces current in one direction. Conversely, a decreasing

magnetic field produces current in the opposite direction. This is illustrated in figure 37.

39
Magnetic Flux

As long as the magnetic field of the

magnets passes through the coil, the
moving magnet produces current into
the coil.

Faraday’s Law states that “ there

is a direct proportionality
between the current in a coil to
the rate at which the magnetic
field passing through the coil
(magnetic flux) changes.

Generator

The structure of a simple

generator is shown in figure
40. It is a device that works
on the principle of
electromagnetic induction to
convert mechanical energy
into electrical energy.

40
Transformers

Another device that operates on the principle of electromagnetic induction is transformer.

Transformer primarily efficiently changes voltage and current during power transmission
and distribution. Transformer has two types namely:
Step up transformer – simultaneously increases voltage and decreases

current. Step down transformer – simultaneously decreases voltage

and increases current.

For a transformer, the relationship

between voltage and number of
turns determines what kind of
transformer is used. This
relationship is expressed in the
equation shown in figure 42.

Inductance, Alternating Currents

and LC circuits

Self –Inductance. When the current

in a circuit is changing, the
magnetic flux linking the same
circuit changes. This change in flux
causes an electromotive force to
be produced in the circuit. The
induced electromotive force ,ε, is
proportional to the time rate at
which current is changed or, ∆I/∆t,
if the permeability is constant. The
induced emf due to self-inductance
is expressed as:

Ԑ = -L ∆I/∆t

Where: L = is the self-inductance of the circuit. A negative sign tells that the self-induced
electromotive force opposes the charge of current which induces it.

41
The SI unit to be used for self-inductance is the Henry (H) named after Joseph Henry. For
instance,

an emf of 1V is induced to a circuit of self-inductance 1H if the current changes at the rate of

1A/sec, so that

1H = 1V sec/A = 1 Wg / A

The unit for μ previously written as the Wb/Am can now be seen to be equivalent to the H/m.
o

Mutual Inductance also takes place inside the transformer wherein a changing current in a
primary circuit (coil) induces an electromotive force in the secondary circuit (coil) though the
two circuits are separated by an insulation. The induced emf Ԑ2 in the secondary circuit (coil) is proportional to the rate of time at
which the current in the primary coil changes or ∆I /∆t. The induced emf due to mutual
1 induction is expressed as:

2 = M ∆I/∆t Ԑ

where: M is the mutual inductance of the system. The SI unit of mutual inductance is also

henry (H). Energy of a magnetic field of a circuit is

W=½ L I2

where L = self-inductance of a circuit, I is current.

Self-Inductance of a Solenoid. The emf induced in a coil of wire of N turns when the time rate
of change of flux is

∆Φ / ∆t is Ԑ = -N ∆Φ / ∆t

Equating this with

Ԑ = -L ∆Φ / ∆t

gives L = N ∆Φ /

∆I.

If the flux changes uniformly with the current and if the flux value is Φ when the current

value is I, then L = NΦ / I

which indicates that a circuit has a self-inductance of 1H if it produces 1 flux linkage (NΦ) per
A of current in that circuit. Consider that a solenoid consists a core of permeability μ, of length
L and a cross-sectional area A. Then

Φ = BA.
Where B = μNI /L

L = NΦ /I = NBA/ I = N/I ( μNI/L) A = N2 μ A / L

Example Problem 1. A coil of 400 turns draws a flux of 10 -4 Wb caused by a direct current of
2A to link the turns of the coil. a) If the current is interrupted in 0.08 seconds what is the
average counter emf induced in the coil? b) What is the self-inductance in the coil and c) How
much energy is stored in the magnetic field?

42
 a) Ԑ = N ∆Φ / ∆t = 400 ( 10-4 - 0) Wb / 0.08 sec = 0.5 V (neglecting the sign of the
emf)

b) Ԑ = L ∆I/∆t 0.5V = L (2 – 0)A / 0.08 sec L = 0.02H

Or L = NΦ /I = 400 x 10-4 Wb / 2 A = 0.02 H

c) W = ½ L I2 = ½ ( 0.02 H ) (2 A )2 = 0.04 J

Problem 2. A wooden ring of section are 10 cm2 and mean circumference 40cm, if 300 turns
of wire is wound around it. Compute the inductance of the ring solenoid.

L = N2 μ A / L = 4π / 107 H/m x 10-3 m2 x (300)2/ .4m = 2.8 x 10-4 H.

Alternating Currents

Period and Frequency. The period of an alternating emf or current is the time for the emf or
current to go through one complete cycle of change.

1 cycle = 360 degrees = 2π radians

The frequency of an alternating current emf or current is the number of revolutions/cycles

made every second where 1cycle/s = 1Hertz (Hz). If an alternator has two poles, the emf
and current generated will pass through 1 cycle once per revolution of the armature or field.
A 4 pole alternator will give 2 cycles per revolution. In general,

Frequency (Hz) = number of pairs of poles x speed in rev / sec

Instantaneous Values of an alternating emf and current are (assuming the wave form are in
sine curve):

Ԑ =Ԑ Sin ῳ t = Ԑ Sin 2π f t
instantaneous maximum maximum

I =I Sin ῳ t = I Sin 2π f t
instantaneous maximum maximum

Where: f = frequency ῳ = 2π f = angular velocity t= time after the sine function passes its
zero value in an increasing direction.

Root- Mean-Square (RMS) Values. An alternating current is said to have rms value of 1A if it
develops heat in a resistance at the same rate as a direct steady current of 1A.

=Ԑ / √2 = 0.707 Ԑ
Ԑ
max max max Imax =I
max / √2 = 0.707 I
max

A.C. voltmeters and ammeters are calibrated to read rms values.

PHASE. In an alternating current circuit containing only resistance (without inductance or

capacitance), the voltage and current reach their zero values at the same instant as well as
its maximum values at the same instant; hence the voltage together with the electric current
are said to be in phase.

A circuit that contains only inductance and resistance, the inductance across the circuit causes
the electric current to delay behind the voltage - the current is out of phase with the voltage.
Consequently, a circuit having only capacitance and resistance, the electric current comes
before the voltage or the voltage lags behind the current. The angle of lags or lead is called
the phase angle, and depends on the amounts of inductance, capacitance, and resistance in
the circuit.

43
 Inductive Reactance (X ) is expressed as
L

X = 2πfL = ῳ L
L

Where: f = frequency, L = inductance in SI units, X is expressed in Ω.

L

Capacitive Reactance X :X = 1/ 2πfC = 1/ ῳ C

C C

Where: C = capacitance In SI units, X is expressed in Ω.

C

Impedance (Z) in a circuit having capacitance and inductance in series with Resistance R is
given as:

Z2 = R2 + (X –X
L C)2 = R2 + (2πL – 1/2πfC )2
the terms X
L, XC, Z and R are all in ohms. Ohm’s Law for this circuit is I = V /Z

Resonance occurs when

X =X when 2πfL = ½ π fC .
L C

It follows that the resonance frequency or natural frequency of a circuit containing

inductance and capacitance in series is

f = 1/2 π √ LC or ῳ = 1 / √ LC

Power used in A.C. circuit is written as

P = VI x power = V I cos Φ = VI R/z

Where : V and I are rms (effective) values and Φ is the phase angle in between the voltage
and the electric current.

Example 1. An 8 pole alternator operates 900 rpm and develops an emf represented by a
sine curve having a maximum value of 300V . Compute a) the frequency of the emf b) the
instantaneous value of the emf 1/ 720 sec after passing its zero value, c) the rms value of
the emf.

Solution:

a)Frequency = pairs of poles X rev/sec = 4 rev/sec X 15 rev/sec = 60Hz

b)In 1/720 sec the sine curve makes 1/720 X 60Hz = 1/12 cycle, since 1 cycle = 360 0, 1/12
cycle = 300
Ԑ
instantaneous = Ԑmaximum sin 300 = 300 V X 0.5 =
150 V c) Ԑ = 0.707 Ԑ = 0.707 X 300V = 212V
rms maximum

44
 UNIT LIGHT AS AN
ELECTROMAGNETIC WAVES

6
Learning Outcomes
o Narrate Maxwell’s line of reasoning in linking EM to light
o Narrate the story behind Hertz’s experiments
o Relate the properties of EM wave (wavelength, frequency, speed) and
the properties of vacuum and optical medium (permittivity, permeability,
and index of refraction)
o Apply the Law of Reflection
o Explain the conditions for total internal Reflection
o Apply Snell’s Law
o Explain the phenomenon of dispersion by relating to Snell’s Law
o Cite evidence that EM wave is a transverse wave (polarization)
o Calculate the intensity of the transmitted light after passing through a
series of polarizer applying Malus’s Law
o Plan and perform an experiment involving ray optics and analyze the data
– identifying and analyzing discrepancies between experimental results
and theoretical expectations
o Plan and perform an experiment involving optical polarization and analyze
the data – identifying and analyzing discrepancies between experimental
results and theoretical expectations when appropriate (also perform
using mechanical waves)
o Solve problems involving reflection, refraction, dispersion, and
polarization in contexts such as, but not limited to, (polarizing)
sunglasses, atmospheric haloes, and rainbows
Introduction

Around 1865, the Maxwell’s equations were considered the most significant human
contribution in the era of electromagnetism. This was attributed to the effort of a Scottish
theoretical physicist, James Clerk Maxwell in trying to synthesizing the prevailing equations
during his time. The Maxwell’s Synthesis made a clear view of an Electromagnetic
(EM) phenomena and was stated as follows:
I The electric field lines enter on negative charges and exits on positive charges as
. stated by Coulomb’s law
II. The magnetic field lines across a region always constitute a closed loop – they don’t
commence or end anywhere. This statement is in contrast to the first statement, that
there are no magnetic monopoles.
III. A changing magnetic field produces an electromotive force and in turn induces an
electric field. This is a statement of Faraday’s law.
IV. Magnetic fields are produced by moving charges (currents), as summarized in
Ampere’s law.
Maxwell realized that the combination of the EM equations leads to the
equations describing
Electromagnetic (EM) waves. His predictions concluded that electromagnetic waves
consist of varying

45
electric and magnetic fields travelling through empty space. It is with this principle that made him
generalize that these waves are travelling with a speed equal to the speed of light, 𝑐 = 3𝑥108 𝑚.
𝑠
These
notable predictions by Maxwell was considered one of the greatest discoveries of science today.

Challenge!
How did the work of James Clerk Maxwell helped to discuss the very nature of light?

Hertz’s confirmation of EM waves

After the death of Maxwell in 1887, a German Physicist named Heinrich Rudolf Hertz made
the first notable attempt to produce and detect electromagnetic waves in a laboratory
setting during the early part of 1888. His work finally confirmed by experiments the
existence of EM waves. He showed that radio waves, like light waves, could be reflected,
refracted, and diffracted. These findings made into better understanding of the properties
of EM waves

Properties of Electromagnetic Waves

Electromagnetic waves travelling

through space is a complex motion. They
are composed of mutually perpendicular
electric and magnetic fields with wave
motion at right angles to both fields, as
shown in the figure 43 instead of one-
dimensional waves. Electromagnetic waves
are composed of various waves of different
properties such as frequencies, wavelength,
energies and method of propagation as
summarized in figure 44.

46
The nature of Light

In the 19th century, the nature of light has yet to be concluded. Primarily it was
modelled as a bundle of particles discharged by a source that stimulated the sense of sight.
This is the particle theory of light. Sir Isaac Newton along with his contemporaries
provided simple explanations of known experimental facts during his time concerning the
nature of light – this is known as the laws reflection and refraction. Although in 1678,
Christian Huygens, a Dutch physicist and astronomer showed that with wave theory of
light it also exhibits the laws of reflection and refraction the idea of Newton was widely
accepted by the scientific community because of his popularity and reputation during that
time. Another evidence that proves the wave nature of light experimentally was observed
by Francesco Grimaldi in 1660. He observed that light bend around edges of objects, the
phenomenon known as Diffraction, but it is difficult to observe because of the short
wavelengths of light waves.

For more than century, the wave theory of light didn’t receive much acceptance until
1801 when the first demonstration of the wave nature of light was provided by Thomas
Young. He demonstrated that under appropriate conditions light exhibits interference
behavior. Light waves emitted by a single source and travelling along two different paths
can arrive at some point and combine (Constructive Interference) or cancel each other
(Destructive Interference). This behavior of light was couldn’t be explained yet by scientists
supporting the particle nature of light. Until then, scientific community accepted equally
both nature of light and settled that: In some conditions, light acts as a wave while it
acts as a particle in other conditions.

REFLECTION OF LIGHT
Consider figure 45, in our study of reflection
and refraction of light we consider a beam
light coming from a source to be a set of
rays using the ray approximation stated as
Light travels in a straight - line path in a
medium, until it encounters a boundary
between two different medium. These rays
are perpendicular to the wave fronts.

47
If light travels in one medium and encounters a boundary, it bounces back on the same
medium called the Reflection of Light. The reflected rays are parallel to each other when
bounces off from smooth surface as shown in figure 46. This type of reflection is specular
reflection. On the other hand, a rough surface would reflect rays in various directions
known as diffuse reflection.

Consider a light ray travelling in air and

incident through a smooth surface as in figure 47.
The light approaching the surface is known as the
incident ray and the ray leaving the boundary
after reflection is the reflected ray. Together
the incident ray and
reflected ray make angles Ѳ ’
1 and Ѳ1 , respectively, with
a line perpendicular to the surface. This line is
known
as the normal to the surface. This relationship
experimentally shows that the angle of
reflection
equals the angle of incidence: Ѳ =Ѳ ’
1 1

Challenge!
You may have noticed a common occurrence of eyes appear to be glowing red in
photographs. How is this so?

REFRACTION OF LIGHT
In most cases, light rays travelling in a medium (air) encounters an interface (Boundary)
leading into another medium (water) as in figure 47. The ray that enters another medium is
bent (change in speed) at the boundary. This is the phenomenon of refraction of light.
For the refraction of light, ray incident to a boundary, the reflected ray, the refracted ray,
and the normal at the region of incidence all lie in the same plane. The relationship

48
The bending of light as passes through different media is attributed to the
difference in the index of refraction (n), of a medium and is defined as

𝑠𝑝𝑒𝑒𝑑 𝑜𝑓 𝑙𝑖𝑔ℎ𝑡 𝑖𝑛 𝑣𝑎𝑐𝑢𝑢𝑚 𝑐

𝑛= =
𝑠𝑝𝑒𝑒𝑑 𝑜𝑓 𝑙𝑖𝑔ℎ𝑡 𝑖𝑛 𝑎 𝑚𝑒𝑑𝑖𝑢𝑚 𝑣
Table 2: Index of Refraction (n) of different substances.

Substance Index of Refraction

(n)
Diamond 2.419
Glass 1.52

Ice 1.309

Water 1.33

Air 1.000 3

vacuum 1.0000
Considering the speed of a wave is 𝑣 = 𝑓𝝀, a simple manipulation of the above
equation would give us an equation of

𝑛1𝑠𝑖𝑛1 = 𝑛𝑟𝑠𝑖𝑛𝑟
This happens because the frequency of light doesn’t change as light travels
from one medium to another. This equation shows how the index of refraction relates
with incident angle and the refracted angle. The experimental discovery was credited to
Willebord Snell and is known as Snell’s law of refraction.

On the other hand, the snell’s law of

refraction implies that the index of refraction
depends on the wavelength of light. This
phenomenon is called dispersion. Snell’s
law of refraction shows the dependence of
the angle of refraction when light
enters a medium on the wavelength of
the light due to the fact that index of
refraction is a function of wavelength. Figure
48 shows that when light strikes a prism it
bents away from the initial direction of
travel of an angle known as the angle of
deviation. Because of dispersion, the
different colors of white light refract
through different angles of deviation, and
the rays that appear from the second face of the prism spread out in a series of colors called
the visible spectrum.

Challenge!
How does the occurrence of rainbow relate to dispersion of white light?

49
When light encounters a boundary between a medium with a higher index of refraction(n
1) and one with a lower index of
refraction (n
2) the refracted rays bent away from the normal as in figure 49. The
possible directions of the
refracted light are shown in figure 49.
At a certain angle of incidence Ѳ , known as the critical angle, the refracted light moves parallel to the boundary, in this case
c
the angle of refraction is 90o. Therefore, for angles of incidence greater than Ѳ ,
c light is entirely reflected at
the boundary. This ray is reflected as though it had struck a perfectly reflecting
surface. This is known as the total internal reflection. From figure 49, the critical
angle will be describe using the snell’s law of refraction.

When Ѳ =Ѳ ,Ѳ = 90o, snell’s law gives

1 c r
𝑛1𝑠𝑖𝑛 Ѳc = 𝑛𝑟𝑠𝑖𝑛 90o

Hence, sin Ѳc =𝑛 𝑛2.

1

50
 UNIT GEOMETRIC
OPTICS

7
Learning Outcomes
o Explain image formation application of reflection, refraction, and
as an approximation paraxial
o Relate properties of mirrors and lenses (radii of curvature, focal length,
index of refraction [for lenses]) to image and object distance and sizes
o Determine graphically and mathematically the type (virtual/real),
magnification, location,
and orientation of image of a point and extended object produced by a
plane or spherical mirror
o Determine graphically and mathematically the type (virtual/real),
magnification, location/ apparent depth, and orientation of image of a
point and extended object produced by a flat and spherical surface or
interface separating two optical media
o Differentiate a converging lens from a diverging lens
o Determine graphically and mathematically the type (virtual/real),
magnification, location, and orientation of image of a point and extended
object produced by a lens or series of lenses
o Apply the principles of geometric optics to discuss image formation by the
eye, and correction of common vision defects

Plane Mirrors:
A clear application of reflection of light in
nature is the image formed in plane and spherical
mirrors. Consider a point source of light located at
O in figure 50, a distance d o (object distance) in front of a plane
mirror.
Light rays coming from the source then
reflected from the mirror. After reflection from the
mirror, the rays spread apart but seems to
emanate from a point I in the figure behind the
mirror will be seen by the viewer. The point at
which it is located is called the image of the
object. The location of the image from the mirror is
denoted as d called the image distance. The description
i of the image
for a plane and spherical mirror, we use
convention as in table 3.

51
 Table 3: Description of image formed by mirrors

Image formed by plane and spherical mirrors

Location Behind the mirror In front of the mirror
Orientation Upright/erect Inverted

Size Enlarged/Larg Reduced/small Same size as the

er than the er than the object
object object
Type of image Virtual Real

In our study of geometric optics, we shall take notes of the following terminologies:
1. Vertex(V) is the middle portion of the mirror.
2. Center of curvature(C) is the center of the sphere at which the
curved mirror is a part.
3. Radius of curvature(r) is the distance from the vertex to the vertex.
4. Principal axis(P) is the line drawn passing through the vertex and
the center of curvature.
5. Secondary axis(S) is a line drawn through the center of curvature to
any part in the mirror.
6. Aperture(A) is the opening of the mirror.
7. Focus(F) is the point where the reflected rays meet.
8. Focal length(f) is the distance between the vertex and the focus.

Using table 3, a plane mirror forms an image that is described as located at

the back (behind) the mirror (the distance of the object from the mirror is the same
as the distance of the image from the mirror). In terms of orientation, the image
formed by a plane mirror is upright/erect however, the image has an apparent
left-right reversal while the size of the image is the same as the size of the object.
Hence, the image is classified as virtual image.

Mathematically, the lateral magnification M of plane mirror is

defined as
′
𝑀 = 𝑖𝑚𝑎𝑔𝑒 ℎ𝑒𝑖𝑔ℎ𝑡(ℎ )
𝑜𝑏𝑗𝑒𝑐𝑡 ℎ𝑒𝑖𝑔ℎ𝑡(ℎ)

Since, geometrically the image height is found to be equal with the object’s height
we can conclude that the lateral magnification for plane mirrors is 1 (M = 1). The
above equation is a general definition of lateral magnification
for any type of mirrors.

Image formed by spherical mirrors:

A spherical mirror has a form similar to
a piece cut out of a sphere. Figure 51a
shows a spherical mirror with a
silvered inner called concave mirror.
Both mirrors in the figure has a radius
of curvature (R), and a center of
curvature (C). Half of its center of

52
curvature is the Focus where light rays converge when reflected through the mirror.
This is known as the image point. This mirror therefore is known as converging
mirror due to this property. The vertex of the mirror is at point P and a line drawn
from perpendicular to the surface of the mirror is called the principal axis. The
length between the vertex of the mirror and its focus is called the focal length.

Figure 51b is also known as spherical mirror which is silvered outer is known as the
convex mirror (diverging mirror). The features of a convex mirror are similar to the
concave mirror only these features are located at the back of the convex mirror.
However, unlike in the concave mirror rays in a convex mirror diverge after
reflection from the mirror, which seemingly they emanate at some point behind the
mirror. From the lateral magnification equation for plane mirrors, the mirror
equation can therefore be described in terms of focal length and therefore expressed
as:

RAY DIAGRAMMING FOR MIRRORS

In order to determine the positions, sizes and type of image produced by
spherical mirrors a technique called ray diagram will be used. Constructing a ray
diagram will enable us to have an overall assumption on the nature of the image
and can be used as well to checking parameters computed from the mirror equation
and magnification equation. On the onset of using this technique, it is in dire need to
familiarize ourselves on the position of the object, the center of curvature and the
focus of the mirror. Figure 52 shows the location of the focus (F) and the center of
curvature (C) for both concave and convex mirrors.

53
 For convenience, the following rules will be adopted in this module to observe the
location of the image formed:

1. A line is drawn parallel to the principal axis then upon hitting the mirror,
reflected back through the focal point F.

2. Another line is drawn through the focal point then upon hitting the mirror
will be reflected parallel to the principal axis.

3. A third ray is drawn through the center of curvature (C), and is reflected
back on itself after hitting the mirror.

For example, an object

located behind the center of
curvature of a concave mirror
would form an image located
between the focal point F and the
center of curvature C of the mirror
as shown in figure 52a. The image
can be described using table 3 as
follows:

Location: In front of the mirror

Orientation: Inverted

Size: Smaller than the object’s size

Type of Image: Real (since it is located in front of the mirror)

Note: You need not required to use three (3) rays to trace the ray diagram. The two rays
are sufficient to locate the image and the ray number 3 will serve as a check of your
construction.

In the case of convex mirror (figure 52), observe that the image is

Location: At the back of the mirror

Orientation: Upright

Size: Smaller than the object’s size

Type of Image: Virtual Image (since it is located in front of the mirror)

54
 ℎ′ = 𝑀ℎ

ℎ′ = (−0.5)(8𝑐𝑚)

𝒉′ = −𝟒. 𝟎𝒄𝒎

Since the image height and its magnification, we therefore state that the image is inverted
compared to the object.

Therefore, we summarize the above example as follows:

✔ 15.0 cm in front of the mirror

✔ Inverted
✔ 4.0 cm high
✔ the image is real.

Example #2. The same object as in example #1 is placed in front of a convex mirror of
distance 6.0 cm. If the mirror has a focal length of -12.0 cm as in figure 52b. Where is the
location of the image? What is the height of the image? Describe the orientation and the
type of image produced?

55
 ℎ′ = 𝑀ℎ

ℎ′ = (0.67)(8𝑐𝑚)

𝒉′ = 𝟓. 𝟑𝒄𝒎

From these results we can conclude that the image is 5.3 cm high, virtual,
upright compared to the object, and 4.0 cm behind the mirror.

From the result, we summarize the above example as follows:

✔ 4.0 cm behind the mirror

✔ Upright
✔ 5.3 cm high
✔ the image is virtual.

56
Images formed by thin lenses

Thin lenses are used to form

images on the principle of refraction and
they are an indispensable part of optical
system like telescopes and cameras,
where on both, the image of the object of
interest is realized and focused. Figure 53
is an illustration of a lens that are thicker
at the middle which causes a light ray
refracted through it come together at a
point (converge) called the focal point.
This is
known as the converging lenses (Convex lens). On
the other hand, diverging lenses (Concave lens) is
shown in figure 54 wherein the lens is thicker at
the edges than at the center which causes the ray
of light passing through
the lens to spread out (diverge). In figure 54,
parallel rays of light passing through a concave
lens is refracted then diverge after refraction so
that it appears to come from a point called the
principal focus.
In both type of lenses, the distance between the
principal focus and the center of the lens is called
the focal length.
Lenses are uniquely described by their focal length (f), which depends on a) the index
of refraction of the material the lens is made of; and b) the radii of curvature of the two
exposed surfaces of the lens. Focal lengths of lenses are either positive (+) or negative
(-). Convex lenses have positive focal length while lenses having negative focal length are
called concave or diverging lenses. If suppose a point object is situated along the
principal axis a distance s from the vertex V of the convex lens, the image of which is
likewise a point along the principal axis and will be located on the side of the lens opposite
where the object is. The distance from the vertex to the point image is referred to as
the image distance q, which is positive because the image is realizable. The object
distance (p) and image distance (q) are related to the focal length (f) like so

The ray diagram for converging lens

and diverging lens is shown
respectively on figures 55 and 56.

Figure 55 shows how light rays

refracts (converge) through a lens to
form image. The image formed can be
described as follows:
Location: Right side of the lens

Orientation: the image is inverted

57
Size: the image is smaller than the object

Type of Image: since the image is located opposite the object the
image is Real.

Figure 56 shows how light rays

refracts (diverge) through a lens to
form image. The image formed can
be described as follows:
Location: Left side of the

lens Orientation: the image

is upright

Size: the image is larger than the

object

Type of Image: since the image is

located opposite the object the
image is Virtual.

Example #1: A 4.0 cm tall object is placed in front of a double convex lens of distance of
45.7 cm. The lens has a focal length of 15.2 cm (see figure 55). Calculate the distance of
the image from the lens, the image size and the characteristics of the image.

58
 ℎ′ = 𝑀ℎ

ℎ′ = (−0.5)(4.0𝑐𝑚)

𝒉′ = −𝟐. 𝟎𝒄𝒎

The image is inverted because the value of the image height is negative. We can therefore
conclude that if a 4.0 cm tall object is placed in front of a double convex lens of distance of
45.7 cm where the focal length of the lens is 15.2 cm, a 199cm tall image is formed
22.8cm from the lens. This image is inverted and real. The results of this calculation agree
with figure 55.
Example #2: the same object as in example #1 is placed at distance of 35.5 cm from a
diverging lens of focal length of equal to -12.2 cm as in figure 56. Calculate the distance of
the image from the lens, the image size and the characteristics of the image.

Since the image distance is negative it indicates that the image is located on the same side
as the object from the lens, the image therefore is virtual. The image is virtual since the
distance of the image is negative. Since the value of the height of the image is positive, an
upright image is formed.

59
 UNIT INTERFERENCE AND
DIFFRACTION

8
Learning Outcomes
o Narrate the story behind Young’s Two- slit experiments (wave versus particle)
o Determine the conditions (superposition, path and phase difference, polarization, amplitude)
for interference to occur emphasizing the properties of a laser (as a monochromatic and coherent light
source)
o Relate the geometry of the two-slit experiment set up (slit separation, and screen-to-slit
distance) and properties of light (wavelength) to the properties of the interference pattern
(width, location, and intensity)
o Predict the occurrence of constructive and destructive reflection from thin films based on their
thickness, index of refraction, and wavelength of illumination
o Relate the geometry of the diffraction experiment setup (slit size, and -screen to-slit
distance) and properties of light (wavelength) to the properties of the diffraction pattern
(width, location, and intensity of the fringes)
o Solve problems involving interference and diffraction using concepts such as optical path
length, phase difference, and path difference

Introduction

Waves may undergo on the principle of superposition. When wave superimpose another
wave in order to form a resultant wave of higher (add), lower (cancel), or of the same
amplitude it is called Interference. It is the interaction of waves such that the waves are
coherent with each other. The coherence between waves takes place in two conditions first,
the waves come from the same source and second, the waves have the same or nearly the
same frequency. The striking color observed in a thin film of oil slicks and in a soap bubbles
are evidences of interference of light waves. The effects of Interference is very evident with
all types of waves, such as, light, radio, sound waves, surface water waves.

Interferences of waves operates on the

principle of superposition of waves which
states that when during the propagation of
two or more waves of the same kind that
are incident on the same point, the
resultant amplitude at the point of
interaction is equal to the sum of the vector
component of the amplitudes of the
individual waves. For instance, if the crest
of a wave encounters another crest of
another wave of the same frequency at the
same point, the waves would reinforce each
other—constructive interference takes place
as shown in figure 57. Moreover, if the crest
of one wave interact with the trough of
another wave,

60
thee waves would mutually cancel each other—this type of interference is called destructive
interference as in figure 57.
Interference of light wave is a common
phenomenon that can be described classically
by the superposition of wave’s theory.
Double-slit experiment by Thomas Young in
1801 is a key example of light interference. In
the double slit experiment, light interferes and
the energy of photons is lost, but the observed
bright and dark areas on the screen are a
result of the paths available for the photons to
travel as in figure 58.
Figure 58 shows the double slit experiment. On
his paper entitled "Experiments and
Calculations Relative to Physical Optics” Young
describes his double-slit experiment such that
photons are illuminated to a screen after
passing through a thin plate with two parallel
plates as shown in figure 58 as long as the
light emanates from a coherent source.
According to
Young, the interference of the light waves passing through both slits is due to the wave
nature of light and as a consequence, it creates an interference pattern of bright
bands/bright fringes and dark bands/dark fringes to be seen on the screen.
If the waves travel in a path of different lengths the phase difference between two
waves can change. This change in phase difference takes place because of the difference on
the length of path ∆L taken by the waves such that:
∆𝐿 = 𝑑𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜃 path length difference.
Where:
d is the width of the slit,
θ is the angle at which the light is incident,
i
Hence, phase difference between two waves can change in general by:
1. Reflection
2. Waves travelling along paths of different lengths
3. Waves travelling through media of various indices of refraction.

For bright fringes: m = 0,1,2… (Maxima-bright fringes)

∆L should be zero or an integer number of 𝛌

𝑑𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜃 = 𝑚𝝀
where
d is the width of the slit,
θ is the angle at which the light is incident,
i

m is an integer which can be positive or negative.

𝛌 is the wavelength of the light

For dark fringes: m = 0,1,2… (Minima-dark fringes)

61
 ∆L must be an odd
multiple of 𝛌
1
𝑑𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜃 = (𝑚 + ) 𝝀
2

where
d is the width of the slit,
θ is the angle at which the light is incident,
i
m is an integer which can be positive or negative.
𝛌 is the wavelength of the light

∆L is zero if the point at which the waves arriving from the two slits are in central
maximum. At this point the phase difference between fringes is zero.

DIFFRACTION
Shown in figure 59 is the pattern on the
screen when only one of the slits is
open. This phenomenon is called
diffraction. Diffraction comes from the
Latin word diffringere, which means 'to
break into pieces', so that diffraction
literally means the breaking up of light
into various directions as shown in
figure
59. It happens when light bends around
corners of an obstacle. It happens with
all types of waves, such as matter
waves and electromagnetic waves. If
the obstacle results into multiple,
closely spaced slits, the result is a
complex pattern of different intensity.
This happens because of the
interference on various parts of a wave travelling to the observer in different paths, where
the varying path lengths result in different phases. This is usually observed in diffraction
grating. A diffraction
grating is an optical element with a
unvarying pattern as in a compact
disc (CDs).
Figure 60 shows the sketch of
two – slit diffraction presented by
Thomas Young in 1830 at the Royal
Society. Like interference, a series of
maxima and minima is formed by
diffraction patterns. Consider a single-slit
pattern as shown in figure 59 When light
propagates through a slit (or slits) every
photon has what is known as a wave
function which describes its path from the
emitter through the slit to the screen.
Light becomes a series of individually
distributed light sources across the slit
which is similar to the limited number of

62
paths available for the photons to travel through
the slit.

The effects of diffraction is very observable

in nature like the regularly spaced tracks on
a Compact Disc (CD) and DVD that will act
as a diffraction grating (as in figure 61), as
an evidence a formation of a familiar
rainbow pattern is seen when light strike
the surface of the disc upon looking at it.
For an experiment on a single-slit diffraction
figure 62a shows dark fringes formed when
the path length difference between the
upper and lower rays are equal to 𝜆, 2𝜆, 3𝜆…
a single-slit diffraction therefore is given
by:

𝜆 = 𝑎𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜃 (First minimum)

2𝜆 = 𝑎𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜃 (Second minimum)

Hence, 𝑚𝜆 = 𝑎𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜃, m=1,2,3…

(Minima-dark fringes)

Consequently, or an experiment on a single-slit diffraction figure 62b pictures a bright

fringes that are formed when the path length difference between the upper and lower rays
are equal to 0.5𝜆, 1.5𝜆, 2.5𝜆… a single-slit diffraction therefore is given by:
1
(𝑚 + ) 𝜆 = 𝑎𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜃, m=1,2,3… (Maxima-bright fringes)
2

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 UNIT RELATIVE
MOTION

9
Learning Outcomes
o State the postulates of Special Relativity and their consequences
o Apply the time dilation and length contraction formulae
o Apply the relativistic velocity addition formula
o Calculate kinetic energy, rest energy, momentum, and speed of
objects moving with speeds comparable to the speed of light
o Apply the relativistic Doppler formula
o Solve simple problems in special relativity involving time dilation,
length contraction, principle of invariance, mass-energy relation,
relativistic velocity addition, and relativistic momentum
o Explain the photoelectric effect using the idea of light quanta or photons
o Explain qualitatively the properties of atomic emission and absorption
spectra using the concept of energy levels
o Calculating radioisotope activity using the concept of half-life

THEORY OF RELATIVITY
The theory of relativity was grounded on the basis on conventions of relative theory.
This theory incorporates two interrelated theories by Albert Einstein: the special relativity
and general relativity. In his theory of special relativity introduced in 1905 through his
paper "On the Electrodynamics of Moving Bodies", Albert Einstein, explained that for all
non-accelerating (non-inertial system) observers the laws of physics are the same. The
consequence of this is that the speed of light in a vacuum is the same regardless of the
speed at which an observer travels.
The special theory of relativity lies on the structure of spacetime. This materialized
during that time because there is a growing concern on the presence of ether. In addition,
this theory applies on the interactions of elementary particles including the description of all
their physical phenomena setting aside gravity.
The general relativity in 1916 by Einstein tried to explain the interrelation of the
Universal law of gravitation with other forces of nature. In this sense, general relativity
became central to physics and astronomy in 1960. This development of the general theory
of relativity rest on the principle of
equivalence. Under the equivalence principle, the state of inertial system (accelerated
motion) and a stationary state in a gravitational field are physically identical. Through the
later theory, Einstein proposed that spacetime is curved. This idea led him in the
formulation of Einstein field equations, an equation that relates the curvature of spacetime
with the physical nature of mass, energy, and its momentum.

64
Consequences of the theory of relativity:

Special relativity is based on two postulates, that is:

1. For all observers in uniform motion relative to another the laws of physics are the
same (principle of relativity). In consequence, the reference frame does not dictate
the character of nature.
2. For all observers, regardless of their relative motion or the motion of the light source,
the speed of light in a vacuum is a constant.

From these assumptions, the special theory of relativity was realized on the following
consequences:
∙ Relativity of simultaneity: If the observers are in relative motion, two events,
simultaneous for an observer, may not be simultaneous for another observer.
∙ Time dilation: An observer’s clock in motion is measured to tick relatively slow than
the
observer's clock at rest. The dilated time is measured as:

Where:
t - stationary time,
0
t - time dilated
v - relative velocity between the observer and the object moving,
c - speed of light,

∙ Length contraction: With respect to an observer, the length of a moving object is

measured to be shortened/contracted if and only if the object is moving in the
direction of the observer. The amount of length contraction can be determined using
the Lorentz transformation. The length contraction of a moving object depends on
the direction of the motion of the observed body is travelling. As such, when the
magnitude of the velocity approaching the speed of light, the consequence becomes
overriding, as can be seen from the formula:

where
L is the length of the object in its stationary frame of reference
0
L is the length measured by a stationary observer with respect to the object in
relative motion,
v is the relative velocity between the observer and the moving object,
c is the speed of light,

∙ Maximum speed is finite: The fastest thing in the universe is the speed of light in a
vacuum.
∙ Mass–energy equivalence: E = mc2, in relativistic idea, the Energy – mass
equivalence is written as;

Where:
E is the Energy,
m is the mass as measure by an observer

65
v is the velocity relative between the observer and the moving object,
c is the speed of light,

On the other hand, some of the consequences of general relativity are:

∙ In deeper gravitational wells, clocks run slower. This is known as gravitational time
dilation.
∙ In Newton's theory of gravity, the orbits process in an unexpected way like the one
observed in the orbit of planet Mercury.
∙ In the presence of a gravitational field, rays of light bend.
∙ A phenomenon called “frame dragging” happens when rotating masses drag along
the spacetime around them.
∙ In the expanding universe, the distant parts are moving away from us faster than the
speed of light.

Velocity-addition formula
Velocity-addition formula is a three-dimensional equation that relates the velocities
of objects in various reference frames. The relative velocity of any two objects only
approaches the velocity of light but never exceed. Applying the Lorentz transformation to
velocities give as:

In relativistic view, relativistic momentum is given as:

Where:
p is the relativistic momentum,
m is the mass as measured by an observer
v is the velocity relative between the observer and the
moving object,
c is the speed of light,

PHOTOELECTRIC EFFECT
Figure 63 shows that when light strikes
a metal, an electron is emitted. This
phenomenon is called the photoelectric
effect by Albert Einstein. The electrons
ejected in this way is called photo electrons.
The photoelectric effect as shown in figure 63
is attributed to the transfer of energy from
the light to an electron. The alteration in the
intensity of light would produce changes in
the

66
 kinetic energy of the electrons emitted from the metal. Instead, the emission of electrons is
possible only by the impingement of photons that exceeded the threshold energy by E=hf.
From this theory, Albert Einstein suggested that a ray of light is a group of discrete packets
of wave (packets of en ergy) called photons not of a wave propagating through space.
The photoelectric effect needs photons
with energies zero to over 1 MeV for
electrons in elements with higher
atomic number.
Another phenomenon observable
through metal when light strikes
through it is the Photoemission. When
light proceeds a ground state atom as
seen in figure 64, the ground state
atom absorbs the light when it enters
an excited state. This process known
as atomic absorption.

On the other hand, for atoms to be emitted, a sample should be exposed to a hig h energy
in order to produce an excited state atom. This phenomenon tells that when an excited
state atom is reached, it is capable of emitting light.

In the case of radioactive decay, an

element with several isotopes
(radioisotopes), elements that
unstable, undergo decay and gives are off
some of its energy in the form of
radiation. As it decays, an emission of
particles like alpha, beta and gamma
particles are emitted and become s a
new element. These radioactive
materials are summarized in figure 65.

The atom undergoes changes

physically from one or more stages
approaching a stable state wherein it
is no longer radioactive. The unstable
isotope is in the excited state and so
the radioactive decay takes place.
Figure 65 shows the length of time it
takes some radioactive materials.
This is called half-life. The half-life of a
radioactive material refers to the time taken for the radioisotope to decay to one half of the
amount of
radioactive material. Amount of radioisotope left after a time interval t = T
1/2 wherein T1/2 is the half-life, N0 is the starting number
of radioactive atoms at time t=0, N is the number of atoms after a time t = 1T
1 1/2, and N2 is the number of atoms after a time t = t =
2T
1/2, and so on, as such:

67
 ( )( )
So that, (1/2)7.0294 = 0.00765 10g = 𝟎. 𝟎𝟕𝟔𝟓𝒈 is the remaining amount of element
after seven days.

68
 BIBLIOGRAPHY

http://www.physicsclassroom.com/
sciencedirect.com

https://phet.colorado

.edu/

Bentillo, E.N et.al. (2012) Science and Technology textbook for fourth year. Book
Media Press, inc. QC, Philippines

Cassidy, David (2002). Understanding Physics. Springer-Verlag NY, inc.

Sears and Zemansky (2008) University Physics with Modern Physics 12th ed.
Pearson Education South Asia pte.ltd. SG

Sears and Zemansky (2010) University Physics with Modern Physics 13th ed.
Pearson Education South Asia pte.ltd. SG

Sears and Zemansky (2013) University Physics with Modern Physics 14th ed.
Pearson Education South Asia pte.ltd. SG

Faughn and Serway (2006) College Physics. Thomson Learning Asia. Singapore.

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 ABOUT THE AUTHORS

ENGR. CESAR O. VILORIA, is a graduate of Bachelor of Science in Civil

Engineering at Technological Institute of the Philippines – Manila. He took up
Masters of Science in Management Engineering at Adamson University before
pursuing his Master in Business Administration in Our Lady of Fatima
University-Antipolo Campus. His 32 years of college teaching experience resembles
his expertise in his field. One of which when he started teaching in Our Lady of
Fatima University in both collegiate and Graduate level. He was regarded as an
Internal Auditor of the said University for ISO 9001. At present, he is actively
pursuing his career as a professor in Physics of the university.

CHARLES B. AGLUGOB, is a graduate of Cagayan State University - Andrews

Campus in Tuguegarao City with a degree on Bachelor in Secondary Education
major in Physics. He graduated with Merit on the said University in 2008. At
present, he is writing his Thesis on Master of Science Education major in Physics in
Philippine Normal University - Manila.

He passed the Licensure Examination for Teachers (LET) in 2008 and passed the
Civil Service Sub- professional and Professional Examinations in 2007 and 2009,
respectively. He has served as a permanent teacher in the government since 2009.
He handles subject in Physics since his teaching stint in the government and given
special appointments as Action Research coordinator, Laboratory Technician and
Science Investigatory Project coach. He taught as part-time instructor in the College
of Engineering of University of Rizal System for one semester before his teaching
stint in Our Lady of Fatima University - Antipolo Campus in 2015. He received
awards in his specialization like Best ScieFolio output and received a Certificate of
Copyright from the National Library of the Philippines for his primer entitled
“Action-Reaction: The Physics of Rockets”.

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