Colonial and Postcolonial Philippines

Colonial rule (1565–1946)
Main articles: History of the Philippines (1565–1898) and History of the Philippines (1898–1946)
Spanish artillery along the walls of Intramuros to protect the city from local revolts and foreign invaders.
Colonization began when Spanish explorer Miguel López de Legazpi arrived from Mexico in 1565.[57]
[58]:20–23
In 1571, Spanish Manila became the capital of the Spanish East Indies,[59] which encompassed
Spanish territories in Asia and the Pacific.[60][61] The Spanish successfully invaded the different local
states by employing the principle of divide and conquer,[62] bringing most of what is now the
Philippines into a single unified administration. [63][64] Disparate barangays were
deliberately consolidated into towns, where Catholic missionaries were more easily able to convert
the inhabitants to Christianity.[65]:53, 68[66] From 1565 to 1821, the Philippines was governed as part of the
Mexico-based Viceroyalty of New Spain, later administered from Madrid following the Mexican War
of Independence.[67] Manila was the western hub of the trans-Pacific trade.[68] Manila galleons were
constructed in Bicol and Cavite.[69][70]
During its rule, Spain quelled various indigenous revolts,[71] as well as defending against external
military challenges.[72][73] Spanish forces included soldiers from elsewhere in New Spain, many of
whom deserted and intermingled with the wider population. [74][75][76] Immigration blurred the racial caste
system[65]:98[77][78] Spain maintained in towns and cities.[79] War against the Dutch from the West, in the
17th century, together with conflict with the Muslims in the South nearly bankrupted the colonial
treasury.[80]
Administration of the Philippine islands were considered a drain on the economy of Spain, [72] and
there were debates about abandoning it or trading it for some other territory. However, this was
opposed for a number of reasons, including economic potential, security, and the desire to continue
religious conversion in the islands and the surrounding region. [81][82] The Philippines survived on an
annual subsidy provided by the Spanish Crown, [72] which averaged 250,000 pesos[83] and was usually
paid through the provision of 75 tons of silver bullion being sent from the Americas. [84]
British forces occupied Manila from 1762 to 1764 during the Seven Years' War, with Spanish rule
restored through the 1763 Treaty of Paris.[58]:81–83 The Spanish considered their war with the Muslims
in Southeast Asia an extension of the Reconquista.[85] The Spanish–Moro conflict lasted for several
hundred years. In the last quarter of the 19th century, Spain conquered portions
of Mindanao and Jolo,[86] and the Moro Muslims in the Sultanate of Sulu formally recognized Spanish
sovereignty.[87][88]
Filipino Ilustrados in Spain formed the Propaganda Movement. Photographed in 1890.
In the 19th century, Philippine ports opened to world trade and shifts started occurring within Filipino
society.[89][90] The Latin American wars of independence and renewed immigration led to shifts in
social identity, with the term Filipino shifting from referring to Spaniards born in the Iberian
Peninsula and in the Philippines to a term encompassing all people in the archipelago. This identity
shift was driven by wealthy families of mixed ancestry, for which it developed into a national identity.
[91][92]
Revolutionary sentiments were stoked in 1872 after three activist Catholic priests were executed on
weak pretences.[93][94][95] This would inspire a propaganda movement in Spain, organized by Marcelo
H. del Pilar, José Rizal, and Mariano Ponce, lobbying for political reforms in the Philippines. Rizal
was eventually executed on December 30, 1896, on charges of rebellion. This radicalized many who
had previously been loyal to Spain.[96] As attempts at reform met with resistance, Andrés Bonifacio in
1892 established the militant secret society called the Katipunan, who sought independence from
Spain through armed revolt.[97]
The Katipunan started the Philippine Revolution in 1896.[98] Internal disputes led to an election in
which Bonifacio lost his position and Emilio Aguinaldo was elected as the new leader of the
revolution.[99]:145–147 In 1897, the Pact of Biak-na-Bato brought about the exile of the revolutionary
leadership to Hong Kong. In 1898, the Spanish–American War began and reached Philippines.
Aguinaldo returned, resumed the revolution, and declared independence from Spain on June 12,
1898.[65]:112–113 The First Philippine Republic was established on January 21, 1899.[100]
General Douglas MacArthur landing ashore during the Battle of Leyte on October 20, 1944.
The islands had been ceded by Spain to the United States alongside Puerto Rico and Guam as a
result of the latter's victory in the Spanish–American War.[101][102] As it became increasingly clear the
United States would not recognize the First Philippine Republic, the Philippine–American War broke
out.[103] War resulted in the deaths of 250,000 to 1 million civilians, mostly due to famine and disease.
[104][self-published source?]
After the defeat of the First Philippine Republic, an American civilian
government was established.[105] American forces continued to secure and extend their control over
the islands, suppressing an attempted extension of the Philippine Republic,[99]:200–202[106] securing the
Sultanate of Sulu,[107] and establishing control over interior mountainous areas that had resisted
Spanish conquest.[108]
Cultural developments strengthened the continuing development of a national identity, [109][110] and
Tagalog began to take precedence over other local languages. [65]:121 In 1935, the Philippines was
granted Commonwealth status with Manuel Quezon as president and Sergio Osmeña as vice
president.[111] Quezon's priorities were defence, social justice, inequality and economic diversification,
and national character.[112] Tagalog was designated the national language,[113] women's suffrage was
introduced,[114] and land reform mooted.[115][116]
During World War II the Japanese Empire invaded[117] and the Second Philippine Republic,
under Jose P. Laurel, was established as a puppet state.[118][119] From 1942 the Japanese occupation
of the Philippines was opposed by large-scale underground guerrilla activity.[120][121][122] Atrocities
and war crimes were committed during the war, including the Bataan Death March and the Manila
massacre.[123][124] Allied troops defeated the Japanese in 1945. By the end of the war it is estimated
that over a million Filipinos had died.[125][126] On October 11, 1945, the Philippines became one of
the founding members of the United Nations.[127][128] On July 4, 1946, the Philippines was officially
recognized by the United States as an independent nation through the Treaty of Manila, during the
presidency of Manuel Roxas.[128][129][130]
Postcolonial period (1946–present)

Main articles: History of the Philippines (1946–65), History of the Philippines (1965–86), and History
of the Philippines (1986–present)
Efforts to end the Hukbalahap Rebellion began during Elpidio Quirino's term,[131] however, it was only
during Ramon Magsaysay's presidency was the movement suppressed.[132] Magsaysay's
successor, Carlos P. Garcia, initiated the Filipino First Policy,[133] which was continued by Diosdado
Macapagal, with celebration of Independence Day moved from July 4 to June 12, the date of Emilio
Aguinaldo's declaration,[134][135] and pursuit of a claim on the eastern part of North Borneo.[136][137]
In 1965, Macapagal lost the presidential election to Ferdinand Marcos. Early in his presidency,
Marcos initiated numerous infrastructure projects [138] but, together with his wife Imelda, was accused
of corruption and embezzling billions of dollars in public funds. [139] Nearing the end of his term,
Marcos declared martial law on September 21, 1972.[140][141] This period of his rule was characterized
by political repression, censorship, and human rights violations. [142]
On August 21, 1983, Marcos' chief rival, opposition leader Benigno Aquino Jr., was assassinated on
the tarmac at Manila International Airport. Marcos called a snap presidential election in 1986.
[143]
Marcos was proclaimed the winner, but the results were widely regarded as fraudulent. [144] The
resulting protests led to the People Power Revolution,[145] which forced Marcos and his allies to flee
to Hawaii, and Aquino's widow, Corazon Aquino, was installed as president.[143][146]
The 1991 eruption of Mount Pinatubo was the second largest volcanic eruption of the 20th century.
The return of democracy and government reforms beginning in 1986 were hampered by national
debt, government corruption, coup attempts,[147][148] a persistent communist insurgency,[149][150] and a
military conflict with Moro separatists.[151] The administration also faced a series of disasters,
including the sinking of the MV Doña Paz in December 1987[152] and the eruption of Mount
Pinatubo in June 1991.[153][154] Aquino was succeeded by Fidel V. Ramos, whose economic
performance, at 3.6% growth rate,[155][156] was overshadowed by the onset of the 1997 Asian financial
crisis.[157][158]
Ramos' successor, Joseph Estrada, was overthrown by the 2001 EDSA Revolution and succeeded
by his Vice President, Gloria Macapagal-Arroyo, on January 20, 2001.[159] Arroyo's 9-year
administration was marked by economic growth, [160] but was tainted by graft and political scandals.[161]
[162]
On November 23, 2009, 34 journalists and several civilians were killed in Maguindanao.[163][164]
Economic growth continued during Benigno Aquino III's administration, which pushed for good
governance and transparency.[165][166] In 2015, a clash which took place in Mamasapano,
Maguindanao killed 44 members of the Philippine National Police-Special Action Force, resulting in
efforts to pass the Bangsamoro Basic Law reaching an impasse.[167][168] Former Davao
City mayor Rodrigo Duterte won the 2016 presidential election, becoming the first president from
Mindanao.[169][170] Duterte launched an anti-drug campaign[171][172] and an infrastructure plan.[173][174] The
implementation of the Bangsamoro Organic Law led to the creation of the
autonomous Bangsamoro region in Mindanao.[175][176] In early 2020, the COVID-19 pandemic reached
the country[177][178] causing the economy to contract by 9.5% in terms of gross domestic product since
records began in 1947.[179]

Colonial and Postcolonial Philippines

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Colonial and Postcolonial Philippines

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Colonial rule (1565–1946)

Main articles: History of the Philippines (1565–1898) and History of the Philippines (1898–1946)

Postcolonial period (1946–present)

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