CHAPTER 2 CLASSIFICATION NATURE AND PROPERTIES OF

MATERIALS

1. CLASSIFICATION OF MATERIALS

Materials that are used for construction purpose can be broadly classified into Metallic
and Non-metallic.

a) Metallic materials

In general, metals can be classified into two major groups: Ferrous and Non-ferrous. A
ferrous metal is one in which the principal element is iron, as in:

 Steel
 Wrought iron
 Cast iron

A non-ferrous metal is one in which the principal element is not iron, as in:

 Copper
 Aluminum
 Lead
 Tin
 Zinc

b) Non-Metallic

 Cementing materials (lime, cement, etc)

 Concrete
 Timber
 Stone
 Plastics.
 Ceramics.

 Based on their physical nature materials can also be classified as:

 Solid
 Liquid
 Gas

 Materials can also be classified based on their mode of production as:

 Naturally occurring materials

 Industrially produced materials
 Materials produced at construction site

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2. PROPERTIES OF MATERIALS

Properties of materials have great practical significance and a broad understanding of

these properties is essential. Properties which relate to materials generally are: Physical,
Chemical and Mechanical.

a) Physical Properties:-

 Density and Specific Gravity

 Heat conductivity
 Acoustic(sound) permeability
 Fire resistance
 Porosity

b) Chemical Properties:-

 Corrosion resistance
 Combustibility Adhesion
 Toxicity
 Decay resistance
 Hardening

c) Mechanical Properties:-

 Strength -resistance of a material to the action of external static forces

(compressive, tensile, bending, shear, and torsion strength)
 Strength- resistance of a material to various dynamic external forces
(impact and vibratory loads)

Mechanical properties of materials have great practical significance and a broad

understanding of these properties and the behavior of materials under load are essential.
Selection of materials for construction purpose mainly depends on its mechanical
properties.

3. BEHAVIOR OF MATERIALS UNDER LOAD

Application of external forces on a solid body in equilibrium results in:

 Internal resisting forces are developed in the body which balance the
externally applied force
 The body is deformed to varying degree

The intensity of the internal force is called STRESS and the deformation per unit length
is called STRAIN

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Depending upon the arrangement and direction of the external forces, the stress produced
in a body may be tensile stress, compressive stress, shear stress, bending stress, tensional
stress, and various combinations of the above stresses.

When a body, which has been deformed under the action of external forces, is released
from such action, the deformed bodies may or may not recover their original form
depending on the magnitude of the applied load and the elastic property of the material
that they are made out of it. If a body recovers the original form, it is said to be elastic. If
it fails to recover its original form, it is said to be plastic.

A perfectly elastic body is one that fully recovers its original size and shape after the
application and removal of load. Most engineering materials are in part elastic and in part
plastic. Stiffness is the measure of the ability of the material to resist deformation .In
other words, a body is said to be stiff if it sustains large loads without to much
deformations.

Depending on the magnitude of the applied load and the elastic property of the material
the deformation produced may be permanent or temporary. As the magnitude of the
applied load increase the deformation increases, a point is reached beyond which the
original form is not fully recovered; this point is elastic limit of the material.

3.1 Testing of Materials for Mechanical Properties

Mechanical tests are those used to examine the performance of construction materials
under the action of external forces. Mechanical tests may be classified under the
following headings:-

A) With reference to the arrangement and direction of the external forces.

B) With reference to the rate and duration of the load Application.

C) With reference to the effect of the test on the specimen.

A) With reference to the arrangement and direction of the external forces

i) Tension test

Under tension test:

 The specimen is subjected to an axial tensile force

 Tensile stress is produced on cross sectional area perpendicular to the line
of action of the force.
 The specimen increases in length.

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ii) Compression test

Under compression test:

 The specimen is subjected to an axial compressive force

 Compressive stress is produced on cross sectional area Perpendicular to
the line of action of the force
 The specimen decreases in length.

iii) Shear test

The shearing stress in a specimen is determined on cross-sectional areas parallel -to the
line of action of the external force.

iv) Bending test

Under bending test: -

 A specimen is subjected to forces that give rise to bending moments

 The resulting stresses are compressive on one side of a neutral plane and
tensile on the other side
 Shear stresses exist throughout the beam

v) Torsion test:

is an indirect test used to determine the shearing strength of materials. Test specimens for
torsion test are generally cylindrical shape, solid or hollow.

B) With reference to the rate and duration of the load application

i) Static tests: are made with gradually increasing load, such as the ordinary tests in
tension, compression tests

ii) Dynamic tests: are made with suddenly applied loads, as by falling weight or
pendulum. Such as drop impact test.

iii) Wear tests: are made to determine resistance to abrasion and impact as in the case of
paving materials.

iv) Long-time tests: are made with loads applied to the object under test for a long
period. They are used for materials such as concrete.

v) Fatigue tests: are made with fluctuating stresses repeated many a times.

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 C) With reference to the effect of the test on the specimen

i) Destructive test: under these test methods the specimens are either crushed or
ruptured and made useless at the end of the test. Examples under this category of test are
tension in steel and compression test in concrete.

ii) Non-destructive test: these are usually used to test the strength of members of
existing structures without affecting their performance. Example of this test is hammer
test in concrete.

3.2 Stress-Strain Properties in Simple Tension Test

In the standard conventional tension test, a specimen is subjected to a gradually

increasing axial tensile force P by means of a testing machine. At various increment of
force, the change in length ΔL of the specimen for an initial gage length Lo are measured
by a strain gage .It is generally assumed that, for a gage length Lo of the specimen, the
stress is uniformly distributed for all points on each cross section and for all cross
sections perpendicular to the line of action of the force.

σ =P/A

Where: σ = the tensile stress

P = applied load

A=area of the cross section perpendicular to the line of action of the applied
force.

It is also assumed that this uniform stress will produce a uniform elongation ΔL. The
value of the elongation per unit length, strain, is expressed as:

ε = ΔL/ Lo

Where: ε = strain

ΔL= total elongation

Lo =original length of the specimen

With the values of the stress and strain known for various tensile load values, a diagram
showing the relation between the stress and strain, called the stress-strain diagram, can be
plotted.

It should be noted that as the specimen stretches, the cross sectional area reduces and the
gage length increases in value. However, the stress and strain values as defined by the
above equations do not include these changes of area and gage length but are based on

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the original values of area A and gage length Lo. For this reason the stress σ and strain ε
are called the nominal stress and strain. The amount of deformation, which the material
will undergo before rupture, varies widely with different materials.

3.3 Stress-Strain Diagram for a Typical Structural Steel in Tension

A stress- strain diagram for a ductile material such as a steel alloy will show a large
deformation after yield point before the specimen ruptures, whereas that for brittle
materials will show small deformation before rupture. This means that a ductile material
will exhibit a large deformation before complete failure whereas a brittle material will
fail without showing much deformation.

A structural steel, also known as mild steel or low-carbon steel, is one of the most widely
used metals and is found in buildings, bridges, cranes, towers and many other types of
construction. A stress-strain diagram for a typical structural steel in tension is shown
below. Strains are plotted on the horizontal axis and stresses on the vertical axis.

B E
A C
σ

Yielding region
Linear region Necking
hardening region

The diagram begins with a straight line from the origin 0 to point A, which means that the
relationship between stress & strain in this initial region is not only linear but also
proportional. These stress- strain relations may be represented approximately by the

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equation:

σ =Eε (Hook’s Law)

E, the slope of the straight line, is called the Modulus of Elasticity or Young's Modulus.
Modulus of elasticity has the same unit as stress.

Beyond point A, the proportionality between stress and strain no longer exists; hence, the
stress at A is called the proportional limit. For low-carbon steels, this limit is in the range
210 to 350 MPa.

With an increase in stress beyond the proportional limit, the strain begins to increase
more rapidly for each increment in stress. Consequently, the stress strain curve has a
smaller and smaller slope, until, at point B, the curve becomes horizontal. Beginning at
this point, considerable elongation of the test specimen occurs with no noticeable
increase in the tensile force (from B to C). This phenomenon is known as Yielding of the
materials, and point B is called the yield point. The corresponding stress is known as the
Yield Stress of the steel. In the region from B to C, the material becomes perfectly
plastic, which means that it deforms without an increase in the applied load. After
undergoing the large strains that occur during yielding in the region BC, the steel begins
to strain harden.

During strain hardening, the material undergoes changes in its crystalline structure,
resulting in increased resistance of the material to further deformation. Elongation of the
test specimen in this region requires an increase in the tensile load, and therefore the
stress- strain diagram has a positive slope from C to D. The load eventually reaches its
maximum value, and the corresponding stress (at point D) is called the ultimate stress.
Further stretching of the bar is actually accompanied by a reduction in the load, and
fracture finally occurs at a point E. The yield stress & ultimate stress of a material are
also called-the yield strength & ultimate strength, respectively.

4. CHOICE OF CONSTRUCTION MATERIALS

Modern structures often comprise vast number of components. Many of them pre-
manufactured & assembled on site, some of them are manufactured at a construction site
like concrete. In each case satisfactory operation of the building as a whole depends on
the performance of the materials from which its components are made as on how they
interact with each other in the structure.

The following questions show some of the main factors which needs to be considered in
choosing construction materials:

 Is the material produced locally, or is it partially or entirely imported?

 Is it cheap, abundantly available, and/or easily renewable?
 Has it been produced in a factory far away (transportation costs!); does it
require special machines and equipment, or can it be produced at lower cost

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 on the building site? (Good quality and durability are often more important
than low procurement costs).
 Does its production and use require a high energy input, and cause wastage
and pollution? Is there an acceptable alternative material which eliminates
these problems?
 Is the material and construction technique climatically acceptable?
 Does the material and construction technique provide sufficient safety
against common natural hazards (e.g. fire, biological agents, heavy rain, and
earthquakes)?
 Can the material and technology be used and understood by the local
workers, or are special skills and experience required?
 Are repairs and replacements possible with local means?
 Is the material socially acceptable? Is it considered low standard, or does it
offend religious belief? Does it match with the materials and constructions
of nearby buildings?

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 CHAPTER 3 PRODUCTION AND USE OF BINDING
MATERIALS

General

Binders are substances which are used to bind inorganic and organic particles and fibers to form
strong, hard and/or flexible components. This is generally due to chemical reactions which take
place when the binder is heated, mixed with water and/or other materials, or just exposed to air.
Cementing materials that are widely used for construction are materials that exhibit characteristic
properties of setting and hardening when mixed to a paste with water

There are four main groups of binders:

 Mineral binders
 Bituminous binders
 Natural binders
 Synthetic binders.

Mineral Binders
These can be divided into three categories:

 Hydraulic binders, which require water to harden and develop strength.

 Non-hydraulic binders, which can only harden in the presence of air.
 Thermoplastic binders, which harden on cooling and become soft when heated again.

Hydraulic binders

The most common hydraulic binder is cement. Hydraulic binders are usually available in the
form of a fine powder: the finer they are ground (usually in a ball mill), the larger is the specific
surface area (of the sum of the particles) per unit weight. And the larger the surface area, the more
effective and complete is the chemical reaction with the water that it comes into contact with.

Hydraulic and semi-hydraulic limes are obtained from burning limestone, which contains a large
or moderate amount of clay. This can be easily understood, since limestone and clay are the main
raw materials for cement production. On account of their affinity to water, hydraulic binders
must be stored in absolutely dry conditions, to avoid premature setting and hardening.
Even humid air can cause hydration.

Non-hydraulic binders

The most common non-hydraulic binder is lime (CaO). Hardening depends in its
combination with carbon dioxide from the air (carbonation), by which it again becomes
calcium carbonate (limestone).

Another common non-hydraulic binder is clay, which is present in most soils, causing
them to harden on drying and soften when wet. Its main uses are in earth constructions

9
and in the manufacture of burnt clay products.

Gypsum is a non-hydraulic binder which occurs naturally as a soft crystalline rock or

sand. The chemical name is calcium sulphate anhydrate (CaSO4.2H20). By gentle
heating up to about 100 o C calcium sulphate semi-hydrate (CaSO4.1/2H20) is produced,
more commonly known as "Plaster of Paris", which when mixed with water sets in 8 to
10 minutes.

Thermoplastic binders

Thermoplastic materials require heat in order to be processed, and harden on cooling.

Probably the only thermoplastic mineral binder used for building is sulphur.

Bituminous Binders
Bitumens are mechanical mixtures of different hydrocarbons (compounds of carbon and
hydrogen) and a few other substances, and are obtained as a residue in the distillation of
crude oil, either in petroleum refineries or in nature (in pores of rocks or in the form of
lakes, close to petroleum deposits). Bitumens are generally dark black, oily, fluorescent
thermoplastic substances, which are highly viscous to almost solid at normal
temperatures.

Compounds consisting of at least 40 % of heavy hydrocarbons are called bitumen.

Asphalts are defined as mixtures containing bitumen and a substantial proportion of inert
mineral matter (sand, gravel, etc.). In the USA, bitumen is called asphalt, thus causing
some confusion.

When bitumen is used, it must be either heated or mixed with solvents like gasoline,
kerosene or naphtha, which is called "bitumen cutback"; or dispersed in water, which is
called "bitumen emulsion".

Natural Binders
Varieties of binders are obtained from plants and animals, and can be used in their natural
form or after processing.

Examples of natural binders are plant juices (e.g. juice of banana leaves; latex of certain
trees). Natural binders have played an important role in traditional constructions since
ancient times, but, nowadays face low social acceptance.

Synthetic Binders
These binders are generally produced by industrial processes and, therefore, often
expensive. Some synthetic binders are toxic.

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They can be used as admixtures, as adhesives or as surface coatings and are either applied
hot, or as an emulsion, or with a solvent.

Synthetic admixtures which bond loose particles together are mainly resins derived from
plant materials or mineral oil. The variety of commercial products is very large and their
use depends on the required performance (strength development, waterproofing, elasticity
etc.)

Adhesives are used to stick larger particles, components, membranes, sheets, boards,
tiles, etc. on another surface.

Lime
Lime one of the oldest known cementing materials, which is readily available and
inexpensive: Lime is found in many parts of the world in its natural form as a rock of
varying degree of hardness. It is mainly composed of calcium oxide (CaO), which in its
pure form associates with CO2 to give white CaCo3. However, lime deposits are generally
found mixed with impurities such as Co2, Fe2 03, and MgCo3. Depending on the
impurities, lime deposits acquire different colors.

Production of lime

The production of lime for use in building construction involves burning of the raw
material and then slaking. The amount of heat applied and the method of slaking depend
on, whether the product is hydraulic or non-hydraulic lime.
Lime is mostly burnt in vertical kilns (the one which is used in Guder near Ambo). The
raw material is fed in at the top and the finished product drawn off through an opening at
the bottom. To avoid over burning, which injures the setting properties, high-magnesium
limes should not be subjected to temperatures above 1000 0 C and high-calcium limes
should be burnt at temperatures lower than 1300 0 C. Limestone, the basic raw material
for lime production, can have CaCO3 contents exceeding 98 % (as in chalk and various
types of shells and coral) or as low as 54 % (in pure mineral dolomite). Each type of
limestone yields a different quality of lime, depending on the type and quantity of
impurities. The purest forms of lime are needed for chemical and industrial use. Vertical
shaft kilns are designed mainly for continuous production: the stone, fed in from
the top, gradually drops into the burning zone, then into the cooling zone, and is
finally extracted from below, making room for the next load, and so on. The top
layer is preheated by the exhaust gases and the air intake below is preheated by the
cooling quicklime, thus achieving maximum use of the available heat (fig 3.1)

Classification of Lime

 Quick lime

The manufacture of non-hydraulic lime consists in heating or burning the lime stone in

11
some form of vertical kilns to a temperature of 1000 0C calcium carbonate is decomposed
into calcium oxide and carbon dioxide according to the following reaction.

CaCO3 ~CaO+CO2

The CO2 is driven off, leaving the CaO (calcium oxide), which is known as quick lime or
caustic lime, white in color and having a specific gravity of about 3.4 in its pure form.

This quick lime is highly caustic and possesses a great affinity for water, readily
combining with about 30% of its own weight. It is slow in sculling & takes much
time in hardening. It is Used for plastering and white washing but not suitable
for being used as mortar because of its poor strength & slow hardening.

 Hydrated Lime (Slaked Lime)

Quick Lime can never be used as such for construction purposes but must be mixed with
water. The quick lime in the presence of water reacts to form calcium hydroxide together
with a great evolution of heat.

CaO+H2O  Ca (OH) 2 + heat

This process is called slaking & the product (calcium hydroxide) is called slaked lime or
hydrated lime. The rate of reaction depends mainly on the purity of the lime. In slaking
process, the following phenomena are observed:

 considerable heat is energetically evolved

 excess water in the form of vapor is driven off
 considerable & sudden expansion that makes the lime burst into pieces & finally
become powder or pasty
 an increase in absolute volume in forming calcium hydroxide Ca (OH)2

There are two types of slaking: Wet-Slaking and Dry-Slaking, Depending on the amount
of water added.

 Wet-Slaking

Lime is slaked or hydrated at the building site by mixing quicklime, which is delivered in
lump form, with an excess of water and the resulting slaked lime (milk of lime) should
be passed through a fine sieve to remove slow slaking particles (lime putty) and then left
to mature for several days. If the mixing is made directly in a watertight box or a hole
dug in the ground the lime must be continually stirred by a shovel or a stick during the
slaking process to reduce all un-hydrated particles which might hydrate later in the
building and cause popping, pitting, and disintegration, especially objectionable in wall
plaster or expansion of brickwork.

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  Dry-Slaking

If the operation is carefully controlled, as it can be in a factory so that just sufficient

water is added to hydrate the quick lime, the lumps break down in to a dry powder known
as Dry hydrate or hydrated lime. It is obtained by adding almost exactly the theoretical
quantity of water required to change the burnt lime into hydrate of lime. The proportion
of lime and water and stirring are scientifically carried out by mechanical means, and the
product is very dependable (trustworthy). It is reduced to a fine powder and shipped in
paper bags ready for use. Lime has a certain advantage over quicklime. It is a better
product and is of uniform quality because it is manufactured under controlled conditions.

Preserving Quicklime

Fresh burned lime has so much affinity for water that it will quickly absorb moisture and
carbon dioxide from the atmosphere and becomes air-slaked, and loses its cementing
qualities. It must therefore be kept in dry storage and carefully protected from dampness
until used.

 Hydraulic lime

This lime, which hardens to some extent by an internal reaction, is prepared by burning
impure limestone that contains clay producing compounds similar to those present in
Portland cement. It is strong but less fat or plastic than non-hydraulic lime.

Hydraulic lime is manufactured in the same way as quick lime, although a somewhat
higher temperature is required in burning. Hydraulic lime presents some difficulty in
slacking. While it must be thoroughly slacked, like non-hydraulic lime; considerable care
is required to provide just sufficient water and no excess, since excess water would lead
to premature hardening. The exact amount of water required can only be determined by
experience with the particular lime concerned. Clearly, hydraulic lime cannot be soaked
overnight to improve its workability.

Setting and hardening of lime

Slaked lime hardens or sets by gradually losing the water through evaporation and
absorbing carbon dioxide from the air thus changing back from calcium hydroxide, Ca
(OH) 2 to calcium carbonate, CaCO3 or limestone.

The cycle is completed in the chemical changes from the original limestone, through
burning, slaking, and setting.

1. When burnt, the limestone loses its carbon dioxide and becomes oxide of lime or
quicklime.

CaCO3 +Heat  CaO+CO2

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2. When slacked, the oxide of lime combine with water and becomes hydroxide, slacked,
or hydrated lime.

CaO + H2O  Ca (OH)2 + Heat

3. When setting, the calcium hydroxide loses its water through evaporation and absorbs
carbon dioxide from the air, becoming Ca C03 or limestone once more.

Ca (OH) 2+CO2  CaCO3+ H2O

Precautions taken in handling lime

In handling lime the following precautions should be taken

1. Quick lime shall not be allowed to be exposed to water before slaking.

2. During slaking, quicklime gives out immense heat, as such all precutting against
fire hazard should be taken.
3. Since lime dust causes irritation, workers handling lime should be provided with
suitable goggles & respirators.
4. Since lime cause skin burns, particularly if the skin is moist, as such workers
should be provided with rubber gloves, boots & skin protective cream.
5. After working with lime, exposed portions of the body should be washed with
abundant fresh water.
6. Workers handling milk of lime, which is hot, should oil their skin daily to avoid
skin burns.

Uses of Lime

Lime is a very useful material that finds extensive applications in building construction,
in industry and agriculture. Its use will be described under three headings.

1. Lime as a material of construction

As mentioned earlier, lime was used as main binding material in all types of
construction till 19th century when Portland cement was manufactured. Even now,
lime can compete with Portland cement quite satisfactorily in many types of
construction. It is used:

 As mortar (lime mortar) mixed with sand. The usual mixtures for mortar are 1
part of lime to 3-6 parts of sand by volume. Lime mortar will not harden under
water, and in all cases exposure to air is necessary for prompt (timely) setting.
Lime mortar without addition of cement should never be used in foundations
or where exposed to moisture.
 Lime is used in cement mortars and plasters to make it more workable. The
resulting mortar is called compo-mortar
 As plaster (lime plaster)

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  As a whitewash, it gives a sparkling white finished at a very low cost.
 As lime concrete, which is similar to cement concrete and is made by mixing
lime, sand and coarse aggregate in proper proportions.
 As an important constituent of sand -lime bricks, which are quite popular in
advanced countries
 Lime is used as a stabilizer in soil constructions with clayey soils, because the
lime reacts with clay to form a binder.

2. Lime as an industrial material

In industry, lime finds many applications:

 As a flux in the metallurgical industry

 As a refractory material for lining metallurgical furnaces
 As a raw material for the manufacture of glasses.

3. Lime as an agricultural input:

Lime is used for improving the productive qualities of soils. It is added to the poor
soils to enrich their lime content.

Advantages

 Lime is produced with less energy input than cement. Making it cheaper and
environmentally more acceptable.
 In mortars and plasterwork, lime is far superior to Portland cement, providing
gentle surfaces which can deform rather than crack and help to control moisture
movement and condensation.
 White washes are not only cheap paints, but also act as a mild germicide.

Problems

 Soil stabilization with lime requires more than twice the curing time needed for
soils stabilized with cement.
 If quicklime is stored in moist conditions (even humid air), it will hydrate.
 Hydrated lime, stored for long periods, gradually reacts with the carbon dioxide
in the air and becomes useless.
 Lime bursting (hydration of remaining quick lime nodules) can take place long
after the component has dried, causing blisters, cracks and unsightly surfaces.
 Plain whitewashes take a long time to harden, and are easily rubbed off.
 Traditional lime burning in intermittent kilns wastes a great deal of fuel (usually
firewood) and often produces non-uniform, low quality limes (over-burnt or
under-burnt).

15
 Gypsum
Gypsum is a combination of sulfate of lime with water of crystallization. It occurs
naturally as either hydrous sulfate of lime (Ca S04 2H2O) which is generally 76% CaS04
and 24% H2O, or as anhydrate (Ca S04). The gypsum rock usually contains silica,
alumina, lime carbonate, carbonate of magnesia, iron oxide, and other impurities. To be
classed as gypsum rock at least 65% by weight must be Ca S04 2H2O. Pure gypsum is
known as alabaster and it is a white translucent crystalline mineral, so soft that it can be
scratched with the fingernail. When heated to pure gypsum it loses its luster and its
specific gravity is increased from 2.3 to 2.95 due to the loss of water of crystallization.

Gypsum Plasters

Gypsum plasters are used in the arts and in building construction. In all these powders,
gypsum in a more or less dehydrated state is the essential element. When water is added
to these substances they become dehydrated, forming compounds similar to those
existing before calcinations.

Manufacture of plasters

Gypsum plasters are manufactured by heating the raw material gypsum at either moderate
or high temperatures the results being plaster of Paris or hard-finish plaster.

 Plaster of Paris

Gypsum as pointed out before contains a good deal of water of crystallization (as much
as 24% by weight). If some of the water is driven off by incompletely dehydrating pure,
finely ground gypsum at a temperature just above the boiling point of water 100 0C, a
semi hydrated plaster is obtained which is known as plaster of Paris.

(CaS04.2H2O)+Moderate heat  (CaS04.1/2 H2O) + H2O

Plaster of Paris is a white powder having a specific gravity of 2.57. This plaster is also
known as low-temperature gypsum derivative or semi-hydrated plasters (semi hydrate).
When mixed with sufficient water to form a plastic paste it sets very rapidly, the whole
process taking only 5 to 10 minutes. The setting of gypsum derivative is not a chemical
change as in the setting of carbonate of lime but is due to the recombination of the
dehydrated lime sulfate, CaSO4 or CaSO4.1/2 H2O with water to form the original
hydrated sulfate CaSO4.2H2O. Re-crystallization takes place, the dehydrate precipitates
from the solution to form a solid mass of fine interlocking crystals, the material
hardening back to its original state and attaining its ultimate strength on drying.

In many instances, in order that the workman may properly handle Plaster of Paris
(stucco), it is necessary to delay the time of setting. This is accomplished by adding a

16
fraction of 1 percent of a retardant like glue and sawdust after the plaster has cooled.
Plaster of Paris while setting under water does not gain strength and ultimately, on
continued water exposure, will disintegrate. In hardening, plaster of Paris first shrinks
and then expands. The latter property makes the material valuable in making casts, since
a sharp impression of the mold can be secured. Owing to the rapidity of set and difficulty
in working its use in structures is limited to ornamental work. It produces hard surfaces,
sharp contours, and is sufficiently strong.

 Hard-Finish Plaster

By burning gypsum to a considerably higher temperature than in the previous case, there
may be produced un-hydrous sulfate, which is known as un-hydrous plaster or high-
temperature gypsum derivative.

(CaSO4.2H2O)+High heat  CaSO4+ 2H2O 

This Plaster is less soluble with consequent reluctance to absorb water in the process of
re-crystallization, which must occur in order to develop a plaster comparable with the
original gypsum formula. The result is a plaster too slow in setting action for practical
purpose.

Portland Cement
Portland cement is one of the most widely used construction materials and is the most
important hydraulic cement. It is used in concrete, mortar & plaster. It is used in all
types of structural concrete (walls, floors, bridges, tunnels, etc.) It is further used in all
types of masonry (foundations, footings, dams, retaining walls, and pavements). When
Portland cement is mixed with sand and lime, it serves as mortar for laying brick or
stone. When Portland cement is mixed with coarse aggregate and fine aggregate (sand)
together with enough water, to ensure a good consistency, we will get concrete.

History of Portland cement

The origin of the name “Portland cement" is usually attributed to Joseph Aspdin, a brick
mason in England who in 1824 took out a patent for making a powder made from the
calcined (dehydrated) mixture of limestone and clay, He called this product Portland
cement because when the mortar made with it hardened produced a material resembling
the stone which was quarried near Portland, England. The method of making cement has
been improved upon since that time but the basic process has remained.

Raw materials

Modern Portland cement is made from materials which must contain the proper
proportions of lime (CaO), silica (SiO2), alumina (Al2O3), iron (Fe203) with miner

17
amounts of magnesia and sulfur trioxide.

Table 1 indicates the range of oxide composition usually found in normal Portland
cement.

Table 1:

Oxide composition of Normal Portland Cement

Oxide Ingredients Range, %

Lime, CaO 60-66
Silica, SiO2 19-25
Alumina, Al2O3 3-8
Iron,Fe2O3 1-5
Magnesia, MgO 0-5
Sulfur trioxide, SO3 1-3

The main component being lime (60-66%) and therefore manufacturing plants are usually
located to take advantage of one of the various source of lime.

Lime does not occur in nature but is found in a suitable form in carbonate. Silica &
alumina are found free in nature in the form of clay, shale, or slate.

Limestone (calcium carbonate) contains impurities of magnesia, silica, iron, alkalis and
sulfur. Magnesia in the form of carbonate of magnesia often occurs in limestone and, if
present in the amount of 5% or more, will make the limestone unsuitable. Silica by itself
does not combine with lime in the kiln; thus, small quantities of free silica in the
limestone make the limestone unacceptable. However, if silica is combined with alumina
in the limestone, it will combine with lime in the kiln and is acceptable.

Iron in limestone can occur either as an oxide (Fe203) or as a sulfide (FeS). If the iron is
in the form of an oxide, it acts as a flux in combining the lime & silica in the kiln. As a
sulfide it reacts very strongly and can prove to be quite injurious to the production of
Portland cement. If the iron in the form of iron sulfide is present in limestone by 4% or
greater, the limestone should be rejected.

One of the major roles of alumina in the limestone is to combine with silica such that the
limestone will combine with the lime in the kiln and thus make the limestone an
acceptable product. Sulfur, the impurity in limestone, exists in two forms: lime sulfate
and iron pyrite. If each is present in amount of 3% or more, the lime stone should be
rejected.

Manufacture of Portland cement

The manufacture of Portland cement occurs through a series of steps:

18
  Quarrying  Calcining
 Crushing  Addition of retardant
 Grinding  Packing
 Mixing

Portland cement is made by burning an intimate mixture composed of calcareous (Ca is

the key element) & argillaceous (silicates of alumina) materials, at a clinkering
temperature up to about 1500 o C. This partially sintered clinker is then ground to a very
fine powder with a very small amount of gypsum (3 to 5%) as a retardant. The cement is
then packed into 50Kg bags or it may be bulk-stored.

Steps in the Manufacture of Portland cement

The methods of manufacture depend on the hardness of the raw materials used and on
their moisture content.

The mixing and grinding of the raw materials can be done either in water or in dry
conditions and named wet and dry processes respectively.

The main difference between the two processes is that in dry process the raw
materials are fed into the burning kiln in a perfectly dry state. In the wet process,
however, these materials are supplied to the kiln in the form of slurry (a liquid of
creamy consistency, with a water content of between 35 & 50%).

Dry Process:

The four main steps in this process are:

1. Treatment of raw materials 3. Grinding of the clinker &

2. Burning of the dry mix 4. Packaging& storage.

1. Treatment of Raw Materials

The raw materials are subjected to processes as: crushing, drying, grinding and
proportioning & blending (mixing) before they are fed into the kiln for burning. The
crushing stage involves breaking the raw materials to small fragments that vary in size
between 6-19mm. Primary crusher machines are used for this purpose. The drying stage
is typical of the dry process. Drying of the crushed materials is essential and is achieved
by heating the materials separately at temperatures sufficiently high to drive out
uncombined water. Heating is done in a rotary drying kiln.

The grinding of each material as obtained from the dryers is done in two stages. First
preliminary grinding in which the materials are reduced to 0.3mm and then the fine
grinding in which the size of the materials are reduced to 0.075mm. Each raw material is
thus reduced to a required degree of fineness and is stored in suitable storage tanks called

19
silos or bins where from it can be drawn out conveniently in requisite quantities.

Predetermined proportions of finely dried and ground materials are mixed before they are
fed into the kiln. The proportioned raw material is known as raw meal. The raw meal has
moisture content of about 0.2 %.

2. Burning or calcinations:

The well- proportioned finely powdered mixture (raw meal) is charged into long steel
cylinder, called rotary kiln. Rotary kilns differ in design and dimensions in accordance
with the production requirements. Thus, these may be 100-180m in length, 3- 5m in
diameter and have rotation of 60-90 revolutions per hour.

The raw mixture is burnt in the kiln till the proper burning is achieved. This is indicated
by its taking a greenish black color and virtuous luster. This burnt material called clinker
is cement in composition but not in size: it is in about walnut sized lumps when it comes
out of the kiln.

During the burning process water is completely driven off at a very initial stage of
burning at a temperature as low as 400 0C and dissociation of carbonates in to
calcium oxide and carbon dioxide takes place at 800-9000C temperature range.
Then finally compound formations will proceed and it starts at 1200 0C and
requires a temperature as high as 15000C

3. Grinding of the Clinker

The completely burnt or calcined raw materials of cement are converted to lump-shaped
product called clinker, which is drawn out from the lower end of the rotary kiln. It is
extremely hot when discharged, and is therefore first cooled and both (clinker and
gypsum) are sent for pulverizing. The mixture is reduced to an extremely fine powder by
grinding it.

4. Packing and Storage of Cement

Cement is most commonly stored after its manufacture in specially designed concrete
storage tanks called silos where from it is drawn off mechanically for the market. For
convenience, the cement come customer in bags containing measured quantity. The
standard bag of cement as distributed in Ethiopian is commonly 50kg.

Wet process:

It is considered a better and convenient process for the manufacturing of cement,

specifically where limestone of soft variety is available in abundance. We can discuss this
process under three headings

20
1. Preparation of slurry

2. Burning or calcinations and

3. Treatment of clinker.

1. Preparation of Slurry

In wet process, raw materials are supplied to the kiln in the form of an intimate mixture
with a lot of water in it. This is called slurry. To obtain the slurry of standard
composition, the raw materials are first crushed separately using crushers for limestone
and grinding mills (wet) for clays. These crushed materials are stored in separate tanks or
silos. They are drawn from the silos in prefixed proportions in to the wet grinding mills
where, in the presence of a lot of water, thus ground to fine thin paste. This is slurry,
which is stored in a silo (storage tower). Its composition is tested once again and
corrected by adding limestone slurry in required proportions such corrected slurry is then
fed into the rotary kiln

2. Burning:

For burning of slurry, a rotary kiln of almost similar type is used as described under dry
process. All the moisture is driven off the slurry as it passes through the drying zone.
Chemical compounds will be produced in the burning process.

3. Grinding of Clinker:

As the lump-shaped clinker comes out from the kiln, it is extremely hot. It is, therefore,
passed through cooling rotary cylinders. There after it is mixed with 3-5 percent of
gypsum and ground to a very fine powder as in dry process. The fine cement obtained is
stored and packed in paper bags.

Properties of the main compounds in cement clinker

As indicated, in the manufacture of Portland cement, the raw materials are ground up,
mixed to produce the desired proportion of minerals, and burned in a large kiln. The
temperature in the kiln reaches about 1200-1500°c. This drives off water and gases and
produces new chemical compositions in particles called clinker. The four major
compounds of cement produced are:

3 CaO.SiO2 (Tri-calcium silicate), abbreviated C3S

2CaO.SiO2 (Di-calcium silicate), abbreviated C2S

3CaO.AI2O3 (Tri-calcium Aluminate) abbreviated C3A

4CaO.A12O3.Fe2O3 (Tetra calcium Alumino-ferrite) abbreviated C4AF

21
The relative amounts of these four chemicals in the final product depend on the desired
properties of the cement concrete such as rate of hardening, amount of heat given off, and
resistance to chemical attack.

1. C3S (Tri-calcium Silicate)

The most desirable constituent is that of tri-calcium silicate (C3S), because it hardens
rapidly and accounts for the high early strength of the cement. When water is added to
tri-calcium silicate, a rapid reaction occurs as follows:

2C3S + 6H2O  3 CaO.2SiO2.3H2O + 3Ca (OH) 2

The main product, 3CaO.2SiO2.3H2O is calcium silicate hydrate gives cement its
strength. The total amount of water required to complete the hydration of the cement is
about 25% of the mass of the cement. The proportion of C3S ranges from 25-60%.

2. C2S (Di-calcium Silicate)

Di-calcium silicate hardens slowly & contributes to strength increase at ages beyond
one week. In the presence of water, di-calcium silicate (2CaO.SiO2) hydrates slowly and
forms a hydrated calcium silicate (2CaO.SiO2. xH2O). The proportion of C2S ranges from
13- 50%

3. C3A (Tri-calcium Aluminate)

Tri-calcium aluminate liberates a large amount of heat (heat of hydration) during the
first few days of hardening. About 50% of the total heat of hydration is released in the
first three days. It also contributes to early-strength development. Tri-calcium aluminate
hydrates with water to form hydrated tri-calcium aluminates 3CaO.Al2O3.6H2O. If
gypsum is added it acts as a retardant, and the heat of evolution is less and the setting
occurs more slowly. This is due to the fact that gypsum when present, results in the
formation of calcium sulfoaluminate (3CaO.A12O3.3CaSO4) rather than hydrated tri-
calcium aluminate. The proportion of C3A ranges from 5-15%. Sulfates are often found
in soils and groundwater. These may combine with C3A to produce an expanding
compound, which could result in disintegration of the concrete.

4. C4AF (Tetra calcium Aluminoferrite)

Tetra-calcium aluminoferrite formation reduces the clinkering temperature, thereby

assisting in the manufacture of Portland cement. It hydrates rather rapidly but contributes
very little to strength. The proportion of C4AF ranges from 8-15%

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Table2:

Characteristics of Four Compounds of Clinker

Characteristics C3 S C2 S C3 A C4AF
Rate of hydration Medium Slow Fast Slow
Strength -early High low Medium low
-ultimate high high low low
Amount of heat liberated Medium low high low
Resistance to chemical
Good Good Poor Good
attack

Types of Portland cement

The difference in properties of the various kinds of cement arises from the relative
proportions of the four major compounds.

ASTM recognizes eight types of Portland cement under specification ASTM C150. The
standard five types of Portland cement (this excludes the three that are air-entrained) are
the types that are usually produced.

Type I or Normal Portland cement

Normal Portland cement is general-purpose cement. It is used when the special properties
specified for any other type are not required. It is used where there would be no severe
climate changes or severe exposure to sulfate attack from water or soil, its use include
reinforced-concrete buildings, pavements, sidewalks, bridges, railings, tanks, reservoirs,
floors, curbs, culverts, and retaining walls. In general, it is used in nearly all situations
calling for Portland cement.

Type II or Moderate Portland cement

Moderate Portland cement is a general-purpose cement to be used when moderate sulfate

resistance or moderate heat of hydration is desired. It is used in structures of
considerable mass, such as abutments and piers and retaining walls. Its use also
minimizes temperature rise when concrete is placed in warm weather.

Type III or High-Early-Strength Portland cement

As it can be inferred from the name this type of Portland cement is used when high early
strength is desired, usually less than one week. It is usually used when a structure must be
put into service as quickly as possible. This cement is made by changing the proportions

23
of raw materials, by fine grinding, and by better burning, such that di-calcium silicate is
less and the tri-calcium silicate is greater.

Type IV or Low -Heat of Hydration Portland cement

Low -Heat of Hydration Portland cement is used, when a low heat of hydration is
required. This type of cement develops strength at a slower rate than does Type I.
However, it is intended for mass structures such as large gravity dams where the
temperature rise on a continuous pour is great. If the temperature were not minimized
large cracks or flaws would appear and the structure might prove to be unsound.

Type V or Sulfate -resisting Portland cement

Sulfate -resisting Portland cement is used when high sulfate resistance is desired. It is
used when concrete is to be exposed to severe sulfate action by soil or water.

The three types of air -entraining cements, Types IA, IIA, IIIA as given by ASTM
C150, are used in concrete for improved resistance to freezing and thawing action and the
action of salt scaling and chemical attack.

Disintegration due to freezing and thawing is caused by the expansion of the water, as it
freezes. The pressure caused by this expansion forces the pore open after thawing; the
large pore is re saturated with water and subsequent freezing increase the pore volume
again.

Table 4:

Typical Compound Composition for Various Portland Ct

Compound Composition
Types of Portland
Cement C3 S C2 S C3 A C4AF

I. Normal 50 24 11 8
II. Moderate 42 33 5 13
III. High early strength 60 13 9 8
IV. Low-Heat 26 50 5 12
V. Sulfate-Resisting 40 40 4 9

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Table 5:

Approximate Relative Strength of Concrete as Affected by type of Cement

Compressive strength( % of Normal Portland cement)

Types of Portland
Cement 1Day 3Days 7 Days 28Days 3 months

I. Normal 100 100 100 100 100

II. Moderate 75 80 85 90 100
III. High early strength 190 190 120 110 100
IV. Low-Heat 55 55 55 75 100
V. Sulfate-Resisting 65 65 75 85 100

Other Types of Portland Cement

1. Portland-Pozzolana Cement (PPC)

Portland-pozzolana cement is manufactured by blending 10-30% by weight of pozzolanic

material with ordinary Portland cement (OPC); either by simple mixing or by inter -
grinding with cement clinker. The calcium hydroxide librated during the process of
hydration of the cement combines slowly with the pozzolana to give it cementitious
properties, thereby contributing to water tightness and long continued gain in strength
of the concrete. The term pozzolana is used to describe naturally occurring and artificial
siliceous materials, which in themselves possess little or no cementitious value, but will,
in finely divided form and in the presence of moisture, chemically react with calcium
hydroxide at ordinary temperatures to form compounds possessing cementitious
properties. The most important effects accompanying the use of PPC in Concrete
Construction Work are:

 Improved workability
 No increase in dry shrinkage
 Improved resistance to sulfate attack etc.

Special types of Portland Cement

A variety of special cements exist that are limited for specific uses and purposes. The
following are few examples:

1. White Portland cement 5. Waterproofed Cement

2. Colored Cements 6. Hydrophobic cement

3. Oil-Well Cements 7. Antibacterial cements

4. Regulated cements 8. Barium and Strontium cements etc.

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Properties and Tests of Portland cement

Most specifications place specific physical property and chemical composition

requirements for Portland cement.

1. Phvsical Properties

The physical properties of Portland cement are fineness, setting time, soundness,
compressive strength, heat of hydration and specific gravity.

1.1 Fineness

The fineness of the cement has an important effect on the rate of hydration. The finer the
cement the quicker the rate of hardening and the greater is the heat evolution at early
ages. For these reasons a finely ground cement is more liable to suffer from shrinkage
cracking than a coarser cement but this statement can be applied only to cements of the
same chemical composition. The fineness of grinding does not affect the total heat
evolved but only the rate at which that heat is evolved. Extremely fine size does not
improve the ultimate strength of the cement. The fineness of cement can be measured in
a number of ways. The sieve test, specific surface test by Wagner Turbid meter method
and the Blaine air permeability methods are used. The Ethiopian Standard specifies the
fineness of grinding should not be less than 2250 cm2/gm for OPC and 2500 cm2/gm for
sulfate resisting Portland cement by Blaine air permeability method.

1.2 Setting time

Setting is the term used to describe the stiffening of the cement paste, although the
definition of the stiffness of the paste, which is considered, set is somewhat arbitrary.
Broadly speaking, setting refers to a change from a fluid to a rigid stage. Although,
during setting, the paste acquires some strength, for practical purposes it is important to
distinguish setting from hardening, which refers to the gain of strength of set cement
paste. Some cement set quickly, within few minutes, others may take comparatively
longer time. Moreover, setting is not an abrupt process, which may complete immediately
after its start; it is rather a progressive phenomenon, which has beginning, full
development and an end. It is on this latter basis, setting is distinguished into initial and
final setting qualified by the time required in each case.

Time required for setting is influenced by:

1. Temperature: the setting time of cement decreases with a rise in temperature, but
above 30 0C a reverse effect may be observed. At low temperatures setting is retarded.

2. Water content: the quantity of water required in making a paste must be right quantity
for complete hydration of cement. Less water result in incomplete hydration, extra
quantity will bleed out after cement is set.

26
3. Humidity: the humidity of the atmosphere in which setting is allowed to take place acts
through temperature and moisture conditions.

4. Fineness of the Cement: the greater the cement fineness the greater the rate of
hydration and hence the shorter the setting time.

5. Chemical Composition: Setting is caused by a selective hydration of cement

compounds: the two first to react are C3A and C3S.

The setting times of cement are measured using the Vicat apparatus with different
penetration attachments. The test is performed at standard conditions of temperature and
humidity and on cement pastes of standard consistency. Initial setting time is the duration
of cement paste of standard consistency related to 25 mm penetration of the Vicat needle
into the paste in 30 seconds after it is released while the final setting time is that related to
zero penetration of the Vicat needle into the paste.

Ethiopian standard recommends that the initial setting time for cement not
be less than 45 minutes and the final setting time not to exceed 10 hours.

1.3 Soundness

Incomplete combination of the lime with other raw constituents through under burning of
clinker, results in free or uncombined lime (CaO) in the finished cement. If this is present
in excess amount expansion and disruption of concrete may eventually occur. This
phenomenon is known as soundness. It is essential that cement paste, once it has set,
does not undergo a large change in volume. In particular, there must be no appreciable
expansion, which under conditions of restraint, could result in disruption of the hardened
cement paste. Such expansion may take place due to the delayed or slow hydration, or
other reaction, of some compounds present in the hardened cement, namely free lime,
magnesia, and calcium sulfate.

If the raw materials fed into the kiln contain more lime that can combine with the
acidic oxides; or if burning or cooling are unsatisfactory, the excess lime will remain
in a free condition. This hard burnt lime hydrates only slowly and because slaked
lime occupies a large volume than the original calcium oxide (CaO) expansion takes
place. Cement which exhibits such properties are described as unsound.

Cement can also be unsound due to the presence of MgO, which reacts with water in a
similar manner to CaO. Calcium sulfate is the third compound to cause expansion: In
this case calcium sulfoaluminate is formed. It may be recalled that a hydrate of calcium
sulfate -gypsum is added to cement clinker in order to retard quick setting but if gypsum
is present in excess of the amount that can react with C3A during setting, unsoundness in
the form of a slow expansion will result. For this, standards limit very strictly the amount
of gypsum that can be added to clinker. The limits are well on the safe side as far as the
danger of unsoundness in concerned. A very fine size of cement may be the cause of
unsoundness in cement. In order to determine the soundness of cement the Le Chatelier

27
test is used. The Le Chatelier apparatus consists of a small brass cylinder split along its
generatrix. Two indicators with pointed ends are attached to the cylinder on either side of
the split; in this manner, the widening of the split caused by the expansion of the cement,
is greatly magnified and can easily be measured. The cylinder is placed on a grass plate
filled with cement paste of standard consistency, and covered with another glass plate.
The whole assembly is then placed in a cabinet at 20°c and relative humidity of note less
than 98% at the end of the period, the distance between the indicators is measured, and
the mold is immersed in water and gradually brought to the boil in 30 minutes. After
boiling for.1 hr the assembly is taken out and, after cooling, the distance between the
indicators is again measured the increase in this distance represent the expansion of the
cement, and for Portland cement is limited to 10 mm by Ethiopian Standard.

1.4 Compressive strength

The mechanical strength of hardened cement is the property of the material that is
perhaps most obviously required for structural use. Strength tests are not made on a neat
cement paste because of difficulties of molding and testing with a consequent large
variability of test results. Strength of cement can be determined by two methods i.e.
mortar test and concrete test. In the mortar test, a 1:3 cement-sand mortar is used. The
sand is standard sand (of single size). The mass of water in the mix is 10% of the mass of
the dry materials. Expressed as a water/cement ratio, this corresponds to 0.40 by mass. A
standard procedure, prescribed by British standard is followed in mixing, and 70.7mm
cubes are made using a vibrating table with a frequency of 200Hz applied for two
minutes. The cubes are demolded after 24 hours and further cured in water until tested in
a wet-surface condition. In the concrete test, three-water/cement ratios can be used 0.60,
0.55 and 0.45, depending on the type of cement. The amounts of coarse and fine
aggregate, which have to come from particular quarries, are specified. Batches of 100mm
cubes are made by hand in prescribed manner, the temperature and humidity conditions
of the mixing room, curing chamber, testing room, and the temperature of the water
curing tank are specified.

The compressive strength of mortar & concrete cubes has to confirm to the following
according to Ethiopian standard.

For Ordinary Portland cement:

 3 days (72±1 hr): not less than 8N/mm2 (8MPa)

 7 days (168±2hrs): not less than 14N/mm2 (14MPa)

1.5 Heat of hydration

Heat of hydration is the quantity of heat in joules per gram generated when cement and
water react. The most common method of determining the heat of hydration is by
measuring the heats of solution of unhydrated and hydrated cement in mixture of nitric
and hydrofluoric acids: the difference between the two values represents the heat of
hydration.

28
For practical purpose, it is not necessarily the total heat of hydration that matters but the
rate of heat evolution. The amount of heat generated is dependent chiefly on the chemical
composition, fineness of the cement, and the temperature of curing time.

Because in the early stages of hydration the different compounds hydrate at

different rates, the rate of heat evolution, as well as the total heat, depends on the
compound composition of the cement. It follows that by reducing the proportions
of the compounds that hydrate most rapidly (C3A& C3S) the high rate of heat
evolution in the early life of concrete can be lowered.

The fineness of the cement also influences the rate of heat development, an increase in
fineness speeding up the reaction of hydration and therefore the heat evolved. It is
reasonable to assume that the early rate of hydration of each compound in cement is
proportional to the surface area of the cement. However, at later stages, the effect of the
surface area is negligible and the total amount of heat evolved is not affected by the
fineness of cement.

 For massive structures such as dams and retaining walls cement, such as low
heat cement is used which generates lesser rate of heat of hydration to avoid
cracks due to the fairly rapid rise in temperature and the subsequent cooling.

Table 6:

Heats of Hydration of the Pure Compounds of Portland cement

Compound Heat of Hydration

C3 S 503 J/g = 120cal/g
C2 S 260 J/g = 62 cal/g
C3 A 867J/g = 207cal/g
C4AF 419 J/g = 100 cal/g

Table 7:

Heats of Hydration of the Compounds In Cement

Compound Heat of Hydration, J/g at the age of

3 days 7 days 28 days 90 days 1 Year 6 ½ years

C3 S 243 222 377 436 490 490

C2 S 50 42 105 176 226 222
C3 A 888 1559 1378 1303 1169 1374
C4AF 289 494 494 410 377 465

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Table 8:

Comparison of Total Heat of Hydration of Different Kinds of Cements

Types of cement Heat of Hydration, J/g at the age of

3 days 7 days 28 days 90 days

Ordinary Portland cement 23-46 47-75 66-94 80-105

Low heat Portland cement - 55 65 75
Portland blast furnace 20-26 30-62 70-85 75-90

2. Chemical Composition Requirements of Portland cement.

Chemical Properties

The manufacturer on regular basis normally conducts chemical tests in order to check on
the quality of the product. They (chemical tests) may also be conducted in research
laboratories in order to determine the compound composition of cement used in a
particular research. Otherwise they are of little importance to the ordinary consumer.

The results of chemical tests are reported in terms of oxides, which are used to calculate
the compound composition by Bogue method. The four major oxides-calcium oxide
(CaO), Silicon dioxide (Si02), aluminum oxide (A12O3) and ferric oxide (Fe203) are
important in this respect. It is also important to know the amounts of free lime (free
calcium oxide), sulphur trioxide (S03), and magnesium oxide because of their adverse
effects on soundness. The percentages of sodium and potassium (Na20, K2O) oxides play
also importance incase the cement is used in concrete with alkali reactive aggregates.

Ethiopian Standard ES.C.D6.201 sets quality requirements of Portland cement as follows:

a) Lime Saturation Factor(LSF)

The lime saturation factor (L.S.F) shall not be less than 0.66 or more than 1.02 when
calculated by the following formula:

L.S.F = CaO -0.7(S03)

2.8(Si02) + 1.2 (A12O3) + 0.65 (Fe203)

30
The symbol in parenthesis refers to the percentage by weight of total cement. A lime
saturation factor within the given limits indicates that the proportion of the raw materials
was satisfactory and did not lead to, especially, excess of lime beyond that can combine
with silica and alumina. An increase of silica, at the expense of the lime content, reduces
the rate of development of strength, whereas, an excess of lime beyond that combined
with silica and alumina (free lime) promotes unsoundness in the hardened paste.

b) Alumina Ratio (AR)

AR= Al2O3/ Fe203

The ratio of the percentage of alumina (aluminum oxide) to the percentage of iron oxide
shall not be less than 0.66.

The decrease in the ratio may result from an increase in ferric oxide content, which
reduces the proportion of C3A and increases that of C4 AF in the cement.

C) Magnesia (MgO)

The mass of magnesia (magnesium oxide) contained in Portland cement shall not exceed
5.0 percent. The upper percentage limit is to avoid the long-term unsoundness that results
from higher percentage content of MgO.

d) Sulfur trioxide (SO3)

The mass of sulfur trioxide contained in Portland cement shall not exceed 3% if the
tricalcium aluminate (C3A) is 8 % or less, and shall not exceed 3.5 % if the tricalcium
aluminate exceeds 8 %.

An upper limit on S03 is specified in order to avoid unsoundness resulting from the
delayed hydration of the sulphate phase.

e) Loss In Mass On Ignition.

The total loss in mass when Portland cement is heated to a temperature of 925 ± 25 0C
shall not exceed 4 percent. The loss in mass on ignition is determined in order to check
on possible pre hydration or carbonation that may result from improper or prolonged
storage of the clinker or resulting cement.

f) Insoluble Residue

The mass of insoluble residue shall not exceed 1.5 percent. The insoluble residue is that
part of a cement sample which is insoluble in hydrochloric acid (HCl). It derives from the
clay minerals of the raw materials, which have not reacted to form the cement compound,
which are soluble in this acid. Hence the amount of insoluble residue indicates the
efficiency of the burning process the completeness of the reactions in the kiln.

31
Field Testing of Cement

Cement is manufactured in factories under controlled conditions, but during its transit
and storage there are chances of its deterioration or being adulterated. Therefore
whenever cement is received at site for use and it is not possible to conduct any
laboratory tests its quality can be judged by the following methods.

1. Visual inspection

A sample of cement taken from the bag showing bright gray color (as specified by the
manufacturer) gives an indication of freshness & purity of cement.

2. Adulteration

2.1) Place about 100 grams of cement on a steel plate and heat it for about 20 minutes.
No change in color is again an indication of unadulterated cement.

2.2) Shake a small quantity of cement in glass jar ½ full of water and allow it to settle;
Adulterated particles (coal, ash etc) if any shall float on the surface.

Storage of Cement

At all stages up to the time of use, cement must be kept dry so as to prevent or minimize
deterioration from the effects of moisture, atmospheric humidity and carbonation.
Airtight drums and internally coated bulk silos are ideal storages. Cement in multi wall
paper bags should be stored in a waterproof building with close-fitting doors, which
should be kept closed as much as possible. The bagged cement should be stacked on
pallets or on a dry board platform; some 150mm clear of the surface. In regions of high
relative humidity, insulation and a storage temperature of 45 °c are advisable.

Bags of cement should be stacked close together, so as to restrict the circulation of air
around them. The stacks should be kept 150-300mm clear of the walls and be arranged so
that stored cement can be removed in the order in which it is received. Cement which is
four months old should be classified as aged and be restricted before use

32
CONCRETE TECHNOLOGY

Concrete is a composite material made up of inert materials of varying sizes, which are
bound together by a binding medium. Concrete contains coarse aggregate in addition to
cement, water, air and fine aggregate. The cement, water, and air combine to form a paste
that binds the aggregates together. Thus, the strength of concrete is dependent on the
strength of the aggregate matrix bond.

Portland cement

Water Paste

Air (entrapped or entrained)

Concrete

Fine aggregate (sand)

Coarse aggregate (gravel) Aggregate

Admixture (if required)

The entire mass of the concrete is deposited or placed in a plastic state and almost
immediately begins to develop strength (harden), a process which, under proper curing
conditions, may continue for years. Because concrete is initially in a plastic state; it lends
itself to all kinds of construction, regardless of size or shape.

TYPES AND USES OF CONCRETE

Concrete is a very versatile material and can be made to satisfy a large variety of
requirements; whether it is used for foundations, floor slabs, monolithic walls cast in situ
or for prefabricating concrete blocks.

1. Plain mass concrete, with graded or predominantly small sized aggregate, for
foundations, floors, paving, monolithic walls (in some cases), bricks, tiles, hollow blocks,
pipes.

2. No-fines concrete, a lightweight concrete with only single size coarse aggregate (dense
or lightweight) leaving voids between them, suitable for load bearing and non-load
bearing walls, in-fill walls in framed structures or base coarse for floor slabs. No-fines
concrete provides an excellent key for rendering, good thermal insulation (due to air
gaps), and low drying shrinkage. The large voids also prevent capillary action.

3. Lightweight aggregate concrete, using expanded clay, foamed blast furnace slag,
sintered fly ash, pumice, or other light aggregate, for thermal insulating walls and
components, and for lightweight building blocks.

33
4. Aerated concrete, made by introducing air or gas into a cement-sand mix (without
coarse aggregate). Used for thermal insulating, non-structural uses and lightweight
building blocks. Disadvantages are low resistance to abrasion, excessive shrinkage and
permeability. However, it is easy to handle and can be cut with a saw and nailed like
timber.

5. Reinforced concrete, also known as RCC (reinforced cement concrete), which

incorporates steel bars in sections of the concrete which are in tension (to supplement the
low tensile strength of mass concrete and control thermal and shrinkage cracking), for
floor slabs, beams, lintels, columns, stairways, frame structures, long-span elements,
angular or curved shell structures, etc., all these cast in situ or pre cast. The high strength
to weight ratio of steel, coupled with the fortunate coincidence of its coefficient of
thermal expansion being about the same as concrete, make it the ideal material for
reinforcement. Where deformed bars (which have ribs to inhibit longitudinal movement
after casting) are available, they should be given preference, as they are far more
effective than plain bars, so that up to 30 % of steel can be saved.

6. Pre-stressed concrete, which is reinforced concrete with the steel reinforcement held
under tension during production, to achieve stiffness, crack resistance and lighter
constructions of components, such as beams, slabs, trusses, stairways and other large-
span units. By pre stressing, less steel is needed and the concrete is held under
compression, enabling it to carry much higher loads before this compression is overcome.
Pre stressing is achieved either by pre-tensioning (in which the steel is stressed before the
concrete is cast) or by post-tensioning (after the concrete has reached an adequate
strength, allowing the steel to be passed through straight or curved ducts, which are filled
with grout after the reinforcement has been tensioned and anchored). This is essentially a
factory operation, requiring expensive, special equipment (jacks, anchorages, pre
stressing beds, etc.), not suitable for low-cost housing.

PROPERTIES OF CONCRETE

Concrete has many properties that make it a popular construction material. The correct
proportion of ingredients, placement, and curing are needed in order for these properties
to be optimal.

Good-quality concrete has many advantages that add to its popularity.

 It is economical when ingredients are readily available

 Concrete's long life and relatively low maintenance requirements increase its
economic benefits
 Concrete is not as likely to rot, corrode, or decay as other building materials.
 Concrete has the ability to be molded or cast into almost any desired shape.
 Concrete is a non-combustible material which makes it fire-safe and able
withstand high temperatures
 It is resistant to wind, water, rodents, and insects. Hence, concrete is often used
for storm shelters.

34
  Building of the molds and casting can occur on the work-site which reduces costs.
 High compressive strength, resistant to weathering, impact and abrasion.
 Low tensile strength (but can be overcome with steel reinforcement)

DISADVANTAGES OFCONCRETE

Some of disadvantages of concrete are:

 High cost of cement, steel and formwork ( in developing countries)

 Difficult quality control on building sites, with the risk of cracking and gradual
deterioration, if wrongly mixed, placed and insufficiently cured with water.
 In moist climates or coastal regions, corrosion of reinforcement (if insufficiently
protected), leading to expansion cracks.
 Demolishing concrete is difficult.

INGREDIENTS OF CONCRETE

1. CEMENT

Usually, Portland cement is specified for general concrete construction work and should
confirm to standard specifications. Various types of Portland cement as well as physical
& chemical requirements were discussed in the previous sessions.

2. WATER

Water serves two purposes in making concrete. First of all, it causes the hydration of
cement and secondly, it makes the mix fluid and workable. Clean water is important for
the same reasons, as is clean aggregate; any impurities present will affect bond strength
between the paste and aggregate.

Almost any water that is potable may be used to make concrete. Drinking water with a
noticeable taste or odor should not be used until it is tested for organic impurities.

Impurities in mixing water may cause anyone or all of the following:

1. Abnormal setting time 4. Efflorescence

2. Decreased strength 5. Corrosion of reinforcement

3. Volume changes
Some of the impurities in mixing water that cause these undesirable effects in the final
concrete are

1. Dissolved Chemicals. 3. Sugar

2. Seawater 4. Algae

35
Dissolved chemicals may either accelerate or retard the set and can substantially reduce
the concrete strength further such dissolved chemicals can actively attack the cement
sand bond leading to early disintegration of the concrete.

Sea water containing less than 3% salt is generally acceptable for plain concrete but not
for reinforced concrete. The presence of salt can lead to corrosion of the reinforcing bars
and a decrease in concrete strength by some 10-15%.

If sugar is present in even small amounts, it can cause rapid setting and reduced
concrete strength. Algae can cause a reduction in the strength of concrete by increasing
the amount of air captured in the paste and reducing the bond strength between the paste
and the aggregate.

Although water is an essential ingredient, too much water added during mixing results in
a weak concrete. Very little water is necessary to cause the hydration process. Therefore,
as a general rule, no more water should be added than necessary to make the mix
workable.

3. AGGREGATES

Aggregates are the filler materials which make up a large portion (roughly 70- 75%) of
the concrete volume. Considerable care should be taken to provide the best aggregates
available.

Aggregate can be obtained from various sources; natural or manufactured. Natural

aggregates are taken from natural deposits without change in their nature during
production, with the exception of crushing, sizing or grading during production. In this
group, crushed stone, gravel, and sand are the most common. Manufactured aggregates
include blast furnace slag and lightweight aggregates.

AGGREGATE TERMS AND TYPES

The terms used to describe aggregates are many and varied. These descriptive terms are
based on source, size, shape, type, use and other properties.

Some typical terms used in describing aggregates are:

1. Fine aggregate- aggregate particles passing the No.4 (4.75mm) sieve and retained on
the No. 200 (75-µm) sieve.

2. Coarse-aggregate- aggregate predominantly retained on the No.4 (4.75mm) sieve.

3. Crushed gravel (gravel and sand) - that has been put through a crusher either to break
many of the rounded gravel particles to a smaller size or to produce rough surfaces.

4. Crushed rock- aggregate from the crushing of rock. All particles are angular, not
rounded as in gravel.

5. Screenings- the chips and dust or powders that are produced in the crushing of rock for
aggregates.

36
6. All-in-aggregate- aggregate composed of both fine and coarse aggregate.

7. Concrete sand- sand that has been washed (usually) to remove dust & fines.

8. Fines- silty-clay or dust particles smaller than 75 m (No. 200 sieve) usually
undesirable impurities in aggregates. 

PROPERTIES OF AGGREGATES

Important properties of aggregates include:

 Gradation (grain size  Durability (resistance to

distribution) weathering)
 Shape and surface texture  Crushing strength
 Bulk unit weight  Cleanliness (deleterious
 Specific gravity (relative density) substances)
 Absorption  Chemical stability
 Hardness (resistance to abrasion
or wear)

1. Gradation

The gradation or grain size distribution of the aggregate influences:

 The amount of paste required

 The workability of the concrete
 The strength and
 Water tightness of the finished product.

In general, it is desirable that the size increases uniformly from fine sand to the maximum
allowed for a given job.

Most specifications for concrete require a grain size distribution that will provide a dense,
strong mixture.

Aggregates may be dense, gap-graded, uniform, well graded, or open-

graded. The terms "dense" and "well-graded" are essentially the same, as
are "gap", "uniform" and "open-graded"

The use of well graded mixture of aggregates results in improved workability of the
concrete and economy of the cement since such aggregate has a decreased amount of
voids between the particles and consequently requires less cement paste. For a given
consistency & cement content, a well-graded aggregate produces a stronger concrete than
a poorly graded one because less water required to give suitable workability.

37
 SIEVE ANALYSIS

The grading or particle size distribution of aggregate is determined by sieve analysis. The
table below gives standard series of sieves of square openings, which are used in the
sieve analysis of fine & coarse aggregates.

Fig1: Sieves

For sieve analysis, a sample of aggregate is first surface dried and then sieved through the
series, starting with the largest. The weight retained on each sieve is recorded and the
percentage computed. The summation of the cumulative percentage of the material
retained on the sieves (not including the intermediate sieves) divided by 100 is called
Fineness modulus (FM)

Fineness modulus is used as an index to the fineness or coarseness and uniformity of

aggregate supplied, but it is not an indication of grading since there could be an infinite
number of grading which will produce a given fineness modulus.

38
Six sieves are used in the determination of fineness modulus of sand

37.5mm, 19mm, 9.5mm, 4.75mm, 2.36mm, 1.18mm, 0.60mm, 0.30mm and 0.15mm.

Smaller sieves are not included but coarse ones are used if necessary. The smaller the
value of fineness modulus, the finer is the sand. The finesse modulus for good sand
should range between 2.25 -3.25.

Very fine sand and very coarse sand are objectionable, fine sand is uneconomical and
coarse sand give harsh unworkable mixes. Fineness modulus of sand varies as under:

 Fine sand: 2.25 to 2.6

 Medium sand: 2.6 to 2.9
 Coarse sand: 2.9 to 3.25

Note: 2", 1”, ½ " sieves are called "Intermediate" & are not included for the fineness
modulus calculations.

Maximum Size of Aggregate

It is not necessary that 100% of the particles of an aggregate be within the specified size
range for construction purposes. A small amount, usually 5% or 10% is allowed to be
either larger or smaller than the specified size, as it would be economically impossible to
ensure that 100% of the particles are within any specified range. Therefore, if 19mm
(3/4") is the maximum size of aggregate desired for concrete mix, specifications would
indicate that the nominal maximum size is 19mm. In this case, 90% of the sample must
be smaller than 19mm and 100% smaller than the next higher standard size, 25mm (1 ").

Fine aggregate has a nominal maximum size of 4.75 (No.4 sieve) Therefore
specifications will require that 100% of the aggregate pass the 9.5mm (3/6") sieve, and
90 (or 95%) pass 4.75mm.

With a given sectional dimension of a concrete structural member and spacing of

reinforcements, it is in general recommended to select the maximum possible size of
aggregate.

The maximum size and grading are important because they affect:

1. The relative volume occupied by the aggregate, hence the economy in producing
concrete

2. The surface area of the aggregate which determines the amount of water necessary to
wet all the solids

3. The workability of the mixture

4. The tendency of segregation

5. The porosity & shrinkage

39
 Fig2: sieves in Oven fig 3: sieves on vibrator

2. Shape and Surface Texture

The particle shape and the surface texture of aggregates influence the properties of fresh
concrete more than those of hardened concrete. Sharp, angular, and rough aggregate
particles require more paste to make good concrete than do rounded ones. Flat, slivery
pieces make concrete more difficult to finish and should be limited to not more than 15
percent of the total. This requirement is particularly important for crushed fine aggregate,
since material made in this way contains more flat and elongated particles.

3. Bulk Unit Weight

The bulk unit weight of an aggregate is the weight of the aggregate divided by the total
volume occupied by it. The total volume includes the volume of aggregate particles and
the volume of voids. In other words it is the amount of material which can be placed in a
container of unit volume. The amount may vary, depending on the method used to fill the
container, grading and shape of the aggregates. The normal range of bulk unit weight for
aggregates for normal weight concrete is from 1200 to 1760 kg/m3.

40
  The range of aggregates that could be used in concrete is as follows: -
- Heavy weight
- Light weight
- Normal Weight

The highest volume of material in concrete is the aggregate and as consequence the
properties of the aggregate can have a major influence on the performance and
appearance of the concrete.

The majority of concrete that is placed uses normal weight aggregate, however heavy
weight can be used for special nuclear shielding purpose and lightweight concrete
applications include reduced weight and fire resistance.

4. Specific Gravity

The specific gravity of an aggregate is another characteristic of the material which needs
to be determined. It is not a measure of aggregate quality but is used in making
calculations related to mix design. The specific gravity of most normal weight aggregate
will range from 2.4 to 2.9

5. Absorption

Over a 24-hr period lightweight aggregates may absorb water in the amount of 5 to 20
percent of their own dry weight, depending on the type of aggregate and its pore
structure. A tendency of this sort must be taken into account when concrete is made with
lightweight aggregate. To make light weight mixtures as uniform as possible, however,
aggregates should be pre-wetted, but not saturated, 24 hr before they are to be used.

6. Moisture Content

Two types of moisture are recognized in aggregates: absorbed moisture and surface
moisture. Absorbed moisture is that which is taken in by the voids in aggregate particles
and may not be apparent on the surface, while surface moisture is that which clings to the
surface of the particle.

The absorption and surface moisture of aggregate is need to be determined in order to

control the net water content of a concrete mix and to make adjustment in batch weights
of the materials. The moisture conditions of aggregates are designated as follows:

 Oven-Dry: In this condition they are fully absorbent.

 Air-Dry: Particles are dry at the surface but contain some interior moisture. They
are therefore somewhat absorbent.
 Saturated surface-Dry: In this condition there is no water on the surface, but the
particle contains all the interior moisture it can hold. It will neither absorb
moisture from nor contribute moisture to the mix.
 Damp or Wet: The particles contain an excess of moisture on the surface and will
contribute moisture to the mix.

41
Surface moisture in fine aggregate is the cause of a phenomenon known as bulking of
sand. Surface moisture holds the particles apart, causing an increase in volume over the
same amount of sand in a surface dry condition. The amount of bulking will depend on
the fineness of the sand.

The moisture present in the aggregate affects the total water needed for the mix. The ideal
moisture is "saturated surface dry" where in all pores of the material are filled with
water but no free moisture exists on the surface. Most problems occur with the use of
very wet or very dry fine aggregate. Allowance must be made for the amount of water
added under such conditions.

7. Crushing Strength and Durability

One measure of the strength of an aggregate is its resistance to freeze-thaw. This

resistance is an important characteristic in concrete which is exposed to severe weather.
The freeze-thaw resistance of an aggregate is related to its porosity, absorption, and pore
structure. If a particle of the aggregate absorbs so much water that there is no enough
pore space available, it will not accommodate the expansion, which takes place when the
water freezes, and the particles will fall. Freeze-thaw tests on aggregates are commonly
carried out on specimens of concrete made with the aggregate.

Another test of the strength of aggregates is their ability to withstand compressive

stresses. This test is made by subjecting hardened concrete specimens made with the
aggregate in question to compression testing.

8. Cleanliness (Deleterious Substances)

The cleanliness of the aggregate affects the bond between the paste and the aggregate
surface, and therefore, affects the strength and water tightness of the concrete. Coarse
aggregates may be checked visually.

Deleterious (harmful substances) have the following effects on concrete:

 weaken bondage between cement paste and aggregates

 Interfere with hydration
 Reduce strength and durability
 Affect water tightness of the concrete
 Modify setting action and
 Cause efflorescence

Examples: -Iron pyrites, coal, silt and clay, mica, chemical salts.

Iron pyrites affect concrete surfaces: staining and disruption of concrete paste. Coal
affects appearance and strength of concrete. Dirt, silt and clay form coating on
aggregates. If they are much in quantity, they affect strength and durability of aggregates
and water demand for mixing. Mica is also responsible for weak strength and durability.
Chemical salts resulting in efflorescence.

42
Remedial measures:

 Washing to remove deleterious materials

 Avoiding aggregates with reactive tendency or using them with cement of low
alkali.

SILT TEST

Fine aggregates can be checked by placing the material in a glass jar, which is then filled
three-fourths full with clean 5 cm water and sealed. Turn the jar on its side and shake
vigorously for one minute. Set the jar upright, level the sand by shaking sideways, and let
it stand for about three hours. Any silt present will be suspended by the shaking and will
settle back on the sand surface when allowed to stand. If more than (3mm) of silt skim is
formed, then the sand is too dirty to form strong concrete. In the field, a sample test may
be performed by rubbing a moist sample of sand between the palms; suitable sand will
leave the hands only slightly dirty.

A colorimetric (organic impurity) test determines whether fine aggregate contains

injurious amounts of organic matter.

9. Hardness

The hardness of aggregates is expressed in terms of their resistance to abrasion. This

characteristic is important if the aggregate is used in concrete intended for such purposes
as heavy duty floors. A common method of making this test is the Loss Angeles abrasion
test and consists of placing a specified quantity of the aggregate to be tested in a
revolving steel drum. The percentage of material worn away during the test is then
determined.

10. Chemical stability

Aggregates need to be chemically stable so that they will neither react chemically with
cement nor be affected chemically by outside influences. In some cases aggregates with
certain chemical constituents react with alkalis in cement. This reaction may cause
abnormal expansion and will results cracking of concrete.

Handling and stockpiling of aggregates

The purpose of appropriate handling and stock piling of aggregate is to avoid segregation
of aggregates.

Precautions:

 Storing on hard and dry ground or on platforms of planks, sheets, lean concrete
 Storing separately each aggregate size in compartments
 Avoiding segregation of aggregates resulting from free fall
 Damping consignments at different places,

43
 FRESH CONCRETE

Fresh concrete is also known plastic concrete. The major Properties of concrete in its
plastic state are (1) workability, (2) consistency, (3) segregation, (4) bleeding and (5)
Stiffening and Setting.

PROPERTIES OF FRESH CONCRETE

1. Workability: - Workability is the measure of the ease with which we can place and cast
fresh concrete. Factors that affect workability are:

 Water content  Size of Aggregates

 Shape of aggregate  Surface Texture of Aggregates
 Grading of Aggregates

If water content is increased in the concrete mix, particles settle and bleeding occurs.
Cement slurry can escape through joints of form works. Large sizes of aggregates
consume less quantity of water and cement, therefore are economical. Appropriate size
depends on handling, mixing and placing equipment, thickness of section and
reinforcement bar spacing. Angular shape, flakiness, and elongation of aggregates reduce
workability. Non absorbent aggregates and optimum percentage of fine aggregate
contributes to workability.

2. Consistency: - refers to ease of flow of concrete and indicates wetness of concrete and
thus workability. Concrete could have dry, plastic, semi-fluid, and fluid consistency.
Concrete of plastic consistency can be shaped into ball, while that of semi-fluid
consistency spreads out slowly and with out segregation of aggregate. Concrete of fluid
consistency spreads out fast and results in segregation of aggregates, and hence
unacceptable.

 MEASUREMENT OF WORKABILITY

The methods of measuring workability that is wetness or fluidity are slump test and
compacting factor test.

Slump Test: Slump is the subsidence of concrete cone after mold is lifted up. Slump test
is made in laboratory and on site to measure subsidence of a pile of concrete in a mold
(slump test apparatus of dimensions: base diameter = 20 cm, top diameter = 10cm, and
height =30 cm.) compacted with a steel rod (16 mm diameter and 60cm long).

Types of slump (results of Slump)

 True Slump -Has even subsidence

 Shear Slump -Half of the cone slides, difficult to measure, and results from harsh
mixes-deficient in fine aggregate.
 Collapse slump-difficult to measure, results from very wet mixes

44
Permissible slumps for concrete mix are given as standard for different types of
construction activities and placing conditions. The slump values shall be referred before
using the concrete mix.

Slump test gives the advantage of detecting water content of successive batches of
concrete of identical mix. However, there are some limitations of slump test. These are:

 Not applicable for aggregates size greater than 40 mm

 Applicability to plastic mixes only
 Not applicable to harsh and wet mixes

Compacting Factor Test: drier mixes do not give slump. Therefore, compaction factor
test should be done to determine degree of compaction (compacting factor) by making
the mix fall through successive hoppers with standard height using a compaction factor
test apparatus.

weight  of  partially  dry  compacted  concrete

Compacting Factor =
weight  of  fully  compacted  concrete

Table: Permissible Values of Compacting Factor

Workability Compacting factor

Good workability 0.95
Medium Workability 0.92
Low workability 0.85

For different placing conditions, degree of workability (extremely low, very low,
medium, and high), and aggregate sizes, corresponding values of Compacting factor are
given as standard to compare with.

45
3. Segregation: - or separation of coarse aggregates from the mass of concrete results from:

 Uncontrolled pumping or falling

 Placing under waters
 Placing concrete in heavily reinforced members

Precautions to control segregation:

 Careful handling, placing, and consolidation of concrete.

 Placing concrete near its final position, instead of falling from greatest heights.

4. Bleeding: - is the appearance of water on concrete surface. As a consequence of

bleeding, slum layer will be formed making concrete weak and porous. Slum layer shall
be removed before casting new layer.

Measures to minimize bleeding:

 Using well graded and proportioned aggregates

 Increasing amount of cement
 Applying air entering agents
 Reducing amount of water

5. Stiffening and Setting: - Concrete is required to remain plastic for the time to be taken to
transport, place, and consolidate it. Temperature influences the stiffening of concrete.
That is, low temperature delays while high temperature, accelerate the stiffening of
concrete.

VOLUME OF FRESH CONCRETE

The volume of fresh concrete is equal to the sum of the absolute volumes of its
components, including the naturally entrapped or purposely entrained air.

If Va = Volume of air

Vw = volume of water

Vc= absolute volume of cement

Vfa = absolute volume of fine aggregate

Vca = absolute volume of coarse aggregate

Then the total volume of the fresh compacted concrete will be:

V = Va + Vw + Vc + Vfa + Vca……………… (1)

From the point of view of concrete technology it would be best to prescribe mix
proportions by the "absolute volume" of the ingredients, because the volume of the
resulting concrete and its properties are dependent on the absolute volume and not on

46
their weight or bulk volume. But this is an impractical way to proportion materials,
because the absolute volume of the ingredients cannot be measured in the field.

However, the absolute volume can easily be calculated from the relationship of the
weight and specific gravity of the material:

W
V= ……………….. (2)
1000 G

Where: V is the absolute volume in m3

W is the weight of the material in kg

G is the specific gravity of the material & 1000 is the density or unit weight of
fresh water in kg/m3

The specific gravity of cement may be taken, for all practical purposes, equal to 3.15. For
calculating the volumes of the aggregates we use their specific gravity (bulk, saturated
surface dry basis), which is defined by " the ratio of the weight in air or the S.S.D.
aggregates (i.e., including their voids) to the weight of an equal volume of water:

Substituting weight and specific gravities in equation (2) for absolute volumes in
equation (1) we get the volume of concrete in m3 as follows

Ww Wc Wfa Wca
V=Va+ + + + …… (3) Where: Va = Volume of air
1000 1000Gc 1000Gfa 1000Gca

Ww= weight of water

Wc =weight of cement, Kg.

Wfa= weight of fine aggregate, Kg

Wca= weight of coarse aggregate, kg

If the cement, water, and air contents per m3 of fresh concrete are known, then the
required weight of the aggregates for a cubic meter of fresh concrete can easily be
calculated from Eq. (3).

If the cement and aggregates on the job are to be measured by volume, the weight
proportion as obtained by the above procedure can be volumetric proportion. This is done
dividing the weight of the cement and aggregates by their respective loose unit weights in
kg/m3 as obtained in the measuring
devices on job conditions.
Weightofmateria, Kg
VolumeofBulkmaterial 
Unitweight , Kg / m3

47
Example: 1

Given: quantities per m3 of fresh concrete:

 Cement: 350 kg 2.65

 Water: 190 l(litter)  Specific gravity of cement = 3.15
 Air : 1% = 10 l
 Bulk sp. Gravity of aggregates =
Solution:

Absolute volume of air = 0.010 m3

Ww 190
Absolute volume of water = = = 0.190 m3
1000 1000

Wc 350 0.111 3
Absolute volume of cement = = = m
1000(3.15) 1000(3.15) 0.311

Absolute volume of aggregates = 1.000 -0.311 = 0.689 m3

Weight of aggregates = 0.689 (2.65 x 1000) = 1825.85 kg

For convenience of calculation it can be written in the form of the following table:

Absolute volume
Weight (kg)
(m3)
Air - 0.010
Water 190 0.190
Cement 350 0.111
Total 540 0.311
Aggregates 1826 0.689
Total 2366 1. 000

The above total weight of the concrete is the unit weight in kg per m3 of the fresh
concrete. If the proportion of the fine to coarse aggregate by weight is 1: 2, then the
quantities of aggregates will be

1826 * 1
Fine Aggregate (sand)  609 kg
3

1826 * 2
Coarse Aggregate  1217 kg
3
The mix quantities and proportions by weight will be:

48
 Kgs Parts
Water 190 0.543
Cement 350 1
Sand 609 1.74
C.A. 1217 3.48

Example: 2

If the loose unit weights of the surface dry materials in example 1 were

Cement: 1300kg/m3 (under the given condition of measurement)

Sand (S. S. D) 1600 kg/m3

C.A (S.S.D) 1450kg/m3

Then the total amount of dry materials in loose volume per m3 of concrete is:

Cement 350/1300 = 0.27 m3

Sand 609/ 1600 = 0.38 m3

C. A 1217/ 1450 = 0.84m3

Total loose volume = 1.49 m3

The volume of loose aggregates needed per m3 of concrete is 1.22 m3. The mix
proportions by volume are then:

Water cement sand C. aggregate

0 . 190 0 . 27 0 . 38 0 . 84
: : :
0 . 27 0 . 27 0 . 27 0 . 27

0.703 1 1.41 3.11 or cement to aggregates (1: 4.52)

Example: 3

If in example 1 the sand as delivered contains 3% free moisture on its surface and weighs
1200 kg/ m3

Note: When sand is delivered damp and contains free moisture on its
surface. The film of water on the surface of the sand particles holds them

49
 apart and prevents them from adjusting themselves to occupy a minimum
volume. This causes a considerable increase in volume when measured
loose, or a corresponding decrease in the unit weight. This phenomenon
increases rapidly with increase in moisture content. The finer the sand, the
more it will bulk.

The loose volume of fine aggregate needed for 1m3 of concrete will be:

609  (609 * 3 )
100  0.523m3 (Instead of 0.38m3)
1200

When using damp sand the weight has to be increased by the percentage of free water in
the sand. The amount of water added to the mix decreases accordingly:

3
Water = 190  (609 * )  172l  0.172 m3
100

The total volume of aggregates needed will be

0.84(C.A) + 0.523(F.A) =1363 m3

The mix proportions by volume (with damp sand)

water Cement sand C .A

0 . 172 0 . 27 0 . 523 0 . 84
: : :
0 . 27 0 . 27 0 . 27 0 . 27
0 . 638 1 1 . 94 3 . 11
Or cement to aggregates: 1:5.05

Failure to allow for the bulking of sand when batching volumetrically will
reduce yield of concrete and result in an under-sanded and harsh mix,
which is difficult to place as may be seen from the following calculation:

If only 0.38m3 sand is taken then the actual weight of sand in the mix will be:

(0.38 x 1200) -3% (0.38x1200) = 456 -14 = 442 kg

442
Its absolute volume:  0.167 m3 and the volume of produced concrete will
1000 * 2.65
be:

50
 Weight Absolute Volume
Air - 0.01
Water (190-14)=176 0.176
Cement 350 0.111
Sand 442 0.167
C.A. 1,217 0.460
Total 2,185kg 0.924m3

350
The amount of cement per m3  380 kg Instead of 350 kg
0.924

As can be concluded from the above calculations, weight batching is much preferable to
volume batching, because it is almost impossible to make exactly the correct allowance
for bulking all the time. There are more factors involved like the shape, the size of the
measuring device and the person who fills it.

From the above results it is possible to calculate the cement factor (CF) and the yield (y)
of the concrete. The cement factor for a concrete mix is the cement content expressed
in terms of sacks of cement per cubic meter of concrete. In example 1, 350 kg of
cement is used to produce 1m3 of concrete; taking 50 kg as the weight of one sack of
cement we have

350
CF   7 sack / m3
50

The yield of concrete is the amount of fresh concrete in m3 produced per sack of
cement.

1
y  0.143m3 / sack
7

Basic Relationships

Concrete proportions must be selected to provide workability, consistency, density,

strength, and durability for the proposed application.

Workability: The property of the concrete that determines its capability to be placed and
consolidated properly and finished without happening of segregation.

Consistency: It is the relative mobility of the concrete mixture and is measured in terms
of the slump; the greater the slump value, the grater the mobility of the mixture.

Strength: The capacity of the concrete to resist compression at the age of 28 days.

51
Water-cement (w/c) ratio: Defined as the ratio of weight of water with the weight of
cement this ratio is used in mix design and considerably controls concrete strength.

Durability: Concrete must be able to resist severe weather condition such as freezing and
thawing, wetting and drying, heating and cooling, chemicals and the like. An increase of
concrete durability will enhance concrete resistance to severe weather conditions.

Density: For certain applications concrete may be used for its weight characteristics.
Examples are counterweight, weight for sinking pipelines under water, shielding from
radiation and insulation from sound.

Background Data

To the extent possible, selection of concrete proportion should be based on test data or
experience with the materials actually to be used. The following information for available
materials will be collected

 Sieve analyses of fine and coarse aggregates.

 Unit weight of coarse aggregate
 Bulk specific gravities and absorption of aggregates
 Mixing-water requirements of concrete developed from experience with available
aggregates.
 Relationship between strength and water-cement ratio or ratio of water-to-cement
plus other cementitious materials
 Specific gravity of Portland cement and other cementitious materials, if used
 Optimum combination of coarse aggregates to meet the maximum density grading
for mass concrete
 Estimate of proportions of mix for preliminary design.

Table: 1 Recommended slumps for various types of construction

Maximum Slump Minimum Slump

Types of Construction
(mm) (mm)
Reinforced foundation walls and footings 75 25
Plain footings, caissons, and substructure
75 25
walls
Beams and reinforced walls 100 25
Building columns 100 25
Pavements and slabs 75 25
Mass concrete 75 25

52
53
54
Mix Design Example:

Concrete is required for a portion of a structure that will be below a ground level in a
location where it will not be exposed to severe weathering or sulfate attack. Structural
considerations require it to have an average 28- day compressive strength of 24MPa with
slump of 75 to 100 mm. The coarse aggregate has a nominal maximum size of 37.5 dry-
rodded mass of 1600 kg/m3. Ordinary Portland cement will be used and its specific
gravity is assumed to be 3.15. The coarse aggregate has a bulk specific gravity of 2.68
and absorption of 0.5 percent. The fine aggregate has a bulk specific gravity of 2.64,
absorption of 0.7% and a fineness modulus of 2.8.

Solution:

Step 1: The slump is required to be 75 to 100 mm.

Step 2: The aggregate to be used has a nominal max size of 37.5mm

Step 3: The concrete will be non-air entrained since the structure is not exposed to severe
weathering. From table 2 the estimated mixing water for a slump of 75 to 100 mm in non
air entrained concrete made with 37.5 aggregate is found to be 181 kg/m3.

Step 4: The water-cement ratio for non-air entrained concrete with strength of 24MPa is
found from table 3 to be 0.62.

Step 5: From the information developed in step 3 and 4. The required cement content is
found to be 181/0.62 = 292 kg/m3.

Step 6: The quantity of coarse aggregate is estimated from 5. For a fine aggregate having
a fineness modulus of 2.8 and 37.5 mm nominal maximum size coarse aggregate, the
table indicated that 0.71 m3 of coarse aggregate, on a dry-rodded basis, may be used in
each cubic meter of concrete. The required dry mass is therefore, 0.71 *1600 = 1136 kg.

Step 7: With the quantities of water, cement, and coarse aggregate established, the
remaining material comprising the cubic meter of concrete must consist of fine aggregate
and whatever air will be entrapped. The required fine aggregate may be determined on
the basis of either mass or absolute volume as shown below.

Step 7.1 Mass basis: The mass of a cubic meter of non-air-entrained concrete made with
aggregate having a nominal maximum size of 37.5 mm is estimated to be 2410kg.(Table 6)

 Masses already known are:  Water (net mixing) 181 kg

 Cement 292 kg
 Coarse aggregate 1136 kg

Total 1609 kg

55
The mass of fine aggregate, therefore, is estimated to be 2410-1609 = 801 kg.

Step 7.2 Absolute volume basis: with the quantities of cement, water and coarse
aggregate established, and the approximate entrapped air content (as opposed to
purposely entrained air) of 1 percent determined from table 2 the sand content can be
calculated as follows:

181
Volume of water =  0.181m 3
1000

292
Solid volume of cement = = 0.093m3
3.15 * 1000

1136
Solid volume of coarse aggregate = = 0.424m3
2.68 * 1000

Volume of entrapped air = 0.01 * 1 = 0.010 m3

Total solid volume of ingredients 0.708 m3 except fine aggregate then volume of fine
aggregate then is =1-0.708=0.292m3

PROPERTIES OF HARDENED CONCRETE

The compressive strength of concrete is usually at least ten times its tensile strength, and
five to six times its flexural strength. The principal factors governing the compressive
strength of concrete are given below.

 Water-cement ratio is by far the most important factor.

 The age of the cured concrete is also important. Concrete gradually builds
strength after mixing due to the chemical interaction between the cement and the
water. It is normally tested for its 28 day strength, but the strength of the concrete
may continue to increase for a year after mixing.
 Character of the cement, curing conditions, moisture, and temperature. The
greater the period of moist storage (100% humidity) and the higher the
temperature, the greater the strength at any given age.
 Air entrainment, the introduction of very small air voids into the concrete mix,
serves to greatly increase resistance of the final product to cracking from freezing-
thawing cycles. Most outdoor structures today employ this technique.

The final strength of the finished concrete depends on:

1. The proportions of the components (i.e. whether the correct quantities of gravel, sand,
cement and water have been used)

2. The quality of the components

56
3. The distribution of the grain sizes of the gravel and sand

4. The way the components are mixed

5. The way the mixture is transported, placed, compacted and cured.

INTRODUCTION TO ADVANCED CONCRETE TECHNOLOGY

Admixtures
An admixture is defined as a material other than water, aggregates, hydraulic cements, or
fiber reinforcement that is used as an ingredient of concrete or mortar and added to the
batch immediately before or during mixing. Admixtures are generally added to the basic
ingredients that make up concrete to modify various properties of the concrete to make it
more suitable for use. They are used only when the desired properties can not be
achieved by altering the design mix. Admixtures consist broadly of:

 Air-entraining admixtures accelerators).

 Water reducing admixtures  Mineral admixtures
 Setting-time controlling
admixtures (retardants -
Fresh concrete contains some air bubbles because of the difficulty of eliminating all air
during mixing. Some of these bubbles are lost shortly after mixing. Others are entrapped
in concrete. They are usually large in size and could form continuous channels in the
concrete that may increase the permeability and reduce durability. The air-entraining
agent stabilizes the air bubbles that are originally formed during mixing. By stabilizing
the air bubbles, they introduce minute voids in concrete that are discontinuous.

The most important application of air-entraining chemicals is to

increase the resistance of concrete to freezing and thawing.

Water reducing and set controlling admixtures

Different types of admixtures of this group are:-

Water-reducing admixtures: - it reduces the quantity of water required to

produce concrete of a given consistency.

Retarding admixtures:-they are used to lengthen the setting time and improve
workability of a concrete mixture. The most important application of retardant is in hot
weather climate especially if delays in transportation and placing of concrete are
expected.

Accelerating admixtures: - accelerates the setting and early-strength

development of concrete. Accomplishing this will result in better scheduling of the

57
workload, earlier removal of construction forms, and compensation effect of low
temperature on early strength development. In constructions like road repairing
accelerating admixtures have a great application. They will give the concrete early
strength and enable us to make the road ready for use in a short time. The most common
accelerator is calcium chloride.

Water-reducing and retarding admixtures: - water reducing and retarding

admixtures reduce the quantity of mixing water required to produce concrete of a given
consistency and retard the setting of concrete.

Water-reducing and accelerating admixtures:-water reducing and

accelerating admixtures reduce the quantity of mixing water required to produce concrete
of a given consistency and accelerate the setting and early-strength of concrete.

Fiber-reinforced concrete
The technology of fiber-reinforced building materials goes back to ancient times. Sun-
baked bricks reinforced with straws were used in buildings; animal hair was used to
strengthen plaster. Plain concrete possess low-tensile-strength and tensile-strain capacity
making it a brittle material. To use concrete economically as a construction material,
reinforcement must be provided. Traditionally, reinforcement has been in the form of
continuous reinforcing bars placed at selected location to with stand resulting tensile
stress. Fibers added to concrete are short, discontinuous, and randomly distributed
throughout the matrix. Experimental studies showed that with volumes and sizes that
could be conveniently incorporated into conventional cementitious composites without
handling difficulties, fibers were not able to offer a substantial improvement in strength
in strength over corresponding mixtures without fibers. Therefore, fibers are not
generally considered highly efficient in resisting tensile stresses. However, because they
are closely spaced, they are very effective in providing better crack control and
improving the composite toughness. Despite the limited contribution of fibers to the
tensile strength of cementitious composites, there are certain applications in which fiber
reinforcement is better than conventional reinforcing bars.

Thin sheet materials: in which traditional reinforcing bars cannot be used because of
space limitations and in which the fibers therefore constitute the primary reinforcement.

Structural components: in which fibers’ main role is to control cracking and to improve
the post failure behavior.

Similar to all construction materials, the evaluation of the properties of fiber-reinforced

cementitious composites is of major importance. Most of these properties are matrix
dependent and can be measured by the methods commonly used for conventional
concrete (example: compressive strength, freeze-thaw durability) but some properties like
workability should be tested and evaluated with different methods which are special to
fiber-reinforced cementitious composites. Time of flow of fiber reinforced concrete
through inverted slump cone is used to measure the workability of fiber reinforced

58
composites.

There are numerous types of fibers used in cementitious composites, namely, steel fibers,
glass fibers, synthetic fibers, and natural fibers. These types of fibers vary considerably in
properties and effectiveness.

High strength concrete

High strength concrete refers to concrete that has a uniaxial compressive strength greater
than the usual strength obtained in a particular region. Using conventional concrete
production techniques we can produce high strength concrete. However, more stringent
quality control, better quality materials and increased care in the proportioning of mortar
and choosing admixtures must be maintained continuously.

Material properties of high strength concrete

Stiffness of concrete increases with the increase of its compressive strength.

Higher compressive strength results in higher strain at ultimate loading

The fracture strain (maximum sustained strain) seems to decrease with increase in
strength leading to a more brittle and explosive type of failure.

Using high strength concrete in structures results in both technical and economical
advantages. Most applications of high strength to date have been in high-rise buildings,
long span bridges, and some special structures. Tall structures whose construction using
normal strength would not have been feasible in the past have now been completed using
high-strength concrete in tall structures. Major application of high strength concrete in
tall structures have been in columns and shear walls, which resulted in decreased dead
weight of the structure and an increase in the amount of the rental floor space, in the
lower storey.

Asphalt cement
Definition: - Asphalt or bituminous materials (or bitumen) are hydrocarbons which are
usually fairly hard at normal temperatures; when heated, they soften and flow. When
mixed with aggregates in their fluid state they solidify and bind the aggregates together,
forming a pavement surface.

Asphalt as paving material

Bitumen that has been used in paving includes:

Native Asphalts: obtained from asphalt lakes and these were used in some of the earliest
pavements.

59
Rock asphalt: These are rock deposits containing bituminous materials which have been
used for road surfaces in localities where they occur.

Tars: tars are bituminous materials obtained from the distillation of coal.

Petroleum asphalts: These are products of the distillation of crude oil. These asphalts are
by far the most common bituminous paving materials in use today.

Grades of asphalt materials and temperature at which they are used depend to a great
extent on their viscosity. The viscosity of asphalt varies greatly with temperature, ranging
from a solid to a fairly thin liquid. Viscosity-temperature relationships are extremely
important in the design and use of these asphalt materials.

Viscosity decrease (that is, materials becomes more fluid) as temperature increases. A
very viscous fluid is very “thick.”

Absolute (or dynamic) viscosity is measured in Pa. s (SI unit) and poises (traditional
units). [1 poise=0.1 Pa. s] kinematic viscosity is the ratio of the absolute viscosity divided
by density and measured in cm2/s.

Asphalt cements were originally graded according to penetration value. This is an

empirical test in which the amount the needle penetrates a prepared asphalt sample in five
seconds is measured in tenths of a millimeter under standard conditions. For example, if
the needle penetrated 9.8 mm-or 98 tenths of a mm-the penetration value would be 98.

Plant temperatures for mixing asphalt- paving materials are usually specified in terms of
viscosity, for this indicates how fluid the material is and how well it will coat the
aggregates without overheating. Temperature limits corresponding to viscosities of 1.5 to
3 cm2 are sometimes used.

The minimum temperature for spraying (as in pavement seal coats) is often specified as
that corresponding to a viscosity of 2cm2/s.

The major paving products are:

Asphalt cements: These are primary asphalt products produced by the distillation of crude
oil. They are produced in various viscosity grades, the most common being AC 2.5, AC
5, AC 10, AC 20, and AC 40. These roughly correspond to penetration grades 200-390,
120-150, 85-100, 60-70, and 40-50, respectively. The viscosity grades indicate the
viscosity in hundreds of poises ± 20% measured at 60 0C. For example, AC 2.5 has a
viscosity of 250 poises ± 50. AC 40 has a viscosity of 4000 poises ± 800.

Cutback asphalts (liquid asphalts) are asphalt cements mixed with a solvent to reduce
their viscosity and, thus, make them easier to use at ordinary temperatures, they are
commonly heated (if required) and then sprayed on aggregates. Upon evaporation of the
solvent, they cure or harden and cement the aggregate particles together.

60
Types and grades are based on the type of solvent, which governs viscosity and the rates
of evaporation and curing.

Rapid Curing (RC) types use gasoline as a solvent, and therefore cure rapidly.

Medium Curing (MC) types use kerosene.

Slow Curing (SC) types use diesel fuel, or they may be produced directly from the
refinery during distillation. Solvent contents are commonly from 15% to 40% of the total.
Grades of liquid asphalts are governed by viscosity.

Asphalt emulsions are mixtures of asphalt cement and water. As these components do
not mix themselves, an emulsifying agent (usually a type of soap) must be added. The
emulsifying unit breaks up the asphalt cement and disperses it, in the form of very fine
droplets, in the water carrier. When used, the emulsion sets as the water evaporates. The
emulsion usually contains 55%-75% asphalt cement and up to 3% emulsifying agent,
with the balance being water.

Two general types of emulsified asphalts are produced, depending on the type of
emulsifier used

 Cationic emulsions, in which the asphalt particles have a positive charge;

 Anionic, in which they have a negative charge.

Anionic emulsions adhere better to aggregate particles which have positive surface
charges (e.g. silica). Cationic emulsions also work better with wet aggregates and in
colder weather.

Aging or hardening of asphalt is due to the evaporation and oxidation of the lighter oily
constituents during mixing at high temperatures and to the oxidation of the oils to resins
and resins to asphalt when used over a period of years. Design of asphalt mixtures must
take into account these possible effects on the useful life of a pavement.

An emulsion’s rate of hardening depends on the amount and type of agent used. There are
three grades of the two types of asphalts (C indicates cationic types);

Rapid setting (RS or CRS)

Medium setting (MS or CMS)

Slow setting (SS or CSS).

Tests for asphalt

Quality control; tests for asphalt material include Viscosity, Ductility, Thin film oven
test, solubility, and Flashpoint tests.

61
Metals
Materials that are used for construction purpose can be broadly classified into metallic
and non- metallic material. Metals again are classified as ferrous and non- ferrous metals
based on the principal element of the metal. In this section we are going to see some
important characteristics of metals.

Mechanical properties of metal

Slip (Inelastic action):-Slip is a phenomenon of movement along gliding planes

of crystals due to the application of stress beyond the material’s elastic limit. When a
material undergoes slip, one will observe slip lines or slip bends (fine lines) across the
faces of a number of the crystalline grains of the overstressed metal.

Slip is an inelastic action that does not occur to any appreciable extent in any of the
ordinary materials of construction until fairly well defined limiting stress has been
applied; and if slip occurs, it does not continue indefinitely under load but ceases after a
short time. As slip takes place, the crystalline grains of metal are fragmented into thin
plates and the surfaces of the sliding plates tend to “dig into” each other, causing
increasing resistance as slip proceeds. In addition to this, adjacent grains, in general, have
slip planes lying in different directions, and as slip proceeds, the slip in one grain tends to
hinder the slip in the adjacent grain. Moreover, in metals composed of two or more
different kinds of crystalline grains, the stronger grain act as “keys,” tending to stop or
hinder slip in weaker grains. Slip interference theory further holds that a metal may
contain definite, very small grain sizes that will be more effective as brakes on slip than
larger, more widely scattered grains, and also more effective than extremely small grains,
grains so small that slip can proceed right by them with out much deviation from its
direct path. In the case of steel, such an “optimum” size can be produced by heat
treatment.

Flow or Creep:-Creep is the very slow flow of material at elevated temperatures

under sustained stress. The rate of flow of a given metal depends on the magnitude of the
stress and temperature. Lead and Zink, for example, will creep under normal
temperatures at relatively low stresses. However, most metals require a relatively high
temperature before they begin to flow under low stresses. Creep may continue for an
indefinite amount of time under a sustained load tending to distort the material and
eventually cause failure of the material by rupture. Unlike repeated loads (fatigue), creep
affects the entire body of the material under stress instead of producing a localized
rupture.

Corrosion and wear:-These damages take place gradually. They seldom cause
sudden or dramatic structural disasters, as parts damaged by corrosion or wear can be
replaced or repaired before failure occur but incase of reinforcement bar care should be
taken before placement and by providing sufficient concrete cover as it is difficult both to
detect and treat the problem.

62
 Testing and Evaluation of metals

Tensile strength: - it is the maximum axial load (ultimate load) observed in tension
test divided by the original cross-sectional area. In design one can not base the working
stress on the ultimate strength because excessive strain cannot be tolerated. Thus, one
must find the ultimate unit stress produced by the design loads in the member and reduce
it by a factor of safety such that one works with an allowable unit stress.

Ductility: - it is the ability of a material to undergo large deformation with out

fracture. Thus the material will deform in the inelastic (plastic) range. Ductility is
measured by the elongation and reduction of area in tension test and is expressed as a
percentage:

finallength  orginallength
Percentage elongation = x 100 and
orginallength

originalarea  finalareaafterfracture
Percentage reduction in area = x100
originalarea

Modulus of elasticity (E):- it is given by the slope of the straight line portion of
the stress-strain curve. It is a measure of the inherent rigidity or stiffness of a material.
For a given geometric configuration, a material with a large E deforms less under the
same stress

The modulus of elasticity (young’s modulus) is a ratio of the unit stress to unit strain in
the elastic range of the stress-strain curve as follows:

E= Stress (MPA)
60

50
Y ield p o in = 41 ,0 0 0 P si
B
stress-1000 psi

40
Y ield stren g th= 4 2 ,0 0 0 P si
% elo n g ation = 2 .5 x 100 = 3 1.3 %
30 A 8
P ro p o rtio n al lim it
= 3 3 ,0 0 0 P si % of a rea = 0 .787 -0.2 95 x 100 = 6 2.5 %
red uc tion 0.7 87
20
3 0 ,0 0 0 = 3 0x 1 06 p si
E=
10 0 .00 1

0
0 0 .00 1 0 .00 2 0 .0 03 0 .0 04 0 .0 05
0
strain ( in . p er in .)
o ffset
stress-strain D iag ram 63
Yield point. At the termination of the linear portion of the stress-strain curve, some
materials (such as low-carbon steel) develop a yield point. The yield point is the first load
at which there is a marked increase in strain without an increase in stress. This behavior
may be consequence of inertia due to the effect of the testing machine and the
deformation characteristics of the test specimen. The yield point is some times taken as
the proportional limit and elastic limit, which is an incorrect practice. Most metals do not
have a yield point, and thus offset method is used.

Offset yield strength. The offset yield strength is defined as the stress corresponding to a
permanent deformation, usually 0.10 to 0.20 percent (0.001 or 0.002 in. /in.). The offset
method is usually used with materials that have a definite straight-line portion to their
stress-strain curve. One measure the corresponding offset percentage on the stress-strain
curve and projects upward a straight line parallel with the straight- line portion of the
stress-strain curve. Where the line intersects the strain-stress curve, the value is read off
as the offset yield strength.

Proportionality limit. The proportionality limit is the greatest stress that a material is
capable of without deviating from the law of proportionality of stress to strain (Hook’s
law). Hook’s law is defined as

f =E є

Where: f = unit stress

E = Young’s modulus of elasticity

Є = unit strain

Elastic limit and Inelastic limit. The elastic limit is the largest unit stress that can be
developed with out a permanent set remaining after the load is removed. In most cases
the elastic limit is difficult to determine, and many material do not have a well defined
proportional limit, or any at all; thus, the offset yield strength is used to measure the
beginning of plastic deformation (inelastic limit).

Ferrous Metals

In general, metals can be classified into two major groups: ferrous and nonferrous. A
ferrous metal is one in which the principal element is iron, as in cast iron, wrought iron,
and steel. A non-ferrous metal is one in which the principal element is not iron, as in
copper, tin, lead, nickel, aluminum, and refractory metals. In this chapter we discuss
ferrous metals. Special attention will be placed on the production techniques of steel.

Production of metals

Four operations are required for the production of most metals:

64
  Mining of the ore  Extracting the metal from the ore
 Preparing the ore  refining the metals
The extraction of metals from the ore is accomplished through chemical processes. These
chemical processes reduce the compounds, such as oxides, by releasing the oxygen from
chemical combinations and thus freeing the metal.

Basically, three types of processes of extraction are used:

Pyrometallurgy: - in this process the ore is heated in a furnace producing a molten

solution, from which the metal can be obtained by chemical separation. The blast furnace
or reverberatory furnace is used in this process.

Electrometallurgy:-in this process metals are obtained from ores by electrical processes
utilizing an electric furnace or an electrolytic process.

Hydrometallurgy or leaching: involves subjecting the ore to an aqueous solution from

which metal is dissolved and recovered.

As the result of the extraction process, the metals will contain impurities, which must be
removed by the refining process. If the metal is extracted by the pyrometallurgy process,
the most common method of refining is by oxidizing the impurities in a furnace (steel from
pig-iron). However, other methods are utilized, such as liquidation (tin), distillation (zinc),
electrolysis (copper), and the addition of a chemical reagent (manganese to molten steel).

Ferrous metals comprise three general classes of materials of construction:

 Cast iron  Steel

 Wrought iron

All of these classes are produced by the reduction of iron ores to pig-iron and the
subsequent treatment of the pig-iron to various metallurgical processes.

Both cast iron and wrought iron have fallen in production with advent of steel, as
steel tends to exhibit better engineering properties than do cast and wrought iron.

The application of steel and steel alloys is so widespread it has been estimated that there
are over million uses. In construction, steel has three principal uses which are structural
steel, reinforcing steel and forms and pans.

Classification of iron and steel products

Iron products may be grouped under six headings:

 Pig iron  Ingot iron.  Wrought iron

 Malleable cast iron  Cast iron  steel

65
Pig iron: is obtained by reducing the iron ore in a blast furnace. This is accompanied
by charging alternate layers of iron, ore, coke, and limestone in a continuously operating
blast furnace. Blasts of hot air forced up through the charge to accelerate the combustion
of coke while raising the temperature sufficiently to reduce the iron ore to molten iron.
The limestone is a flux that unites with impurities in the iron ore to form slag. The blast
furnace accomplishes three functions (reduction of iron ore, absorption of carbon, and
separation of impurities). The amount of carbon present in pig iron is usually greater than
2.5 % but less than 4.55. The iron may be cast into bars, referred to as pigs.

Iron ores and extraction of Iron

Iron is never found in its pure form in nature. It has to be extracted from ores which are
classed according to the iron material which is predominant.

Magnetite: Brown or steel gray to black in color, it is very hard and magnetic. It is also
the richest iron ore, containing 65.75% iron when mined.

Hematite: Another oxide of iron, red to brown in color, found in hard or soft deposits, it
contains 45-65% iron.

Limonite: Hydrated iron ore or hydrated hematite ore yellow in color, becomes red
hematite when dehydrated at high temperature. It normally contains 20-50% iron.

Siderite: The carbonate of iron, gray in color and usually hard and stone like, contains
about 30% iron.

Iron ores are sometimes classified according to their phosphors content because these
impurities cannot be removed in the blast furnace, and because it has a bad effect on the
properties of iron and steel. These are:

 Low phosphorous ores, containing up to about 0.04% phosphorus. They

usually have a relatively high silicon content, and
 High phosphorus or basic ores, with up to about 2.5% phosphorous.

The mining of iron from its ores and production of iron based materials follows specific
steps which include smelting, purification and manufacture.

The smelting operation is meant to remove the impurities from the ore. It is done in the
blast furnace where the prepared iron ore (mined and broken into small pieces) is charged
with coke and limestone in alternating layers after being carefully weighed. The coke, or
fuel, is normally coal. When heated by the hot air forced through the bottom of the blast
furnace the coal liberates co2, which, coming in contact with the hot ore, reduces it to
molten metallic iron which drips down towards the bottom of the furnace. The use of
lime or flux is to unite with the earthly impurities and form a molten slag, which is a non
metallic substance, lighter than the metal product and consequently floats. The smelting
operation converts the iron ore into iron by simple chemical reduction which begins at

66
temperature as low as 200oC and proceeds by progressive formation of Fe2O4, FeO, and
Fe. Because of the presence of associated elements and impurities, the reduction in the
blast furnace is partially complete at about 800oC very much below the fusion point of
iron, the fusion point of which is lowered from 1539oC when pure to about 1200oC.

As the iron sinks towards the bottom of the furnace, it becomes better and absorbs carbon
monoxide that rises towards the top. A blast furnace metal, or iron-carbon, containing
about 3.5 % carbon is collected into containers at the bottom outlet of the furnace
together with the slag which is produced by the dissociation of the lime. The slag is
scraped from the top of the container and the remaining metal, pig iron, which is the
crudest form of iron, is cast into rough bars called pigs. Pig iron which contains as much
as 10% impurities made of carbon, silicon etc, is then passed to the foundry or steel plant
for further refining.

The refining of pig iron is also based on the oxidation process. Raised to high
temperatures (1200oC and plus), in open-hearth, Bessemer converter or electric furnace,
pig iron melts and oxygen unites with the impurities to form gases ( CO and CO2) and
molten oxides. The gases bubble through the bath and escape while the molten oxides
rise to the top as slag because they are insoluble in the molten iron and lower specific
gravity. Thus the process gives pure molten iron. The purest form of iron which the total
impurities do not exceed 0.5 percent is known as wrought iron.

Alloy of Iron

Pure iron is a relatively soft and readily cold-worked metal. Its typical mechanical
properties are:

 Tensile strength= 310 MPa  Elongation in 50 mm= 35.40%

 Yield point= 207MPa  Reduction in area= 75%
With such high percentage elongation and reduction in area, pure iron can not be used
effectively for structural purposes. In order to improve some of its properties and make it
a useful and effective material, pure iron is alloyed with other chemical elements. There
are certain additional elements, predominantly other metals, which will combine with a
pure metal in such a way that resulting solid solution called an alloy which is also
metallic. This is possible only if the alloying element lies within specific boundaries of
size and valence. The size factor divides alloys into two distinct groups: substitutional
and interstitial alloys. In the substitutional alloy, the alloying element replaces the
primary elements in random positions in its lattice. To accomplish this with out
destroying the structure, the alloying element must have an atomic radius within 15
percent of that of the primary element. If the radial difference is greater, that the energy
required placing the alloying element in position is more than the structure can
accommodate and still retain its crystalline form.

As the name implies, an interstitial alloying element fits into the spaces or interstices of
the primary element’s lattice. There is a definite geometrical restriction on the size of the
interstitial atom: to fit into the lattice spaces, the alloying element’s radius must be less

67
than approximately six-tenths that of primary elements.

A large number of elements form alloys with iron. These include carbon, chromium,
manganese, nickel, silicon which combined with iron form commercially important
alloys. Out of these alloying elements, carbon is the most important. Carbon atoms
readily dissolve interstitially in iron lattices because they are small compared to the
relatively big iron atoms.

Steel

Alloy of iron and carbon, and at times other elements added for special purpose, make up
the important classes of ferrous metals known as steel and cast iron. To the civil engineer,
steel is by far the most important metal of iron base. Depending on the percentage of the
carbon content different types of steel can be manufactured. At one extreme are the very
soft steels used for making rods, wire for nails, and metal sheets. At the other are the very
hard and tough steels used for making gears and bulldozer plates. Hence, by varying the
carbon content one can impart desired characteristics to the final product. For engineering
purposes, however only the iron-carbon system between zero and 6.67% carbon by
weight is of importance in the study of steel and cast iron. The iron-carbon alloys
containing from a trace to about 2% carbon with only negligible amount of other
elements are called plain carbon steels. With carbon content between 2% and 6.67% the
alloys are referred to as cast iron. While the iron containing a trace of carbon is refereed
to as cast soft or dead mild steel, that containing 6.67%, and represented by the formula
Fe3C( iron carbide), is commonly called cementite. Cementite is a very hard and brittle
alloy. Ferrites is a soft, ductile, readily cold-worked (malleable) and has low strength. It
has a maximum of 0.04% carbon content.

Pearlite is a mixture of 88% ferrite and 12% cementite. Pearlite is harder and less ductile
than ferrite but is softer and less brittle than cementite

Reinforcing steel

Concrete exhibits great compressive strength but little tensile or flexural strength. Thus,
deformed bars of structural steel are embedded in the concrete to take up the tensile or
flexural forces. These deformed bars have been developed in such a way as to force the
concrete between the deformations such that failure in shear will occur before slippage.

Properties of plain carbon steels

Plain carbon steels are elastic materials with relatively high compressive, tensile and
shear strength. They are also relatively stiff having generally high modulus of elasticity.
Almost all of their mechanical properties are influenced by three important factors which
are (1) Chemical compositions, (2) heat treatment and (3) Mechanical work. Controlled
changes in these factors introduce variation in the properties over wide ranges.

68
Influence of the carbon content

Since plain carbon steel is a binary alloy its properties obviously depend upon the
proportion of each of the micro- constituents present. In general the mechanical
properties vary linearly from zero percent carbon (100% ferrite) to the eutectoid
proportion i.e. 0.83% carbon (100% paralite). After 0.83% carbon, the linear relationship
doesn’t hold any longer because free cementite appears in the microstructure. (Figure 2)

The linear relationship between the carbon content and ultimate tensile strength is
attributed to the relatively ultimate mature and the fine state of aggregation of the
constituents of the pearlite. With a decrease or increase of carbon the ferrite or cementite,
respectively, becomes an excess substance forming a grain network which has a
weakening influence on the metal. The relation between carbon content and tensile
strength for steel below 0.83% carbon content is suggested as:

S=300+65,000C

Where S = ultimate tensile strength, N/mm2

C = carbon content, percent

The yield point of steel in tension also increases with carbon content, but as shown in
figure 2, it increases at a lower rate. For low and medium-carbon steels the yield point is
usually between 60 and 70 percent of the ultimate strength and for high- carbon steels it
is between 50 and 60 percent.

The ultimate compressive strength of steel, in short members not affected by column
action( l/r less than 50) is proportional to the carbon content up to 0.83%, and the
relationship can be roughly expressed as

Sc=200+38,000C

Where Sc =ultimate compressive strength, N/mm2

C = carbon content, percent

69
 Medium-carbon steel

High-carbon steel
Dead-mild steel

Tools steel
Mield- steel

Brinell Hardness No.

% Elongation

% 400
900 60 Ed rd n e ss
uct el ha
io n
in B rin 300
a re
600 40 a
re n g th % E 200
e st lo n g
Te n sil a tio
300 20 n 100
in t
Y ie ld p o

100 C e m en tite
F errite P ea rlite
50

0
0 .2 0 .4 0 .6 0 .8 1 .2

Figure2. Effect of carbon on the microstructure and mechanical properties of

plain carbon steels in normalized condition

Dead mild steel subjected to tension test will draw down and elongate extensively before
rupture takes place; however this behavior changes with increasing carbon content. As
seen in figure 3 there is a marked decrease in elongation and accompanying increases in
the proportional limit and ultimate strength with increasing amounts of carbon which
causes the diagrams to increase in height and decrease in width.

As could be observed in the diagrams, the modulus of elasticity in tension is independent

of the carbon content. The modulus of elasticity in compression which is also
independent of the carbon content is equal to that in tension and both lie between 200GPa
and 215GPa with 200GPa often used for structural calculations. The shearing strength of
steel also increase with carbon content and is approximately 80% of the tensile strength
for mild and medium-carbon steel, but decreases to 60% for high-carbon steel. This
makes steel not different than other construction materials which ultimately fail in shear.
In fact, structural steel specimen subjected to tension shows necking which begins at the
point of plastic instability where the increase in strength due to strain hardening fails to
compensate for the decrease in cross-sectional area. This occurs at maximum or ultimate
load.

70
 Hard steel is strongest

%
90
0.
980

C=
840

%
64
0.
C=
700

%
49
Structural steel is toughest

0.
560

C=
Unit stress, MPa

.1 9 %
420 C=0 naking

280
Soft iron is most ductile

140

0
0 0.05 0.10 0.15 0.20 0.30
0 0.05 0.10 0.15 0.20 0.30
0 0.05 0.10 0.15 0.20 0.30
0 0.05 0.10 0.15 0.20 0.30

Unit elongation m m/m m

Figure3. Tension stress-strain diagrams of hot-rolled steel bars.

The formation of a neck introduces a tri axial state of stress in the region. Many fine
cavities form in the region of the neck and under continued straining these grow and
coalesce (join together) into a central crack (figure 4). The crack grows in a direction
perpendicular to the axis of the specimen. It then propagates along the localized shear
planes at roughly 45o to the axis showing that final failure is in shear. This mode of
fracture, refereed to as cup-and fracture, gives a section of very fibrous appearance in the
central cup region much as if the individual element of the specimen were split into
longitudinal fibers and were then drawn down to a point before rapture. The outer cone of
the fracture which has been subjected to highly localized shear and beating shows a
smoother surface since deformation occurs by the sliding of grains over one another. The
modulus of elasticity in shear (modulus of rigidity) of steel determined from torsion tests
usually varies between 80 and 86 MPa. An average value of 83MPa is frequently used. It
can also be calculated using the relationship:

G=E/2(1+ν)

71
Where G= modulus of rigidity of steel, GPa

E=modulus of elasticity of steel in tension or compression, MPa

ν=poison’s ratio of steel (=0.35)

Figure 4.Stages in the failure of mild-steel rod.

Influence of heat treatment and mechanical work

In general the ultimate strength, yield point, modulus of elasticity, and hardness of steel
decrease with increase in temperature. Mechanical work performed on a steel product affects
its internal structure and properties. The effect on the properties depends to a certain extent on
the temperature at which the mechanical work is performed, i.e., hot working or cold working.
Hot working of steel is done by hot rolling, forging, hydraulic or mechanical pressing and
extrusion. Cold working is carried out by cold rolling, cold drawing, and cold extrusion.

If, at the manufacturing stage, steel is cooled slowly and undisturbed, it solidifies to give
crystals of large size , Rolling, forging, or hammering while the steel is hot above the
critical temperature, promotes the formation of fine-grained structure which has greater –
strength and ductility than the coarse-grained castings of the same chemical composition.
This is so because small metal crystals are generally stronger than large ones.

Cold working is generally done at room temperature and the properties of cold- worked
steel depend on the method and amount of cold work. In general, cold working leads to a
marked increase in ductility, and toughness; however, extensive cold working can
adversely affect the properties of steel. Cold working has a marked effect on high-carbon
than low-carbon steels.

72
Alloy steels

From the above discussion it is clear that alloying iron with carbon affects the
characteristics of the product. Unalloyed iron, like any other structural metal, shows a
tendency of being weaker and more ductile than corresponding alloyed iron. In some
instances other metallic elements are added to give the product different properties.
Hence, while alloys of iron and carbon are referred to as plain carbon steels, the term
alloy steels is applied to alloys of iron and carbon and one more metallic elements, such
as chromium, cobalt, copper, manganese, molybdenum, nickel, silicon and vanadium.

The important reason for adding alloys other than carbon is to increase the strength and
hardness of the steel. For instance, next to carbon, molybdenum is the most effective
hardening element, chromium also gives great hardness. Nickel, silicon and tungsten
increase strength. Another beneficial effect of some alloying elements, such as
chromium, is the increased resistance to corrosion. A combination of 18 percent
chromium, 8 percent nickel and 0.07 to 0.16 percent carbons added to iron results in a
particularly effective stainless steel.

Corrosion

If left unprotected, plain carbon steel corrodes. Corrosion starts at the surface of the steel
and in due course proceeds inwards and if not arrested, will destroy the metal. Corrosion
is the result of chemical action of plain carbon steel which goes in solution with moist air
or water containing dissolved oxygen. At first contact with damp air plain carbon steel
forms a few atoms thick film which is very thin and usually invisible has a protective
effect over the surface of the metal and may retard or even stop further corrosion. If
however, free oxygen is abundant it readily combines with the hydrogen film and permits
further progress of corrosion. In construction, the least expensive and common method of
protecting steel against corrosion is the application of one or several coats of paint over
its surface. The paint coating is usually weak and it cracks and wears out. Thus, to do a
satisfactory job the paint must be renewed every 2 to 3 years. Before the structure is
painted it should first be cleaned and the rust removed. For under water construction as
the paint will not provide sufficient protection coating of the submerged part with asphalt
or coal tar gives better protection.

Metals under stress, especially those beyond their elastic strength, corrode more rapidly
than do unstressed metals.

73
Timber
Timber has been one of the basic materials of construction since the earliest days of
humankind. Today it has been largely superseded by concrete and steel. However, the use
of timber remains quite extensive. Different species of tree exist and one variety of trees
might make a better building product than another. Therefore, the engineer should have
some knowledge of the classification of trees, as well as their growth and structural
ability, to understand the physical and mechanical properties of each.

Classes of trees

 Exogens and Endogens

Botanists classify trees into two main categories: Exogens and Endogens. These terms
refer to the pattern of growth of particular species. Exogenous trees are those that grow
diametrically, by adding new cells in a layer between the existing wood and the bark.
Almost all wood that is of commercial use falls in this category. The exogenous growth
pattern forms a characteristic transverse section with concentric annual rings that
correspond to each year’s growth. At the center of a cross-section of a tree is pith, a dark
area of small diameter that does not increase in size after the first year of growth.
Encircling the outermost annual ring is a layer of microscopic thickness called the
cambium ring, and it is here that new growth is formed. The outer most layer is known as
bark.

Endogenous trees add new living fiber to the old by allowing new fiber to intermingle
with the old, thus producing growth both diametrically and longitudinally. Most
endogens are fairly small plants, such as corn, sugar cane, palm, and bamboo. The latter
two plants are used extensively as a structural material.

 Hardwoods and Softwoods

Exogenous trees are further classified as hardwoods and softwoods. These are some what
misleading terms, because they refer not to quality of the wood, but to the type of tree the
wood comes from. Hardwoods comprise the broad-leafed trees, mostly deciduous, which
are in general slow growing, forming heavy and hard wood that is used more extensively
for furniture, interior finishing, and cabinetwork than for structural purposes. The
softwoods are the conifers trees.

Wood structure

Many of the qualities of wood for use as a building material arise from the structure of
wood. Wood is formed mostly of filamentous cells. Perforated pits in the cells make
possible the flow of sap between cells.

Wood cells are composed primarily of the polymer cellulose and hemicelluloses which
are cemented together by a third polymer, lignin. Wood is typically 50 to 60 percent

74
cellulose material and 20 to 35 percent lignin, with small amounts of other carboxydrates,
such as resin and gum. It is the cellulose that gives wood its axial strength and elastic
properties, and the lignin that is responsible for its compressive strength. These
carboxydrats, although indigestible by man, are a favorite food for some other forms of
life, such as termites, and measures much often be taken to protect wooden structure from
these species.

Over a period of several years the wood ceases to function as part of the living tree and
has only structural value for the tree. The living part is called sapwood: the older wood is
heartwood. Heartwood is easily distinguished from sapwood because it is darker in color.
It is more highly valued because it is more resistant to decay than sapwood, although the
strength of each is about the same.

Season of cutting; slash and rift cutting

The first step in the manufacturing process of lumber is to select and fell the trees. This is
normally done in the fall and winter when the flow of sap is minimal and destructive
fungi and insect are least active. The logs are cut into standard-size boards at sawmills.
The lumber must be then dried or seasoned

The angle of the plane of the cut of the boards will have an effect on the resulting lumber.
Wood that is quarter sawed rift-cut is cut parallel to the axis of the tree and radially
across the annual-rings. When the wood is cut tangential to the annual rings, it is called
slash-cut. Rift-cut lumber generally warps less in the drying process and wears more
evenly, but in the interest of practicality, more wood is slash-cut.

Seasoning of timber, moisture content

Quarter sawn

Radial
shrinkage

Tangential
shrinkage

Flat sawn

Figure sawing pattern

75
Wood must be seasoned before it is put to use so that its moisture content will become
stabilized. Unseasoned wood readily takes up and retain moisture, and this moisture will
adversely affect the wood in a number of ways. One is that changes in the moisture
content will produce dimensional changes in the timber. Also, high moisture content
diminishes the strength of the wood. Wood that is properly dried may be up to two and
one-half times stronger than a comparable piece of green wood.

Other problems, such as the presence of harmful fungi, occur when wood is cut. The
moisture in wood is in two forms: free and combined. Free moisture is moisture outside
the cell, and combined moisture is water that has been incorporated in to the cell walls. In
green wood, moisture will constitute from 25 to 200 percent of the oven-dry weight of the
lumber, and most of this must be evaporated from the wood in the seasoning process.

The timber can be either air-dried or kiln- dried. As the wood dries, the free moisture is
evaporated from the surface and moisture from the interior of the porous lumber
equalizes with drier surface. When the moisture content stabilizes, the drying process is
complete.

Air drying will reduce the moisture content to about 15 percent, a level that is acceptable
for most construction purposes. Lumber that is to be used for purposes such as furniture,
flooring, and cabinetwork is kiln-dried in few days using temperature of 68 to 82oC.
Hardwood warps most easily.

All woods have the ability to reabsorb moisture from the atmosphere, depending on the
humidity of its surrounding. This can cause a certain amount of dimensional instability,
which may lead to problems in certain applications. Wood that has been subjected to
temperature of 100oC for a length of time during boiling, steaming, or soaking will, with
time, become less able to absorb humidity from the atmosphere.

Shrinkage, warping, and checking

Shrinkage will occur in the drying of wood when the combined moisture begins to be
evaporated from the cell walls. The contraction will be across the cell walls rather than
longitudinal, cells shrinking proportional to the thickness of their cell walls. When
shrinkage occurs unequally for any reason, warping results. If drying proceeds at unequal
rates over different portions of a piece of lumber, warping will occur. When wood is cut
tangentially, the dried piece will be convex because of unequal tangential shrinkage.
Irregularities in the grain of the wood will produce more pronounced irregularities in the
dried boards.

Checks are longitudinal cracks across the growth rings that can occur during drying of
timber. Unequal shrinkage produces strains within the wood, and checks can result. They
can be temporary, occurring when the outer portion of a piece of wood dries too rapidly
and contracts over the inner portion. These checks that appear in the outer layer of the
wood may close up and become imperceptible as the wood of the inner part of the lumber
dries and contracts. Other checks of a more serious nature can occur when the difference

76
in tangential shrinkage is too great relative to the radial shrinkage to be accommodated.
Large radial checks such as those sometimes seen in posts can then occur.

Defects in lumber

Anything that adversely affects the strength, durability, or utility of a piece of wood is a
defect, and these may be within the wood itself or be produced by warping.

Shakes are longitudinal cracks in the wood that follow the growth rings and develop prior
to the lumbers being cut. They are sometimes a result of heavy winds.

Checks, as described earlier, are longitudinal splits across the growth rings resulting from
uneven drying.

Knots are formed at the base of branches where they extend into the wood of the tree.
Only wood that comes from the base of the tree where there are no branches is free of
knots. If the branch was dead, a loose knot is formed. A spike knot occurs when the cut is
longitudinal to the branch. The effect of the knots depends on the use of the wood and the
location and size of the knots. They have little effect on the wood in shear or in
compression members. For beams in bending however a knot in the part of the beam
subjected to tension can significantly reduce its maximum load.

Pitch pockets are accumulation of resins in openings between the annual rings.

Bark pockets are formed when the bark is wholly or partially encased in wood.

Compression wood is formed on the lower side of the branches or leaning tree trunks. It
is darker than the normal wood, has a high lignin content, higher specific gravity, greater
longitudinal shrinkage, and is not as tough as normal wood. The strength of compression
wood is not predictable, and many failures in wood members have been found to be
caused by compression wood.

Unequal shrinkage during the drying process produces warped lumber. The different
types of warping are bow, crook, twist, and cup.

Mechanical properties of timber

Strength of wood

Considering the fact that it is relatively strong in compression and tension and that it has
low density, timber can be classified as one of the material of high strength: weight-ratio.
Because of the structure of wood, the fibers act like so many cylindrical tubes firmly
bound together in the way that they withstand stress. Loads applied parallel to the grain
are carried by the strongest of the fibers; in loads perpendicular to the grain, the weakest
fiber have to take their share of the load.

77
Tensile strength

Tensile strength in wood parallel to the grain is much higher (three times as much) than
compressive strength. Thus the limiting factors in tension members are usually
compression and shear at the point of concentration. Thus far, no means have been
developed to connect tension members with out it somehow compressing and eventually
resulting in failure.

Tensile loads perpendicular to the grain of wood fibers cause the fibers to split apart. The
tensile loads that can be carried are one-tenth or less of the tensile load that can be
withstood by the wood in the parallel direction with the grain.

Compression strength

Compression loads parallel to the grain can be carried by the strongest fibers, whereas
compression loads perpendicular to the grain are carried by both weak and strong fibers.
Wood in compression parallel to the grain can carry three to four times the load that
wood in compression perpendicular to the grain can carry.

Compression failure of wood perpendicular to the grain involves the complete crushing
of the wood fiber. Compression failure of wood parallel to the grain involves the bending
or buckling of the wood fibers.

Flexural strength and stiffness

For timber beams in flexure, the critical factors in evaluating the load that can be carried
are the compressive strength parallel to the grain and the shear strength parallel to the
grain. The resistance of the shear strength parallel to the grain is very low. However, if
the wood is free of defects the initial failure will be compressive. Stiffness also plays a
role in timber beams, since deflection is usually limited to 1/360 of span. Stiffness can be
measure of strength, in that stiffer timber beams are usually denser.

Elastic properties of timber

The modulus of elasticity in wood is high relative to its compressive strength, compared
with other building materials. Wood does not, however, exhibit a well defined yield
point, and therefore the proportional limit is used to measure elastic strength. Therefore,
for specified load requirement and sufficient wood to carry such a load, there is a high
degree of elastic strength. For this reason, wood members are considered to have good
elastic properties.

Factors affecting timber strength

Many factors affect the strength of timber, such as direction of the wood fibers, moisture,
weight, and rate of growth. The direction of the wood fibers is called the grain. The
strength of timber depends too heavily on the direction of the loads with respect to the

78
grain that is an important consideration in design. Diagonal grain is measured by the
tangent of the angle it makes with the cut edge of a piece of lumber. The diagonal grain
or direction of the wood fibers will affect the strength ratios of lumber as shown in the
table below

Strength ratios corresponding to various slopes of grain

Maximum strength ratio (%)

For stress in extreme fiber
For stress in compression
in bending(Beams and
parallel to grain ( Posts and
stringers of joists and
Timbers)
Slopes of Grain planks)
1 in 6 -- 56
1 in 8 53 66
1 in 10 61 74
1 in 12 69 82
1 in 14 74 87
1 in 15 76 100
1 in 16 80 --
1 in 18 85 --
1 in 20 100 --

From the table it can be seen that tensile strength is much more sensitive to grain angle
than is compressive strength. The low strength in tension is mainly due to the collapse of
the cell walls and/or lateral bending of the cells and fibers. In most specimens subjected
to compression along the grains, failure occurs along planes inclined about 60o to 75o
with the axis of the cells making it probable that final collapse is due to the weakness of
the cell wall in transverse shear. The comparatively low strength in compression as well
as tension across the grains is attributed to the weak bond between the cells and fibers.

As indicated earlier wood that is properly dried is far stronger than wood that has high
moisture content. When all the free water is evaporated and all the moisture is removed
from the cell walls, the fiber saturation point is said to have been reached. The presence
or absence of free moisture does not, in general, affect the strength properties. However,
if drying occurs beyond the fiber saturation point there will be an increase in strength.
The increase in strength beyond the fiber saturation point may be two or three times the
value of wet wood.

All other things being equal (cetrisparibus), the denser the wood, the stronger it will be.
This is so true that a formula is based on it:

Modulus of rupture= 26,200 x (specific gravity) 1.25 (air-dry timber)

Modulus of rupture= 18,500 x (specific gravity) 1.25 (green timber)

79
These formulas were developed by the forest products laboratory and are very accurate,
regardless of species.

Finally, rate of growth greatly affects the strength of timber. In general, most timber used
for construction will exhibit an optimal number of annual rings per inch of wood.
Usually, the greater number of rings per inch will be the stronger one.

Perhaps the single most important factor that affects the strength of timber is the time of
loading. Test results on timber reveal that it can sustain greater loads for short time than it
can over a long period. This dependence of the strength of timber on the duration of
loading is termed creep rupture or static fatigue. Since the strength of timber decreases
with time of application of force, working stress derived from test results must take into
account the rate of straining. Generally to be on the safety side relatively high safety
factor (3 and above) is taken in the design of timber structural elements. Because the
behavior of timber under load is time dependant, it might not be classified as a truly
elastic material. However, a timber specimen loaded in short term tension, compression
or bending deforms approximately in proportion to the applied load. The inflection point,
otherwise known as the limit of proportionality of the load deformation diagram below
which the relationship between load and deformation is linear occurs at about 30% to
50% of the corresponding ultimate load.

With in the proportionality limit the modulus of elasticity of timber can be calculated
from the ratio of the unit stress and unit strain.

E=s/v

If the test results are obtained from the bending test then

Eb=PL3/48Iδ

Where P=Mid-span load

L= distance between supports

I =moment of inertia of the cross-section about the neutral axis

δ=deflection at mid-span.

The modulus of elasticity of timber is affected by the number of factors such as the grain
direction, density, moisture content and defects.

Decay and preservation of timber

Wood is an organic material so it can be attacked and its tissues destroyed by the action
of solvent chemicals secreted by bacteria and fungi. It can also be damaged or eaten up
by- insects such as pole-bearers and termites or destroyed by fire which decomposes it

80
into carbon dioxide, water vapor and ash. For this reason, timber used for construction
purpose should be preserved and protected.

Proper seasoning, natural or artificial, is the most effective means of preservation. The
resistance to decay and deterioration of seasoned timber is further improved by
impregnation with preservatives chemicals, brush treatment with paint or varnish, damp
proofing when appropriate and providing as much as possible free circulation of air
where ever it is used.

Characteristics of common Ethiopian timber

Because of the rather unique climate and topographic conditions, various types of trees
can grow and are found in Ethiopia. Unfortunately, however, very little investigation has
been done so far in the way of determining the characteristics of the different species for
building purposes. The table below presents the available information of the most
common timber used in the construction industry.

Some characteristics of common Ethiopian Timbers

Local Name Botanical Latin or Trade Characteristics

name
1. Bahrzaf Eucalyptus  Broad-leaf tree
 Low resistance to termite
 Difficult to treat or impregnate
 g=670kg/m3

2. Kararo Aningeria Adolfi Friderici  Low resistance to termite

 Ease to treat or impregnste
 g=450kg/m3

3. Kosso Hagenia abyssinica  Broad-leaf tree

 High resistance to termite
 Turns to dark red when
seasoned
 g=630kg/m3

4. Tid Juniperus procera African  Conifer

Pencil Cedar  Almost immune to termite
due to oil resins it contains
 Turns to red-brown when
seasoned
 Difficult to treat or impregnate
 Shrinks little
 g=550kg/m3

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 5. Tukur Pygeum africanum Iron  Broad-leaf tree
Inchet wood  Turns to pinkish brown on
seasoning
Red Ivory  Very hard(iron wood)
 g=630kg/m3

6. Wanza Cordia africanalam East  Broad-leaf tree

Africa Yellow wood  coarse grained
 g=440kg/m3

7. Zegba Podocarpus gracilior East  Conifer

African Yellow Wood  Easy to treat or impregnate
 pale ivory to yellow in colour
 g=440kg/m3

Besides its usage as structural member in buildings, timber can be used to prepare
architectural or finishing materials such as veneers, plywood etc. Veneers are thin sheets
of wood, from 0.5mm to 5mm. Since they have usually attractive appearance they are
used as finishing materials or cover to timber surface of inferior quality.

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FIRED CLAY PRODUCTS

General

The technique of firing clay to produce bricks and tiles for building construction is more
than 4000 years old. It is based on the principle that clayey soils (containing 20 to 50 %
clay) undergo irreversible reactions, when fired at 850 -10000 C, in which the particles
are bonded together by a glassy ceramic material.

Advantages

 Fired clay products can have high compressive strength even when wet making
them resistant to impact and abrasion. The excellent condition of many ancient
brick constructions clearly demonstrates the durability of fired clay products.
 Fired clay products provide excellent fire-resistance.
 The porosity of fired clay permits moisture movement, without significant
dimensional changes.
 Solid bricks have a high thermal resistance required for most climates, except for
the predominantly humid zones; perforated bricks can be used (with perforations
running vertically) for cavity walls, which provide thermal insulation, or (with
perforations perpendicular to the wall face) for ventilation or screen walls.
 Bricks and tiles are weather resistant and can remain without any surface
protection; thus saving costs. However, exposed brickwork is often considered
unfinished and hence not always accepted.
 Poor quality and broken bricks are useable for other purposes, hence no wastage.
 The production process can be extremely labor-intensive and thus create many
jobs, even for unskilled workers.

Bricks

Bricks are manufactured from clays generally found in abundance in many parts of the
world. Clays are fine grained soils which have resulted from the decay of rocks. When
brought to the required consistency by moistening and mixing with water, clays become
plastic, easy to mold and are capable of retaining their shape on drying. On account of the
different phases they might have gone through and their history of formation, clays are
generally found mixed with other materials (impurities) which influence their proportion.
A clay soil for brick making should be such that when prepared with water, it can be
molded, dried and burnt without cracking or changing its shape or warping. Such material
should preferably have the following composition:

a) Clay 20-40
b) sand 30-50
c) Other (lime, silt, loam--) 20-35

Each of these components and their constituents play different rolls in the manufacture of
building bricks and influence the characteristics of the final product.

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Functions of the Constituent Materials

Clays generally consist of the following chemical elements: alumina (Al2O3), silica
(Si02), Ferric oxide (Fe2O3), lime (CaO), Magnesia (MgO), carbon dioxide, sulphur
trioxide, alkalis and water. Each of these constituents of the raw material used in the
manufacture of building bricks has a function which can be summarized as follows:

1. Alumina- (AI2O3)
 When burnt alumina becomes stronger and harder.
 Makes the major part of clay
 Becomes plastic when mixed with water and is capable of being molded to
the desired shape. (Responsible for plasticity of the mud).
 On drying it loses its plasticity and become hard. This can be accompanied
with shrinkage which might result in wrapping and cracking depending on
the speed and magnitude of drying. If alumina content is excess, the brick
will shrink on drying which leads to cracking and warping. If small than
required, the brick will not be molded easily and nicely. Bricks of very
high alumina content are likely to be refractory.
2. Silica(SiO2)

Silica is available in two forms: Silica combined as a constituent of clay and free silica
(sand or quartz). It is useful in reducing shrinkage and warping in burning. Its presence in
brick produces hardness and durability however a large percentage of uncombined silica
is undesirable because it leads to brittleness of the product

3. Lime (CaO)

When present in small quantity, lime acts as a flux and lowers the fusion point of silica. It
also acts as a binder to the clay and silica particles leading to a greater strength. Excess of
lime may cause the bricks to melt and lose their shape.

4. Iron oxide (Fe203)

Acts as a flux i.e. it lowers down the softening temperature of silica. It is this element
which imparts the colors of the clay and the burnt product. Depending on its percentage
the color of the brick may vary from light yellow to red. If it present in the form of
Pyrites (Sulfide of iron), it can get oxidized, crystallize and split the bricks to pieces.

5. Magnesia -(MgO)

Usually it is present in small quantity (1%) in clay and together with the iron oxide; it
gives the brick darker or even black color. It also lessens warping of bricks in burning.

Manufacture of Bricks

The process of manufacture of bricks is carried out in a number of stages.

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  Selection of suitable type of brick  Drying of molded bricks
earth  Firing or burning of units
 Preparations and tempering of mud  Cooling of the units
 Shaping and molding of brick units

The raw material for the manufacture of bricks is first excavated and crushed (clays
usually convert to loose or powder form when excavated, hence, all that will be needed is
to make them free from stones, bolder, coarse sand or lime. It is then mixed with water
until it gets the desired consistency. Sand soil and or lime may be added to the dry raw
material if it is found deficient in silica and lime. Mixing done until the whole mass
becomes homogeneous and plastic.

The tempered clay is then fed into molds made of timber or metal and pressed (hand
molding) or extruded through a rectangular hole the dimensions of which are equal to
those of the transversal cross section of the brick (Mechanical molding). In the later case,
the material thus formed is made to pass through a machine the function of which is to
cut the long column into length equal to that of a brick which at this stage is called green
brick. The green brick is then dried before burning.

Drying is essentia1 and usefu1 in giving the green bricks sufficient strength to be handled
and staked in kilns without being damaged. It is done either in the open-air driers (open
shades) provided with roofs or in the drying .Zone of a continuous kiln with sufficient care
taken so as to avoid checking and warping resulting from quick drying. The dried bricks
are then fed into kilns where they are burnt, at temperatures reaching, 900 to l200o C.
Besides imparting strength to the green brick and preventing cracking and warping; drying
helps remove the moisture from the bricks which allows to save time and fuel during
burning.

Burning, this is required in order to make the bricks stronger, harder, more durable and
less absorbent, norma1ly takes couple of days to complete. Three irreversible reactions
take place during the process of burning. These are:

Dehydration; which is generally completed before a temperature of 7000 C is

reached. During the dehydration period the water left in the bricks after drying is driven
off and some of the chemical elements such as the hydrate of alumina silicate
(A1203.2SiO2.2H20) are dehydrated.

Oxidation; which leads to the formation of an interconnected network made of new

crystals (oxides). The rest of the carbon is also eliminated at this stage. Oxidation is
completed at about 900oc.

Sintering; the temperature is raised to l2000C. At these temperatures hard-burnt bricks

are produced which contain melted components acting as binder to the non-melted
minerals. In addition to being stronger, hard-burnt bricks are more durable and absorb
very much less water on wetting with water.

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Types and Classification of Bricks

Two types of clay bricks are manufactured in Ethiopia at present. These are: solid clay
bricks and hollow clay bricks and beam tiles.

A. Solid Clay Bricks

According to the Ethiopian Standard, the solid bricks are of the following three types.

a. Brick without holes or depression (type TS)

b. Brick with holes up to 20 mm in diameter each and having a total cross sectional
area not exceeding 25 per-cent of the base area of the brick (type TH)
c. Brick with depression not exceeding 25 percent of the base area having a
maximum depth of the depression not more than 10mm (type TD).

B. Hollow Clay Bricks

According to the Ethiopian Standard, the hollow and beam tiles bricks are of the
following three types.

a. With two faces keyed for plastering or rendering (type kk)

b. With two faces smooth and suitable for use with out plastering or rendering on
either side. Type (ss) and
c. With one face smooth and another face keyed for plastering (type sk)

Fire bricks or Refractory brick

These bricks are capable of withstanding very high temperatures

Firebricks are manufactured in exactly the same manner as the ordinary bricks. The clay
is dug out, broken, weathered blended and tempered. It is then mixed in pug mill. Then it
is molded, preferably with machines, to the shape and size needed. After drying these are
then burnt in kilns at temperatures ranging from 13500c to 1900oc.

Firebricks have white or yellowish white color and are used for lining the interiors of
fireplaces, ovens, kilns, chimneys and furnaces.

Properties of Bricks

The essential properties of bricks may be conventionally discussed under four headings:
physical properties, chemical characteristics, thermal characteristics and durability.

Physical properties

a. Shape- rectangular b. Size -60 mmx120mmx240mm

86
c. Color -red d. Density

The density of bricks or weight per unit volume depends mostly on the type of clay used
and the method of brick molding. In case of standard bricks, density varies from 1600
kg/m3 to 1900 kg/m3. A single bricks (60x120x240) will weigh between 3.2kg to 3.5kg
depending upon its density.

Mechanical properties

Compressive strength is the most important property of bricks especially because they are
to be used in load bearing walls. The compressive strength of a brick depends on the
composition of the clay and degree of burning

Thermal properties

Besides being hard and strong, an ideal brick should also provide adequate insulation
against heat, cold and noise.

The heat and sound conductivity of bricks varies greatly with their density and porosity.
Very dense and heavy bricks conduct heat and sound at a great rate. They have therefore
poor thermal and acoustic (sound) insulation qualities. For this reason, bricks should be
so designed that they are light in weight, strong and give adequate insulation.

Durability

By durability of bricks is understood the-length of time for which they remain unaltered
and strong when used in construction.

The durability of bricks depends on a number of factors such as: absorption value, frost
resistance and efflorescence.

Efflorescence: is a whitish powder of crystallization on brick masonry walls caused by

water-soluble salts deposited on the surface upon evaporation of water. Efflorescence will
appear when salt is available within a brick and moisture to carry these salts to the
surface .To overcome efflorescence, it is necessary to check types of brick, quality of
water used, and type of mortar used.

Tests for Burnt Clay Bricks

Two types of tests are used to determine the quality of building bricks.

A. Field test

B. Laboratory test

87
 Field tests: such as appearance, hummer test and hardness test can easily be made at a
construction site:

 Appearance test is that: shape, plainness, color etc.

 When stroked with hummer, a properly burnt dry brick free from cracks emits a
highly metallic ring.
 The hardness of a brick sample can be checked by scratching its surface or broken
section with a knife or fingernail. A well burnt brick will be scratched with
difficulty.
 A rough test for the strength of the brick is to let it fall freely from a height of
about one meter on to a hard floor. It should not break

Laboratory tests:

1. Compressive strength test 3. Efflorescence test and

2. Water absorption test 4. Saturation coefficient test

Standard Specifications

Many countries have their own standard specifications for bricks, and reference should be
made to these where available.

According to Ethiopian Standard solid clay bricks are classified according to the
numerical values of their compressive strength, water absorption, saturation coefficient
and efflorescence as follows:

1. Minimum Compressive Strength

Table: 1 Minimum compressive strength

Class Minimum compressive strength

Average of 5 Individual bricks
bricks(N/mm2) (N/mm2)
A 20 17.5
B 15 12.5
C 10 7.5
D 7.5 5

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2. Maximum water absorption. (%)

Table: 2 Maximum water absorption

Class After 24hr.lmmersion After 5hr.Boiling

Average of 5 Individual Average of 5 Individual
bricks bricks bricks bricks
A 21 23 22 24
B 22 24 23 24
C,D No Limit No Limit No Limit No Limit

3. Maximum Saturation Coefficient

Table: 3 Maximum Saturation coefficients

Class Average of 5 bricks Individual bricks

A,B 0.96 0.99
C,D No Limit No Limit

4. Efflorescence Rating

Table: 4 Efflorescence Rating

Class Efflorescence
A,B Nil to slight
C,D Effloresced

In the case of hollow clay bricks and beam tiles the minimum compressive strength and
maximum allowable value for water absorption are given in table 5 and 6 respectively.

1. Minimum compressive strength

Table: 5 Minimum compressive strength

Minimum Compressive strength

Type Average of 5
Individual Bricks(N/mm2)
bricks(N/mm2)
kk 7 5.5
ss 7 5.5
sk 7 5.5

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2. Maximum allowable water absorption, %

Table: 6 Maximum allowable water absorption

After 1hr Submersion in boiling water

Type Average of 5 Individual
bricks(N/mm2) Bricks(N/mm2)
kk 21.5 23
ss 21.5 23
sk 21.5 23

Qualities of a good brick

1. It should have a rectangular shape, regular surface and red coloured appearance.
2. It should confirm in size to the specific dimensions (60mmx120mmx240mm)
3. It should be properly burnt. This can be ascertained by holding two bricks freely,
one in each hand, and sticking them~ A sharp metallic sound indicates good
burning where as a dull sound would indicate incomplete burning.
4. A good building bricks should not absorb more than 20% of its dry weight.
Absorption should not exceed 25% in any case.
5. A good building brick should posses the required compressive strength, which in
no case should be less than 35kg/cm2. A rough test for the strength of the brick is
to let it fall down freely from a height of about one meter on to a hard floor. It
should not break.
6. Bricks should be hard enough so that it is not scratched by fingernail.
7. A good brick has a uniform colour and structure through its body. This can be
checked by taking a brick from the lot and breaking it into two parts. The broken
surface in both the halves should have same appearance and structure.

90