ChE 301

Heat Transfer
Instructor:
Dr. Md. Easir Arafat Khan
Associate Professor
Department of Chemical Engineering, BUET,
Dhaka-1000

January, 2021

1
 Condensation Heat Transfer
Condensation: Phase change phenomena

Application of condensation process:

1) Distillation column: In mass transfer operation where vapor is

condensed at the top of the column.
2) Reactor: Product is condensed from the high temperature reaction
3) Heat exchanger: boiling or heating of a liquid by steam heating
Condensation

Homogeneous Surface
Condensation Condensation

Film Dropwise
Condensation Condensation
2
 Condensation Heat Transfer
Condensation occurs when the temperature of a vapor is reduced below
its saturation temperature.
Film condensation
• The condensate wets the surface and
forms a liquid film.
• The surface is blanketed by a liquid
film which serves as a resistance to
heat transfer.
Dropwise condensation
• The condensed vapor forms droplets
on the surface.
• The droplets slide down when they
reach a certain size.
• No liquid film to resist heat transfer.
• As a result, heat transfer rates that are
more than 10 times larger than with
film condensation can be achieved. 3
 Condensation Heat Transfer
Film condensation
• Liquid film starts forming at the top of
the plate and flows downward under
the influence of gravity.
• d increases in the flow direction x
• Heat in the amount hfg is released
during condensation and is transferred
through the film to the plate surface.
• Ts must be below the saturation
temperature for condensation.
• The temperature of the condensate is
Tsat at the interface and decreases
gradually to Ts at the wall.

4
 Condensation Heat Transfer

1 Vertical Plates
Assumptions:
1. Both the plate and the vapor are maintained at
constant temperatures of Ts and Tsat,
respectively, and the temperature across the
liquid film varies linearly.
2. Heat transfer across the liquid film is by pure
conduction.
3. The velocity of the vapor is low (or zero) so that it
exerts no drag on the condensate (no viscous
shear on the liquid–vapor interface).
4. The flow of the condensate is laminar (Re<30)
and the properties of the liquid are constant.
5. The acceleration of the condensate layer is
negligible.
5
 Condensation Heat Transfer
From the Newton' s second law of motion,
F x = ma x = 0
since the acceleration of the fluid is zero. The acting force
on the fluid element is
F downward =  Fupward
weight = viscous shear force + bouyancy force

 g (d - y )bdx =  bdx +  v g (d - y )bdx

du
dy
du g ( −  v )(d - y )
 =
dy 
Integrating,
g ( −  v )d g ( −  v ) 2
u= y− y + C1
 2
Since, y = 0, u = 0, then interation constant C1 = 0.
g ( −  v )  y2 
u=  yd −  − − − − − − − − − −(1)
  2  6
 Condensation Heat Transfer
The mass flow rate of the condensate at a location x, where boundary layer
thickness d
d g ( −  v ) d  y2 
 x =  u (bdy ) = b
m   yd − dy
0  0
 2 
d
bg( −  v )  dy 2 y 3  bg( −  v )d 3
=  −  =
  2 6 0 3
The differential mass flow rate is then,
dm bg( −  v )d 2 dd
= − − − − − − − − − − − −(2)
dx  dx
Which represent the rate of condensation of vapor over a vertical distance dx,
The rate of heat transfer from the vapor to the plate through the liquid film is
equal to the heat released as vapor condensed and is epressed by
T − Ts
dQ = λdm = k (bdx ) sat
δ
dm T − Ts
 = bk sat − − − − − − − − − − − − − − − (3)
dx δ
7
 Condensation Heat Transfer
Equating equation (2) and (3),
bg( −  v )d 2 dd T − Ts
= bk sat
 dx δ
k (Tsat − T )s
 d 3dd = dx
g( −  v )
d x k (Tsat − Ts ) d 4 kx(Tsat − Ts )
 d dd =  dx  =
3
Integrating ,
0 0 g( −  v ) 4 g( −  v )
 4 kx(Tsat − Ts ) 
1/ 4

d =   − − − − − − − − − − − − − − − (4)
  g (  −  v ) 
Now, local heat transfer coefficient h x can be expressed as,
heat flux at x q x 1  k (Tsat − Ts )  k
hx = = =   =
T Tsat − Ts Tsat − Ts  d  d
 gk 3 ( −  v ) 
1/ 4

Therefore, h x =   − − − − − − − − − − − − − − − −(5)
 4  (T sat − Ts )x 
8
 Condensation Heat Transfer
The average heat transfer coefficient, h is determined as
1  gk 3 ( −  v ) 
1/ 4
1 L L
h =  hx dx =    x −1/ 4 dx
L 0 L  4  (Tsat − Ts )  0

4  gk ( −  v ) 
1/ 4
3
=  
3  4  (Tsat − Ts )L 
 gk ( −  v ) 
1/ 4
3
= 0.943 
  (Tsat − Ts )L 
where, all liquid properties should be evaluated at the film temperature
The total heat transfer to the surface can be obtained by
q = h A(Tsat − Ts )
The total condensation rate may then be obtained from the relation
q h A(Tsat − Ts )
 =
m =
 

9
Film Reynolds Number:
The Film Reynolds number may be expressed as
Dh u 4 Au 4m bg( −  v )d 3
Red = = = where, m =
 p b 3
4 g( −  v )d 3
=
3 2
Assuming,    v , the average heat transfer coefficient relationship can be
expressed in terms of modified nusselt number,
4  2 gd 3 4gd 3
Red = =
3 2
3 2
1/ 3
4 4 k 4k  4g 
Now, h= hx = =  2 
3 3d 3  3 Red 
(
h 2 / g )
1/ 3

= 1.47 Red−1/ 3 for Red  30

k

10
 Condensation
Problem:
A vertical square plate, 30 by 30 cm, is exposed to saturated steam at
atmospheric pressure and the plate temperature is maintained at 980C.
Calculate the heat transfer and the mass of steam is condensed per hour.

The average heat transfer coefficient, h is determined as

 gk 3 ( −  v ) 
1/ 4

h = 0.943 
  (Tsat − Tw )L 
The rate of heat transfer
q = h A(Tsat − Tw )
Total condensation rate can then be obtained from the relation
q h A(Tsat − Tw )
 =
m =
 
Renolds number
4m 4h L(Tsat − Tw )
Re = =
b 
11
 Condensation Heat Transfer
Flow Regimes

• The dimensionless parameter controlling

the transition between regimes is the
Reynolds number defined as:

• Three prime flow regimes:

– Re < 30 ─ Laminar (wave-free)
– 30 < Re < 1800 ─ Laminar (wavy)
– Re > 1800 ─ Turbulent
• The Reynolds number increases in the
flow direction.

12
 Film Reynolds Number:

In laminar wavy region, Kutateladze recommends a correlation,

(
h 2 / g )
1/ 3

=
Red
for 30  Red  1800
k 1.08 Red − 5.2
1.22

For turbulent flow, Labuntsov recommends,

(
h 2 / g )
1/ 3

=
Red
for Red  1800
k 8750 + 58 Pr (
− 0.5
)
Red − 253
0.75

Problem:

The outer surface of vertical tube which is 1 m long and has an outer diameter
of 80 mm, is exposed to saturated steam at atmospheric pressure and is
maintained at 500C by the flow of cold water through the tube. What is the rate
of heat transfer to the coolant and what is the rate at which steam is condensed
at the surface?

13
Inclined Plates
Equation 10–22 was developed for vertical plates,
but it can also be used for laminar film condensation
on the upper surfaces of plates that are inclined
by an angle  from the vertical, by replacing g in that
equation by g cos.

hinclined = hvert (cos  )

1/4
for laminar flow
 gk 3 ( −  v ) 
1/ 4

h = 0.943  0  Re  30
  (Tsat − Tw )L 
(10-22)

Vertical Tubes

Equation 10–22 for vertical plates can also be

used to calculate the average heat transfer
coefficient for laminar film condensation on the
outer surfaces of vertical tubes provided that the
tube diameter is large relative to the thickness
of the liquid film.
14
4 Horizontal Tubes and Spheres
The average heat transfer coefficient for film condensation
on the outer surfaces of a horizontal tube is
 gk ( −  v ) 
1/ 4
3
For a sphere, replace the
h = 0.725  W/m 2 .K
  (Tsat − Tw )D 
constant 0.725 by 0.815.

A comparison of the heat transfer coefficient relations for a vertical tube of

height L and a horizontal tube of diameter D yields

For a tube whose length is 2.77 times its diameter, the average heat transfer coefficient for
laminar film condensation will be the same whether the tube is positioned horizontally or vertically.
For L > 2.77D, the heat transfer coefficient is higher in the horizontal position.
Considering that the length of a tube in any practical application is several times its diameter, it is
common practice to place the tubes in a condenser horizontally to maximize the condensation
heat transfer coefficient on the outer surfaces of the tubes.

15
 Condensation
Problem:
One hundred tube of 12.5 mm diameter arrange in square array and exposed to
atmospheric steam. Calculate the mass of steam condensed per unit length of
tubes for a tube wall temperature of 980C.

The average heat transfer coefficient, h is determined as

 gk ( −  v ) 
1/ 4
3
h = 0.725 
  (Tsat − Tw )nd 
The rate of heat transfer per unit length
q A
= h (Tsat − Tw )
L L
Total condensation rate per unit length of tubes can then be obtained
 q L
m
=
L 

16
FILM CONDENSATION INSIDE
HORIZONTAL TUBES
Most condensation processes encountered in
refrigeration and air-conditioning applications
involve condensation on the inner surfaces of
horizontal or vertical tubes.
Heat transfer analysis of condensation inside
tubes is complicated by the fact that it is strongly
influenced by the vapor velocity and the rate of
liquid accumulation on the walls of the tubes.

For low vapor velocities:

The Reynolds number of the vapor is to be evaluated

at the tube inlet conditions using the internal tube
diameter as the characteristic length. 17
 Dropwise Condensation
Dropwise condensation, characterized by
countless droplets of varying diameters on the
condensing surface instead of a continuous
liquid film and extremely large heat transfer
coefficients can be achieved with this
mechanism.
The small droplets that form at the nucleation
sites on the surface grow as a result of
continued condensation, coalesce into large
droplets, and slide down when they reach a
certain size, clearing the surface and exposing it
to vapor. There is no liquid film in this case to
resist heat transfer.
As a result, with dropwise condensation, heat
transfer coefficients can be achieved that are
more than 10 times larger than those associated
with film condensation.
The challenge in dropwise condensation is not Dropwise condensation of
to achieve it, but rather, to sustain it for steam on copper surfaces:
prolonged periods of time.

18
 Boiling Heat Transfer
• Evaporation occurs at the liquid–vapor interface when
the vapor pressure is less than the saturation pressure of
the liquid at a given temperature.
• Boiling occurs at the solid–liquid interface when a liquid
is brought into contact with a surface maintained at a
temperature sufficiently above the saturation
temperature of the liquid.

19
 Boiling heat flux from a solid surface to the fluid

excess temperature

Classification of boiling

• Boiling is called pool boiling in the

absence of bulk fluid flow.
• Any motion of the fluid is due to
natural convection currents and the
motion of the bubbles under the
influence of buoyancy.
• Boiling is called flow boiling in the
presence of bulk fluid flow.
• In flow boiling, the fluid is forced to
move in a heated pipe or over a
surface by external means such as a
pump.
20
 Subcooled Boiling
• When the
temperature of the
main body of the
liquid is below the
saturation
temperature.

Saturated Boiling
• When the
temperature of the
liquid is equal to the
saturation
temperature.

21
 POOL BOILING
In pool boiling, the fluid is not forced to flow
by a mover such as a pump.
Any motion of the fluid is due to natural
convection currents and the motion of the
bubbles under the influence of buoyancy.

Boiling Regimes and

the Boiling Curve

Boiling takes different forms, depending on

the Texcess = Ts − Tsat

22
23
 Natural Convection Boiling
(to Point A on the Boiling Curve)
• Bubbles do not form on the heating surface until the liquid is heated a few
degrees above the saturation temperature (about 2 to 6°C for water)
• The liquid is slightly superheated in this case (metastable state).
• The fluid motion in this mode of boiling is governed by natural convection
currents.

• Heat transfer from the

heating surface to the fluid
is by natural convection.
• For the conditions of Fig.
10–6, natural convection
boiling ends at an excess
temperature of about 5°C.

24
Nucleate Boiling (between
Points A and C)
• The bubbles form at an
increasing rate at an increasing
number of nucleation sites as
we move along the boiling curve
toward point C.
• Region A–B ─ isolated
bubbles.

• Region B–C ─
numerous continuous
columns of vapor in the
liquid.

Point A is referred to as
the onset of nucleate
boiling (ONB).
25
• In region A–B the stirring and agitation caused by the entrainment of the liquid to
the heater surface is primarily responsible for the increased heat transfer
coefficient.
• In region A–B the large heat fluxes obtainable in this region are caused by the
combined effect of liquid entrainment and evaporation.
• For the entire nucleate boiling range, the heat transfer coefficient ranges from
about 2000 to 30,000 W/m2·K.

• After point B the heat

flux increases at a
lower rate with
increasing Texcess, and
reaches a maximum at
point C.
• The heat flux at this
point is called the
critical (or maximum)
heat flux, and is of
prime engineering
importance.
26
 Transition Boiling (between
Points C and D)
• When Texcess is increased past point
C, the heat flux decreases.
• This is because a large fraction of the
heater surface is covered by a vapor
film, which acts as an insulation.
• In the transition boiling
regime, both nucleate and
film boiling partially occur.
• Operation in the transition
boiling regime, which is also
called the unstable film
boiling regime, is avoided in
practice.
• For water, transition boiling
occurs over the excess
temperature range from
about 30°C to about 120°C.
27
Film Boiling (beyond Point D
• Beyond point D the heater
surface is completely
covered by a continuous
stable vapor film.
• Point D, where the heat flux
reaches a minimum is
called the Leidenfrost
point.
• The presence of a vapor
film between the heater
surface and the liquid is
responsible for the low heat
transfer rates in the film
boiling region.
• The heat transfer rate
increases with increasing
excess temperature due to
radiation to the liquid.

28
29
 Burnout Phenomenon

• A typical boiling process does

not follow the boiling curve
beyond point C.
• When the power applied to the
heated surface exceeded the
value at point C even slightly,
the surface temperature
increased suddenly to point E.
• When the power is reduced
gradually starting from point E
the cooling curve follows Fig.
10–8 with a sudden drop in
excess temperature when point
D is reached.

30
Any attempt to increase the heat
flux beyond qmax will cause the
operation point on the boiling
curve to jump suddenly from
point C to point E.
However, surface temperature
that corresponds to point E is
beyond the melting point of most
heater materials, and burnout
occurs.
Therefore, point C on the boiling
curve is also called the burnout
point, and the heat flux at this
point the burnout heat flux.
Most boiling heat transfer
equipment in practice operate
slightly below qmax to avoid any
disastrous burnout.
31
Heat Transfer Correlations in Pool Boiling
• Boiling regimes differ considerably in their character.
• Different heat transfer relations need to be used for different boiling regimes.
• In the natural convection boiling regime heat transfer rates can be accurately
determined using natural convection relations.

Nucleate Boiling
• No general theoretical relations for heat
transfer in the nucleate boiling regime is
available.
• Experimental based correlations are
used.
• The rate of heat transfer strongly
depends on the nature of nucleation
and the type and the condition of the
heated surface.

32
• For nucleate boiling a widely used correlation
proposed in 1952 by Rohsenow:

33
34
 Peak Heat Flux
• The maximum (or critical) heat flux (CHF) in nucleate pool boiling:

Ccr is a constant whose value depends on the heater geometry, but generally is
about 0.15.
• The CHF is independent of the fluid–heating surface combination, as well as
the viscosity, thermal conductivity, and the specific heat of the liquid.
• The CHF increases with pressure up to about one-third of the critical pressure,
and then starts to decrease and becomes zero at the critical pressure.
• The CHF is proportional to hfg, and large maximum heat fluxes can be obtained
using fluids with a large enthalpy of vaporization, such as water.

35
 Minimum Heat Flux
• Minimum heat flux, which occurs at
the Leidenfrost point, is of practical
interest since it represents the lower
limit for the heat flux in the film
boiling regime.
• Zuber derived the following
expression for the minimum heat flux
for a large horizontal plate

• This relation above can be in error by

50% or more.

Transition
boiling
regime
36
Film Boiling
The heat flux for film boiling on a horizontal cylinder or
sphere of diameter D is given by

• At high surface temperatures

(typically above 300°C), heat transfer
across the vapor film by radiation
becomes significant and needs to be
considered.

37
 Enhancement of Heat Transfer in Pool Boiling
• The rate of heat transfer in the
nucleate boiling regime strongly
depends on the number of active
nucleation sites on the surface, and
the rate of bubble formation at
each site.
• Therefore, modification that
enhances nucleation on the
heating surface will also enhance
heat transfer in nucleate boiling.
• Irregularities on the heating
surface, including roughness and
dirt, serve as additional nucleation
sites during boiling.

38
• Surfaces that provide enhanced heat transfer
in nucleate boiling permanently are being
manufactured and are available in the
market.
• Heat transfer can be enhanced by a factor of
up to 10 during nucleate boiling, and the
critical heat flux by a factor of 3.
• The use of finned surfaces is also known to
enhance nucleate boiling heat transfer and
the maximum heat flux.
• Boiling heat transfer can also be enhanced by
other techniques such as mechanical
agitation and surface vibration.
• These techniques are not practical, however,
because of the complications involved.

39
 FLOW BOILING
• In flow boiling, the fluid is forced to move
by an external source such as a pump as it
undergoes a phase-change process.
• It exhibits the combined effects of
convection and pool boiling.
• External flow boiling over a plate or
cylinder is similar to pool boiling, but the
added motion increases both the nucleate
boiling heat flux and the maximum heat
flux considerably.
• The higher the velocity, the higher the
nucleate boiling heat flux and the critical
heat flux.
• Internal flow boiling, commonly referred to
as two-phase flow, is much more
complicated in nature because there is no
free surface for the vapor to escape, and
thus both the liquid and the vapor are
forced to flow together.
40
• The two-phase flow in a tube
exhibits different flow boiling
regimes, depending on the
relative amounts of the liquid
and the vapor phases.
• Note that the tube contains a
liquid before the bubbly flow
regime and a vapor after the
mist-flow regime.
• Heat transfer in those two
cases can be determined
using the appropriate
relations for single-phase
convection heat transfer.

41
Correlation of flow boiling for water:
For forced convection local boiling inside vertical tube,
 P 
h = 2.54(Tx ) exp 
3

 1.551 
Where, P is the pressure in mega Pascals
Problem

42