Swaminarayan College of Engg & Tech. Saij, Kalol (Degree) : Subject: Subject Code: Semester
Swaminarayan College of Engg & Tech. Saij, Kalol (Degree) : Subject: Subject Code: Semester
Swaminarayan College of Engg & Tech. Saij, Kalol (Degree) : Subject: Subject Code: Semester
Prepared by,
Sujith Velloor S.
Assistant Professor,
Civil Engg Dept.
SCET Kalol.
GIS
❑A geographic information system (GIS) is a
computer system for capturing, storing,
checking, and displaying data related to
positions on Earth's surface.
Interpretation
❑ Interpretation is the processes of detection,
identification, description and assessment of
significant of an object and pattern imaged.
❑ The method of interpretation may be either
visual or digital or combination of both.
❑ Both the interpretation techniques have merits
and demerits and even after the digital analysis
the output are also visually analysed.
Green band Red band IR band False color
composition
Image interpretation Software
❑ The interpretation of satellite imagery and aerial
photographs involves the study of various basic
characters of an object with reference to spectral
bands which is useful in visual analysis.
❑ The basic elements are shape, size, pattern, tone,
texture, shadows, location, association and
resolution.
Salient features
1. Shape
❑ The external form, outline or configuration
of the object.
❑ This includes natural features (Example:
Yamuna River), in Delhi Man Made feature
(Example : Nehru Stadium, Delhi.
2. Size
❑ This property depends on the scale and
resolution of the image/photo.
❑Smaller feature will be easily indented in
large scale image/photo.
3. Pattern
❑Spatial arrangement of an object into
distinctive recurring forms: This can be
easily explained through the pattern of a
road and railway line.
❑Even though both looks linear, major
roads associated with steep curves and
many intersection with minor road.
4. Shadow
❑Indicates the outline of an object and its
length which is useful is measuring the
height of an object.
❑The shadow effect in Radar images is due
to look angle and slope of the terrain.
❑Taller features cast larger shadows than
shorter features.
5.Tone
❑ Refers to the colour or relative brightness of
an object.
❑ The tonal variation is due to the reflection,
emittance, transmission or absorption
character of an objects.
❑ This may vary from one object to another
and also changes with reference to different
bands.
❑ In General smooth surface tends to have high
reflectance, rougher surface less reflectance.
❑ This phenomenon can be easily explained
through Infrared and Radar imagery.
6. Infrared imagery
Healthy vegetation reflects Infrared radiation
much more stronger than green energy and
appears very bright in the image.
A simple example is the appearance of light tone
by vegetation species and dark tone by water.
Particularly in thermal infrared images the
brightness tone represents warmest temperature
and darkness represent coolest temperature.
The image (Fig2) illustrates daytime and night
time thermal data.
The changes in kinetic water temperature cause
for the tonal changes. Hence time is also to be
taken consideration before interpretation
7. Radar Imagery
❑Smooth surfaces reflect highly and area
blocked from radar signal and appear
dark.
❑Bridges and cities show very bright tone,
on the contrary calm water, pavement and
dry lake beds appears very dark tone.
8. Texture
❑The frequency of tonal change. It creaks a
visual impression of surface roughness or
smoothness of objects.
❑This property depends upon the size,
shape, pattern and shadow
9. Location Site
❑The relationship of feature to the
surrounding features provides clues to
words its identity.
❑Example: certain tree species words
associated with high altitude areas
10. Resolution
❑Itdepends upon the photographic/imaging
device namely cameras or sensors.
❑This includes of spectral and spatial
resolutions.
❑The spectral resolution helps in
identifying the feature in specific spectral
bands.
❑The high spatial resolutions
imagery/photographs is useful in
identifying small objects.
11. Association
❑Occurrence of features in relation to
others.
Limitation in interpretation.
❑Unfamiliar scale and resolutions.
❑Lack of understanding of physics of
Remote sensing.
❑Understanding proper spectral character
of each object
❑Visually interpret 3 layers of information
at a time.
Capabilities in interpretation
❑Training and Experience of the interpreter
❑Quality of photo/Images
❑Local knowledge of the study area.
Advantages of digital image
processing
❑ Cost-effective for large geographic areas
❑ Cost-effective for repetitive interpretations
❑ Cost-effective for standard image formats
❑ Consistent results
❑ Simultaneous interpretations of several
channels
❑ Complex interpretation algorithms possible
❑ Speed may be an advantage
❑ Explore alternatives
❑ Compatible with other digital data
Disadvantages in digital
processing
❑ Expensive for small areas
❑ Expensive for one-time interpretations
❑ Start-up costs may be high
❑ Requires elaborate, single-purpose
equipment
❑ Accuracy may be difficult to evaluate
❑ Requires standard image formats
❑ Data may be expensive, or not available
❑ Preprocessing may be required
❑ May require large support staff
GIS Data Management
❑In the GIS world, we will encounter many
different GIS file formats.
❑Some file formats are unique to specific
GIS applications, others are universal.
❑For this course, we will focus on a subset
of spatial data file formats: shapefiles for
vector data, imagine and GeoTiff files
for rasters & file geodatabases for both
vector and raster data.
Shapefile
❑ A shapefile is a file-based data format native
to ArcView 3.x software (a much older
version of ArcMap).
❑ Conceptually, a shapefile is a feature class–it
stores a collection of features that have the
same geometry type (point, line, or polygon),
the same attributes, and a common spatial
extent.
❑ Shapefile is actually composed of at least
three files, and as many as eight. Each file
that makes up a “shapefile” has a common
filename but different extension type.
Shapefile
File extension Content
.dbf Attribute information
.shp Feature geometry
.shx Feature geometry index
.aih Attribute index
.ain Attribute index
Coordinate system
.prj
information
.sbn Spatial index file
.sbx Spatial index file
Imagine
❑ The Imagine file format was originally
created by an image processing software
company called ERDAS.
❑This file format consists of a
single .img file.
❑This is a simpler file format than the
shapefile.
❑It is sometimes accompanied by an .xml
file which usually stores metadata
information about the raster layer.
GeoTiff
❑A popular public domain raster data
format is the GeoTIFF format.
❑If maximum portability and platform
independence is important, this file format
may be a good choice.
File Geodatabase
❑A file geodatabase is a relational database
storage format.
❑ It’s a far more complex data structure than
the shapefile and consists of a .gdb folder
housing dozens of files.
❑ Its complexity renders it more versatile
allowing it to store multiple feature classes
and enabling topological definitions
(i.e. allowing the user to define rules that
govern the way different feature classes
relate to one another).
An example of the contents of a
geodatabase
Spatial Data Models
❑A data model is a way of defining and
representing real world surfaces and
characteristics in GIS. There are two
primary types of spatial data
models: Vector and Raster.
❑Vector data represents features as discrete
points, lines, and polygons
❑Raster data represents features as a
rectangular matrix of square cells (pixels)
Vector data
❑ Vector data is very common, and is often
used to represent features like roads and
boundaries.
❑ Vector data comes in the form of points and
lines that are geometrically and
mathematically associated.
❑ Types of vector data
1. Point
2.Polylines.
3.Polygon.
Raster data
❑ Raster data models represents surfaces as a matrix of cells,
more commonly known as pixels, that are organized into
rows and columns. Each cell contains a value that represents
data.
❑ When you use a digital camera to capture a photo, your image
is being stored as raster data.
❑ In remote sensing, a majority of the data encountered is raster
data.
❑ The below image is a Digital Elevation Model (DEM) which
is a common type of raster data.
❑ Each pixel represents the elevation of the area on the ground.
❑ Raster data models can be used to store reflectance data,
elevation data and categorical data like soil or land cover
type.
Attribute Data Model
❑A separate data model is used to
store and maintain attribute data
for GIS software.
❑These data models may exist internally
within the GIS software, or may be
reflected in external commercial
Database Management Software (DBMS).
❑A variety of different data models exist
for the storage and management of
attribute data.
Attribute Data Model
❑ The most common are:
1. Tabular
2. Hierarchial
3. Network
4. Relational
5. Object Oriented
❑ The tabular model is the manner in which most
early GIS software packages stored their attribute
data. The next three models are those most
commonly implemented in database management
systems (DBMS).
❑ The object oriented is newer but rapidly gaining
in popularity for some applications.
Attribute Data Management
❑ Activities include:
1. Data entry & verification.
2. Database management
❑ To compare database construction for a GIS
project attribute data must be entered,
verified & managed.
❑ Two basic element in the design of a
relational database are
1. Key
2. Type of data relationship: one to one one
to many & many to many