ELECTRICAL METHODS OF GEOPHYSICAL EXPLORATION

GED 455: Exploration Geophysics

1. INTRODUCTION
In the early parts of the 20th century Conrad Schlumberger first employed the electrical
technique by injecting electric current into the ground and mapping the distribution of the
resulting potential field. Since then the resistivity of the ground (terrain) has been used to study
a number of geological problems including:
 rock lithology and bedrock depth,
 the location and mapping of aggregate and clay deposits,
 mapping groundwater extent and salinity,
 detecting pollution plumes in groundwater,
 mapping areas of high ice content in permafrost regions,
 locating geothermal areas, and
 mapping archaeological sites

Resistivity mapping may sometimes provide definite geological information; however, there are
several instances when the results may be difficult if not impossible to interpret due to high
“geological noise”. Meanwhile, the actual value of the terrain resistivity is usually not
diagnostic (Fig. 1.1). The variations of resistivity –either laterally or with depth- are examined
to outline the geological features of interest.

RANGE OF RESISTIVITIES OF SOME COMMON ROCKS

Sandy Clay
Sand
Clay
Conglomerate
Limestone
Dolomite
Rock Type

Shale
Argillite
Trachite
Porphyry
Marble
Lava
Diabase
Granite
Gneiss
Gabbro
Basailt

0.1 1 10 100 1000 10000 100000 1E+06 1E+07 1E+08 1E+09

Resistivity (Ohm-m)

Figure 1.1: Range of electrical resistivities of common rock types

2. RESISTIVITY METHOD
Electrical resistivity/conductivity of a material is a measure of the ease/difficulty with which an
electrical current can be made to flow through it. Simply put, conductivity is the ability of a
material to conduct electricity when a voltage is applied, and resistivity is the resistance offered
by a material to current flow. The electrical resistance, R, is given by:

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V
R , where V and I are respectively the voltage and current across the material.
I
E.g. If a voltage of one volt is applied across a material and the ammeter reads two milli-
amperes the electrical resistance of the material would be 500 ohms.

For the example above, if different lengths of the same material are used it would be found that
the resistances measured across the pieces are proportional to the length and inversely
proportional to the cross-sectional area of the material perpendicular to the direction of current
flow. The constant of proportionality, which is the property of the material only, is defined as
L L
the resistivity of the material –i.e. R  R   , where ρ is the resistivity.
A A
The resistivity of a conductor is defined as the resistance, R, in ohms, between the opposite faces
of a unit cube of the conductor. If R represents the resistance then the resistivity, , is given as

RA
 , …………………………………….. [2.1]
L
I where A is the cross-sectional area and L is the length of
the cube (conductor). By dimensional analysis the unit of
resistivity is therefore Ohm-m (-m).

The current, I, passing through a conductor of resistance R when a voltage, V, is applied is given
V
by Ohm‟s law as: I ……………………………………………………. [2.2]
R
IL I
From equations 2.1 and 2.2 we have: V   , i.e. taking A = L2. …………… [2.3]
A L

Conductivity, c, is the ability of a material to conduct electricity when a voltage is applied across
it; its relationship to resistivity is given as:
1
c

In the resistivity method, the resistivity of the ground is determined by measuring the potential
difference across two electrodes while introducing a current into the ground through two other
electrodes (Fig. 2.1).

C1 P1 P2 C2

Figure 2.1: An example of practical electrode spread

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GED 455: Exploration Geophysics

Consider a semi-infinite, homogeneous and isotropic layer bounded by the earth‟s surface. If a
current +I is passed into the ground through the electrode C1; the potential across a
hemispherical shell of radius r, and thickness dr around the electrode C1 is given by:
I I
dV  dr , and by integration we have V  …………………… [2.4]
2r 2
2r
I
Thus, the potential at a point (VP) due to a current source r from the point is given by: VP  .
2r
Hence if we have a current source, +I and a sink, -I at C1 and C2 respectively on the ground
surface (Fig. 2.2), then the potentials at P due to the current sources C1 and C2 are given by:
I  I
VPC 1  and VPC 2  .
2r1 2r2

r1 r2

C1 P C2
Figure 2.2: Demonstration of the potential at a point due to two current sources

The total potential at the point (VP) is given by adding the potentials due to the current sources:
I I I  1 1 
 VP      
2r1 2r2 2  r1 r2 
Hence if we have a current source, +I and a sink, -I at C1 and C2 respectively on the ground
surface (Fig. 2.3), then the potentials at P1 and P2 due to the combined effect of the current
sources C1 and C2 are given by:

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GED 455: Exploration Geophysics

I 1 1  I 1 1
VP1    , and VP2     ………………………. [2.5] & [2.6]
2  r1 r2  2  r3 r4 

r1 r2

r3 r4
C1 P1 P2 C2

Figure 2.3: Typical example of electrode spread (array) for resistivity investigation

Therefore the potential difference dP between P1 and P2 is given by:

I  1 1 1 1 
V  VP1  VP2      , …………………………………… [2.7]
2  r1 r2 r3 r4 
1
2V 1 1 1 1 
       , …………………………………… [2.8]
I  r1 r2 r3 r4 
1
2V 1 1 1 1 
  G , where G       is called the geometrical factor.
I  r1 r2 r3 r4 
When the subsurface is homogeneous the resistivity computed from the equations should be
constant and independent of both electrode spacing (G) and surface location; this is the true
resistivity. On the other hand when subsurface inhomogeneities exist the resistivity would vary
with the relative positions of the electrodes. Any calculated resistivity value of ρ will be only
the apparent resistivity, a.

Even though the earth as a whole is considered to be a conductor, earth materials have such very
low conductivities that their measurements can be very difficult; very high precision instruments
may be needed. It is therefore easier to measure the resistivity.

2.1 Electrode Arrangements and Field Procedures

For field practice a number of electrode arrays (configurations) have been proposed by different
authors and have been used. Naturally, they have their own advantages and disadvantages and
one has to adopt the one most suited to their conditions.

2.1.1 Wenner Array

The Wenner array was introduced by Wenner in 1915 for ground resistivity measurements. The
array has four electrodes C1, P1, P2 and C2, which are placed in a straight line and symmetrically
about the midpoint O so that the electrodes are equally spaced –i.e. the distance between any two
adjacent electrodes is the same and equal to say a –i.e. C1P1 = P1P2 = P2C2 = a (Fig. 2.4).
Thus, r1 = r4 = a, & r2 = r3 = 2a, and hence:
1 1 1
2V 1 1 1 1  2V 1 1 1 1 2V 1
a         a  2a  2a  a    a 
I  r1 r2 r3 r4  I I

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a a a

O
C1 P1 P2 C2
Figure 2.4: A Wenner electrode spread (array) for resistivity investigation

V
  a  2a ……………………………………………………………………… [2.9]
I
The Wenner array itself has three variations depending on the change of positions of the current
and potential electrodes; these are:
-Wenner: the electrode positions are C1, P1, P2, C2 (also Normal Wenner array)
-Wenner: the electrode positions are C1, C2, P1, P2
-Wenner: the electrode positions are C1, P1, C2, P2

In all cases the inter electrode separation is constant. If the ground resistance is measured by the
three different Wenner arrays, they can be represented by R, R, R, and their relationship is
given by: R = R + R, whatever the ground structure or condition. This provides a useful
check on the precision of the measuring instrument.

2.1.2 Schlumberger Array

This array also uses four co-linear electrodes similar to the -Wenner (C1, P1, P2, C2) but the
distances between adjacent electrodes are not the same. It measures the potential gradients at
the midpoints by keeping potential electrodes close to each other (Fig. 2.5). The four electrodes
are placed symmetrically over the central point O; for best results (C1C2  P1P2).
L

O
C1 P1 P2 C2
Figure 2.5: A Schlumberger electrode spread (array) for resistivity investigation

The configuration (geometrical) factor for the Schlumberger array is given as:

  C1C2  2  P1 P2  2    C1C2  2  P1 P2  2 
         
  2   2   V  2   2  
G , and   a  ……. [2.10]
 2 P1 P2  I  P1 P2 
   
   

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2.1.3 Lee Partition Array

This employs five co-linear electrodes, the outer two being current electrodes C1C2 and the inner
three the potential, P1PoP2. Two of the potential electrodes are located as in the Wenner array
while the third potential electrode is placed at the centre of the array. The setup is (C1P1PoP2C2)
(Fig. 2.6).

a a a
a/2 a/2

C1 P1 Po P2 C2
Figure 2.6: A Lee Partition electrode spread (array) for resistivity investigation

From the voltage differences V1 and V2 between the central electrode and the other potential
electrodes we can obtain two apparent resistivity values as follows:
V1 V
 a1  4a and  a 2  4a 2 …………………………. [2.11] and [2.12],
I I
where 2a is the geometric factor. If the two measured values of V are identical it can be taken
that the ground is laterally homogeneous. The actual value used in the field survey is V given
by P1 and P2.

2.1.4 Dipole-Dipole (Double Dipole) Array

This array is less commonly used for resistivity investigations but it is important for some
special purposes and for induced polarisation surveys; it was quite popular in Ghana for point
source investigations as in groundwater borehole siting. In this array the potential electrodes are
outside the current electrodes, each pair having the same constant separation a. The distances
between the two pairs is na -normally greater than a, their individual separations (Fig. 2.7);
where n is an integer –i.e. n = 1, 2, 3, ...
a na a

O
C1 C2 P1 P2
Figure 2.7: A Dipole-Dipole electrode spread (array) for resistivity investigation

The simplest arrangement is a co-linear system of the form C1C2 -- P1P2 for which the apparent
resistivity may be calculated from the expression:
V
 a  na(n  1)(n  2) …………………………….………………………. [2.13]
I

2.1.5 Three-Electrode Array

In the three-electrode array one of the current electrodes is made passive and kept fixed at a very
large distance from the three remaining equally spaced and active electrodes (Fig. 2.8). The set
is C1P1P2, and C2 is assumed to be at infinity; in reality about 20a; the potential due to the fixed

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current electrode C2 is practically zero at the probes. This electrode configuration is called the
three electrode array; the configuration factor is 2a and the apparent resistivity is given by:
V
 a  4a …………………………………………………………………… [2.14]
I
This array type is sometimes referred to as the half-Schlumberger especially when P1P2 is less
than C1P1. The potential gradient is measured at a distance „a’ from the current electrode.

a a 

C1 P1 P2 C2
Figure 2.8: A Three-Electrode spread (array) for resistivity investigation

2.1.6 Two-Electrode Array

In the two-electrode array one current and one potential electrodes are in active operation while
the other current and potential electrodes are at a very large distance apart, at about 20 times the
electrode separation along the profile and perpendicularly bisected (Fig. 2.9). The potential is
measured at a distance „a‟ from the current electrode. The configuration factor is a, and the
apparent resistivity is equal to:
V
 a  2a ………………………………………………………….… [2.15]
I
The array is also known as the half-Wenner array.
a

C1 P1

Figure 2.9: A Two-Electrode spread (array) for resistivity investigation

2.2 Practical Considerations

In resistivity measurements current may be provided from dry cell batteries; a low frequency AC
voltage is also commonly used (Plate 2.1). The electrodes -current and potential- are generally
of steel or copper-clad stakes, which are driven a few centimetres into the ground. When the
ground appears too dry the soil around the electrodes may have to be moistened to improve
contact.

The voltage between the electrodes is usually measured with a potentiometer, though a voltmeter
may also be used. However, instrumentation has reached a stage that the current and voltage
measuring devices are now inbuilt into the resistivity meters. The requirements for electrodes in
the measuring circuit are somewhat different from those for the electrodes in the current circuit.
The basic physical quantities measured in a determination of resistivity are the current (I)
flowing between the electrodes, the potential difference (V) across the measuring electrodes
and the distances between the various electrodes (Table 2.1).

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GED 455: Exploration Geophysics

It is important to design Field Data

Sheets to suit the investigation type
(profiling or sounding), the array type
and the available resources. Once the
basic parameters –e.g. type of array and
electrode separation- have been decided
some resistivity meters may offer a
choice of what parameters to display;
resistivity may be read directly instead of
current and voltage. When one current
electrode is removed from either the
Wenner or Schlumberger setup the
geometrical factor is doubled.
Plate 2.1: A set of resistivity equipment

Table 2.1: Field Note

Project: Date:
Community: District:
Client: Conducted by:
Line: Weather:
Srl. C1C2 P1P2 I V R G a

Sometimes it becomes necessary to interchange the positions of current and potential electrodes.
Such a change may be required for safety reasons when very large electrode separations are
used; it is not wise though to have several kilometres of current cable laid on the ground. When
the current and potential electrodes are interchanged the measured voltage will not change.

The objective of resistivity surveys is to map out the resistivity boundaries, both lateral and
vertical, in a heterogeneous ground. In practice this is accomplished by two distinct procedures
–Horizontal Electrical Profiling (HEP) and Vertical Electrical Sounding (VES). In principle,
they are very similar; at any one time they measure the resistivity at a given depth. When the
depth of investigation is kept constant and the spatial position being investigated varied we have
an HEP. On the other hand, changing the depth of investigation at a given station gives a VES.

2.2.1 Electric Sounding

In a VES the central point is kept constant while expanding the electrode spread (Fig. 2.10).

C1 P1 P2 C2

Station

Figure 2.10: A typical electrode spread (array) for VES investigation

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With the three-electrode array C1P1P2, at each measurement the spacing between C1 and the
gradient potential electrode pair is increased.

If the Schlumberger array is used then the current electrodes are expanded outwards from the
potential pair whose spacing remains constant until the potential difference is too small to
measure satisfactorily. When that happens the potential electrode separation is increased slightly
but maintaining the relationship C1C2  10P1P2. Since the potential electrodes remain fixed, the
effect of near surface resistivity variations in their vicinity is constant for all observations.

The Schlumberger array is more suitable for sounding because only two electrodes are moved.
With the Wenner array the central point is kept fixed and the distance a between electrodes is
increased at each measurement. Whatever array is used the data is presented in a form of a
resistivity curve of apparent resistivity against electrode separation on a logarithmic scale:
i. For Wenner array the plot is a against a
ii. For Schlumberger array the plot is a against ½C1C2
iii. For the Dipole-Dipole array the plot is a against ½a(1 + n)
iv. For the three-electrode array the plot is a against d, where d is distance between C1 and
the midpoint of P1P2
v. The two-electrode array cannot be used to sound

In sounding the line of stations should be parallel to the strike.

2.2.2 Electric Profiling

To do an HEP investigation the depth of interest is chosen from the spread of the electrodes and
this is kept fixed while moving the central point laterally by a regular incremental distance (e.g.
10m). The object of the electric profiling method is to detect lateral variations in the apparent
resistivity of the ground by moving an electrode spread with fixed separation along a traverse
line. The profiling is well suited for vertical layers or boundaries.

With the Schlumberger array the current electrodes remain fixed at a relatively large distance,
preferably at the ends of the traverse if it is a long one, and the potential electrodes with a small
constant separation are moved between the current electrodes. They are moved along the middle
third of the traverse line (Fig. 2.11). Apparent resistivities are computed for each measurement
of potential difference (V), current (I) and geometric factor G. The profile should be
perpendicular to the strike of the structure to be mapped.

Middle third
C1 P1 P2 C2

Station

Figure 2.11: A typical electrode spread (array) for VES investigation

In the Wenner array the four electrodes with constant spacing (a) are moved as a whole in
suitable steps along the traverse or profile. The value of „a‟ would depend on the depth of the
anomalous resistivity feature to be mapped. Both the three- and two-electrode arrays are
similarly used for the profiling and the results are better than those of Wenner and Schlumberger
methods.

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Resistivity profiling is conducted normally to study geological structures like dykes, faults,
fissure zones, etc., which are generally associated with lateral variations and which are suitable
for mineral and groundwater occurrence. In the economic profiling only half-Wenner and half-
Schlumberger may be used.

Results are presented as resistivity contours or profiles with the plotting points at the centre of
the array in the Wenner system, at the midpoint of the potential electrodes in the Schlumberger
system, between P1P2 for the three-electrode array, or at P for the two-electrode system.

2.3 Field Measurements

Plate 2.2 shows some basic field equipment for resistivity surveys (note the electrodes are not
shown). In fieldwork, collinear arrays are the most frequently used –i.e. the 4 electrodes lie in a
straight line. Configurations need not be collinear; a non-collinear array may be used when the
situation so demands. Again, electrodes are commonly labelled A & B (for current) and M & N
(for potential). The earth is investigated by increasing the spacing of the electrode spread and
measuring apparent resistivity at various spacing.

Plate 2.2: Some standard equipment for a resistivity survey (electrodes are not shown)

The general form of the resistivity equations relating current to induced voltage is:
V 
  K   ………………………….…………………………………………. [2.16]
I
K is determined by the array geometry –i.e. spatial electrodes arrangement. V and I are
measured using a voltmeter (or potentiometer) and an ammeter respectively. Data are plotted on
log-log graph paper -apparent resistivity on the vertical axis as a function of electrode spacing.
Edwards (1977)1 developed the concept of effective depth, ze, the interval within the subsurface
of a homogeneous earth that contributes 50% of the signal.
i. The Wenner Array
For the Wenner array, the centre of this effective depth is given by:

1
Edwards, L. S. (1977). A modified pseudosection for resistivity and IP. Geophysics, 42, 1020 – 1036.

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ze
 0.519 (Edwards, 1977)  ze = 0.519a …………………….. [2.17]
a
In other words, if the a-spacing for a given measurement is 10m, 50% of the signal is controlled
by a zone centred about 5.2m below the surface. The effective depth zone extends from 0.5ze
to 1.6ze (i.e. about 2.6 to 8.3m). To probe the earth, we begin with short a-spacing, make the
measurements of I and V, and expand the array by increasing "a" in a systematic manner. The
V 
apparent resistivity, a, is given as  a  2a   .
I
Data are plotted on log-log graph (ρa as a function of a) generating a sounding curve with the
electrode a-spacing usually used as the independent variable (horizontal, or x-axis. In electrical
sounding with the Wenner array, the depth of investigation, AB/2, may also be plotted against
apparent resistivity, ρa, to investigate vertical variations in apparent resistivity with depth; this
is common in geotechnical and hydrogeological exploration.

In practice, a typical a-spacing for the first measurement is 2.0 meters. It is generally a good
idea to obtain 5 evenly spaced data points per log cycle. This means a = 2.0, 3.2, 5.0, 7.9, 13,
20, 32, 50, 79, 130, and so on until sufficient sampling depth has been achieved (or until you
run out of wire or space). Note that these values represent approximately 100.3, 100.5, 100.7, …,
101.3 and so on. The decision as to "How large an 'a' is enough?" depends on the specific
geologic problem. However, limitation on logistics should not be overlooked; e.g. for every
depth (d) that is to be probed one requires twice that space (i.e. 2d) laterally.

ii. Schlumberger Array

The Schlumberger array resembles the Wenner array; the difference in terms of deployment
geometry is simply the distance between the potential electrodes (MN), which is not held to the
central third distance between the current electrodes (AB) as in the case of the Wenner array.
Apparent resistivity calculations are also slightly more complex:
2 2
 AB   MN 
   
 2   2  V 
a   
MN I
However, the data are plotted as in the Wenner -apparent resistivity as a function of ‘a’ or
AB/2. A symmetric electrode spread –i.e. one in which electrodes are symmetrical about the
sounding point is commonly used. One restriction on the use of the Schlumberger array is that
the electrode separation AB must be at least 5 times the separation MN –i.e. AB > 5MN.
The approximate Effective depth midrange, ze, for the Schlumberger array is (Edwards, 1977):
ze = 0.190AB ............................................................................................................ [2.18]
The 50% sample zone extends from 0.5ze to 1.6ze –e.g. for AB = 30m, ze will extend from 2.85
to 9.12m. Since AB = 3a, the depth of investigation for a Schlumberger array is:
ze = 0.190AB = 0.190 x 3a = 0.570a (ze = 0.519a for a Wenner array).
Sclumberge r ze 0.570a
   1.098 ……….……………………………………. [2.19]
Wenner ze 0.519a
Thus the Schlumberger provides, for a given spacing of current electrodes, about 10% greater
depth of investigation than that provided by the Wenner array.

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As with the Wenner array, in the Schlumberger we begin a sounding with a short AB and
expand in log-steps. We begin with AB = 5m and MN = 1m. At 5 data points per log cycle,
the array expands as follows: AB/2 = 2.5, 4.0, 6.3, 10, 16, 25, 40, … (i.e. AB/2 = 100.4, 100.6,
100.8, 101, …). The potential electrodes MN are expanded only when potential drops become
too small to measure with sufficient precision. In a typical survey, it may not be necessary to
increase the initial MN/2= 0.5m distance until AB/2 is 10m. At this point, we measure (V and
I) for both the old MN/2 value (0.5 m) and for the new MN/2 (10/5, or 2m). This procedure
permits us to detect near-surface heterogeneities, something not available to us with the
Wenner array.

There are three significant advantages of the Schlumberger over the Wenner array viz.
i. the Schlumberger array has a slightly greater (10%) depth of investigation;
ii. because the resistivity is being sampled between points MN, the lateral resolution is better
for the Schlumberger array. It is commonly wrongly assumed that the AB determines the
lateral resolution. An analysis along the line of "voltage drops across resistors in series"
should show why MN determines lateral resolution.
iii. because MN and AB can be changed independently, lateral variations between the MN
electrodes are detected when the Schlumberger array is used. Because both AB and MN
must be moved simultaneously in making a Wenner sounding, a Wenner user may not be
able to determine if details of a curve are controlled by variations as a function of depth or
by lateral variations in electrical properties.

iii. Dipole-Dipole Array

The double dipole array is useful for simultaneously mapping shallow variations both laterally
and vertically. The apparent resistivity for the dipole-dipole array is:
V 
 a  an(n  1)(n  2) 
I
A depth of interest is selected and dipole dimensions a and n are calculated as appropriate for
the investigation. According to Edwards (1977) the effective depth ze is greater than 3a but less
than 4a. In other words, with a 10-meter dipoles –i.e. a = 10m, we can image the upper 12m or
so when measurements between dipole separations with n = 1 through to n = 4 are made.

The value for each dipole-dipole combination is plotted on a pseudo-section, which resembles
a cross section of the region under the dipole-dipole profile. The traditional pseudo-section
plots apparent resistivity at the point where lines drawn downward at 45o angles from the centre
of each dipole intersect –i.e. the depth of investigation is taken as d = 0.5a(n+1). This
traditional pseudo-section exaggerates the depth of anomalous materials. The pseudo-section
may be modified using coefficients published by Edwards (1977); the modified sections appear
to match the true depths better.

Disadvantages of the dipole-dipole include:

i. high electrical currents are required to interrogate deeply into the earth, and
ii. true rock resistivities are not easily calculated.
NB: Potential fields are not unique –i.e. any given sounding curve could represent several electrical resistivity
structures. The best solution is (usually) the least complex. Remember Occam's Razor viz: “Do not introduce a
complexity that is not mandated by the data”, is sufficient to explain all observations. It is enough to realise, and
in fact state, that an interpretation for a sounding curve is consistent with the available data; it is not THE model
representing reality.

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GED 455: Exploration Geophysics

2.4 Relationship between Resistivity, Porosity and Texture of a Rock

The resistivity of a rock is a function of the amount of water in the rock, its salinity and the
manner in which the water is distributed through the rock. The amount of water in a rock is
usually determined by its porosity –i.e. the amount of open spaces in the rock which may be
filled with water. The more porous a rock is the lower its resistivity; pore spaces must be inter-
connected (permeable) and filled with water for a rock to conduct electricity. Generally, an
increase in the concentration of dissolved salts in the groundwater leads to a decrease in . The
manner of distribution of the water in a rock is determined by its texture, which is a description
of the size and shape of the pore spaces. Pore volume may consist of two parts –large voids,
which serve as storage pores and finer connecting pores. Most of the resistance to current flow
is provided by the connecting pores because of their small cross-section. A rock with a high
ratio of storage pore volume to connecting pore volume will have a higher resistivity for a given
porosity than a rock in which the ratio is low. A very simple relation between resistivity and
water content which might exist in a rock will be:
t   w 1 …………………………………………………………………….. [2.16]
Where t is the bulk resistivity, w is the resistivity of water in the rock, and  is the fraction of
porosity filled with water.

The order of increasing resistivity for water bearing rocks is:

increasing conductivity
Clay sand gravel limestone crystalline rocks
increasing resistivity

2.5 Factors Affecting Terrain Conductivity

Most soil and rock minerals are electrical insulators of very high resistivity. However, on rare
occasions conductive minerals such as magnetite, specular hematite, carbon, graphite, pyrite and
pyrrhotite occur in sufficient quantities in rocks to greatly increase their overall conductivity.
This note assumes that such minerals are absent.

In general, the conductivity of rock and soils is electrolytic and takes place through the moisture
filled pores and passages, which are contained within the insulating matrix. The conductivity is
therefore determined for both rocks and soils by:
i. porosity: shape and size of pores, number, size and shape of interconnecting passages;
ii. the extent to which pores are filled by water –i.e. the moisture content;
iii. concentration of dissolved electrolytes in the contained moisture;
iv. temperature and phase state of the pore water; and
v. amount and composition of colloids

14 Bukari Ali, Geol. Eng. Dept.

GED 455: Exploration Geophysics

3. GRAVITY METHODS
It is well known that every object on the Earth‟s surface is attracted towards the centre with a
force equal to the weight of the object. The force experienced by a mass of one gram on the
earth‟s surface is numerically equal to the acceleration due to gravity. This force is also called
the gravity field or gravity force of the earth.

The mantle and the core of the earth account for about
99% of the force of gravity and only about 0.3% is
derived from materials in the crust (Fig. 3.1). The
gravitational force due to the mantle and the core varies
uniformly in the lateral direction because of the
systematic variation of density with depth of the
materials in them and because of the regular shape of the
mantle and the core. The crustal rocks on the other hand
are not laterally uniform in their density. Consequently,
they produce minor gravity fields which vary from point
to point on the earth‟s surface.
Figure 3.1: Cross section of the Earth

Since gravity varies inversely as the square of the distance, the rocks closest to the earths surface
account for a substantial part of the variations in gravity on the earth‟s surface. Other factors
responsible for variations in gravity include:
a. Centrifugal force of the earth which tends to throw objects away from the surface of the
earth (Fig. 3.2); this causes minor changes in gravity.

g  g  mr 2 cos  …..…………...….. [3.1]

The effect is maximum at the equator and
minimum at the poles; hence gravity force is
smallest at the equator and highest at the poles.
ge  g  Re m 2 ;  = 0 at equator
g P  g  = 90 at poles

Figure 3.2: Centrifugal force of the Earth

b. The departure of the earth‟s shape from that of a sphere; it bulges at the equator and
flattens at the poles. Hence, gravity force is greater at the poles than at the equator.
c. The topography of the earth‟s surface also causes objects to be at varying distances from
the centre of the earth, and hence different gravitational forces at the earth‟s surface.
As a result of these factors corrections are always applied to the observed gravity values at a
given place to standardise the readings for easy comparison. The difference between the normal
gravity of the earth and the corrected gravity field is known as the gravity anomaly. These
anomalies are caused by lateral variations in density of the materials near the earth‟s surface.
Thus, by mapping the gravity anomalies of the ground surface it is possible to predict the density
variations in the underlying rocks; this may be related to the source of the geological interest.

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GED 455: Exploration Geophysics

3.1 Gravity Prospecting

The method of gravity prospecting can be divided into three main stages viz.
i. Field work: where the gravity and elevation data are collected (measured) at various
points on the earth‟s surface;
ii. Data reduction: where the observed gravity data are corrected for the various external
disturbances (or effects). The normal gravity field is calculated and subtracted from the
corrected observed gravity to obtain the gravity anomalies.
iii. Interpretation: where the gravity anomalies are translated into plausible geological
structures
For the successful application of the gravity method the presence of a lateral density variation is
necessary (Fig. 3.3) –i.e. the target which is sought for must differ substantially in its gravity to
provide observable contrast from that of the surrounding rocks.

The difference is called the density contrast, which may be

positive or negative –i.e. density of target - density of country
m rocks.
   m  c ……………………..……………. [3.2]
c
Positive anomalies are caused by positive density contrasts
and negative anomalies by negative contrasts.
Figure 3.3: Target mass

The absence of a density contrast may not necessarily mean the absence of ore deposits or
geological structures; what it means is that whatever structure may be there does not differ much
in density from the surrounding material (or rocks) to show an observable density contrast. The
structures may provide a different physical contrast like magnetic, electrical, etc., which method
may be used in the prospecting.

3.2 Fundamental Considerations

The basis of the gravity method of prospecting rests on Newton‟s Law of Gravitation.
According to this law, the mutual force of attraction (F) between two point masses separated by
a distance r is given by the relations:
Gm1m2
F , where G is the universal gravitational constant and is equal to the force of
r2
attraction between unit masses separated by a unit distance. Using dimensional analysis G has
units of L3 M-1 T-2.
Thus in the cgs system G = 6.67 x 10-8 cm3g-1sec-2, and
in the SI system G = 6.67 x 10-8 m3kg-1sec-2
If the total mass of the earth is M located at the centre of the earth then an object of mass m on
the surface is attracted towards the centre by a force of the earth approximately equal to:
GMm
F , where Re is the radius of the earth.
Re2
According to Newton‟s second law of motion F = ma =mg (g due to the force of gravity) thus

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GED 455: Exploration Geophysics

GMm GM
 2
 mg ,  g 2 ; ………………………………..………….…. [3.3]
Re Re
and this is the force exerted on a unit mass placed on the surface of the earth. Thus instead of
measuring the force of gravity we can measure the acceleration due to gravity; the unit of
acceleration due to gravity is called the gal (after Galileo) and 1 gal = 1 cm/sec2. In practice this
unit is too big and what is usually used is the milligal = 10-3 gal = 10-3 cm/sec-2. In geodesy the
unit employed is the microgal = 10-6 gal = 10-6 cm/sec-2 = 10-8 m/sec-2. One gravity unit = 0.1
milligal.
We can use Eq. 3.3 to determine the average density of the earth by assuming that the earth is a
non-rotating sphere. In this case the average density  is given by:
4 3
Re G
4
g 3 2  g  Re G …………………………………….… [3.4]
Re 3
If either Re or  is known the other can be calculated from a knowledge of G. E.g. assuming Re
is 6371 km and g is 980 gal, the density  is given as 5.2 gm/cm3, which is almost twice the
gRe2
density of crustal rocks; the mass M = = 5.867 x 1021 tonnes. These figures are
G
irrespective of the density distribution of the earth.
If a point mass m is at a distance r from the centre of the earth (Fig. 3.4), the force of attraction
GM1m
there is: F
m.
r2
where M1 is mass of a sphere of radius r of the earth.
4
r M 1  r 3  (a part of the earth) and
3
4
M  Re3  (for the whole earth)
3
M1 r 3 r3
  3,  M1  M 3
M Re Re
GMr 3 m GMm
 F  2  r ……….….. [3.5]
Re3 r Re3
Figure 3.4: A point mass within the Earth

Thus, within the earth the force of gravitational attraction is proportional to the distance from the
centre, whereas outside the earth the force is inversely proportional to the square of the distance.
These are demonstrated in Figures 3.5 and 3.6 respectively.

17 Bukari Ali, Geol. Eng. Dept.

GED 455: Exploration Geophysics

Inside the Earth Outside the Earth

Gravitational force

Distance from centre of Earth Distance from centre of Earth

Figure 3.5: Variation of gravity within the Earth Figure 3.6: Variation of gravity outside the Earth

3.3 Factors Affecting Rock Density

i. Igneous Rocks: the density of igneous rocks depends on the amount and type of rock
forming minerals. The density decreases with increasing silica content -e.g. granites and
rhyolites are lighter than gabbro and basalt- and intrusive rocks are generally denser than
extrusive rocks. Since igneous rock porosity is negligible the effect of porosity on density
is also negligible. Mineralization within the rock increases the density, but this increase is
small. Unweathered igneous are denser than the weathered ones.
ii. Sedimentary Rocks: the major factor controlling the density of sedimentary rocks is
porosity, but moisture content and the presence of solutions in the pores increase the bulk
density. Depth of burial increases density of sedimentary rocks as a result of the
overburden pressure; the older the sediments the greater the density.
iii. Metamorphic Rocks: Density is strongly controlled by the degree of metamorphism, but
the density of metamorphic rocks varies within a wide range.

Summary:
Global causes of the variation of the earth’s gravity field include:
a. Shape of the earth is not perfectly spherical –e.g. the equatorial radius is greater than the
polar radius and therefore the gravitational field at the poles is greater than at the equator.
b. The rotation of the earth around its axis results in centrifugal forces that oppose gravity;
the centrifugal force is greatest at equator and reducing as the latitude increases to zero at
the poles. This makes the force of gravity smaller at the equator than at the poles.
c. The mass of the earth underlying the Equatorial Regions is greater than that underlying the
Polar Regions, and hence the there is a greater force of attraction at the equator than at the
poles.
d. The moon and the sun are known to affect gravity readings
Note that all the three factors -shape, centrifugal force and mass effects- depend on latitude even though
differently.

Local causes of variation in gravity:

a. The elevation of observation points changes from place to place within even a small area;
the higher the elevation the lower the gravity force, and vice versa.

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GED 455: Exploration Geophysics

b. The effect of nearby topographic features –e.g. hills and valleys near stations tend to
reduce the gravitational force.
c. Irregularities in the subsurface geological structures affect gravity measurements at the
surface –e.g. faults, folds, anticlines, synclines, etc. all affect gravity.

3.4 Corrections to Gravity Observations

As a result of the effects of various factors on gravitational force observed gravity readings have
to be standardised by removing the non-density factors; this is referred to as gravity corrections.
The Bouger anomaly is that part of the difference between observed gravity and normal gravity
at any given point on the earth‟s surface; this is purely due to lateral variations of density in the
subsurface. This difference is obtained by applying the corrections to remove effects resulting
from external factors –e.g. topography, shape and rotation of the earth, etc.

i. Drift Correction: It has been observed that the readings of the gravity instrument changes
in an area even in the absence of any variations in gravity; this is called the drift of the
instrument. Observations must therefore be planned such that a correction for this effect
can be incorporated in the calculations. In practice, repeated observations are made at a
base station or stations at reasonable time intervals; observed gravity readings are then
plotted against time. If the drift of the instrument is sufficiently linear the drift curve is
used to effect corrections by interpolation. The time of field readings are noted and the
drift interpolated from the drift curve; this is then subtracted from the field value, which
will then give the exact difference between two stations. Table 3.1 is an illustration of the
application of the drift correction.
ii. Latitude Corrections: The radius of the earth decreases from the equator to the poles
resulting in the flattening at the Polar Regions; therefore gravity increases with increasing
latitude. Gravitational force is highest at the poles, reducing towards the equator. Again,
the effect of centrifugal force due to the earth‟s rotation is to reduce the gravity force. The
reduction is maximum at the equator and minimum at the poles.

Table 3.1: Illustration of gravity correction due to instrument drift

Station Time Gravity Reading Remarks GPS Drift Curve
Base 05:55 1253.4 At Amakom Junction
1 1 mile from base
2 2.5 miles from base
Repeat Readings

3
Base 11:00 1254.1
4
5

Time

The variation of gravity with latitude over the surface of an ellipsoidal or spheroidal earth can be
expressed in the form:
g  g e (1  c1 sin 2   c2 sin 2 2 ) , …………………………………….……….. [3.6]
where ge is the value of gravity on the equator and  is the latitude of the point of measurement;
c1 and c2 are numerical constants which depend on the shape of the earth. The 1967
international gravity formula is:
g  9.780318(1  0.0053024 sin 2   0.0000058 sin 2 2 ) m/s2.

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GED 455: Exploration Geophysics

This formula gives the value of gravity at any latitude on the reference surface. In Ghana,
latitude corrections have been calculated based on the 1930 gravity formula from 4o 50‟ N
to 11o N and they are subtracted from the observed gravity values.
iii. Elevation Correction: Free-air correction is used to correct for elevation effects. Normal
gravity varies with height; it is therefore necessary to bring all readings to a datum, which
is normally sea level (geoid):
geoidal height = geoid – ellipsoid; and
elevation = topographic height – geoid
If we assume the earth to be spherical then its mass may be concentrated at its centre and
GM
the value of gravity at sea level is given by the relationship g o  2 .
Re
GM
The value of gravity at a given height h above sea level is estimated as: g h  .
( Re  h) 2
2
2 2 2 h
 g h  GM ( Re  h) ; but ( Re  h)  R 1  
e
 Re 
GM h h2
 g h  2 (1  2  ...) ;  (very small)
Re Re Re2
2g h
gh  go  o , this implies that go > gh
Re
2g h
 g  g h  g o   o ……………………………………………… [3.7]
Re
The change in gravity due to elevation is negative –i.e. gravity is reduced, and corrections
due to elevation differences (free-air correction) should therefore be added.
2goh
Free-air correction = g    0.3086 milligal/m or 0.09406 milligal/ft.
Re
As gravity decreases with height, this correction has to be added to the observed gravity to
correct it to mean sea level; if the point is below sea level we subtract.
iv. Bouger Correction: Between the ground surface and sea level there is a thickness of rock
exerting a gravitational attraction at the surface which can be additional to that due to the
normal mass below the ellipsoid. This attraction may be considered as an infinite
horizontal slab of thickness equal to the station height (Fig. 3.7).
The attraction of such a slab
is given by 2Gh,
where h is the height of the
station above mean sea
level,  is the density of the
slab, and G is the Universal
gravitational constant.
Thus, when reducing an
observation down to sea
level the Bouger correction
has to be subtracted since Figure 3.7: Illustration of the Bouger correction

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GED 455: Exploration Geophysics

we are removing from beneath the station a slab of rock of thickness h and consequently
reducing the downward attraction by an amount equal to 2Gh.
This correction is known as the Bouger correction. Taking the average density of the crust
to be 2.67g/cm3, the value of the Bouger correction is 0.1118 milligals/m. It is usual in
geodesy to combine the free-air and Bouger corrections into a single elevation correction
–i.e. (0.3086 – 0.1118) miligals/m.
v. Topographic (Terrain) Correction: This correction is necessary to account for the
presence of any material above or its absence below the level of the station where a
reading is taken. The higher material, which may be due to a hill/mountain or its absence
due to a valley below, will in effect produce a negative reading –i.e. it will reduce the force
of attraction of the material beneath the station and therefore must be corrected for. The
correction must be added to the observed gravity value since the effect of topography is
always to reduce the gravity force. There are several graphical methods for calculating
topographic corrections.
All of them require good topographic maps of the survey area. The usual procedure is to
divide the area into compartments and compare the average elevation within each
compartment with the station observation and apply specially prepared charts to calculate
these corrections. Topographic correction removes mountainous topography lying above
the station and fills the valley with material of the same density as the surface rocks.
vi. Bouger Anomaly: When all the above corrections have been done the gravity values can
be presented as Bouger anomaly.
Bouger anomaly = observed gravity  drift correction + free-air correction – bouger
correction + topographic correction – latitude correction.

21 Bukari Ali, Geol. Eng. Dept.