Cuticular Wax Cuticle Thickness

A re plants vulnerable and defenceless? Certainly not!
They have very efficient defence mechanisms and careful observation is
required to understand them.

There’s no brain in a plant, but the lack of a central nervous system does not prevent them from protecting themselves. Some species have
weapons such as thorns or spines that keep away predator herbivores. Others secrete poisons to disable or kill predators and some plants emit
compounds that warn nearby plants of approaching threats: the botanical equivalent of a smoke signal.
Plants and insects have been in existence for more than 350 million years. In the process of evolution, both have evolved strategies to
avoid each other’s defence systems.
To counter insect attack, plants develop specialised structures or produce certain chemicals known as secondary metabolites and also
some proteins that have toxic, repellent, and/or anti-nutritional effects on herbivores.
Mechanical protection on the surface of plants in the form of hairs, trichomes, spines, thorns and thick leaves gives direct defences.
Some plants are protected by production of toxic chemicals such as terpenoids, alkaloids, anthocyanins, phenols, and quinines that
either kill or retard the development of insects. In many plants
defend the attack of pests while in others the structures to defend the host develop after infection.
Cuticular wax
Wax-mixtures get deposited on the outer skin of some plants, which play a defensive role by forming a water-repelling surface. Due
to the wax coating, pathogens do not get sufficient water to survive or multiply.
Cuticle thickness
The plant cuticle is a protecting film covering the outermost layer of leaves, young shoots and other aerial plant organs. The
thickness of the cuticle is most important defence mechanism which prevents the entry of pests or pathogens through the leaf
surface. In addition, a thick cuticle checks the exit of the pathogen from inside the host, thus reducing the secondary infection.
Structure of natural openings
The structure of openings like stomata and lenticels also prevents the entry of pathogens. In some varieties of citrus, the stomata are small
and possess very narrow openings surrounded by broad-lipped raised structures which prevent entry of water drops containing citrus
canker bacterium.
In the same way, the size and internal structures of lenticels may play a defensive role against pathogens. Fo
example, small lenticels in the apple fruits prevent the entry of pathogens.
Nectaries are flower parts that secrete sugar-containing nectar to attract insects and other creatures. It may play a defensive role
due to its high osmotic concentration. In resistant varieties of apple, presence of abundant hairs in the nectaries acts as a defence
mechanism.
Mechanical defence
The first line of mechanical defence in plants is an intact and impenetrable barrier composed of bark. Other adapt-ations against herbivores include
hard shells, thorns (modified branches), and spines (modified leaves). They discourage herbivores by causing physical injury or by inducing rashes
and allergic reactions.
The thorns we see on rose plants are not actually thorns or spines. They are prickles. Unlike thorns, prickles are actually pointed
protuberances from a plant’s skin. They shield the plants that bear them from predators.
The density of trichomes affects the location of egg, feeding and nutrition of the insect larvae on the plant surface, thereby, reducing their
access to leaf surface.
Not all plants bear their defences on the surface. If thorns, spines, prickles, and trichomes are lethal weapons, idioblasts are the
landmines. Idioblasts are isolated plant cells that differ
from neighbouring tissues. They have various functions such as storage of reserves, excretory materials, pigments and
minerals and a variety of defensive compounds. The Dieffenbachia, a common houseplant, contains idioblasts that fire sharp
calcium oxalate crystals into the mouths of predator and then release an enzyme similar to reptilian venom. This can cause
paralysis and thus loss of voice, hence the plant is called “dumb cane”.
The sensitive plant Mimosa pudica closes its leaves when it is touched, making the leaves appear dead and therefore
unappetising. Some Acacia tree species have developed symbiotic relationships with ant colonies: they offer the ants shelter in
their hollow thorns in exchange for the ants’ defence of the tree’s leaves.
Structural defences include morph-ological and anatomical traits that assist the plant by directly preventing
herbivores from feeding. They range from prominent protuberances on a plant to microscopic changes in cell wall
thickness as a result of lignification and suberisation (conversion of the cell walls into corky tissue by infiltration
with suberin). Sclerophylly refers to hardened leaves and plays an active role in plant defence against herbivores
by reducing the palatability and digestibility of the leaf tissues, thereby reducing the damage.
What happens in the plant after the attack of a pathogen?
After a pathogen has successfully managed to overcome the pre-existing
odours (such as the volatile oils of mint and sage) or repellent tastes (like the bitterness of quinine).
Biochemical defence in plants before the onset of infection
Plants generally release organic substances through the parts above ground and roots. Some of the compounds released by
plants are known to have an inhibitory effect on certain pathogens before they penetrate the host plant. For example, chemicals
released by tomato and sugar beet prevent the germination of certain fungi.
Presence of several phenolic compounds, tannins and some fatty acid-like compounds in cells of young fruits,
leaves or seeds render them resistant to pathogens.
Biochemical defence mechanism following infection
In order to fight infections caused by pathogens or injuries caused by any other means, the plant cells and tissues
produce many substances (chemicals) which inhibit the growth of the infecting organism. These substances are
generally produced around the site of infection or injury with the main aim of overcoming the problem.
Detoxification of pathogen toxins and enzymes
In some cases, the plants produce chemicals which deactivate the toxins produced by the pathogens. For example, the
fungus Pyricularia oryzae, which causes blast disease of rice, produces picolinic acid and pyricularin as toxins.
Knowing more about the various defence mechanisms in plants opens up new possibilities for solutions that may
help plants’ ability to resist different threats more effectively. It could play an important role in agriculture. Many
people and livestock rely on the plants as a central part of their diet.
Mimosa pudica
The author is a retired Vice Principal from a CBSE School in Chennai and presently engaged in preparing educational software for school
children. Email: vathsalarangachari@gmail.com
defence mechanisms of the host, it invades the cells and tissues of the host. In order to check further invasion by the pathogen,
the host plants develop some structures/mechanisms, cell-wall defence structures, defence structures developed by the tissues
and ultimately the death of the invaded cell, i.e., necrosis.
After pathogen attack, the cyto-plasm becomes dense and develops granular particles. These result in the disintegration
of the pathogen and thus the invasion stops.
A plant's cell walls have the vital function of acting as an outer skeleton that protects them against various threats. When
a cell wall sustains damage, the plant will normally try to minimise the damage and repair it. The goal is to restore the
plant's normal state.
Plants produce a variety of gummy substances around lesions or spots as a result of infection. These gummy
substances inhibit the progress of the pathogen.
Formation of layers
Some pathogens, like bacteria, fungi and even some viruses and nematodes stimulate the host to form multi-
layered cork cells in response to infection and these develop as a result of stimulation of host cells by substances
secreted by the pathogen. These layers inhibit further invasion by the pathogen and also block the flow of toxic
substances secreted by the pathogen.
Chemical defences
When a plant’s exterior protection is affected by mechanical damage, it may provide an entry point for pathogens. If the first
line of defence is broken the plant produces of toxins and enzymes. Secondary metabolites are compounds that are not directly
derived from photosynthesis and are not necessary for respiration or plant growth and development.
Most of the secondary metabolites are toxic and can even be poisonous to animals that consume them. Some
metabolites are alkaloids, which discourage predators with noxious

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A re plants vulnerable and defenceless? Certainly not!

They have very efficient defence mechanisms and careful observation is

required to understand them.

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