Chapter 3 Supplementary

Lang. Teach. (2017), 50.
4, 441–482
c Cambridge University Press 2017
doi:10.1017/S0261444817000155
State-of-the-Art Article
An analysis of three curriculum approaches to teaching English in

public-sector schools
Kathleen Graves University of Michigan, Ann Arbor, USA

gravesk@umich.edu
Sue Garton Aston University, Birmingham, UK

s.garton@aston.ac.uk
This article explores three current, influential English language teaching (ELT) curriculum
approaches to the teaching of English in public-sector schools at the primary and secondary
level and how the theory of each approach translates into curriculum practice. These
approaches are communicative language teaching (CLT), genre-based pedagogy, and content
and language integrated learning (CLIL). For consistency across approaches, the theoretical
underpinnings of each will be briefly described according to a matrix of curriculum factors
including:
• the view of language and language acquisition underlying the approach

• how learners’ needs are construed
• the nature of the content and materials
• the teacher’s role
• the context
• how language is assessed
This is followed by a discussion of research on how each approach is implemented in primary

and secondary contexts, the extent to which the theory is put into practice and factors that
influence its success in the classroom. Implications for the future of curriculum development in
ELT will be discussed. These implications address the viability of CLT in primary and secondary
schools, the role of knowledge about language in curriculum implementation, and teacher
roles and identity.
1. Introduction
This review will focus on three approaches to curriculum currently used to teach English as a
second, foreign or additional language in public-sector primary and secondary schools: CLT,
genre-based pedagogy, and content and CLIL. By curriculum approaches we mean both
the intended curriculum – understandings of what is to be learnt and how – as well as the
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442 KATHLEEN GRAVES AND SUE GARTON
enacted curriculum – how these understandings are enacted (or not) in the classroom. These
approaches have been chosen for three reasons. First, they represent important differences in
how English is viewed and taught that may shed light on their effectiveness; second, they are
currently in use in schools due to national policy and/or local support in different parts of
the world; third, there is an available body of research for each that explains both the theories
behind the approach and how it has been implemented. The adoption of any curricular
approach is determined by a range of factors. As such, the choice of these approaches does not
indicate a particular endorsement of them; nor does the exclusion of others such as grammar
translation, task-based, or project-based approaches indicate that they are not worthy of study.
As will be discussed, grammar plays a role in both CLT and genre-based pedagogy, tasks play
a role in CLT and CLIL, and projects have the potential to interweave the three approaches.
We have chosen to focus on English because its status as the global language of access to
social, economic and educational participation makes it the most commonly taught language
(Graddol 2006). Economic, social, and political forces that are responsible for the spread
of English globally have changed educational cultures worldwide, through for example,
the introduction of languages into primary school and changes in approaches to language
teaching and learning (Enever & Moon 2009). These changes also include the so-called
BANA countries (Britain, Australasia, North America), where the number of students for
whom English is a second or additional language continues to grow at all levels. According to
an article recently published in Education Week, 10% of the US student population was made
up of English language learners in the 2012–2013 school year (Vander Ark 2016). However,
while English is now a global language, this does not mean that what is taught in English
classrooms is by any means homogenous (Modiano 2009).
On the other hand, we cannot ignore the increasing criticism of the spread and dominance
of English, and in particular the political and social implications. A number of writers have
challenged understandings of the place of English and whose interests the rise of English
serves (see, for example, Block, Gray & Holborow 2012; Clark 2013). Such critical views of
English have led to calls for a more plurilinguistic view of language curricula. In Europe, for
example, the European Commission aims for all citizens to be able ‘to communicate in two
languages in addition to their mother tongue’1 through the introduction of a second or third
foreign language (FL) into the school curriculum. CLIL approaches may be used to encourage
the use of heritage or community languages for learning alongside English (Coyle, Holmes
& King 2009). However, evidence seems to suggest that English continues to dominate. For
example, according to Eurydice, the Education Information Network in Europe, 14 of the
27 EU members mandate English as the first FL to be learnt and in 2009–2010, 73% of
children in primary school were learning English.2
The world of English language teaching encompasses distinct domains, groups of people
and contexts, each with its own set of purposes and constraints. How English is taught
varies greatly among them. For the purposes of this review, we will focus on English in the
state school sector at both primary and secondary level. This is a huge domain with great
variation, depending on the extent to which English is an official language, an unofficial
1 http://www.europarl.europa.eu/atyourservice/en/displayFtu.html?ftuId=FTU_5.13.6.html
2 eacea.ec.europa.eu/education/eurydice/documents/key_data_series/143EN.pdf
T H R E E C U R R I C U L U M A P P R O A C H E S T O E L T I N P U B L I C - S E C T O R S C H O O L S 443
1. The subject matter and how it is learnt:

• View of language
• View of classroom language acquisition
2. Needs and roles of learners
3. Role of the teacher
4. Role of context
5. Design and organization of the curriculum
• Organization and progression of the curriculum
• Types of materials and activities
6. Assessment
Figure 1 Framework for curriculum analysis
alternate language of the country, as in Sweden or Bahrain, or a foreign language, as in

Vietnam or Italy. Although it is difficult to get accurate statistics, we focus on the state
school sector because this is where the majority of young people around the world will learn
languages, overwhelmingly English, and where most teachers will teach them. According
to Eurostat, 94.1% of EU students in secondary school were studying English as a foreign
language in 2014.
It is also the state school sector that has witnessed the relatively recent introduction of
the three approaches to curriculum that are the focus of this review, with each one gaining
particular popularity in a different part or parts of the world. We would say, therefore, that
the English language curriculum is dynamic and shifting and thus that it is a propitious time
to examine current trends and issues.
2. The curriculum framework
In order to present the theory underlying each of the three approaches in the same way
and to have a lens through which to understand and analyse it in practice we will use a
curriculum framework. The framework (see Figure 1) is broadly based on the American
curriculum scholar, Joseph Schwab’s five ‘curriculum commonplaces’ (1973), which he
originally developed in order to identify the types of experience necessary to undertake
effective curriculum revision in schools.
The five commonplaces are:
• Subject matter – what is to be learnt

• Learners – who the learners are, their age, background
• Teachers – who the teachers are and what they believe, know or can do
• Milieus – the nested, expanding contexts in which learning and teaching occur
including the classroom, the school, and the wider community
• Curriculum-making – the coordination of the above four bodies of experience in order
to create workable ‘embodiments’ of the curriculum
Schwab proposed the commonplaces as a way to counteract the prevailing view that
subject matter (as conveyed by experts) is the core of a curriculum. By taking into account
learners, teachers, and contexts, subject matter could be made practical through curriculum-
making. Our framework largely follows Schwab’s with some modifications and the addition
of assessment.
2.1 Subject matter
Language, in the sense that it is a resource we use for meaning-making in all aspects of our
lives, is not intrinsically an educational subject matter. In order to be taught and learnt in a
classroom, language must be turned into curriculum content. Graves (2016) has identified
three waves of language as curriculum content. In the first ‘linguistic’ wave, language is a set of
linguistic systems – the formal or structural view of language. In the second ‘communicative’
wave, language is viewed as communication and the aim of learning is to develop a generalized
communicative competence – what we generally call CLT. In the third wave, language is
a resource for meaning-making contingent on a context of use – thus the emphasis is on
language in relation to texts, projects and/or other subject content.
Second- and third-wave approaches, which are the subject of this review, are concerned
with language use. In other words, the aim of learning language in classrooms is to use it for
some purposes, not simply to learn about it. For this reason, we have subdivided this category
into both a view of language and a view of how that language is acquired in the classroom.
We will refer to it as classroom language acquisition because we are looking at school-age
learners for whom English is not their home language and how they learn English in schools.
2.2 Learners – their needs and roles
This category identifies the learners as those in primary and secondary schools, for whom
English is a language other than the one they use at home, and therefore one that they
are learning in the classroom. Contrary to most other ‘foreign languages’, in many contexts
English is widely available and may be used by school-age learners outside the classroom via
the media, music, the internet, and online gaming communities. Thus learners’ needs will
vary, depending on the context in which they are learning and how the approach defines their
needs. The needs of an English learner in an English-medium school will be different from
those of a learner who studies English as a ‘subject language’ (Larsen-Freeman & Freeman
2008) for four hours a week. Their roles will also vary depending on what the approach
requires.
2.3 Teachers – their roles
This category identifies teachers as those who teach English learners. This includes both
designated English teachers (who may or may not be trained as English teachers) and
subject-matter teachers whose students include English learners or who teach their subject in
English with a dual focus on subject matter and language. Their roles will differ depending
on the context and on what the approach requires.
2.4 Milieus
We use the more common term ‘context’ in our framework. By referring to context we
adhere closely to Schwab’s conception of nested, expanding contexts. The nested nature of
socio-educational contexts make ‘context’ in English language teaching difficult to define.
In the last Language Teaching review of curriculum, Graves (2008) made a distinction between
contexts in which the target language is embedded (the target language in the present article
being English), and contexts in which it is removed. In target language embedded contexts
English is the language of all school subjects and the wider society. In target language
removed contexts English is a subject language, where other subjects are taught in the mother
tongue or national language, which is also the dominant language in domains outside of
the school.
In terms of English, this binary distinction needs to be replaced by a continuum, with one
end being target language removed contexts, as described in the previous paragraph. Most
state schools in China or Brazil would fit at this end of the continuum. The other end is
target language embedded contexts, of which state schools in Australia or the USA would be
examples. In the middle of the continuum are contexts in which English is the language of
school but not the dominant language outside of school. English-medium secondary schools
in Hong Kong would be an example of this context. Between the subject language end and
the middle are contexts where English is both taught as a ‘subject language’ and is also the
medium for instruction (EMI) in some subjects.
2.5 Curriculum-making
Schwab defined curriculum-making as creating and trialing ‘the concrete embodiments, the
material objects, which are the indispensable constituents of a curriculum’ (Schwab 1973:
505). These ‘embodiments’ realize the purposes and values of the curriculum. We see this
in more prosaic terms as the overall design and progression of the curriculum, i.e. how
curriculum content is organized and progresses over time in order to lead to the kind of
learning aimed for in the approach. We also include in this the types of materials and
activities that contribute to learning in the approach.
2.6 Assessment
We have added a component to the framework, assessment, by which we mean how success is
determined as defined by the curricular approach. Assessment is concerned with documenting
the effectiveness of the approach within the classroom – what counts as learning and how
that learning is assessed.
In the following sections, for each approach, we will apply the curriculum framework
in order to first describe the theory that underlies it and then review research on its
implementation in schools. After discussing each approach separately, we will discuss
similarities and differences among them and what we might learn that can point to effective
teaching and learning of English in schools. We will close with suggestions for future research.
3. CLT
3.1 Introduction
The late twentieth century saw a huge movement for reform of language teaching in the state
school sector in a large number of counties in the world, in particular in Asia. The reform
was both structural, with the introduction of languages into the primary school curriculum,
and in content, with the introduction of communicative curricula to replace more traditional
grammar-based approaches at both primary and secondary levels.
The most common reasons cited for these reforms, and for the adoption of communicative
language curricula in particular, are globalization and the perceived need for an English-
speaking population in order to compete in the global economy as well as to contribute to
national development through international exchanges in a variety of fields such as business
and technology (see, for example, Lin 2010; Butler 2011; Hamid & Honan 2012).
One of the difficulties with any discussion of communicative curricula, and especially CLT
lies in the lack of consensus as to exactly what it is and what it consists of, in spite of (or perhaps
due to) the very large volume of writing and research on the subject, going back to the 1980s.
For the purposes of this review, what follows will focus primarily on work published since
2008 and will refer to earlier work when it is cited in recent publications. This will enable us
to see how communicative curricula and CLT have been viewed in recent years.
Lin (2010) sees CLT as an answer to the ‘how’ (i.e. a method) to teach the ‘what’ of a
notional/functional syllabus. Richards (2013, citing Trim 2012), on the other hand, talks of
a new communicative syllabus, replacing the older grammar-based or structural syllabus.
He makes the case that CLT prioritizes syllabus over methodology and quotes Clark as
stating that the influence of CLT on FL curriculum ‘ . . . has given rise to the audio-
lingual, audio-visual/situational, topic-based and functional notional approach to foreign
language learning’ (Clark 1987: 23 cited in Richards 2013: 12). Although separating method
from syllabus is rarely clear-cut in CLT as the two can often be seen to overlap, for the
purposes of this article, we will mainly focus on the communicative syllabus because that
is the view generally adopted by governments in formulating their language-in-education
policies.
Task-based language teaching (TBLT) is seen by some as a version of CLT. Butler (2011), for
example, maintains that ‘task’ has come to replace ‘communicative activity’ in curriculum
specification. However, she also cites Kumaravadivelu’s (2006) position that TBLT is not
associated with a particular method, but rather should be seen as ‘curricular content’.
Richards, on the other hand, in his distinction between backward, central and forward
curriculum design (Richards 2013) gives CLT as an example of forward design, but gives
versions of TBLT as examples of either central or backward design, thereby situating TBLT
as distinct from CLT.
Therefore, understandings of CLT are by no means universal. Moreover, it is noticeable
that governments, when introducing curricular reform, rarely define what they mean by
‘communicative’. In this review, we will consider TBLT to be ‘the latest realization of CLT’
(Nunan 2003: 606), partly because governments explicitly promoting task-based curricula
do not appear to make any distinction and because, as Butler (2011) notes, the challenges in
implementing such curricula are essentially the same as for CLT.
3.2 Curriculum framework
3.2.1 The subject matter and how it is learnt
View of language
Butler (2011, citing Richards & Rodgers 2001 and Savignon 2005) notes that CLT curricula
are based on developing learners’ communicative competence in social situations rather
than mastery of linguistic forms, while Breen & Candlin (1980: 90 cited in Seargeant, 2008:
136) state that ‘the communicative curriculum defines language learning as learning how to
communicate as a member of a particular socio-cultural group’.
The central notion, therefore, is that of communicative competence, and the origins of
CLT can be traced back to Hymes’s work, among others, and his oft-cited quote that ‘there
are rules of use without which the rules of grammar would be useless’ (1972: 278). Hymes’s
work contributed to a new understanding of the nature of language (Richards 2013) and
together with Canale and Swain’s model of communicative competence (Canale & Swain
1980; Canale 1983) led to a view of language learning based not only on grammatical
competence, but also on sociolinguistic, discourse, and strategic competences.
Therefore, communicative approaches to curriculum take a holistic view of language,
which is used to make meaning in specific contexts.
How language is acquired in the classroom
As noted above, CLT has developed into the dominant approach to language teaching in
many parts of the world, especially in the state school and private sectors, but over time it has
also come to mean many things to many people. Butler (2011: 37) argues:
CLT is broadly based on theories of communicative competence and second language learning. However,
this theoretical broadness has invited various interpretations of CLT and led to some variety in its
realization in practice.
Nevertheless, there is general agreement that classroom language acquisition is based on

developing learners’ communicative competence, which is realized through a set of classroom
principles:
• language should be authentic and with an emphasis on meaning
• there should be a balance of fluency and accuracy
• both productive and receptive skills should be developed

• language forms are not excluded but should be presented in context
• materials should be authentic
• the target language should be used in the classroom by both teachers and learners
whenever possible
• learning should be active and collaborative
(adapted from Brown (2007) and Jacobs & Farrell (2001), cited in Prapaisit de Segovia &
Hardison 2008).
3.2.2 Needs and roles of learners
Communicative curricula should be based on the needs of the learners (Brown 2007; Nunan
1989, cited in Prapaisit de Segovia & Hardison 2008). In many government curriculum
reforms ‘need’ is defined as needing to communicate effectively in the target language. How-
ever, learners in state schools in different contexts, or even in the same classroom, may have
very different needs, or no clearly defined needs at all (Stelma 2009). Designing a curriculum
based on needs which are neither well defined nor easily identifiable is clearly problematic.
A basic tenet of CLT is the learner-centred classroom, based on collaboration and
cooperation, with learners as active participants and an emphasis on the co-construction of
knowledge (Prapaisit de Segovia & Hardison 2008). Therefore, learners should use language
meaningfully through interaction (Butler 2011) and negotiate meaning while controlling their
own learning use through a range of strategies (Adamson & Yin 2008). The emphasis should
be on pair, group or individual work to complete tasks (Hamid & Honan 2012).
3.2.3 Role of the teacher
The role of the teacher in CLT is typically that of facilitator and guide in the learners’
acquisition of communicative competence, through the engagement of learners in their
own learning process (Brown 2007; Jacobs & Farrell 2001, cited in Prapaisit de Segovia &
Hardison 2008; Lin 2010). The teacher should ensure a rich language environment providing
meaningful input and giving opportunities to use language in a meaningful and creative way
through communicative activities or tasks (Adamson & Yin 2008; Butler 2011).
Butler (2011) distinguishes between strong and weak versions of CLT. In the strong version,
the teacher is simply facilitating a natural process of language acquisition as learners develop
their own awareness of the language. In weaker versions, the teacher takes a more active role
in introducing more structured, meaning-focused activities. Strong versions of CLT would
seem to be relatively rare in practice.
3.2.4 Role of context
The role of context is difficult to define in CLT. Most countries where CLT forms the basis
of the English curriculum are target language removed (Graves 2008). In principle, CLT is
based on learner needs, and governments have introduced communicative language curricula
to achieve economic and development goals, but these goals are often far removed from the
daily lives of school children.
Therefore, while the aim of CLT is to teach appropriate language use in specific situations,
where English is taught for no particular purpose other than as a school subject, context-
dependent variations in language use are clearly too numerous to identify and impossible to
teach. As Stelma (2009: 54) notes:
The range of variability extends not only to the real-time unfolding of situations, but also to variation in
patterns of communication across and within both small cultures (cohesive groups of people in particular
societal settings) and large national cultures.
An examination of any of the popular coursebooks currently in use, generally based on

weak versions of CLT, will show that one consequence of the lack of a specific purpose for
learning is that grammar rules still tend to be the main organizing principle of the CLT
curriculum.
3.2.5 Design and organization of the curriculum
Organization and progression of the curriculum
The shift in the 1970s from a structural view of language to a view of language as
communicative competence led the Council of Europe to elaborate a notional functional
syllabus, which described a threshold level of language use for all languages in Europe (See
Savignon 2008; Richards 2013 for more detail) and which was to form the basis of the
communicative curriculum.
The influence of the notional functional syllabus can still be seen today, but a glance at any
of the internationally produced coursebooks which claim to be communicative will evidence
an eclectic approach to curriculum organization including not only functions and notions,
but also topics, skills, grammar and vocabulary, to which can sometimes be added learning
strategies and intercultural awareness. However, grammar tends to be the main determiner
of organization for older learners, as previously noted, while at primary level, it is topics.
Types of materials and activities

According to the principles of CLT, materials should be ‘authentic’, although the concept of
authenticity in language teaching is extremely complex (see Gilmore, 2007 for a discussion).
The definition that is usually used is that of materials that have been produced for reasons
other than language teaching. Given the difficulties in identifying learner needs, materials
selection needs to be based on alternative criteria. Tomlinson (2011) suggests, beyond
linguistic considerations, that materials should achieve impact and make learners feel at
ease and develop their confidence. Learners’ interests and the potential for personalization
(Hardman & A-Rahman 2014) are also considerations.
Materials are used to achieve meaningful communication in the target language through
communicative activities. Johnson (1982, cited in Stelma, 2009) identifies five principles of
such activities:
• Information transfer
• Information gap
• Jigsaw
• Task dependency
• Correction of content
These principles are then applied to promote active learning though types of tasks such
as ordering, sorting and sequencing, matching, categorizing, prioritizing, and ranking and
problem-solving, among many others (Edge & Garton 2009).
3.2.6 Assessment: how success is measured; how learning/language is assessed
Assessment is perhaps the most neglected aspect of discussions of communicative curricula.

While there has been some recent interest in CLT and teacher-based assessment, with TESOL
Quarterly publishing a special issue in 2009 (Davison & Leung 2009), it is the case that very
few teachers in the school sector have the opportunity to undertake their own assessments,
and testing remains one of the biggest problems in the implementation of CLT.
In one of the few recent publications to address communicative testing, Morrow (2012:
140) notes that essentially a communicative test aims to assess what learners can do with a
language rather than what they know about its systems – testing learners’ use rather than
usage. He then goes on to show why testing use is challenging, arguing that communicative
testing becomes not a test of language but of skills (reading, writing, speaking, and listening)
and learners’ abilities to do things with the language, which makes it extremely difficult to
establish what to test and how (see Morrow 2012 for details). Morrow concludes that there
are, however, some features of mainstream tests that derive from the original conceptions of
communicative language testing dating back to the 1970s and 1980s. These include speaking
tests with candidates tested in pairs; writing and speaking tests based on tasks with a specific
purpose; the use of criteria for evaluation.
A major development in communicative testing was the publication of the Common
European Framework of Reference for Languages (CEFR) by the Council of Europe (2001,
cited in Kantarcioglŭ & Papageorgiou 2012). Originally intended to inform language syllabi,
textbooks and examinations, the CEFR was very quickly taken up by the major providers
of international examinations, such as Cambridge English, who mapped their tests onto
the levels. However, its influence on national state exams remains uneven. While Alderson
(2007) notes that the CEFR formed the basis for the development of language assessment in
post-communist Eastern Europe, Little (2007) claims that its impact on school examinations
is limited.
3.3 CLT in practice
In this section we look at the implementation of communicative curricula in the state school
sector with a particular focus on Asia. We focus on this geographical area because a great deal
of research on CLT implementation has been carried out in East Asian contexts, possibly
because the move to a national curriculum based on communicative competence represented
a sudden and major shift away from previous structural and grammar-based curricula. Given
the ever-increasing number of publications on this topic, any overview is necessarily selective,
but we will cover the common issues identified in implementing CLT in both primary and
secondary schools across a number of different East Asian contexts.
The vast majority of the large body of research into language curriculum reform and its
implementation across East Asia points to the gap between curriculum policy and classroom
practice. The gaps have been identified in global studies (see for example Enever & Moon
2009; Copland, Garton & Burns 2014), in regional studies (see, for example, Baldauf et al.
2011; Butler 2011) and in studies of specific countries such as mainland China (Yan & He
2012; Zhang & Liu 2014), Hong Kong (Adamson & Yin 2008), Japan (Seargeant 2008;
Gaynor 2014), Malaysia (Ali, Hamid & Moni 2011; Hardman & A-Rahman 2014), South
Korea (Kang 2008; Garton 2014), Taiwan (Chen 2011), Thailand (Baker 2008; Prapaisit de
Segovia & Hardison 2008), and Vietnam (Nguyen 2011).
The focus of much of the research has been on the absence of learner-centred classrooms,
and especially the persistence of teacher-centred interaction patterns. For example, Prapaisit
de Segovia & Hardison (2008) looked at the implementation in Thailand of the 1996
Development Plan and the 1999 National Education Act which introduced learner-centred
teaching for all subjects, with a focus on communicative language skills in English. When
the researchers observed classes, they found no evidence of teacher-to-individual learner or
learner-to-learner communicative interaction, seen as essential interaction in communicative
classrooms.
In another example, Hardman & A-Rahman’s (2014) study focused on the introduction
of the new primary curriculum introduced in Malaysia in 2011. The aim of the reform was
to ‘equip pupils with basic language skills so as to enable them to communicate effectively
in a variety of contexts’ (260–261). In-service training was offered to teachers to build on
CLT approaches which had been introduced in teachers’ pre-service training. The training
was predicated on a cascade model, but Hardman & A-Rahman’s (2014) research into
classroom practice showed minimal impact. They overwhelmingly found teacher-centred
teaching based on traditional interaction patterns.
Research into the reasons underlying the challenges of CLT curriculum implementation
faced particularly by primary school teachers was reviewed in Garton, Copland & Burns
(2011). The research cited in that study was primarily from the early 2000s, yet this current
review of studies since 2008 seems to show that little has changed.
The first set of challenges concern socio-cultural issues. It is often noted that CLT is
a western-based methodology which does not take into consideration local differences and
constraints (Lin 2010). It is argued, for example, that the role of the teacher in communicative
approaches makes CLT inappropriate in some contexts where the teacher is seen as a
knowledgeable authority (Baker 2008; Lin 2010; Hamid & Honan 2012). Butler (2011)
points to the ethnocentricity of CLT, but she also criticizes cultural arguments, such as the
incompatibility of CLT with Confucianism, as being over-simplistic and ignoring differences
within countries, even from one school to another. However, the local social context, taking
into consideration socio-cultural and socio-political factors, cannot be ignored in identifying
appropriate approaches to language teaching (Lin 2010; Hamid & Honan 2012). Baker
(2008) for example, cites a number of sources that argue for the need to develop a local
version of CLT in Thailand.
Another issue with CLT is that it is predicated on native-speaker norms and this may be
neither desirable nor attainable (Lin 2010). Both Seargeant (2008) and Butler (2011) point
to the fact that the term ‘communication’ is rarely problematized and yet it does not have
universal meaning or value. As Seargeant (2008:137) notes:
. . . the communicative curriculum becomes not simply about learning a particular foreign language,
but learning the specific values and ideologies of interpersonal interaction that are associated with that
language.
These values and ideologies are then presented as universal and lead to a ‘deficit problem’
for both teachers and learners.
The introduction of communicative curricula may also clash with teachers’ beliefs and
experience (Zhang & Liu 2014). Adamson & Yin (2008) reported that teachers in Hong
Kong were satisfied with their current practices and did not see the point of introducing
TBLT, although they did incorporate elements of it into their practice. Seargeant (2008)
notes that there is a general assumption that previous practices are incompatible with
new approaches, but he questions whether that is the case, while Lin (2010) maintains
that so-called ‘traditional’ activities such as drills, translation, and use of the first language
(L1) may be appropriate in certain contexts and also have their place in communicative
classrooms.
Additionally, there are a number of practical challenges to the introduction of
communicative curricula, three of which can perhaps be identified as the major obstacles
to successful implementation. These are (a) the impact of the national examination system;
(b) the lack of teacher training, often with the consequent lack of understanding of the new
curriculum; and (c) teachers’ actual or perceived levels of English proficiency.
National standardized tests, or college/university entry tests, have a major negative impact
on the implementation of communicative curricula as exams remain grammar-based in many
countries (Baker 2008; Prapaisit de Segovia & Hardison 2008; Seargeant 2008; Lin 2010;
Butler 2011). Seargeant (2008) points out that the exam system in Japan is central to the
education system and exerts a major influence on it, while the teachers in Hardman & A-
Rahman’s (2014) study justified their use of traditional teacher-centred interaction patterns
by their need to cover the exam syllabus. Butler (2011) notes that even where teachers have the
freedom to carry out their own assessments, they do not necessarily have the time, resources,
or support to do so.
Lack of training for teachers (Lin 2010; Butler 2011; Hamid & Honan 2012) or training
that is inadequate for developing a real understanding of innovation (Adamson & Yin 2008;
Baker 2008; Hardman & A-Rahman 2014) constitutes a major obstacle to the successful
implementation of communicative curricula. The Malaysian primary school teachers in
Hardman & A-Rahman’s (2014) study, for example, were aware of songs, games and so on as
suitable activities for primary school children, but they did not know how such activities could
be integrated into achieving learning outcomes. The Thai teachers in Prapaisit de Segovia
& Hardison’s (2008) study felt that their training was often theoretical and they did not have
adequate information of a practical nature to implement the new curriculum. Inadequate
or inappropriate training means that teachers are often unaware of or hold misconceptions
about the principles underlying the communicative curriculum (Hardman & A-Rahman
2014). Common misconceptions are, for example, that the emphasis should be on speaking
and that only English should be used in the classroom (Adamson & Yin 2008; Kang 2008;
Butler 2011). Moreover, other stakeholders such as school authorities or parents may also
lack understanding of the new curriculum.
Teachers’ low proficiency level or their lack of confidence in their English ability are
consistently identified as obstacles to successful curriculum implementation (Adamson &
Yin 2008; Baker 2008; Prapaisit de Segovia & Hardison 2008; Ahn 2011; Butler 2011;
Hamid & Honan 2012). Baker (2008: 138) cites from local sources that 80% of Thai primary
English teachers lack any English language qualification and 50% have inadequate levels of
English. Many teachers believe that CLT demands particular classroom procedures, such as
teaching in the target language, which causes anxiety and leads to teachers’ questioning their
competence, particularly their speaking and listening skills.
While the three challenges outlined above can perhaps be considered the major obstacles
to successful implementation, researchers have identified a number of other constraints. For
example, while pair work and group work are seen as central tenets of CLT, the reality in
many contexts is large classes, or very large classes (Baker 2008; Lin 2010; Butler 2011).
This reality leads teachers to believe it is difficult or impossible to introduce learner-centred
teaching, in particular because of difficulties in classroom management (Adamson & Yin
2008; Butler 2011). Alongside large classes, teachers also face lack of support and financial
resources (Adamson & Yin 2008; Prapaisit de Segovia & Hardison 2008) from authorities
at all levels; the limited number of hours given to English in the curriculum (Butler 2011);
and heavy teaching loads (Lin 2010), together with the demands of administrative and extra-
curricular duties. Such challenges and constraints are not limited to CLT, of course, and tend
to be part of any educational innovation; it is likely therefore that such challenges will emerge
more prominently in studies into the other areas of language curriculum reform discussed in
this review as the body of research on implementation grows.
Perceptions of learners and of their needs are also given by teachers as a justification
for maintaining their traditional practices. Learners’ limited English proficiency, together
with their low levels of motivation, partly due to the lack of opportunities to use English
outside the classroom, are all seen as challenges to the implementation of communicative
curricula (Prapaisit de Segovia & Hardison 2008; Lin 2010; Butler 2011; Hamid &
Honan 2012).
Materials are another important factor, with the lack of availability of appropriate materials
in many countries (Prapaisit de Segovia & Hardison 2008). Even when suitable materials are
available, teachers might have difficulties in selecting them (Butler 2011), they might not
be used in the classroom (İnal 2009), or they are not used in the way intended. In some
contexts, such as Thailand, for example, teachers may be expected to prepare their own
materials, but they have neither the time nor the expertise to do so (Prapaisit de Segovia &
Hardison 2008).
As Butler (2011: 42) concludes:
In sum, while CLT has substantially influenced the curricula and syllabus designs in English language
teaching in Asia, there exists a substantial discrepancy between policies and actual practices at the
classroom level.
4. Genre-based pedagogy
4.1 Introduction
Genre-based pedagogy, specifically, the Sydney school of genre-based literacy pedagogy, the
most influential genre approach at the primary and secondary level (Rose & Martin 2012), is
rooted in systemic functional linguistics (SFL) (see e.g. Halliday & Matthiessen 2004), genre-
theory (e.g. Martin 2009) and an explicit pedagogy (e.g. Rothery 1996, Rose 2015). It was
originally developed in Australia in the 1980s at a time when the focus in primary schools was
on process writing with the result that students, particularly indigenous and migrant learners,
learnt to write only a very narrow band of genres, and not very well. According to Martin
(2009: 11),
This limited experience of writing did very little to prepare students for learning across the curriculum
in primary school, for writing in the specialized subject areas of secondary school, or for dealing with
various community genres they might encounter as the most fluent English speaker of their family.
Thus, as a matter of social justice, a genre approach was introduced. Nearly four decades later,
the language architecture of the genre approach now undergirds the national curriculum for
English in Australia (Derewianka 2012).
According to Rose (2015), there have been three phases of genre-pedagogy. During
the first phase in the 1980s, the key genres of primary school were identified through
curriculum mapping and an explicit pedagogy for teaching those genres was developed.
In the second phase, in the 1990s, the curriculum mapping extended to secondary school
and the workplace and explored the relationship between writing and different types of
subject-matter knowledge. In the late 1990s, the pedagogy expanded to focus on explicit
work on reading in order to develop content knowledge and support writing throughout
schooling. Over the years, the approach has been taken up to greater or lesser degrees in a
variety of other countries, which will be explored in the second section on the curriculum in
practice.
View of language
Genre-pedagogy is concerned with how language functions as a resource for making meaning.
Language is seen to have three meta-functions for creating three types of meaning: an
ideational function to describe experience and express ideas; an interpersonal function
to create relationships with others; and a textual function to manage the flow of what is
said or written (Halliday & Matthiessen 2004). These meanings are realized through texts
(Derewianka 2003). Texts are always generated in relation to context, both the larger context
of culture and the immediate context of situation.
The context of situation comprises what the text is about, the nature of the relationship
with the interlocutor or audience, and how the text is organized.3 ‘These different aspects of
the context of situation . . . are realized in lexical and grammatical choices’ (Schleppegrell
2004: 46) which together make up the register of the text (Rose & Martin 2012). In the context
of schooling, the grammar of academic registers is different from ‘every day’ registers, in that
‘academic texts make meanings in ways that are informationally dense and authoritatively
presented’ (Schleppegrell 2004: 44).
Each culture has recurring types of texts, which are called genres (Martin 2009). Genres
represent the values and beliefs of a culture, with some being more valued or prestigious.
According to Derewianka, ‘In learning the genres of a culture, we are learning how to
participate in the new culture’ (2003: 142). School genres include procedures, recounts,
narratives, explanations, and arguments. Genres evolve so that people can accomplish social
purposes (Rose & Martin 2012) and different genres achieve different purposes. For example,
the purpose of a report is to organize information about a topic while the purpose of a recount
is to describe what happened. Each genre is ‘a staged, goal-oriented, social process’ (Martin
2009: 20) in the sense that in order to achieve the purpose, we build up the genre through
stages.
How language is acquired in the classroom
Language acquisition in genre-pedagogy is a process of learning language, learning through

language, and learning about language (Rothery 1989). In the classroom, learners expand
their lexical and grammatical resources (learn language), acquire and construct new
knowledge and content (learn through language), and discover how language constructs
that content (learn about language). They do this by learning to interpret, produce, and
participate in a variety of school genres or ‘knowledge genres’ (Rose 2015), appropriate to
their age and grade level.
Schleppegrell (2004: 22) points out that:
Much of the knowledge that schooling aims to develop in the child is not available just through everyday
experience in the world; it needs to be articulated in ways that abstract from everyday life as children
engage in structured experiences that provide new perspectives on the world and enable them to generalize
their experience.
Language acquisition thus follows a spiral trajectory from ‘everyday’ understandings of the
world, which are constructed through language, to increasingly abstract understandings,
which are also constructed through language. Thus, the way language works is made explicit
so that students can do this.
The language is made explicit through an apprenticeship model. The model has specific
stages through which learners gain increasingly complex understanding and control of
subject-matter content and related genres through explicit guidance from the teacher. The
3 In systemic functional linguistics what the text is about is referred to as ‘field’, the relationship between the author of
the text and the audience is referred to as ‘tenor’, and where the text falls on the mode continuum between spoken and
written language is its ‘mode’.
model, referred to as the teaching cycle (Rothery 1996) or teaching–learning cycle (Rose &
Martin 2012) is described in Section 4.2.5. Language is thus acquired through interactions
about subject matter across a ‘mode-continuum’ (Gibbons 2015), moving from everyday,
spoken register to increasingly abstract, written academic register.
Genre-pedagogy was developed as a way to provide disadvantaged learners, including English

language learners, with tools to help them unpack and master the genres of schooling. The
fundamental learning need is for academic literacy in the broadest sense of being able to
interpret and construct meaning in a variety of texts as they relate to subject matter.
Regarding role, learners have an active role in the approach as it requires them to use
language as they learn it and to operate at high cognitive levels. They are expected to read
and analyse examples of each genre and to use metalanguage to do so, and to write versions
of the genre appropriate to their grade level in school (Brisk 2015).
In the broadest sense the teacher’s role is to scaffold learners’ development of increasingly
complex literacy (Gibbons 2009). To do so requires knowledge of genres, i.e. their purpose
and stages, and knowledge about language, i.e. the lexicogrammatical features that realize
them (Brisk 2015.) According to Derewianka (2003: 140), ‘The role of the teacher is seen
as extending the learners’ repertoire of grammatical choices, both in their construction of
meaning in texts and in their comprehension of meaning in texts.’ In order to do this, teachers
also need knowledge of genre-pedagogy – how to orchestrate the curriculum cycle so that
learners develop genre-knowledge. The teacher plays an authoritative role in order to make
language visible and explicit to learners (Christie 2013). The teacher is thus a curriculum-
maker, as genre-pedagogy entails a great deal of curriculum planning.
Context plays an essential role in genre-pedagogy in the sense that genres are understood as
both defining a culture, and as products of it. This symbiotic relationship is evident in the
context of schools, where academic genres have evolved. In school, students are socialized
into particular schooled discourses, which may vary strikingly from the discourse of home.
Genre-pedagogy makes the discourse that constitutes the context visible (Schleppegrell 2004).
The overall curriculum is broadly organized around the subjects and genres of school.
Through genre-mapping, educators determine the genres that will be taught at different
grade levels, with different subjects, and the lexicogrammatical features that will be explored
with each genre (Custance 2006). Work with a particular genre is based on the teaching–
learning cycle.
The teaching–learning cycle, which has evolved over time, has three stages: deconstruction
[of text], in which students encounter the genre and learn about its purpose, stages, and
language features; joint construction, in which the class jointly constructs a new example of
the genre under the teacher’s guidance, and independent construction, in which students
write their own individual example of the genre (Rose & Martin 2012). Accompanying each
stage is setting context and building the field, or knowledge of the content. The cycle is
iterative, as, for example, texts created by students in the independent construction stage can
be used as exemplars in a subsequent deconstruction stage (Brisk 2015).
From the beginning, students are introduced to metalanguage to talk about the genre
(Gebhard, Chen & Britton 2014). In discussing the independent construction of a narrative,
for example, a 12-year-old says, ‘In my second story I had built up my nominal groups a
heap more than in my first story and that gave it more description and I think more tension’
(Polias & Dare 2006:133).
The teaching–learning cycle has been further expanded by Rose & Martin to include
reading (Rose & Martin 2012; Rose 2015). In an initial ‘preparing to read’ stage, the teacher
explains the meaning of the whole text. The teacher then guides students to understand
specific wordings of the text. This is followed by work on writing similar texts through joint
rewriting of the same text or construction of a new one, prior to independent writing.
Materials and activities build on students’ prior knowledge and are geared to the stages
of the teaching–learning cycle (Brisk 2015; Gibbons 2015.) Materials include texts that are
exemplars of the genre; graphic, visual, multi-modal, and print materials used to understand
the content; materials to understand the workings of the genre and its lexicogrammatical
features, such as graphic organizers, scrambled texts and sentences, texts with certain
lexicogrammatical features removed, and so on.
4.2.6 Assessment: how success is measured; how learning/language is assessed
Success in the genre-pedagogy approach is ultimately measured by how well learners are
able to appropriate the genres of schooling. Appropriation of a genre depends on how well
learners understand its purpose and stages and the kinds of lexicogrammatical choices that
can achieve the purpose; and on their ability to produce or participate in the genre in ways
that are appropriate to their age and grade level, and to the subject matter. Genres recur
throughout schooling, and students become more sophisticated in the lexicogrammatical
choices they are able to make as they go through the school years. Because genre features
are addressed explicitly, the basis for assessment is also explicit. In that sense, assessment is
an ongoing part of the approach and crucial to its success.
According to White, Mammone & Caldwell (2015: 261),
A key element of the genre-based pedagogy is the production by students of ‘pre-teaching’ and ‘post-
teaching’ texts: writing produced in response to a set topic or an essay question at the commencement of
what is typically a term-long teaching-and-learning cycle, before the topic and subject matter have been
introduced or any text modelling done (the pre-teaching text) and then again at the conclusion of the
cycle (the post-teaching text).
These texts are assessed according to specific criteria related to the genre. These criteria
(and thus the assessment) move from the text as a whole (how appropriate it is for the
context/purpose), before proceeding to a closer look at the discourse level (stages), and then
finally moving to grammatical conventions, spelling, punctuation, and layout (Brisk 2015;
Gibbons 2015; Rose 2015). The criteria, which have guided teaching and learning in the first
place, allow teacher and learners to make concrete assessments of progress and achievement
as well as of specific areas for remediation.
4.3 The genre-pedagogy approach in practice
The practice of genre-pedagogy has gained momentum outside of Australia over the last
two decades. It has had an impact on the New Zealand English Curriculum (Dix, Cawkwell
& Locke 2011) and through university collaborations with public-sector schools in the US
(e.g. Gebhard et al. 2014; Moore & Schleppegrell 2014; Brisk 2015.) It informs the English
language curriculum of Singapore (Ministry of Education Singapore 2010) and Indonesia
(Sukyadi 2014). This section will discuss a selection of reports and research from three
contexts, Australia, Hong Kong, and Indonesia. They have been chosen to represent three
points on a continuum from English-embedded (Australia), to English-medium (Hong Kong),
to English as a subject language (Indonesia).
4.3.1 Australia
As the birthplace of genre-pedagogy, it is no surprise that it has been taken up throughout

Australia, albeit to varying degrees. Teachers welcomed the emphasis on teaching a broader
range of genres and making their structure explicit; however, they were less likely to address
the linguistic side of the approach (Polias & Dare 2006). Hammond (2012: 233) notes that
consistent anecdotal evidence suggests that the teaching of text types often results in an overly reductive
focus on the structure of reports, narratives, explanations and expositions, with little emphasis on a
functional analysis of text patterns or related language features.
The resistance or lack of attention to functional grammar appears to be related to a number

of factors including lack of teacher-friendly grammar resources, a political ‘back to basics’
climate, and lack of systematic teacher development (Polias & Dare 2006).
One part of Australia that has had notable success with the approach is South Australia
(Custance 2006; Polias & Dare 2006; Fenwick 2010; White et al. 2015). Polias & Dare (2006)
identify three key factors that have supported the success of genre-pedagogy in schools in
South Australia. The first is development of a pedagogical grammar that ‘recontextualizes’
functional grammar with terminology and examples that are accessible to and usable by
teachers. The second is development of a teacher development programme, in which teachers

learn the grammar and how to use it. (See Language and literacy: Classroom applications of functional
grammar, Dare & Polias 2004, which was developed to address these two requirements). The
third is the development of a set of assessment tools, the ESL Scope and Scales (SACSA n.d.)
to document the language development of English as a second language (ESL) learners.
The ESL Scope and Scales specifies each genre and the language features related to genre,
field, tenor, and mode appropriate for each year at school. Custance (2006) describes how
teachers in one high-poverty school made use of the Scope and Scales to guide them in
mapping the genres and language features to be taught at each grade level.
Fenwick (2010) reports on the success of the Language and Literacy programme with 16
teachers across 9 different subject matters in a secondary school. Results after two years found
significant improvement both in the texts students wrote and also in student confidence and
attitude. Student success was a key factor in teacher uptake of the approach. She points out
that
Access to new knowledge and theory alone did not result in changed practices within the classroom. Rather,
practical strategies, which connected to the theory, needed to be available for teachers to trial within their
own learning environments. Only when student outcomes became apparent did the participating teachers
become advocates of the approach. (Fenwick 2010: 281)
White et al. (2015) report on six schools in South Australia with high numbers of EAL
(English as an additional language) students that undertook a ‘whole school’ approach to
literacy using genre-pedagogy. The article focuses ‘specifically on the diagnostics that were
developed as part of this programme for tracking and assessing student literacy development’
(White at al. 2015: 260). The authors discuss three sets of data. The first makes use of 500
‘pre-teaching’ and ‘post-teaching’ texts written by the students and evaluated using the ESL
Scope and Scales.
It was found that in 98% of cases, there was a progression of at least two scales from the pre- to the
post-teaching writing, with the writing of some students progressing by as much as five scales. (p. 262)
They also gathered longitudinal data over six years, from 2005 to 2011, based on analysing
sets of texts at the end of the school year. They found that students improved by at least one
scale per year, (noting that this is an expected outcome for ‘mainstream’ students, but not
frequently for ESL students), with multiple-scale improvements each year often being the
case, especially after two or three years of involvement in a literacy development programme
at one of the schools.
Finally, data from the result of standardized tests taken by students in three of the schools
showed that these schools outperformed similar schools in Australia on all three areas of
literacy covered in the tests: reading, writing and grammar. The authors point out that the
success they describe cannot necessarily be attributed to the use of genre-pedagogy, but that
there is a strong likelihood it played a role. The key, in their view, is that the curriculum –
what students are expected to learn, and the pedagogy that guides them – should be made
explicit.
4.3.2 Hong Kong
Although there is no explicit focus on genre-pedagogy in the Hong Kong English curriculum
(Maxwell-Reid 2014), one component is to produce texts ‘Using appropriate tone, style and
register, as well as the salient features of different genres’ (Lee 2012: 123). As in most secondary
contexts, the focus is on learning content and explicit attention to reading and writing skills
is lacking. Writing is generally produced in response to a prompt and then marked according
to general categories of organization and topic development on the one hand, and detailed
grammar and spelling mistakes on the other (Lee 2012). In order to investigate students’ use
of academic language, Walker (2010) used an SFL framework to analyse an example of a
first-year senior secondary student’s response to a prompt in a science class in contrast to
a model response. She found that there was a significant gap between the student’s writing
and the model response in terms of technical nouns and nominalization, use of tense, and
inappropriate referencing.
From 2000 to 2009, the Education Bureau of Hong Kong funded programmes designed to
introduce small groups of secondary school teachers from English-medium schools to genre-
pedagogy, using the Language and Literacy programme developed in South Australia (Polias
2011). An initial intention of the project was for English language teachers and teachers
of other subjects to come to a shared understanding about language so that they could
collaborate to maximize student learning (Polias 2005). Problems that had been identified
were difficulty in explaining abstract concepts in English and teacher-fronted classes with
little student interaction (Hong Kong Education Bureau n.d.). The programmes introduced
teachers to genres specific to their subject matter, genre structure and functional grammar, as
well the teaching–learning cycle. They then applied what they had learnt in their classrooms in
ways they deemed appropriate. In a 2007 report, Polias uses a biology teacher’s lesson plan to
illustrate the way her explicit focus on language (modality) helped students express their under-
standing of content in nuanced ways. He notes that ‘It is possible with functional perspectives
on language to discuss not only what meanings an author is making in a text but also which
language resources are being used to make those meanings’ (Polias 2007: 10) but cautions
that functional grammar can be confusing initially and needs to be introduced gradually. He
also notes that teachers tend to move from modelling a genre to independent construction,
thus not providing students with the necessary support of the ‘joint construction’ phase.
On a much smaller scale, two reports on the use of genre-pedagogy with four groups
of lower secondary students (Lee 2012; Fan 2014) conclude that students made observable
gains in their writing when comparing the textual structure, text cohesion, syntax, and lexis of
the pre-intervention and post-intervention student texts. Subject teachers who observed the
intervention conducted by Fan, while generally positive about its effectiveness in developing
academic literacy were not convinced they could ‘take care of students’ language needs as
they might not be able to cover the contents before examinations, according to the tight
learning schedule of students’ (Fan 2014: 91).
Students beginning instruction in English in all or some of their subjects must make
the bridge to learning through English (Lin 2012). These examples suggest that the use of
genre-pedagogy has potential to support instruction in English-medium classes in contexts
like Hong Kong. As in Australia, this means that subject teachers need to add genre-based
literacy skills to their teaching repertoire, which may create a tension between time devoted to
teaching content and teaching literacy skills. An additional tension is that between teaching
and evaluating writing in ways at odds with how it is evaluated on standardized exams (Lee
2012.) A major difference between Australia and Hong Kong is that the majority of teachers
in Hong Kong are teaching their subject in English, which is for them an additional language,
as it is for their students.
4.3.3 Indonesia
Indonesia has experienced three educational reforms in the last 12 years (Widodo 2016).
Genre-based pedagogy based on ‘systemic functional grammar’ was introduced into the In-
donesian English language curriculum during the curriculum reform of 2004. It was reflected
specifically in goals for listening, speaking, reading, and writing that referred to ‘ideational,
personal and textual meaning in different genres and text types’ (Widodo 2016: 132). It also
introduced the ‘teaching–learning’ curriculum cycle (Luardini & Asi 2014). Twelve genres
were included in the curriculum. According to Sukyadi (2014), the results were mixed, and
mostly negative. Some of the issues included introduction of a new metalanguage for teachers
with varying degrees of competence in English, confusion about the relationships among
genres, lack of understanding of how to teach the same genre in different semesters, and not
knowing how to sequence the stages of the teaching–learning cycle within class periods.
The 2006 reform gave schools autonomy in designing curriculum and materials at the
local level, in accordance with competency guidelines based on the 2004 curriculum (Widodo
2016.) Teachers worked in local teams to develop syllabi and materials. Nevertheless, centrally
administered language examinations did not reflect the core of the curriculum and so ‘English
teachers skewed their instruction to national examinations’ (Widodo 2016: 134).
Teacher preparation was a key factor explored in three small-scale studies by Omoetan
(2008), Pribady (2012) and Luardini & Asi (2014). Pribady’s study of a grade 8 teacher in
Bandung found that she had a good understanding of the curriculum cycle and was able to
use it effectively to teach the narrative genre. An analysis of student texts showed that they
had understood both the stages of a narrative and the use of specific linguistic features such
as past tense and a variety of process types (e.g. dialogue, action).
The teachers in Omoetan’s study at a senior high school in Surakarta, Central Java,
reported that the genre approach required more planning than the previous theme-based
curriculum because they had to master the various text types, find examples, and develop
student activities for each one. They benefited from sharing knowledge in the local teams.
They were positively disposed to the approach, but found the complexity of functional gram-
mar to be a problem along with lack of time for students to master each genre. The teachers
used, but did not always follow, the ‘teaching–learning’ curriculum cycle. For them, the aim
of a genre approach was for students to be able to differentiate between the different genres.
Taking a different approach, Luardini & Asi (2014) evaluated narrative texts written by
four junior high school teachers in Central Kalimantan who had postgraduate degrees
and had been teaching English at lower secondary for five years. The authors used SFL
criteria to analyse the text structure and linguistic features. The narratives were found to
have a minimum competence in meeting the criteria. The authors raise the question of how
teachers with minimum competence in a genre can be expected to teach it to students.
Although these studies are small-scale and highly localized, they suggest that the success
of the approach is dependent on a complex of factors that will be familiar to those who
research educational reform, and are reminiscent of the factors identified above for CLT,
including adequate, sustained support for teachers to learn about genre – the functional
grammar that underlies it as well as the pedagogy; shifts in policy that undermine continuity
of support; appropriate materials; teacher basic language proficiency; and dissonance between
the national exam and the purported aims of the curriculum.
There is a significant difference, however, which places a different kind of burden on the
teachers in Indonesia versus the teachers in Hong Kong. In Indonesia, the curriculum is
genre-driven – teachers are expected to teach 12 genres and find appropriate models of
each in order to teach them. In Hong Kong, genre and subject matter go hand in hand and
genre-pedagogy is a way for the subject teacher to make the role of language visible as part
of learning subject matter. The teachers in Hong Kong have the same challenges of learning
the stages and linguistic features, and scaffolding learners, but they have the subject matter
and possible materials at hand.
5. CLIL
5.1 Introduction
CLIL has its origins in Europe in the 1990s. In the context of the European quest for
integration, CLIL was seen as a way to foreground multilingualism as an integrating
educational force, to enhance FL education and to introduce innovative classroom pedagogies
in content subjects. (Dalton-Puffer et al. 2014: 214).
The name CLIL encapsulates the foundations and the dilemmas of this approach: the
duality of subject matter – that it is both content and language; and the aim of learning, to
integrate the two. The relationship between content and language and how they are learnt
and assessed are central concerns in the approach. The way the relationship is instantiated in
the curriculum varies widely. The consensus seems to be that content drives the approach (e.g.
Coyle, Hood & Marsh 2010; Dalton-Puffer & Smit 2013). In other words, the aim is to learn
content through an L2, and to achieve some level of bilingualism in the process. The teachers
are typically content teachers who themselves are teaching through an L2. ‘Language-driven’
CLIL, by contrast, is taught by FL teachers who use content in their teaching to make learning
meaningful (Coyle et al. 2010). Some would argue that ‘language-driven’ CLIL is outside
the CLIL umbrella because it aims at language gains, through the vehicle of content, rather
than content gains through a ‘vehicular language’ (Ioannou Georgiou 2012). Massler, Stotz
& Queisser (2014) suggest, at least for primary schools, that there are three variants of CLIL:
CLIL in subject lessons, CLIL in FL lessons, and CLIL as a subject of its own, of which the
third is relatively rare.
CLIL programmes have spread throughout Europe and beyond. Although the ‘language’
in CLIL is understood as a foreign, second, or heritage language, in practice most programmes
have been in English and much of the research has been about English (Dalton-Puffer & Smit
2013). Programmes and methodologies vary greatly, and some have criticized the hybrid,
umbrella nature of CLIL as an obstacle to theorizing and research (Cenoz, Genesee & Gorter
2013). Although research on CLIL is now being conducted worldwide, the next section will
focus on CLIL in Europe as it can provide both ‘historical’ and current perspectives on the
issues.
View of language
In CLIL, language is both the medium through which the content is learnt, and is also
a focus of learning. Theorizing about language in CLIL has developed in tandem with
practice. Coyle et al. (2010), key proponents of the approach, have conceptualized language
in CLIL as having three dimensions: the language OF learning (the language needed to access
and understand the subject); the language FOR learning (the language needed to operate
in the class); and language THROUGH learning (the language that develops in formulating
new understandings of the content.) These three dimensions are meant to guide teachers in
setting language objectives for their students. There appears to be a wide range of ways to
formulate these objectives. Examples given include traditional grammar, lexis, functions, four
skills related to text types, to name a few.
More recently, language has been conceptualized in line with systemic functional/genre
views and conversational analysis. For example, Llinares, Morton & Whittaker define
language in two ways, ‘that which is involved in representing the meanings which are crucial
to any academic subject, and that which is used in organizing and orienting the social world
of the classroom’ (2012: 9). In this view, language is seen in relation to the genres and register
(lexicogrammar) specific to the subject being taught, and in relation to ways in which meaning
is negotiated in classroom interaction.
Classroom language acquisition
CLIL is based on the notion that language can be acquired in the classroom. According to
Navés (2009: 25),
Most of the arguments in favour of CLIL come from SLA research and show that CLIL (1) creates
conditions for naturalistic language learning; (2) provides a purpose for language use in the classroom;
(3) has a positive effect on language learning by putting the emphasis on meaning rather than form; (4)
drastically increases the amount of exposure to the target language. (Dalton-Puffer 2007; Dalton-Puffer
& Smit 2007)
In other words, the classroom is a natural setting for subject-matter learning, of which
language is an integral part. The L2 is used to read, write, listen to, and talk about the
subject matter, thus having both purpose and meaning and providing abundant exposure
to language. In effect, understanding of the subject matter is constructed through language.

The L1 also plays a role in how language is learnt as it may be used to scaffold understanding
of concepts in the L2.
From its inception, CLIL has relied on theories of communicative competence and task-
based learning as a way to describe the role of language and how it is acquired in the
classroom. Ioannou Georgiou, for example, states that ‘CLIL brings together the main
principles of task-based learning and CLT by creating an authentic setting of meaningful
learning where the students can engage in exploring and finding out about the world while
using a foreign language to do so’ (2012: 496). There is an alternate view of language
acquisition in the classroom as acquisition of academic language, and how a given subject
matter is constructed/construed through its genres and registers. (Llinares et al. 2012; Lorenzo
2013).
On a macro-level, CLIL is seen as fulfilling two needs at once – the need for the specific subject-
matter content and the widely perceived need for English as a tool for social, economic, and
political access and success. At the classroom level, CLIL puts additional demands on learners
that they would not have in a purely subject matter or purely L2 class: not only do they learn
new subject matter, but they also learn it in English. One rationale for CLIL has been that
it is a more motivating way to learn a language than traditional language learning. Whereas
traditional language learning does not have immediate application, CLIL has immediate
relevance through meaningful cognitive experiences around the subject matter in the L2
(Furlong 2005). According to Lorenzo & Moore (2010), learners are perceived as language
‘novices’ (a deficit view) in traditional language classes, while in CLIL classes they are language
‘users’ (an asset view). Thus ‘English in CLIL is more clearly seen as a communicative tool
rather than as an expertise in itself’ (Hüttner & Smit 2014: 166).
Teachers are expected to teach two subjects simultaneously: the content and language. They
are not simply teaching content in another language. Given the difference between what
learners can do cognitively and represent in their L1 versus in their L2, teachers need
to be able to, for example, make key concepts of their subject accessible to learners with
diverse language competence or to develop learning materials that are both cognitively and
linguistically appropriate (Marsh et al. 2010). As the majority of CLIL teachers are subject-
matter teachers, not language specialists, they need to have knowledge about language in
order to make the language side of learning explicit. Because local subject materials are
in the L1, they need to develop their own materials to fit the particular local needs. As
a result, teachers play a significant role as curriculum-makers in CLIL. Many have also
taken on the role of creating collaborative networks through which they share material
(Morton 2013).
Context plays a role in terms of whether CLIL is adopted in the first place, and, if it is,
which subjects are taught in English (or another L2), in which grades, for how many years,
by whom and how. According to Dalton-Puffer, ‘In most places, the implementation of
CLIL has been fuelled from two directions: high-level policymaking and grass-roots actions,
with the latter dovetailing parental and teacher choices’ (2011: 134). The huge diversity of
CLIL programmes and methodology stems, in part, from its localized origins as a grass-
roots, experimental approach. Local support of parents and other stakeholders has been a
key factor in its success (Navés 2009). The fact that CLIL is most often offered in English
is largely due to its perceived value by various stakeholders such as parents, teachers, and
education authorities (Dalton-Puffer & Smit 2013). It is now an approach that has become
increasingly mainstream and is transitioning from ‘being a bottom-up experimental approach
to becoming the object of more centralized planning at regional and national levels’ (Morton
2013: 134).
The overall organization and progression of a CLIL course is largely determined by its
subject matter, with language playing a supporting, but critical, role. Curriculum-making thus
involves integration of work on language into content development, creation or adaptation
of materials to meet the linguistic needs of students, and designing learning activities so that
students learn the necessary content in English.
An influential framework for integrating content and language in the classroom is the 4 C’s
framework (Coyle et al. 2010). It comprises content, cognition (thinking and problem-solving
skills), communication (language knowledge and skills), and culture (awareness of self and
other leading to intercultural understanding). Teachers are meant to use the framework to
outline objectives related to each ‘C’, including three kinds of language objectives, language
FOR, OF, and THROUGH learning.
Materials in CLIL must (a) convey the content, as locally, regionally, or nationally defined; (b)
do so in the L2 in such a way that students can learn the content; and (c) in such a way that
the language of the content is made visible and learnable. According to Moore & Lorenzo
(2007: 29),
One of the biggest challenges for the teacher lies in ensuring that the materials are linguistically accessible
(for the level of their learners) and cognitively accessible (for the age of their learners). In tandem, there
needs to be a balance between factual information and linguistic illustration.
Of necessity, these materials are adapted from existing materials, or created from scratch.
Morton terms this approach to materials ‘one of bricolage, as teachers put together texts and
activities from various sources and [make] them their own’ (2013: 134). As CLIL becomes
more centralized, materials are being created to meet local needs.
It is difficult to generalize about the types of materials and activities in CLIL – these vary
greatly according to different contexts. The need to make meaning clear has brought about
an emphasis on multi-modality and multi-media, particularly images, diagrams, graphs,
and electronic media. Other considerations include the balance of cognitive and language
demands so that activities build on both previous cognitive and linguistic knowledge (Coyle
et al. 2010).
5.2.6 Assessment: How is success measured? How is learning/language assessed?
Because of its dual focus, success in CLIL is measured both in terms of language development
and content learning. One issue in assessment is that the relationship between language and
content is sometimes assumed and so is not made explicit to students. Content is explicitly
assessed, while language is implicitly assessed as the medium through which content learning
is demonstrated. While discipline-specific language and concepts are usually made explicit,
the language needed to perform discipline-specific tasks such as presenting an oral argument
is often invisible (Reierstam 2015). When students lack this language, which constitutes
the academic genres and register of the subject, it ‘may have considerable implications for
students’ ability to express content knowledge and to show proof of higher-order thinking
skills in cognitively demanding tasks’ (Reierstam 2015: 157). As a result, students with greater
linguistic facility but less content knowledge may be judged to know the content better than
students with greater content knowledge but less linguistic facility (Hönig 2010). For this
reason, there has been debate as to whether to conduct assessments in the L1 or whether
students can use the L1 to answer questions related to content (Coyle et al. 2010.) Coyle
et al. favour the design of assessments in the L2 and suggest that the first step in assessment
is to have clear content objectives and clear language objectives, so that assessments can be
clearly linked to their achievement.
There is agreement that language is never assessed on its own, but only in relation to the
content being learnt (Coyle et al. 2010; Llinares et al. 2012; Massler et al. 2014), however,
there does not appear to be consensus on HOW to describe language or HOW to assess it in
relation to content. In the context of secondary schools, Llinares et al. propose the use of
integrative tools that clearly link the way in which students will demonstrate understanding of
CONTENT (e.g. describing events leading up to a war or comparing two types of government),
with the LANGUAGE (both the genre and register/lexicogrammar) that the task requires.
Understandings of language are thus internal to the subject matter.
The area of assessment highlights the debates within the CLIL community about how
content and language converge in CLIL. In 2011 Dalton-Puffer put it this way:
Concerns with theorizing the interaction of language and content are currently becoming a focus of
attention for CLIL researchers. Although the most frequently used wording tends to be that of ‘content
and language integration,’ a more appropriate goal, I think, would be to transcend such an understanding
that conceptualizes language and curricular content as separate reified entities and instead think of them
as one process. (2011: 196)
5.3 The CLIL approach in practice
5.3.1 CLIL in Europe
As outlined in the previous section, CLIL as language curriculum has its origins in the policies
of the European Union with the European Commission’s objective of all European citizens
being proficient in three community languages (the mother tongue plus two) (Méndez Garcı́a
2013) and its explicit recognition of the role of CLIL in achieving these language learning
goals (Hüttner, Dalton-Puffer & Smit 2013). However, while numerous EU policies and
documents aim to promote plurilingualism through the introduction of CLIL into education
systems, there are few, if any, guidelines about how this is to be achieved. As a result, CLIL has
so far generally not become well established in the national education systems of EU member
states, remaining more a grass-roots movement with the exceptions of the Netherlands and
Spain (Hüttner, Dalton-Puffer & Smit 2013). However, there are signs that this is changing,
as Italy, for example, made CLIL compulsory in secondary education in 2012 and in primary
schools in 2015, although it is not clear to what extent this has been implemented in practice.
Whether implemented top-down or bottom-up, there is little doubt that CLIL is becoming
increasingly popular in many countries in Europe. Although research on the implementation
of CLIL curricula is perhaps not as widespread and certainly not as widely published in
international peer-reviewed journals as might be expected, a number of scholars are working
in this area and we are beginning to see some published results from a variety of contexts,
including Italy (see, for example, Infante, Benvenuto & Lastrucci 2008; Aiello, Di Martino &
Di Sabato 2017), Germany (see, for example, Breidbach & Viebrock 2012), and Austria (see,
for example Hüttner et al. 2013), as well as comparative studies (see, for example Sylvén 2013).
The 2013 special issue of the International Journal of Bilingual Education and Bilingualism dedicated
to CLIL has articles about implementation in nine European Union states (Austria, Finland,
Germany, Italy, the Netherlands, Poland, Spain, Sweden, and the UK) and the International
CLIL Research Journal began publication in 2012, testament to the growing interest in research
in this area.
In our consideration of the implementation of CLIL curricula, we take Spain as a case
study because, as Coyle (2010: viii) states:
Spain is rapidly becoming one of the European leaders in CLIL practice and research. The richness of
its cultural and linguistic diversity has led to a wide variety of CLIL policies and practices which provide
us with many examples of CLIL in different stages of development that are applicable to contexts both
within and beyond Spain.
However, it must also be recognized that the Spanish education system presents a number
of characteristics that may distinguish it from other contexts, and which may make CLIL
more successful here than elsewhere, especially in terms of policy framework and teacher
education, two of the four factors identified by Sylvén (2013) as contributing to the success
or otherwise of CLIL. We discuss these factors in more detail in Section 5.3.2.
5.3.2 CLIL in Spain
Spain consists of 17 autonomous regions, split into 50 provinces, plus the two autonomous
cities of Ceuta and Melilla and, while there is a central law that gives an overall framework to
education, its administration is left to the autonomous regions (Muñoz & Navés 2009; Ruiz
de Zarobe & Lasagabaster 2010). As a result, there is a huge variety of models for CLIL
implementation, which is seen as a distinctive feature of Spanish CLIL (Ruiz de Zarobe &
Lasagabaster 2010; Pérez-Cañado 2012). Another characteristic of the Spanish context that
influences language-in-education policies is that some of the autonomous regions have their
own official language alongside Spanish, so there is a long-standing culture of bilingualism,
while others are essentially monolingual (Fernández Fontecha 2009).
Two main CLIL contexts and models of implementation have been identified by Ruiz de
Zarobe & Lasagabaster (2010a).
1. In mainly monolingual areas where Spanish is the official language and where students
are taught through Spanish and one or two FLs.
2. In bilingual communities where there are two official languages – Spanish and the regional
language (Basque, Catalan, Galician, or Valencian) and schooling takes place in both
official languages plus one or two FLs.
Muñoz & Navés (2009) identify a tripartite division according to the overarching aim of
the CLIL programme:
1. Improving the English language competence of school children. This is the case in
the Comunidad de Madrid, for example, which, building on the previous bilingual
and bicultural project agreed between the Spanish government and the British Council
increased the number of schools offering CLIL from 13 to 114 in 2007.
2. Promoting multilingualism in mainly monolingual areas. Muñoz & Navés (2009) give
Andalucı́a’s Plan de fomento del plurilingüismo of 2005 as an example, which led to all new
schools having at least one bilingual section, the introduction of the first FL in infant
school, and a second FL from 5th grades.
3. Enhancing multilingualism in areas that are already bilingual, as in the Comunidad
Autónoma del Paı́s Vasco (BAC). The Basque government has introduced four projects to
promote multilingualism through CLIL at all levels of schooling (see Ruiz de Zarobe &
Lasagabaster 2010b for details).
There is no space in this review to go into details of all the projects in the various regions,
but Ruiz de Zarobe & Lasagabaster (2010) gives a good overview with seven chapters detailing
the implementation of CLIL in six different areas of Spain.
Some of the main variables that differ across the different contexts are: the amount of
teaching in the FL; the number and types of subjects taught through the FL; the language
level required for both teachers and students; and the length of experience of CLIL (Pérez-
Cañado 2012). There are also factors around whether and how children are selected for
inclusion in CLIL streams (see, for example, Lasagabaster & Sierra 2010), & who teaches the
CLIL classes, whether it is the subject teacher, the language teacher, or both. As part of the
Plan de fomento del plurilingüismo in Andalucı́a, for example, native-speaker language assistants
have been hired to work alongside subject teachers in a team-teaching model (Lorenzo 2010).
As mentioned previously, there are specificities of the education system in Spain which
may make CLIL more successful than elsewhere. One factor is the long-standing experience
of Spain with bilingual education. Regional languages as the medium of instruction have
been supported since the 1980s and, as Ruiz de Zarobe & Lasagabaster (2010a: x) note, this
has had a double influence on the spread of CLIL. First, experiences of bilingual education
in bilingual communities mean that there is long-standing expertise and experience among
teachers in those communities in appropriate methodologies for teaching in more than one
language. Introducing the FL alongside the regional language does not, therefore, represent
a major shift in teaching practices. Second, the experience of bilingual communities can
also represent a good example for monolingual educational settings introducing bilingual
curricula for the first time. Moreover, there appear to have been programmes of teacher
training to ensure that teachers have both the language and the pedagogical skills necessary
for implementing CLIL programmes (see the chapters in Ruiz de Zarobe & Lasagabaster
2010), although these may not always be adequate.
Research on CLIL in Spain has, perhaps unsurprisingly, focused on learning outcomes and
the attainment levels of children learning in CLIL and non-CLIL classrooms, and research
groups have tended to be concentrated in bilingual settings where bilingual education is
more established (see Bruton 2011; Pérez-Cañado 2012 for an overview). Results published
generally seem to point to the success of CLIL programmes, with students making significant
language gains over their non-CLIL counterparts while performing at least as well in subject
content. However, the research has proved controversial both in terms of the research
methodology applied and in terms of the claims made for CLIL. These are contested
on the grounds that programmes being implemented are not actually CLIL in that they
focus on language learning rather than content, and that apparent gains may be due to
other factors such as greater exposure to the target language and selectivity in who takes
part in CLIL courses (see Lorenzo, Casal & Moore 2010; Bruton 2011, 2013; Hüttner
& Smit 2014). Lasagabaster & Sierra (2010) point out for example that, while immigrant
children are enrolled on immersion programmes in the bilingual autonomous regions, they
are rarely allowed to take part in CLIL programmes. In the BAC, children wanting to take
part in CLIL streams were tested in Spanish, Basque, and English, with immigrant children
usually excluded because they failed to meet the minimum level in Basque, giving weight to
accusations that CLIL is elitist.
Most of what has been written about CLIL in Spain paints a predominantly positive picture
and there appears to be very little research evidencing challenges faced in its implementation
but whether this is due to lack of research or lack of challenges is unclear. Although not
research-based, Pavón Vázquez & Rubio (2010) recognize three problematic areas in CLIL
implementation: structural (organization and sequencing of the curriculum), linguistic (the
language level of teachers and students) and attitudinal (particularly on the part of teachers).
These are all areas that would merit further research (but see Pérez-Cañado 2016 for a report
on research projects into some of these issues).
Pladevall-Ballester (2015), citing Halbach (2009) lists difficulties in implementing CLIL

as the need for teaching methods that cater for children’s cognitive and linguistic abilities,
issues around L1 development and literacy skills, the lack of appropriate teaching materials,
and teacher training. These challenges are very similar to the list of challenges faced in
the implementation of CLT, perhaps unsurprisingly given the similarities between the two
approaches with their common focus on meaning and communication.
Some of the chapters in Ruiz de Zarobe & Lasagabaster (2010) recognize difficulties in
teacher training for CLIL, and Ruiz de Zarobe & Lasagabaster (2010a) acknowledge that,
while teachers involved in regional language immersion programmes have been able to make
the shift relatively smoothly, in other communities ‘the teaching curve both for teachers
and administrators has been steep,’ Ruiz de Zarobe & Lagabaster (2010: xii). Fernandez &
Halbach (2011) investigated the attitudes of teachers toward the Madrid bilingual project after
four years of implementation. Their findings were generally positive. However, while teachers
felt their training was sufficient, the researchers found fundamental misunderstandings of the
theoretical underpinnings of CLIL. Their conclusion is that, more and more, appropriate
training is necessary for teachers. The content teachers in Guillamón-Suesta & Renau’s (2015)
study expressed concern over their own levels of English and felt that they did not have the
confidence to teach in an FL. These studies indicate, as with CLT, that appropriate training
on both language and methodology is needed for successful implementation.
A lack of suitable materials has also been identified as a major obstacle (Fernandez &
Halbach 2011). Lorenzo (2010) mentions the lack of textbooks for CLIL and the time needed
for preparing teaching materials as an obstacle for teachers, something he notes that native-
speaker language assistants, hired as part of Andalucı́a’s Plan de fomento del plurilingüismo, have
been useful for.
Finally, the level of the children is also seen as a possible challenge. Pladevall-Ballester
(2015) researched the attitudes of different stakeholders – teachers, children, and parents – in
five primary schools in Catalonia that introduced CLIL for the first time. She found general
satisfaction among all groups, although with concerns and caveats. Among the children, low
achievers found it difficult to follow the classes and thought the subject matter was too hard.
Concern about the effects of CLIL on low achievers was also expressed by both parents
and teachers. The teachers in Guillamón-Suesta & Renau’s (2015) study felt that children’s
language level was not high enough to enable them to be successful in CLIL. However, it
should be noted that not all the teachers in this study had actual experience of CLIL.
One final issue that needs consideration and that has not gained much attention in CLIL
research is the ideological aspect of bilingual programmes. While the hegemony of English
is mentioned by, for example, Lasagabaster & Ruiz de Zarobe (2010), it is neither discussed
nor problematized. Accusations of elitism and selectivity have plagued the implementation
of CLIL and not only in Spain. At a time when academic debate around bilingualism and
multilingualism is increasingly focusing on ideologies and social practices through the work
of scholars such as Monica Heller (see, for example, Heller & McLaughlin 2016) and Ingrid
Piller (see, for example, Piller 2012), it seems unlikely that those working in strong CLIL
contexts such as Spain can ignore these debates. One exception is Pastor (2015), who studied
classroom practices on the Madrid bilingual project from a critical perspective. She notes
that:
Imagining Madrid as bilingual in Spanish and English covers up the multilingual reality of its schools and
guarantees the status quo of dominant monolingual ideologies. (p. 135)
More research is certainly needed in this area.
6. Discussion
Our analysis of the three approaches has shown that there are a number of similarities
and overlaps between them in both the theoretical underpinnings and the success and
challenges of implementation. In many ways this is unsurprising as they all have common
roots in the shift from structural linguistics to a view of language as a tool for meaning-
making, with concomitant changes in what learners are expected to do with the language
through interactions in the classroom. However, there are also a number of important
differences.
In the following section we will discuss in more detail the similarities and differences,
together with the factors that appear to have an impact on the approaches and their potential
for successful implementation.
6.1 ‘Knowledge about language’ in the curriculum
Both genre-based pedagogy and CLIL are based on an assumption that knowledge about
language (KAL) (Derewianka 2012) plays a key role in understanding and talking or writing
about content. KAL in genre is quite clearly defined and is based on a functional view of
language; however, in CLIL it is still open to interpretation. Some versions of CLIL draw
loosely on broad categories of language such as grammar and vocabulary, while others draw
on a more functional view.
In CLT, KAL is generally construed as knowledge of grammatical systems. As CLT came
about in reaction to a purely linguistic view of language, KAL can be seen as a negative,
especially in strong versions. Nevertheless, where KAL is evident in curriculum materials in
weak versions, it still relies on traditional grammar. A key difference between CLT and the
other two approaches is that in the latter, KAL is always connected to subject-matter content.
In CLT, KAL is in a sense grafted onto communication-based activities.
6.2 The classroom as the context for language acquisition
Cummins (2008) has made a useful distinction between two kinds of language at school:
basic interpersonal communicative skills (BICS) and cognitive academic language proficiency
(CALP). The primary focus of teaching in schools is CALP; BICS are learnt in interactions
with others on the playground, for example, at lunch or outside school.
Some versions of CLT appear to be concerned with BICs in that they are concerned with
communicative competence in SOCIAL situations through authentic, meaningful interactions
with others. A key contribution of CLT to language teaching is its focus on interaction,
cooperation, and use of language within the classroom context. However, the classroom is
not a natural environment for a sustained focus on interpersonal communication skills, which
makes it difficult to have consistently authentic, meaningful interactions. A shift to task-based
learning, by adding in the achievement of an outcome for each task, creates opportunities for
more varied, purposeful language use. Nevertheless, there is no overarching path of language
acquisition.
Genre-based pedagogy and CLIL, on the other hand, are concerned primarily with CALP.
The classroom is a natural context for studying subject matter and thus for learning and using
academic language. There is a progression of language acquisition tied to the concepts and
genres of the subject. CALP also emphasizes the role that cognition plays in learning new
content and language.
6.3 Students’ needs and roles
Genre-based pedagogy in English-embedded and EMI contexts, and CLIL both focus on
school subjects, which students need to learn; thus learning English is a de facto need, as
the subject content is taught in English and so without English one cannot learn the subject
matter. The need for content creates the need for English. In the case of CLIL, however, it
could be argued that the socio-political pressures connected with the dominance of English
have created an artificial need for content in English. In terms of genre-based pedagogy in
contexts such as Indonesia, where it is tied to types of text rather than subject matter, the
question arises as to why students need to learn those genres in English.
In CLT, the need for English is complicated and, perhaps, more abstract. The purpose of
learning is to be able to communicate successfully beyond the classroom, and the means is
through interactions with the teacher and peers in the classroom. Because primary and
secondary school students do not always have clear needs or contexts for ‘beyond the
classroom’ communication, successful implementation of CLT depends partly on ensuring
that the focus of tasks and communication activities are tailored to the intrinsic motivation
of students through topics of interest to them. Many students will not have any extrinsic
motivation to learn English except to pass national examinations, the format of which often
militate against CLT.
In CLIL and genre-based pedagogy, students have the role of students in the sense that
they are expected to perform tasks that they perform in other subject-matter classes. In CLT,
students are expected to take on roles and perform tasks that are usually performed outside
the classroom, which requires active participation and the use of imagination. Such activities
make use of the role of play and pretending ‘as if’, which are important in human learning.
Nevertheless, an over-emphasis on make-believe can contribute to the abstract or contrived
nature of the interactions. On the other hand, CLIL has benefited from CLT methodology
that requires students to take an active role in classroom interactions.
In genre-pedagogy and CLIL, students are expected to use higher-order thinking skills
in order to learn the concepts associated with the subject matter. In genre-pedagogy, these
thinking skills are also directed toward language and talk about language.
6.4 Teacher’s expertise and role
Each approach is most successful in practice when clear guidance is available and teachers
are well prepared for implementation. The kind of preparation and experience teachers need
in order to develop the necessary expertise or knowledge base varies with each approach. In
CLIL, and in genre-pedagogy in English-embedded contexts (e.g. Australia) and in EMI (e.g.
Hong Kong), the teacher’s first basis of expertise is her subject matter, (e.g. history, science).
Thus, KAL and methodology to make the content accessible through English is an additional
area of expertise. Moreover, in CLIL and EMI, English is likely to be an L2 for the majority
of teachers, so they have a double responsibility of teaching their subject in English and
learning how to do it in a way that helps their students learn content while also learning
English. In contexts where English is a subject language and genre-based pedagogy is used
(e.g. Indonesia), the teacher’s expertise is not likely to be tied to content and so genres are
taught on an ad hoc basis as a set of text types.
In CLT, the teacher’s expertise is less clearly defined. In some respects, it is related to
methodology: how to orchestrate meaningful social interactions. However, the de facto
expertise for most of these teachers, for whom English is likely to be an L2, is traditional
grammar and knowledge of vocabulary and a repertoire of communicative activities in
which the language can be used in context. Interaction in the classroom may be at odds
with the classroom culture, which expects teacher-fronted, teacher-directed pedagogy. And
monitoring such interactions may represent a problem in relation to classroom management.
6.5 Organization of the curriculum
In both genre-pedagogy and CLIL, the starting point for the organization of the curriculum
is the subject matter that is being learnt. In CLIL, the curriculum followed is that of the
subject content, while in genre-pedagogy, the organizing principle is the genres which are
identified on the basis of the subject matter.
In CLT, the curriculum is organized around the language needed for communication,
although we have already seen how this is difficult to define. In practice, the communicative
curriculum may use a variety of language features as its organizing principle, including skills
and micro-skills, functions and notions or, especially in weak versions, traditional grammar.
The three approaches can therefore be seen on a continuum from subject to language in
their organization of the curriculum with CLIL at the subject end, CLT at the language end
and genre-pedagogy somewhere in the middle.
6.6 How success is measured
In genre-based pedagogy and CLIL, students are assessed based on their understanding and
production of subject-matter knowledge through English. Success in language is directly
addressed in the former through rubrics that make the organization and language features
of each genre explicit. In CLIL, how or whether to assess language directly is still a contested
area.
In CLT, it is much more difficult to measure success as it is tied to skill in interaction, not to
specific language or content. High-stakes exams often focus on something more measurable,
i.e. grammar knowledge and lexicon, so this continues to be an issue for curriculum.
7. Implications
Although the three approaches to curriculum that have been reviewed are seen as discrete
and alternative ways of viewing the language curriculum, in practice there are numerous
overlaps.
They differ in their geographical distribution and the linguistic contexts in which they
tend to be concentrated. All three approaches have their origins in a particular context, and,
while it would be misleading to identify a particular approach with a particular geographical
area, they tend to differ in their current dissemination, or at least in the attention that is
afforded to them by scholars in particular contexts. CLT has its origins in western private
language schools before spreading to state schools in Europe, but it is now implemented
globally in state schools, mainly because of national policy, especially in Asia. Thus its main
implementation is now in target language removed contexts (Graves 2008) that are very
distant from its origins. CLIL is also implemented in target language removed contexts but
these were mainly concentrated in Europe, where its origins lie. This could offer at least a
partial explanation for CLIL’s apparently less problematic application. As it spreads further
afield, especially to Latin America and to Japan, it will be interesting to see whether different
local conditions lead to new challenges. Genre-based pedagogy has very clear origins in
the target language embedded context of Australia, and while it appears to be have been
implemented with some success in EMI contexts, it seems to face some of the same challenges
as CLT, as it has spread further afield to target language removed contexts. The implication
is that language curricula need to be adapted to local conditions, rather than imported
wholesale from different contexts. While this may seem obvious, it seems it rarely happens in
practice.
Another key area of difference is in the identification of learner needs on which the
curriculum can be based. In this sense, CLIL and genre-based pedagogy have more potential
for success in schools as learner needs can be defined through subject matter and the wider
school curriculum and are therefore more or less tangible for learners. In contexts where CLT
is common, on the other hand, learners may lack opportunities to communicate in English
outside the classroom and therefore may not perceive any real need for English, leading to de-
motivation. Or, if they do, as with students who participate in online gaming, teachers may not
know how to integrate these opportunities into classroom work. However, in these same con-
texts, teaching subject matter through English presupposes a supply of teachers able to do so
as well as a willingness to provide the subject matter in a language other than the national one.
A further difference is that genre-pedagogy has clear guidelines for identifying language
targets and for assessing learners’ progress and achievement with respect to them – this is
missing in CLIL and CLT. However, the focus in genre-pedagogy has been mainly on written
texts, and not on the kinds of oral interactions that are recognized as important in both CLIL
and CLT.
One factor common to all three approaches in determining the success of curriculum
innovation is the need for teacher expertise. Although there are differences in the expertise
that is required, adequate teacher preparation is essential to successful implementation but
this often appears to be lacking. In CLIL and genre-based pedagogy, there is the important
question regarding who teaches English, given that the majority of teachers of English in
schools are not content specialists but language specialists. Either content teachers need to
be prepared with KAL and appropriate CLIL methodologies, or English teachers need to be
prepared in the relevant subject content, or the two teachers need to collaborate and teach
alongside each other.
Given the strengths and weaknesses of each approach and the considerable overlaps,
it may be opportune to look for alternatives that combine elements of CLT, genre-based
pedagogy and CLIL. One possibility would be to build the curriculum around English
language arts that encompass a variety of story and literary genres (appropriate for the age
of the learners), using communicative methodologies, rather than the traditional grammar
translation method that was the hallmark of early teaching of literature. Language specialists
might more reasonably be expected to teach literature than subject matter such as science
or history. Another alternative is project-based learning (PBL), which is reasonably well
established as an approach to language learning, although not widely implemented as yet.
PBL, especially if made relevant to the wider school curriculum, would enable a more
integrated approach to content and language, therefore allowing learner needs and interests
to be defined but without being as closely tied to school subjects as CLIL or genre-pedagogy.
These two alternatives draw on the affordance of subject matter as the basis for meaning-
making, cognitive engagement and language development, while recognizing the need for
the kinds of interactions and participation that communicative methodologies provide.
8. Further research
As noted above, there is perhaps less research into CLIL than might be expected, given that
it has been implemented in classrooms since the 1990s. The research that has been carried
out has focused mainly on learning outcomes, particularly comparing the achievements of
CLIL and non-CLIL learners, but there is a growing body of classroom-based research that
is investigating how CLIL is actually implemented by teachers in their day-to-day practice.
Such research will add to the explanatory power for the apparently positive outcomes that are
being reported. As CLIL spreads, to Latin America for example, such research will become
even more important in order to understand the effects of CLIL on language learning in
different contexts.
In CLT, on the other hand, there is abundant research into classroom implementation,
which has highlighted the gap between the curriculum and classroom practice, but there is far
less research into learning outcomes and learner achievements. Given the complex classroom
picture, the rather fuzzy nature of CLT, and the difficulties in assessing learning, this is
perhaps not surprising, but such research is necessary if we are to gain a better understanding
of what learners exposed to a communicative approach to language teaching are actually
learning.
For genre-based pedagogy, more research is needed in contexts such as Hong Kong, where
English is the L2 of both teacher and learners, in order to understand the challenges faced by
teachers in successfully implementing the approach. Specifically, given teachers’ concerns that
work on language detracts from work on content, research on what kind of KAL is adequate
and appropriate for teachers to know and convey to students so that they can successfully
understand and interpret the genres through which the subject matter is constructed would
be helpful.
This review has also suggested potential for a new research agenda to explore what each
approach can ‘learn’ from the other to make its implementation in schools more feasible for
teachers and more productive for learners. For example, in many CLIL and EMI contexts,
learners learn English as a subject in classes that adopt a CLT approach such as meaningful
interactions around the accomplishment of tasks. What can the CLIL teacher learn from the
English subject teacher and what can the English subject teacher do to support the CLIL
teacher? We suggest that the three approaches are best seen in relation to each other on a
set of continua comprising each aspect of the curriculum framework: the subject matter and
how it is learnt, needs and roles of learners, role of the teacher, role of context, design and
organization of the curriculum, and assessment. Such a view allows for aspects of each to be
integrated according to local conditions and local needs.
9. Conclusion
In this review, we have examined in detail three current approaches to the English language
curriculum found in state schools in different contexts around the world. Through our analysis
using the curriculum framework, we have shown that all three approaches have similar origins
and that there are numerous similarities between them, in particular their views of language
as meaning, and in their views of the roles of teachers, learners, and learning. However,
there are also some important differences especially in the relationship between content and
language and in the needs of learners. All three approaches also present challenges, above all
for teachers, many of which remain unsolved in spite of 20 or more years of experience in
implementation.
Questions arising
1. a. What contributes to successful partnerships between subject

English teachers and CLIL/EMI teachers in the same school?
b. What does the subject English teacher have to offer the CLIL/EMI
teacher and vice versa?
2. a. What do EMI/CLIL teachers need to know about language/genre in
order to strengthen students’ interpretation and production of
genre?
b. What are the obstacles to gaining and using this knowledge?
3. What role does the use of instructional techniques associated with CLT
and TBLT play in CLIL teachers’ satisfaction with CLIL?
4. Mastery of the genres of school play a role in students’ success in

so-called ESL environments because they need to write these types of
genres throughout school. How, if at all, does mastery of the genres of
school contribute to students’ success in CLIL classes? Do CLIL
students need to master the genres of school the way ESL students do?
5. How can teachers bring children’s use of English outside the
classroom, for example in online gaming, into the school curriculum?
6. In contexts where extrinsic motivation to learn English is lacking, what
are the key factors in encouraging learners’ intrinsic motivation?
7. a. What is the backwash effect of national examinations on the
language classroom in particular contexts?
b. Where national examinations do not reflect the curriculum, how can
teachers reconcile the apparently conflicting demands?
8. All three approaches place relatively high demands on teachers’
language proficiency. How do teachers deal with these demands in
their classrooms? What evidence is there of multilingual classrooms in
your context?
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KATHLEEN GRAVES is Associate Professor of Education Practice at the University of Michigan in the
United States. She is the editor/author of Teachers as course developers and Designing language courses, co-
editor with Lucilla Lopriore of Developing a new curriculum for school-age learners, co-editor with Sue Garton
of International perspectives on materials in ELT, and the series editor of TESOL’s Language Curriculum
Development series. Her research focuses on the role of teachers in curriculum and supporting teachers’
professional development as the key to successful educational reform.
SUE GARTON is Reader in Applied Linguistics at Aston University, Birmingham, UK, where she teaches
TESOL courses to both undergraduate and postgraduate students. She has published widely in the
area of teaching English to young learners and materials in ELT. She is series editor, with Fiona
Copland, of International perspectives on English language teaching (Palgrave Macmillan) and co-editor with
Kathleen Graves of International perspectives on materials in ELT.

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Lang. Teach. (2017), 50.

An analysis of three curriculum approaches to teaching English in

Kathleen Graves University of Michigan, Ann Arbor, USA

Sue Garton Aston University, Birmingham, UK

• the view of language and language acquisition underlying the approach

This is followed by a discussion of research on how each approach is implemented in primary

1. The subject matter and how it is learnt:

Figure 1 Framework for curriculum analysis

alternate language of the country, as in Sweden or Bahrain, or a foreign language, as in

2. The curriculum framework

• Subject matter – what is to be learnt

2.1 Subject matter

2.2 Learners – their needs and roles

2.3 Teachers – their roles

3.2 Curriculum framework

3.2.1 The subject matter and how it is learnt

How language is acquired in the classroom

Nevertheless, there is general agreement that classroom language acquisition is based on

• both productive and receptive skills should be developed

3.2.2 Needs and roles of learners

3.2.3 Role of the teacher

3.2.4 Role of context

An examination of any of the popular coursebooks currently in use, generally based on

3.2.5 Design and organization of the curriculum

Organization and progression of the curriculum

Types of materials and activities

3.2.6 Assessment: how success is measured; how learning/language is assessed

Assessment is perhaps the most neglected aspect of discussions of communicative curricula.

3.3 CLT in practice

4.2 Curriculum framework

4.2.1 The subject matter and how it is learnt

How language is acquired in the classroom

Language acquisition in genre-pedagogy is a process of learning language, learning through

4.2.2 Needs and roles of learners

Genre-pedagogy was developed as a way to provide disadvantaged learners, including English

4.2.3 Role of the teacher

4.2.4 Role of context

4.2.5 Design and organization of the curriculum

Organization and progression of the curriculum

Types of materials and activities

4.2.6 Assessment: how success is measured; how learning/language is assessed

4.3 The genre-pedagogy approach in practice

As the birthplace of genre-pedagogy, it is no surprise that it has been taken up throughout

The resistance or lack of attention to functional grammar appears to be related to a number

teachers. The second is development of a teacher development programme, in which teachers

4.3.2 Hong Kong

5.2 Curriculum framework

5.2.1 The subject matter and how it is learnt

Classroom language acquisition

to language. In effect, understanding of the subject matter is constructed through language.

5.2.2 Needs and roles of learners

5.2.3 Role of the teacher

5.2.4 Role of context

5.2.5 Design and organization of the curriculum

Organization and progression of the curriculum

Types of materials and activities

5.2.6 Assessment: How is success measured? How is learning/language assessed?

5.3 The CLIL approach in practice

5.3.1 CLIL in Europe