Agricultural Systems 71 (2002) 17–25

www.elsevier.com/locate/agsy

Smallholder farming systems in Asia

C. Devendra a,1, D. Thomas b,*
a
International Livestock Research Institute, PO Box 30709, Nairobi, Kenya
b
Natural Resources Management Department, Natural Resources Institute, University of Greenwich,
Chatham Maritime, Kent ME4 4TB, UK

Abstract
Agricultural production in Asia emphasises intensive rice and wheat production. Other
systems are associated with maize, cassava, trees and a range of secondary crops. Both
monoculture and multiple cropping systems are common, with crops being grown for sub-
sistence and cash. Irrigated agriculture is well developed in high potential areas, but most
countries are still heavily dependent on rain-fed production systems. In Southeast Asia,
shifting cultivation is practised widely and is associated with deforestation, weed invasion and
erosion. Multi-purpose livestock are integrated with cropping in small-scale, mixed farming
systems that characterise Asian agriculture. # 2001 Elsevier Science Ltd. All rights reserved.
Keywords: Asia; Livestock; Mixed farming; Production systems

1. Introduction

Agricultural production in Asia mainly emphasises intensive rice and wheat pro-
duction in multiple cropping systems. Available arable land in most countries is
utilised to the maximum and, in some cases, this has led to degradation. Irrigated
agriculture is well developed in high potential areas, but most countries are still
heavily dependent on rain-fed production systems. The importance of rain-fed agri-
culture is illustrated in Table 1. In Southeast Asia, the total rain-fed area is 99 mil-
lion ha and in South Asia 116 million ha. In Southeast Asia, the rain-fed area (as a
proportion of total land available) ranges from nearly 63% in Indonesia to 97% in
Cambodia. In South Asia, the corresponding values are from 27% in Pakistan to
84% in Nepal. Only in Pakistan and Sri Lanka does the percentage of irrigated land

* Corresponding author. Tel.: +44-1634-883811; fax: +44-1634-883959.

E-mail address: d.thomas@gre.ac.uk (D. Thomas).
1
Present address: 130A Jalan Awan Jawa, 58200 Kuala Lumpar, Malaysia.

0308-521X/01/$ - see front matter # 2001 Elsevier Science Ltd. All rights reserved.
PII: S0308-521X(01)00033-6
18 C. Devendra, D. Thomas / Agricultural Systems 71 (2002) 17–25

Table 1
Importance of rain-fed agriculture in Asiaa

Country Total rain-fed Rain-fed area Rain-fed Population

area (106 ha) as proportion production dependent
of total arable as proportion on rain-fed
land (%) of agricultural agriculture (%)
GDP (%)

Southeast Asia
Indonesia 9.1 62.7 19.1 36.8
Malaysia 0.7 67.5 16.0 40.2
Philippines 6.5 82.3 22.3 36.0
Thailand 13.8 81.6 49.9 59.4
Cambodia 2.8 96.9 NAb NA
Lao PDR 0.8 94.6 NA 85.0
Myanmar 8.9 89.8 61.1 46.0
Vietnam 4.4 71.6 NA 75.0

South Asia
Bangladesh 7.7 81.6 40.5 41.0
Bhutan 0.07 81.0 28.9 93.0
India 100.0 69.5 25.7 42.2
Nepal 2.6 84.0 40.9 74.8
Pakistan 5.4 26.7 4.6 11.5
Sri Lanka 0.5 49.4 20.1 29.1
a
Sources: ADB (1989) and Devendra et al. (1997, 2000).
b
NA, not available.

exceed that of the rain-fed areas. However, in absolute terms, the largest amount of
irrigated land (43.8 million ha) is found in India. The contributions of rain-fed pro-
duction, excluding Pakistan, to agricultural gross domestic product range across the
region from 16% in Malaysia to 61% in Myanmar (Burma). Most of the resource-
poor farmers engaged in rain-fed agriculture are smallholders, whose farms vary in
size from 0.5 to 4.3 ha. Alexandratos (1995) has calculated that rain-fed land, sui-
table for cropping and presently not utilised, approximates to 118 million ha in the
region.
Baseline information for the four major agricultural zones of Asia is shown in
Table 2. The largest areas of both rain-fed and irrigated lands occur in the arid/semi-
arid zones. These, together with the sub-humid zone, produce nearly 50% of the
food crops and some 60% of the cash crops grown in Asia.

2. Genesis of crop–animal systems

Despite an emphasis on crop production, mixed farming systems (where crops and
animals are integrated on the same farm) form the backbone of small-scale Asian
agriculture. Size of holding varies between agro-ecological zones and countries. In
Asia, some 52.7% of farms are < 1.0 ha, with the smallest farm sizes (< 0.4 ha) in
 C. Devendra, D. Thomas / Agricultural Systems 71 (2002) 17–25 19

Table 2
Human populations, food demand and land use in the priority agro-ecological zones of Asiaa

Parameters Arid/semi-arid Sub-humid Humid % of Asia in

zones zone zone agro-ecological
zones
Amount/ % of Amount/ % of Amount/ % of
number Asia number Asia number Asia

Human populations in 2010 (106) 1311.4 35.7 588.8 16.0 1264.5 34.4 86.1
Food demand in 2020 (106 tGE) 358.6 33.4 175.5 16.3 383.9 35.8 85.5
Production of food crops (106 tGE) 230.9 31.5 123.6 16.9 262.7 35.9 84.3
Production of cash crops (106 tGE) 79.6 33.6 62.8 26.5 89.7 37.9 98.0
Land area (106 ha) 327.6 16.1 237.7 11.7 534.1 26.2 54.0
Arable land (106 ha) 191.9 41.5 73.0 15.8 123.4 26.7 84.0
Rain-fed arable land (106 ha) 126.8 38.8 55.2 16.9 86.1 26.3 82.0
Irrigated arable land (106 ha) 65.2 48.8 17.8 13.1 37.3 27.5 88.6
a
Source: TAC (1992). tGE, tonnes of grain equivalent. Excludes cool tropics.

Bangladesh. Devendra (1983) has presented a number of definitions to describe both

small farms and small farmers. The traditional small farm scenario is characterised
by low capital input; limited access to resources; low levels of economic efficiency;
diversified agriculture and resource use; and conservative farmers who are illiterate,
living on the threshold between subsistence and poverty, and suffer from an inability
to use new technology.
As rural population pressures increase, crop and livestock production become
integrated in order to intensify output. Mixed farming systems provide farmers with
an opportunity to diversify risk from single crop production; to use labour more
efficiently; to have a source of cash for purchasing farm inputs; and to add value to
crops or their by-products. Combining crops and livestock also has many environ-
mental benefits, including the maintenance of soil fertility by recycling nutrients and
providing entry-points for practices that promote sustainability such as the intro-
duction of improved forage legumes. Mixed farming systems maintain soil biodi-
versity; minimise soil erosion; conserve water; provide suitable habitats for birds;
and make the best use of crop residues that might otherwise be burnt leading to
carbon dioxide emissions (de Haan et al., 1997). The closed nature of mixed farming
systems makes them less damaging or more beneficial to the natural resource base. It
is in the mixed farming systems that the best opportunities exist for exploitation of
the multi-purpose role of livestock.
The type of crop and animal system that has developed at any particular location
is a function of the agro-ecological conditions (Duckham and Masefield, 1970;
Spedding, 1975; Ruthenburg, 1980). Climatic, edaphic and biotic factors decide
whether cropping is feasible and, if so, the type of crops. This, in turn, determines
the quantity, quality and distribution of animal feed resources throughout the year.
The feed-base and the disease challenge determine the animal production systems
that develop. Feed resources provide a direct link between crops and animals and
20 C. Devendra, D. Thomas / Agricultural Systems 71 (2002) 17–25

the interactions between the two dictate, to a large extent, the development of the
systems (Fig. 1).

3. Production systems

Sere and Steinfeld (1996) have provided the most comprehensive description of
global livestock production systems. Six out of the 11 systems are mixed farming
systems under rain-fed or irrigated conditions in the temperate/tropical highland
zones, the arid/semi-arid tropics and sub-tropics and the humid and sub-humid
tropics and sub-tropics. The classification is based on the aggregated agro-ecological
zones described by the TAC (1994). These six categories provide a broad framework
for more detailed descriptions of local systems.
In Asia, annual crops and perennial tree crops are grown, and both ruminants and
non-ruminants are integrated into these systems. However, on the small farms
ruminants are more widely reared than non-ruminants. More than 90% of the total
population of large and small ruminants are kept on mixed farms in the region
(Devendra, 1983). Some 69% of cattle, 64% of goats and 46% of sheep are raised
on farms of 5.0 ha or less. On the other hand, pigs and poultry constitute advanced
animal industries in many countries in Asia. Examples of integrated annual crop–
animal systems include rice/wheat/cattle/sheep/goats in India; rice/goats/ducks/fish
in Indonesia; rice/buffalo/pigs/chickens/ducks/fish in the Philippines; rice/vege-
tables/pigs/ducks/fish in Thailand; and in Vietnam, vegetables/goats/pigs/ducks/fish.

Fig. 1. Genesis and types of animal production systems in Asia.

 C. Devendra, D. Thomas / Agricultural Systems 71 (2002) 17–25 21

Examples of integrated perennial tree crop-animal systems include rubber/sheep in

Indonesia; oil palm/cattle in Malaysia; coconut/sheep/goats in the Philippines; and
coconut/fruits/cattle/goats in Sri Lanka.
In the rain-fed annual cropping systems ruminants graze native grasses and weeds
on roadside verges, on common property resources or in stubble after the crop har-
vest. There are few examples of improved pastures being utilised in these systems.
Crop residues and by-products are also fed through the year or seasonally, depend-
ing on the availability of grazing land. Animals are tethered, corralled or allowed
free access to grazing. In areas of intensive cropping, stall feeding is practised. In the
perennial tree crop systems, ruminants graze the understorey of native vegetation or
leguminous cover crops. An estimated area of about 210 million ha is found under
perennial tree crops in Southeast Asia (Devendra et al., 1997). Non-ruminants in
these systems mainly scavenge in the villages on crop by-products and kitchen waste.
However, village systems can evolve into more intensive production systems
depending on the availability of feeds, markets, and the development of co-operative
movements. This is evident in both Southeast Asia (e.g. Indonesia) and in South
Asia (e.g. Bangladesh). In areas where root crops are produced, pig production is
based on cassava and sweet potato.

4. Cropping systems

Animals are integrated with a range of different crops. Reviews of the traditional
cropping systems and major crops of Asia are given by Hoque (1984) and the ADB
(1989). In Southeast Asia rice is the major food crop, so rice-based systems are the
most important. For example, in Cambodia, 88% of the total cropped land is
occupied by rice-based systems (Nesbitt, 1996). In the Lao PDR, 80% of cropped
land is under rice (Lao-IRRI, 1996). The comparable figure for Myanmar is 60%
(IRRI, 1995). Four rice-growing ecosystems have been characterised by the IRRI
(1993b). Rain-fed lowland rice yields range from 1.5 t/ha (Malaysia) to 3.0 t/ha
(Indonesia; Myanmar). Upland rice yields, on the other hand, range from only
0.9 t/ha (Cambodia) to 1.6 t/ha (Indonesia). These values compare with a range of
2.5 t/ha (Cambodia) to 5.3 t/ha (Indonesia) for irrigated rice (IRRI, 1993a).
Other systems are associated with maize, cassava and perennial tree crops. The
latter are of particular significance in Southeast Asia. For example, in Malaysia,
some 60% of the total land area is under perennial tree crops. The Philippines (3.2
million ha) and Indonesia (3.0 million ha) have the largest areas of coconut in the
world. South Thailand has 2.6 million ha of tree crops, of which 1.8 million ha are in
rubber (Sophanodora and Tudsri, 1991). Additionally, a wide range of secondary
crops are grown in the sub-region. Both monoculture and multiple cropping systems
(inter-cropping, relay cropping, and sequential cropping) are common, with crops
being grown for subsistence and cash. Multiple cropping in the region has been
described by Gomez and Gomez (1983).
In South Asia, rice-based systems (rain-fed and irrigated) are also the most
important cropping systems in Bangladesh, India, Nepal and Sri Lanka. In Pakistan,
22 C. Devendra, D. Thomas / Agricultural Systems 71 (2002) 17–25

wheat-based systems (rain-fed and irrigated) dominate and, in Bhutan, maize-based

systems are important. After rice and wheat, jute is a major crop in Bangladesh;
pulses in India; maize in Nepal; cotton in Pakistan; and pulses and oilseeds in Sri
Lanka. As in Southeast Asia, both single and multiple cropping patterns are com-
mon and a wide range of secondary crops are grown (Devendra et al., 2000). How-
ever, irrigated cropping systems in South Asia show more diversity, including the
cultivation of fodder crops. For example, in Pakistan, some 2.7 million ha of fodder
crops are grown annually mostly under irrigation (Bhatti and Khan, 1996). The
traditional fodder crops are maize, sorghum and pearl millet in summer and berseem
(Trifolium alexandrinum), alfalfa (Medicago sativa), oats and barley in winter. Per-
ennial tree crop systems are less important in the sub-region, being found mainly in
southern India and Sri Lanka. The major cropping systems and their regional
importance will now be summarised.

4.1. Multiple rice crop systems

These systems are limited to the most favoured areas, in terms of rainfall and
temperature, in Indonesia and the Philippines. Such systems are only possible where
rainfall exceeds 200 mm per month for at least 6 months of the year.

4.2. Single lowland rice crop systems

The production of a single rice crop under rain-fed conditions is the dominant
agricultural activity in Cambodia, Indonesia, the Lao PDR, Myanmar (Burma), the
Philippines, Thailand, Vietnam and most countries of South Asia, particularly
Bangladesh. Production takes place during the monsoon period, and is associated
with low-risk, low-input–output farming systems.

4.3. Lowland rice–upland annual crop systems

These systems are common in more favoured environments. An upland annual

crop may be grown either before or after the main monsoon rice crop. Production in
the post-monsoon season is the most common pattern. The main crops grown in
these situations are pulses (mungbean, blackgram and beans), oilseeds (groundnut),
jute and vegetables.

4.4. Multiple upland annual crop systems

These are the dominant production systems for the uplands and hilly lands, and a
wide range of cropping patterns is associated with these systems. The most com-
monly used patterns are maize followed by maize, legumes or vegetables; maize
inter-cropped with upland rice followed by maize, wheat or legumes; and vegetables
and cassava inter-cropped with maize or legumes. These systems are designed to
satisfy much of the food requirements of the farm household and to maintain crop
production throughout the year. By careful selection of component crops and the
 C. Devendra, D. Thomas / Agricultural Systems 71 (2002) 17–25 23

use of relay and sequential cropping, a farmer can grow different crops at different
times of the year to cope with cyclical fluctuations in the climatic and economic
environments of the farm. These systems are best adapted to areas with a high and
well-distributed rainfall, as in most parts of Southeast Asia. They are also found in
parts of India and Pakistan.

4.5. Single upland crop systems

These are the most common systems in Southeast Asia where the intensity of
rainfall is low, unevenly distributed or adequate for only a few months of the year.
Wheat is a dominant crop in more temperate areas whilst sorghum, millet and cas-
sava are important in the more tropical environments. They are major systems in
India, Nepal, Pakistan and Sri Lanka.

4.6. Annual and perennial crops inter-cropping systems

These systems are important in permanently settled hilly lands, especially those
with steeper slopes. The perennial crops help to minimise erosion by providing a
permanent cover. The most common annual crops are maize, upland rice, sweet
potato, cassava and taro.

4.7. Perennial tree crops systems

These systems, based on coconut, oil palm, rubber and fruit trees are particularly
important in Indonesia, Malaysia and the Philippines, and provide significant
opportunities for the integration of cropping with animal production. They are less
important in South Asia.
A summary of important crops and some of the more common cropping patterns
used in the region are given by Devendra et al. (1997, 2000).

4.8. Shifting cultivation

In the upland areas of Southeast Asia, rice is particularly associated with shifting
cultivation and the technique of slash-and-burn (Gupta and O’Toole, 1986). Shifting
cultivation accounts for 50–75% of the 17 million ha of tropical moist forest
destroyed annually (Garrity and Khan, 1994). In Malaysia, deforestation has been
associated with the conversion of forest to plantation crops. In the dry hill country
of north and eastern Myanmar (Burma), Thailand and Vietnam, soil erosion and the
degradation of land have taken place on steep terrain as a result of agricultural
intensification. Rates of deforestation in the sub-region range from 1.4–8.4%
annually. Tropical deforestation is responsible for 18% of current carbon emissions
(linked to global warming), for the continuing loss of plant and animal biodiversity,
for threatening the stability of many watersheds and for the colonisation of the grass
Imperata cylindrica which is difficult to control. Shifting cultivation is not a major
system in South Asia.
24 C. Devendra, D. Thomas / Agricultural Systems 71 (2002) 17–25

Shifting cultivation follows a definite pattern, with the forest cleared in the dry
season and the cut trees and shrubs burned, following drying, just before the onset
of the wet season. Burning releases nutrients into the soil in the form of ash and can
reduce soil acidity, whilst higher soil temperatures following burning accelerate the
decomposition of organic matter. In the short-term, depending on inherent soil fer-
tility, the process provides high nutrient availability. Burning controls pests and
diseases and enables quick and efficient clearing of land with minimal labour
requirements. Rice is broadcast or sown in widely spaced holes without land pre-
paration. In many countries, multiple cropping of rice with root crops, cereals,
vegetables and legumes is practised in this system. Little or no fertiliser is applied
and there is no weed control. Nutrients are lost quickly due to leaching and uptake
by the crop. After 1 year, increasing weed populations and declining soil fertility
levels reduce yields. The soil is left fallow for 4–10 years, which allows for the
regrowth of forest species and the restoration of soil fertility. However, the fallow
periods that once lasted 10–40 years are being reduced in most countries due to
increased human population pressures. This development affects significantly the
restoration of soil fertility.

5. Conclusions

The wide range of physical environments are responsible for the diversity in land
use and production systems in Asia. Considerable opportunities exist for improved
use of the available rain-fed areas, to take advantage of the presence of relatively
large populations of livestock. Cropping patterns based on rice dominate in the
region under both rain-fed and irrigated conditions. Wheat is an important cereal in
South Asia, and a multiplicity of secondary crops are grown for subsistence or cash
in both sub-regions. Single and multiple cropping patterns are practised. Irrigated
cropping systems in South Asia show more diversity, including the integration of
fodder crops. Despite this emphasis on crop production, in most systems ruminants
and non-ruminants are integrated with both annual and perennial crops, where they
play multiple roles. Shifting cultivation is only practised in relatively small areas of
South Asia and is, therefore, not a major system compared to Southeast Asia.

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