V.

The Nervous System

Introduction

None of the body systems is capable of functioning alone. All are interdependent and work
together as one unit so that normal conditions within the body may prevail. The nervous system
serves as the master control system of the body. Every thought, action, and sensation is a reflection
of its activity.

Objectives

At the end of this lesson, you should be able to:

1. Name and distinguish the basic divisions and component organs and functions of
the Nervous System.
2. Describe transmission of the synapse.
3. Explain the reflex arc and reflex act.
4. Differentiate between General and Special Senses.

Try This!

Activity 1. Consider the given scenario. Answer the given question based on your own
understanding.

You are crossing the street. Suddenly, a motorcycle is running fast towards you. You
thought of getting hit and might be severely injured. How will you respond to the situation? What
is your immediate action? _________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________________

You did great in answering Activity 1. Congratulations!

Think Ahead!

Activity 1 shows you how fast your nervous system responds especially to situations that
would endanger your life.

Your nervous system is the master control and communication system of your body. Every
thought, action, and sensation that you have is a reflection of its activity. It communicates with

41
 V. The Nervous System

your body cells using electrical impulses, which are rapid and specific and cause almost immediate
responses.

Generally, your nervous system has three overlapping functions which are similar to a
feedback loop. In a feedback loop, a receptor receives sensory input (a motorcycle running fast
towards you), which it sends to the brain for processing (integration). The brain analyzes the
information (the motorcycle might hit you and get severely injured) and determines the appropriate
output, which leads to a motor response, in this case, your right leg step backwards preventing you
from colliding with the motorcycle.

Simple as it may seem, but the nervous system is a complex system. To understand further
its structure and function, do the next activity.

Try This!

Activity 2. Differentiate the two (2) subdivisions of the Nervous System. Fill-out your
answers for each question on the table below.

Central Nervous System Peripheral Nervous System

1. What are the organs or
parts involved on the
system?
2. What are the major
functions of each
system?

Are you done with Activity 2? Congratulations!

Think Ahead!

Activity 2 helps you differentiate the structural classification of your nervous system - the
central nervous system (CNS) and the peripheral nervous system (PNS). Your CNS is the
command center of the nervous system. It consists of the brain and the spinal cord. To know
further about these structures, do the next activity.

Try This!

Activity 3. Identifying internal brain structures and the spinal nerves. Do the following:
1. Identify the figures below.
2. Color the images.
3. After coloring, answer the questions below.

42
 V. The Nervous System

Figure 42. The human brain

The largest part of the brain is the __________________________________________________

The part of the brain that is composed of the midbrain, pons, and medulla __________________
The shallow grooves in the cortex of the cerebrum is called _____________________________

Write your answers here:

A __________________________

B __________________________

C __________________________

D __________________________

E __________________________

Figure 43. The spinal cord

Are you done with Activity 3? Congratulations!

43
 V. The Nervous System

Think Ahead!

Activity 3 helps you understand the structures of brain and spinal cord. The brain is divided
into the cerebrum, diencephalon, brain stem, and cerebellum. The spinal cord functions as a two-
way conduction pathway to and from the brain. It extends from the foramen magnum of the skull
and ends at the first or second lumbar vertebra.

Compare your answers on the Read and Ponder section. Did you get it right?

Read and Ponder!

The various activities of the nervous system can be grouped together as three general,
overlapping functions:

● Sensory functions. To monitor changes occurring inside and outside the body. Millions of
sensory receptors detect these changes.
● Integrative functions. To process and interpret sensory input in the brain and decide if
action is needed.
● Motor functions. It responds to changes inside and outside of the body. The response
activates muscles or glands

Organization of the Nervous System

The nervous system as whole is divided into two

subdivisions (Fig. 3):
● Central Nervous System (CNS), consists of the brain
and the spinal cord.
● Peripheral Nervous System (PNS), consists of nerves
outside the brain and the spinal cord. This is further
subdivided into:
▪ Sensory (afferent) division, is composed of nerve
fibers that carry information to the central nervous
system
▪ Motor (efferent) division, is composed of nerve
fibers that carry impulses away from the central
nervous system. Finally, this division is again
subdivided into:
o Somatic nervous system = voluntary
o Autonomic nervous system = involuntary
Figure 44. Organization of the
Nervous System

44
 V. The Nervous System

The Brain

The cerebrum is the largest part of the brain and is composed of right and left hemispheres.
It is divided into four lobes: frontal, parietal, temporal, and occipital. It performs higher
functions like interpreting touch, vision and hearing, as well as speech, reasoning, emotions,
learning, and fine control of movement.

The surface of the cerebrum has a folded appearance called the cortex. The cortex contains
about 70% of the 100 billion nerve cells. The nerve cell bodies color the cortex grey-brown giving
it its name – gray matter. Beneath the cortex are long connecting fibers between neurons, called
axons, which make up the white matter. The cortex has a folded appearance. A fold is called a
gyrus and the groove between is a sulcus.

The diencephalon is a complex of structures within the brain, whose major divisions are the
thalamus and hypothalamus. It functions as a relay system between sensory input neurons and
other parts of the brain, as an interactive site for the central nervous and endocrine systems, and
works in tandem with the limbic system.
▪ Hypothalamus - is located in the floor of the third ventricle and is the master control
of the autonomic system. It plays a role in controlling behaviors such as hunger, thirst,
sleep, and sexual response. It also regulates body temperature, blood pressure,
emotions, and secretion of hormones.
▪ Thalamus - serves as a relay station for almost all information that comes and goes to
the cortex. It plays a role in pain sensation, attention, alertness and memory.
▪ Limbic system – includes cerebral and diencephalon structures. Its function is to
mediate emotional response.

The cerebellum is located under the cerebrum. Its function is to coordinate muscle
movements, maintain posture, and balance. It transmits information to cerebral motor cortex,
resulting coordinated skeletal muscle movements.

The brainstem includes the midbrain, pons, and medulla. It acts as a relay center
connecting the cerebrum and cerebellum to the spinal cord. It performs many automatic functions
such as breathing, heart rate, body temperature, wake and sleep cycles, digestion, sneezing,
coughing, vomiting, and swallowing. Ten of the twelve cranial nerves originate in the brainstem.
▪ Midbrain – consists of visual and auditory reflex centers.
▪ Pons – works with the medullary centers to control respiratory rate and depth.
▪ Medulla Oblongata – site of crossover of pyramids.

Right brain – Left brain

The right and left hemispheres of the brain are joined by a bundle of fibers called the
corpus callosum that delivers messages from one side to the other. Each hemisphere controls the
opposite side of the body.

45
 V. The Nervous System

Figure 45. Lateral view of the brain

Not all functions of the hemispheres are shared. In general, the left hemisphere controls
speech, comprehension, arithmetic, and writing. The right hemisphere controls creativity, spatial
ability, artistic, and musical skills. The left hemisphere is dominant in hand use and language in
about 92% of people.

Lobes of the brain

The cerebral hemispheres have distinct

fissures, which divide the brain into lobes. Each
hemisphere has four lobes: frontal, temporal,
parietal, and occipital (Fig. 46). Each lobe may
be divided, once again, into areas that serve very
specific functions.

Messages within the brain are carried

along pathways. Messages can travel from one
gyrus to another, from one lobe to another, from
one side of the brain to the other, and to
structures found in the diencephalon (e.g.
thalamus, hypothalamus).

Figure 46. Lobes of the brain

Meninges

It covers and protects the brain and spinal cord. This protective covering consists of three
layers – dura mater or the outermost layer, arachnoid mater or the middle meningeal layer and
the innermost membrane is the pia mater.

46
 V. The Nervous System

Cerebrospinal Fluid

It serves as a cushion that helps protect the brain from injury and to prevent damage from
trauma pressures.

Blood Brain Barrier

It prevents nonessential substances or metabolic wastes to enter the brain tissues like urea,
toxins and most drugs.

The Spinal Cord

There is a pair of spinal nerves at the level of each vertebrae for a total of 31 pairs. The
spinal nerves are formed by the combination of the ventral and dorsal roots of the spinal cord.
They are named for the region from which they arise.

Figure 47. Gross anatomy of the spinal cord

Gray Matter of the Spinal Cord

The gray matter of the spinal cord is subdivided into regions or known as horns. The dorsal
or posterior horns is responsible for sensory processing, where the fibers of sensory neuron enter
the cord thorough the dorsal root. Whereas, the ventral or anterior horns transmits out motor
signal to skeletal muscles. Ventral horns contain cell bodies of motor neurons and exiting their
axons through the ventral root.

47
 V. The Nervous System

Figure 48. Cross section of the spinal cord

The Neurons

Neurons are known as nerve cells. Its major function is to transmit nerve impulses or
messages into, within and out of the nervous system. Neurons are responsible to communicate
electrical signals, like producing body movements in response to stimuli or sensations.

The cell body or soma of a neuron is known as the metabolic center. Its fibers or processes
are dendrites and axons. Dendrites transmit electrical signals toward the cell body, whereas, axons
conduct generated nerve impulses away from the cell body. The terminal ends of an axon that
contains neurotransmitter is called axon terminals. When an impulse is transmitted from one
neuron to another, it is transmitted thorough a functional junction called synapse.

A neuron that conveys impulses from sensory receptors like the skin and internal organs
toward the CNS is known as sensory neuron or afferent neuron. Impulses coming from CNS
going to the muscles or glands is transmitted through a motor neuron or efferent neuron. Motor
and sensory neurons are linked in neural pathways through interneurons or association neurons.

The structure of neurons is protected by whitish and fatty material called myelin. It serves
as an insulator and boosts the transmission of nerve impulse. Nerve fibers on PNS are coated with
special supporting cells called Schwann cells. When these special cells completely wrap the nerve
fibers or axons, a wrapped membrane material is known as the myelin sheath. The indentations
between each myelinated axon is called Node of Ranvier. The outer layer of myelin sheath is called
the neurilemma.

The functions of neurons are also influenced by its structures as neurons come in different
shapes and structures (Fig. 9). Multipolar neuron is the most common structural type; it is
composed of multiple number of processes. Bipolar neuron is composed of two processes only –
one axon and one dendrite. And a neuron with a very short and single process emerging from a cell
body is called Unipolar neuron.

48
 V. The Nervous System

Figure 49. Parts of the neuron Figure 50. Structural classification of neuron

Reflexes

The body normally responses rapidly to stimuli. Rapid, predictable and involuntary
responses are called reflexes. Reflex arc involved CNS and PNS structures, wherein reflexes
transpired on neural pathways. When reflexes stimulate the skeletal muscles, it is known as
somatic reflexes. Somatic reflexes are considered as involuntary reflexes. Autonomic reflexes
include the regulation of smooth muscles like digestion, blood pressure, heart rate, and sweating.

Reflex arc has five basic elements – receptor, effector, sensory and motor neurons,
integration center.
▪ Receptor – reacts to the stimulus. For example, sensory receptors on skin.
▪ Sensory neuron – carries impulses to the CNS.
▪ Integration center – motor and sensory neurons linked and process the impulse.
▪ Motor neuron – carries impulses to glands, organs or muscles.
▪ Effector organ – the stimulated muscles or glands.

Most of the reflexes are spinal reflex, the integration of stimulus and responses only
happens in the spinal cord. In some instance, where the brain is involved; information is integrated
in the brain, like the vision – stimulus coming from the sight receptors.

Figure 51. Reflex arc

Cranial Nerves

There are twelve pairs of cranial nerves that serve the head and neck. The chart

49
 V. The Nervous System

below shows the list of cranial nerves and its functions.

Figure 11. Types of Cranial Nerves and Functions

adopted from Marieb, E., Keller, S., (2018)

50
 V. The Nervous System

Adapted from Marieb, E., Keller, S., (2018)

Spinal Nerves

There are thirty-one (31) pairs of spinal nerves. Each spinal nerve is a fusion of the ventral
and dorsal roots. It further divides into the dorsal ramus and ventral ramus. Each ramus includes
both sensory and motor fibers. Spinal nerves that supply the limbs are through networks known as
plexuses.

Autonomic Nervous System (ANS)

This subdivision of peripheral nervous system functions as automatic responses. It controls

and regulates smooth muscles, cardiac muscle, and glands. It also plays a major function on
homeostasis as it maintains the equilibrium of essential body organs and systems depending on the
internal and external environment stimuli.

▪ Sympathetic division – automatic responses of the body to cope with extreme situations
or threat. It is also called the “flight or fight” mechanism. Examples of responses like,
increased blood pressure and increased heart rate.

▪ Parasympathetic division - responses of the body on an “at rest” state. It maintains body
equilibrium in a way of normal digestion or conserving of energy. Examples of these
effects are, increase in production of saliva, relaxed sphincters and heart rate at normal
level.

51
 V. The Nervous System

The Senses

The common senses of human body are sight, smell, taste and hearing. These senses are
considered as special senses. These are functioned by complex sensory organs with special sense
receptors. Pain, temperature, and pressure that the skin recognizes is part of sense of touch or
tactile senses. General senses include tactile senses and senses of body position and movements.

Sense of Sight – Eye

The eye or eyeball is the organ responsible of sense of sight. The internal and accessory
structures of the eye support the functions.

Accessory structures protect the eye from irritation by maintaining the external layer
moistened and cleansed. These structures are the eyelids, conjunctiva, lacrimal apparatus and
extrinsic eye muscles.
▪ Conjunctiva – it produces mucus to maintain the eye lubricated. This membrane lines the
eyelids and it shields the outermost layer of the eyeball.

▪ Lacrimal glands – these structures are located above the lateral end of each eye. It produces
a solution called tears to cleanse the anterior surface of the eyeball trough small ducts.

Figure 52. Accessory structures of the eye

An eyeball consists of layers – fibrous layer or the outermost layer, vascular layer or the
middle layer, and the innermost layer is the sensory.
▪ Fibrous layer – serves as a protective layer. The sclera is a white, thick connective tissue.
Light enters through cornea, a transparent layer that is sensitive to touch and tears
production.

▪ Vascular layer – it is filled with pigment that prevents light to scatter on the eye. This dark
pigment is found on choroid which is located posteriorly of the layer. Anterior of this layer
are smooth muscles structures – the ciliary body and iris. These anterior structures are
responsible in the changes of lens shape and size of pupil.

▪ Sensory layer – made of layers of retina. The outer pigmented layer of retina is responsible
for the absorption of light. The inner layer or the neural layer are the rods and cones. Rods
or dim light receptors and cons or color vision receptors are known as photoreceptors. From

52
 V. The Nervous System

theses photoreceptors, the impulse is transmitted through the optic nerve and further
delivered to the optic cortex for integration.

Figure 53. Internal structures of the eye (sagittal section)

Visual Pathways

Impulses captured by photoreceptors is transmitted by the optic nerve going to the brain
for processing and interpretation. This critical transmission transpired along a pathway which
started from the optic nerve going to the optic chiasma, yielded to optic tracts connecting the
fibers in the thalamus in which further connected to the optic radiation to reach the occipital lobe
of the brain, specifically the visual cortex (Fig. 54).

Figure 54. Visual fields and pathways

53
 V. The Nervous System

Sense of Hearing – Ear

The ear serves two functions of senses – hearing and balance. Sound stimuli are captured
by hearing receptors. Whereas, equilibrium receptors maintain positions and movements of head.
These receptors work independently as it will reacts to stimuli.

The anatomy of the ear is divided into three areas – the external ear, middle ear and the
inner ear. Soundwaves travel from the auditory canal of the external ear reaching the tympanic
membrane or eardrum. When it reaches the tympanic membrane, it produces vibration and will
continually transmit to middle ear area. The activity in the middle ear will continue to transmit the
vibration by passing through the three smallest bones. These bones are the hammer or maleus,
anvil or incus and stirrup or stapes. Vibration will move through these fine parts respectively,
until stirrup, the last bone will press the oval window of the inner part of the ear.

The inner ear is made up of fine complex structures or known as the bony chambers or the
bony labyrinth. It is filled with fluid called endolymph. Surrounding the membranous labyrinth
is a fluid called perilymph. Situated in the bony chambers are the structures known as the
cochlea, vestibule and semicircular canals. When the vibration reached the inner ear, fluids in
the inner ear triggered to move in motion. The movement will hit now the hearing receptors or
hair cells. Hair cells will further transmit impulses to the brain, specifically the auditory cortex in
the temporal lobe for the integration. The transmission is delivered via the cochlear nerve, which
is considered a part of Cranial nerve VIII or the vestibulocochlear nerve.

The equilibrium receptors of the inner ear response to head movements and position,
maintaining the balance of body. When the body is at rest, these receptors maintains the head
erect as it directs our motion whenever we are heading a up or down direction. Specifically, this
state is known as static equilibrium. A dynamic equilibrium state, receptors response to
rotational body movements. These impulses are transmitted via the vestibular nerve going to the
cerebellum.

Figure 55. Anatomy of the ear

54
 V. The Nervous System

Sense of Smell – Nose

The mucosa of nasal cavity contains olfactory receptor cells. These receptor cells are
chemically stimulated when there is a smell stimulus. Impulses captured by the receptors will be
transmitted by olfactory filaments, delivering further by the olfactory nerve or the Cranial Nerve
I to the brain on the olfactory cortex.

Figure 56. Olfactory epithelium

Sense of Taste – Taste Buds

The taste buds in the oral cavity consists of gustatory cells. These receptor cells response
to chemical changes on epithelial cells through the taste pores. Impulses is transmitted to the brain
via cranial nerves. Cranial Nerve VII, IX and X transmit impulses to the gustatory cortex for
integration.

Figure 57. Structure of taste buds

For more information about the Nervous System and Senses, you may read any textbook
on Human Anatomy and Physiology or go to https://www.visiblebody.com/learn/nervous/system-
overview

55
 V. The Nervous System

See if you can do this!

You have learned the concepts of structures and functions of Nervous System and
Senses. Take a review by answering the following exercises.

1. This structure is made of bundle of neuron fibers and located outside the CNS. List three (3)
examples of this type of structure to include its functions. ______________________________
___________________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________________

2. Ben had a stroke. Due to his illness condition, he cannot put out his tongue. What cranial nerve
is likely affected? _____________________________________________________________

3. Mike accidentally touched a hot kettle. He immediately withdraws his hand from the kettle.
Explain the association of the elements of reflex arc to the given scenario. ________________
____________________________________________________________________________
____________________________________________________________________________
____________________________________________________________________________

4. John consumes bottles of alcoholic beverages. He cannot manage to walk by himself as he loses
his balance when walking. What part of the brain is likely affected?______________________

5. What functions will be impaired if there is a damage on the spinal nerve? _________________
___________________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________________

6. Give an example or scenario of Parasympathetic and Sympathetic responses. Explain the effects
and organ/system involved? _____________________________________________________
____________________________________________________________________________
____________________________________________________________________________
____________________________________________________________________________

7. Mika rides a bus on her long trip. After an hour, the bus stopped. Mika is sitting still on her seat
and she feels like the bus is still moving. What is likely the sensation of Mika? Explain the
association of special senses. ____________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________________

8. If the optic nerve of the left eye is impaired, what will happen to the functions of the optic nerve
on the right eye?______________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________________

56
 V. The Nervous System

9. Liza dined in a restaurant. She is fascinated with the smell of the coffee aroma and vividly
recalled the memories with her bestfriend. What is likely the sensation of Liza? Explain the
association of special senses._____________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________________

10. Give an example of each of the five (5) major taste sensations. ________________________
___________________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________________

Congratulations for a job well done!!

57