Portugal

. http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Portugal

Portuguese Republic

República Portuguesa (Portuguese)

República Pertuesa (Mirandese)

Flag Coat of arms

Anthem: "A Portuguesa"

"The Portuguese Anthem"

Location of Portugal (dark green)

– in Europe (green & dark grey)
– in the European Union (green) — [Legend]

Capital Lisbon
(and largest city) 38°46′N 9°9′W38.767°N 9.15°W

Official language(s) Portuguese

Recognised regional
Mirandese1
languages

96.87% Portuguese
Ethnic groups (2007) 3.13% other ethnicities
(Cape Verdeans, Brazilians, Goans, Angolans, Ukrainians, and others)[1]

Demonym Portuguese

Government Unitary parliamentary

 constitutional republic

- President Aníbal Cavaco Silva (PSD)

- Prime Minister Pedro Passos Coelho (PSD)

- Assembly President Assunção Esteves (PSD)

Legislature Assembly of the Republic

Formation Conventional date for independence is 1139

- Founding 868

- Re-founding 1095

De facto
- 24 June 1128
sovereignty

- Kingdom 25 July 1139

- Recognized 5 October 1143

- Papal Recognition 23 May 1179

- Republic 5 October 1910

- Democracy 25 April 1974

Area

92,212[2] km2 (111th)

- Total
35,603 sq mi

- Water (%) 0.5

Population

- 2012 estimate 10,581,949[3] (77th)

- 2011 census 10,561,614[4]

115/km2 (96th)
- Density
298/sq mi

GDP (PPP) 2011 estimate

- Total $248.981 billion[5] (49)

- Per capita $23,361[5] (41)

GDP (nominal) 2011 estimate

- Total $238.880 billion[5] (42)

 - Per capita $22,413[5] (35)

Gini (2009) 33.7[6]

HDI (2011) 0.809[7] (very high) (41st)

Currency Euro (€)2 (EUR)

Time zone WET (UTC+0)

- Summer (DST) WEST (UTC+1)

Note that the Azores are in a different timezone

Date formats dd-mm-yyyy, yyyy-mm-dd, yyyy/mm/dd

Drives on the right

ISO 3166 code PT

Internet TLD .pt

Calling code 351

Mirandese, spoken in some villages of the municipality of Miranda do Douro, was officially
recognized in 1999 (Lei n.° 7/99 de 29 de Janeiro), since then awarding an official right-of-use
1

Mirandese to the linguistic minority it is concerned.[8] The Portuguese Sign Language is also
recognized.

2
Before 1999: Portuguese escudo.

Portugal i/ˈpɔrtʃʉɡəl/ (Portuguese: Portugal, IPA: [puɾtuˈɣaɫ]), officially the

Portuguese Republic (Portuguese: República Portuguesa) is a country situated in
Southwestern Europe. Portugal is the westernmost country of mainland Europe, and is
bordered by the Atlantic Ocean to the West and South and by Spain to the North and
East. The Atlantic archipelagos of the Azores and Madeira are part of Portugal.

The country has a population of 10.6 million with almost half living in the two great
metropolitan urban areas, the Greater Metropolitan Area of Porto, in the North, and
the Greater Metropolitan Area of Lisbon, in the Center-South, constructed from the
two main cities. The country is named after its today second largest city, Porto, whose
Latin name was Portus Cale.[9]

The land within the borders of the current Portuguese Republic has been continuously
settled since prehistoric times: occupied by Celts like the Gallaeci and the
Lusitanians, integrated into the Roman Republic and later settled by Germanic
peoples such as the Suebi, Buri, Vandals and the Visigoths. In the 8th century most of
the Iberian Peninsula was conquered by Moorish invaders professing Islam, which
were later expelled by the Knights Templar under the Order of Christ. During the
Christian Reconquista, Portugal established itself as an independent kingdom from
León in 1139, claiming to be the oldest European nation state.[10]
In the 15th and 16th centuries, as the result of pioneering the Age of Discovery,
Portugal expanded western influence and established a global empire that included
possessions in Africa, Asia, Oceania, and South America, becoming the world's major
economic, political and military global power. The Portuguese Empire was the first
global empire in history,[11] and also the longest lived of the European colonial
empires, spanning almost 600 years, from the capture of Ceuta in 1415, to the grant of
sovereignty to East Timor in 2002. However, the country's international status was
greatly reduced during the 19th century, especially following the Independence of
Brazil, its largest colony in its history.

After the 5 October 1910 revolution deposed the monarchy, the democratic but
unstable Portuguese First Republic was established being then superseded by the
"Estado Novo" authoritarian regime. Democracy was restored after the Portuguese
Colonial War and the Carnation Revolution in 1974, after which Portugal's last
overseas provinces became independent (most prominently Angola and
Mozambique); the last overseas territory, Macau, was ceded to China in 1999.

Portugal is a developed country with a very high Human Development Index, the
world's 19th-highest quality-of-life as of 2005, and a strong healthcare system.
Portugal is one of the world's most globalized and peaceful nations:[12] a member of
the European Union and the United Nations, and a founding member of the Latin
Union, the Organization of Ibero-American States, OECD, NATO, Community of
Portuguese Language Countries, the Eurozone and the Schengen Agreement.

Contents
1 History
o 1.1 Early history
o 1.2 Reconquista
o 1.3 Exploration, colonization and trade
o 1.4 Iberian Union and Restoration
o 1.5 Pombaline era
o 1.6 Brazilian independence
o 1.7 Colonial Portuguese Africa
o 1.8 Republic
o 1.9 End of colonialism
o 1.10 Carnation Revolution
o 1.11 European integration
2 Geography
o 2.1 Climate
o 2.2 Biodiversity
3 Government
o 3.1 Executive branch
o 3.2 Legislative branch
o 3.3 Law and criminal justice
o 3.4 Administrative divisions
o 3.5 Foreign relations
o 3.6 Military
4 Economy
 o 4.1 Sectors
4.1.1 Primary sector
4.1.2 Secondary sector
4.1.3 Tertiary sector
o 4.2 State-owned companies
o 4.3 Listed companies
o 4.4 Performance
o 4.5 Labour market
o 4.6 Tourism
4.6.1 Tourist regions
o 4.7 Transport
o 4.8 Science and technology
o 4.9 Energy
5 Demographics
o 5.1 Urbanization
o 5.2 Metropolitan Areas
o 5.3 Immigration
o 5.4 Religion
o 5.5 Languages
o 5.6 Education
o 5.7 Health
6 Culture
o 6.1 Architecture
o 6.2 Cinema
o 6.3 Literature
o 6.4 Cuisine
o 6.5 Music
o 6.6 Painting
o 6.7 Sport
7 See also
8 References
9 External links

[edit] History
[edit] Early history

The Roman Temple of Diana, Évora.

Main articles: Lusitania, Visigothic Kingdom, Suebic Kingdom of Galicia, and
Umayyad conquest of Hispania

The early history of Portugal is shared with the rest of the Iberian Peninsula. The
name of Portugal derives from the Roman name Portus Cale. The region was settled
by Pre-Celts and Celts, giving origin to peoples like the Gallaeci, Lusitanians, Celtici
and Cynetes, visited by Phoenicians and Carthaginians, incorporated in the Roman
Republic dominions as Lusitania and part of Gallaecia (both part of Hispania), after
45 BC until 298 AD, settled again by Suebi, Buri, and Visigoths, and conquered by
Moors. Other minor influences include some 5th century vestiges of Alan settlement,
which were found in Alenquer, Coimbra and even Lisbon.[13]

[edit] Reconquista

Main articles: Kingdom of Galicia, County of Coimbra, Battle of São Mamede, and
Kingdom of Portugal

Guimarães Castle, the city is known as the cradle of Portugal.

During the Reconquista period, Christians reconquered the Iberian Peninsula from the
Muslim and Moorish domination. In 868, the First County of Portugal was formed. A
victory over the Muslims at Battle of Ourique in 1139 is traditionally taken as the
occasion when the County of Portugal as a fief of the Kingdom of León was
transformed into the independent Kingdom of Portugal.

Henry, to whom the newly formed county was awarded by Alfonso VI for his role in
reconquering land from the Moors, based his newly formed county in Bracara
Augusta (nowadays Braga), capital city of the ancient Roman province, and also
previous capital of several kingdoms over the first millennia.

On 24 June 1128, the Battle of São Mamede occurred near Guimarães. Afonso
Henriques, Count of Portugal, defeated his mother Countess Teresa and her lover
Fernão Peres de Trava, thereby establishing himself as sole leader. Afonso Henriques
officially declared Portugal's independence when he proclaimed himself king of
Portugal on 25 July 1139, after the Battle of Ourique. He was recognized as such in
1143 by King Alfonso VII of León and Castile, and in 1179 by Pope Alexander III.
The Batalha Monastery, built in 1385, is one of the best and original examples of Late
Gothic architecture in Portugal. It is also a World Heritage Site.

Afonso Henriques and his successors, aided by military monastic orders, pushed
southward to drive out the Moors, as the size of Portugal covered about half of its
present area. In 1249, this Reconquista ended with the capture of the Algarve on the
southern coast, giving Portugal its present-day borders, with minor exceptions.

In 1348 and 1349, like the rest of Europe, Portugal was devastated by the Black
Death.[14]

In 1373, Portugal made an alliance with England, which is the longest-standing

alliance in the world.

In 1383, the king of Castile, husband of the daughter of the Portuguese king who had
died without a male heir, claimed his throne. An ensuing popular revolt led to the
1383-1385 Crisis. A faction of petty noblemen and commoners, led by John of Aviz
(later John I), seconded by General Nuno Álvares Pereira defeated the Castilians in
the Battle of Aljubarrota. This celebrated battle is still a symbol of glory and the
struggle for independence from neighboring Spain.

[edit] Exploration, colonization and trade

Main article: History of Portugal (1415–1578)

Vasco da Gama lands at Calicut (Indian Subcontinent), on May 20th 1498.

In the following decades, Portugal spearheaded the exploration of the world and
undertook the Age of Discovery. Infante Dom Henry the Navigator, son of King João
I, became the main sponsor and patron of this endeavor.

In 1415, Portugal acquired the first of its overseas colonies by conquering Ceuta. It
was the first prosperous Islamic trade center in North Africa. There followed the first
discoveries in the Atlantic: Madeira and the Azores, which led to the first colonization
movements.

Throughout the 15th century, Portuguese explorers sailed the coast of Africa,
establishing trading posts for several common types of tradable commodities at the
time, ranging from gold to slaves, as they looked for a route to India and its spices,
which were coveted in Europe.

The Treaty of Tordesillas, intended to resolve the dispute that had been created
following the return of Christopher Columbus, was signed on 7 June 1494, and
divided the newly discovered lands outside Europe between Portugal and Spain along
a meridian 370 leagues west of the Cape Verde islands (off the west coast of Africa).

In 1498, Vasco da Gama finally reached India and brought economic prosperity to
Portugal and its population of 1.7 million residents.

In 1500, Pedro Álvares Cabral discovered Brazil and claimed it for Portugal.[15] Ten
years later, Afonso de Albuquerque conquered Goa in India, Ormuz in the Persian
Strait, and Malacca, now a state in Malaysia. Thus, the Portuguese empire held
dominion over commerce in the Indian Ocean and South Atlantic. The Portuguese
sailors set out to reach Eastern Asia by sailing eastward from Europe landing in such
places as Taiwan, Japan, the island of Timor, they were also the first Europeans to
discover Australia and even New Zealand.[16]
The Treaty of Zaragoza, signed on 22 April 1529 between Portugal and Spain,
specified the antimeridian to the line of demarcation specified in the Treaty of
Tordesillas. All these facts made Portugal the world's major economic, military, and
political power from the 15th century to the beginning of the 16th century.

[edit] Iberian Union and Restoration

Main articles: Portuguese succession crisis of 1580, Iberian Union, and Portuguese
Restoration War

Acclamation of John IV as King of Portugal. Painting by Veloso Salgado, in the

Military Museum, Lisbon.

An anachronistic map of the Portuguese Empire (1415–1999). Red – actual

possessions; Olive – explorations; Orange – areas of influence and trade; Pink –
claims of sovereignty; Green – trading posts; Blue – main sea explorations, routes and
areas of influence. The disputed Portuguese discovery of Australia is not shown.

Portugal's independence was interrupted between 1580 and 1640. This occurred
because the last two kings of the House of Aviz – King Sebastian, who died in the
battle of Alcácer Quibir in Morocco, and his great-uncle and successor, King Henry
of Portugal – both died without heirs, resulting in the extinction of that royal house.
Subsequently, Philip II of Spain claimed the throne and so became Philip I of
Portugal. Although Portugal did not lose its formal independence, it was governed by
the same monarch who governed the Spains,[17] briefly forming a union of kingdoms,
as a personal union. At this time Spain was a geographic territory[18] The joining of
the two crowns deprived Portugal of a separate foreign policy, and led to the
involvement in the Eighty Years' War being fought in Europe at the time between the
Spains and the Netherlands. War led to a deterioration of the relations with Portugal's
oldest ally, England, and the loss of Hormuz. From 1595 to 1663 the Dutch-
Portuguese War primarily involved the Dutch companies invading many Portuguese
colonies and commercial interests in Brazil, Africa, India and the Far East, resulting
in the loss of the Portuguese Indian Sea trade monopoly.
In 1640, John IV spearheaded an uprising backed by disgruntled nobles and was
proclaimed king. The Portuguese Restoration War between Portugal and the Spains
on the aftermath of the 1640 revolt, ended the sixty-year period of the Iberian Union
under the House of Habsburg. This was the beginning of the House of Braganza,
which reigned in Portugal until 1910.

Official estimates — and most estimates made so far — place the number of
Portuguese migrants to Colonial Brazil during the gold rush of the 18th century at
600,000.[19] Though not usually studied, this represented one of the largest movements
of European populations to their colonies to the Americas during the colonial times.
According to historian Leslie Bethell, "In 1700 Portugal had a population of about
two million people." During the 18th century, hundreds of thousands left for the
Portuguese Colony of Brazil, despite efforts by the crown to place severe restrictions
on emigration.[20]

[edit] Pombaline era

Main articles: History of Portugal (1640–1777), 1755 Lisbon earthquake, and

Sebastião de Melo, Marquis of Pombal

Sebastião José de Carvalho e Melo, 1st Marquess of Pombal

In 1738, Sebastião José de Carvalho e Melo, the talented son of a Lisbon squire,
began a diplomatic career as the Portuguese Ambassador in London and later in
Vienna. The Queen consort of Portugal, Archduchess Maria Anne Josefa of Austria,
was fond of Melo; and after his first wife died, she arranged the widowed de Melo's
second marriage to the daughter of the Austrian Field Marshal Leopold Josef, Count
von Daun. King John V of Portugal, however, was not pleased and recalled Melo to
Portugal in 1749. John V died the following year and his son, Joseph I of Portugal
was crowned. In contrast to his father, Joseph I was fond of de Melo, and with the
Queen Mother's approval, he appointed Melo as Minister of Foreign Affairs. As the
King's confidence in de Melo increased, the King entrusted him with more control of
the state. By 1755, Sebastião de Melo was made Prime Minister. Impressed by British
economic success he had witnessed while Ambassador, he successfully implemented
similar economic policies in Portugal. He abolished slavery in Portugal and in the
Portuguese colonies in India; reorganized the army and the navy; restructured the
University of Coimbra, and ended discrimination against different Christian sects in
Portugal.
But Sebastião de Melo's greatest reforms were economic and financial, with the
creation of several companies and guilds to regulate every commercial activity. He
demarcated the region for production of Port to ensure the wine's quality, and this was
the first attempt to control wine quality and production in Europe. He ruled with a
strong hand by imposing strict law upon all classes of Portuguese society from the
high nobility to the poorest working class, along with a widespread review of the
country's tax system. These reforms gained him enemies in the upper classes,
especially among the high nobility, who despised him as a social upstart.

1755 copper engraving showing Lisbon in flames and a tsunami overwhelming the
ships in the harbor after the 1755 Lisbon earthquake.

Disaster fell upon Portugal in the morning of 1 November 1755, when Lisbon was
struck by a violent earthquake with an estimated Richter scale magnitude of 9. The
city was razed to the ground by the earthquake and the subsequent tsunami and
ensuing fires.[21] Sebastião de Melo survived by a stroke of luck and then immediately
embarked on rebuilding the city, with his famous quote: "What now? We bury the
dead and take care of the living."

Despite the calamity and huge death toll, Lisbon suffered no epidemics and within
less than one year was already being rebuilt. The new downtown of Lisbon was
designed to resist subsequent earthquakes. Architectural models were built for tests,
and the effects of an earthquake were simulated by marching troops around the
models. The buildings and big squares of the Pombaline Downtown of Lisbon still
remain as one of Lisbon's tourist attractions: They represent the world's first quake-
proof buildings[citation needed]. Sebastião de Melo also made an important contribution to
the study of seismology by designing an inquiry that was sent to every parish in the
country.

Following the earthquake, Joseph I gave his Prime Minister even more power, and
Sebastião de Melo became a powerful, progressive dictator. As his power grew, his
enemies increased in number, and bitter disputes with the high nobility became
frequent. In 1758 Joseph I was wounded in an attempted assassination. The Távora
family and the Duke of Aveiro were implicated and executed after a quick trial. The
Jesuits were expelled from the country and their assets confiscated by the crown.
Sebastião de Melo showed no mercy and prosecuted every person involved, even
women and children. This was the final stroke that broke the power of the aristocracy
and ensured the victory of the Minister against his enemies. Based upon his swift
resolve, Joseph I made his loyal minister Count of Oeiras in 1759.
Maria I of Portugal as princess of Brazil.

In 1762 Spain invaded Portuguese territory as part of the Seven Years' War, however
by 1763 the status-quo between Spain and Portugal before the war had been restored.

Following the Távora affair, the new Count of Oeiras knew no opposition. Made
"Marquis of Pombal" in 1770, he effectively ruled Portugal until Joseph I's death in
1779. However, historians also argue that Pombal‘s "enlightenment," while far-
reaching, was primarily a mechanism for enhancing autocracy at the expense of
individual liberty and especially an apparatus for crushing opposition, suppressing
criticism, and furthering colonial economic exploitation as well as intensifying book
censorship and consolidating personal control and profit.[22]

The new ruler, Queen Maria I of Portugal, disliked the Marquis because of the power
he amassed, and never forgave him for the ruthlessness at which he dispatched the
Távora family, and upon her accession to the throne, she did what she had long vowed
to do: she withdrew all his political offices. Pombal died peacefully on his estate at
Pombal in 1782.

In the autumn of 1807, Napoleon moved French troops through Spain to invade
Portugal. From 1807 to 1811, British-Portuguese forces would successfully fight
against the French invasion of Portugal, while the royal family and the Portuguese
nobility, including Maria I, relocated to the Portuguese territory of Brazil, at that time
a colony of the Portuguese Empire, in South America. This episode is known as the
Transfer of the Portuguese Court to Brazil.

[edit] Brazilian independence

Main articles: Colonial Brazil, Peninsular War, Transfer of the Portuguese Court to
Brazil, and Independence of Brazil

With the occupation by Napoleon, Portugal began a slow but inexorable decline that
lasted until the 20th century. This decline was hastened by the independence in 1822
of the country's largest colonial possession, Brazil. In 1807, as Napoleon's army
closed in on Portugal's capital city of Lisbon, the Prince Regent João VI of Portugal
transferred his court to Brazil and established Rio de Janeiro as the capital of the
Portuguese Empire. In 1815, the Portuguese Empire changed its name to the United
Kingdom of Portugal, Brazil and the Algarves.

Due to the change in its status and the arrival of the Portuguese royal family, Brazilian
administrative, civic, economical, military, educational, and scientific apparatus were
expanded and highly modernized. Portuguese and their allied British troops fought
against the French Invasion of Portugal and by 1815 the situation in Europe had
cooled down sufficiently that João VI would be able to safely return to Lisbon.
However, the King of Portugal remained in Brazil until the Liberal Revolution of
1820, which started in Porto, demanded his return to Lisbon in 1821.

Thus he returned to Portugal but left his son Pedro in charge of Brazil. When the king
attempted the following year to return the Kingdom of Brazil to subordinate status as
a principality, his son Pedro, with the overwhelming support of the Brazilian elites,
declared Brazil's independence from Portugal. Cisplatina (today's sovereign state of
Uruguay), in the south, was one of the last additions to the territory of Brazil under
Portuguese rule.

[edit] Colonial Portuguese Africa

Main articles: Portuguese Angola, Cape Verde, Portuguese Guinea, Portuguese

Mozambique, Ouidah, and São Tomé and Príncipe

The Pink Map project: Portugal's claim of sovereingty over the lands between
Portuguese Angola and Portuguese Mozambique.

At the height of European colonialism in the 19th century, Portugal had already lost
its territory in South America and all but a few bases in Asia. Luanda, Benguela,
Bissau, Lourenço Marques, Porto Amboim and the Island of Mozambique were
among the oldest Portuguese-founded port cities in its African territories. During this
phase, Portuguese colonialism focused on expanding its outposts in Africa into
nation-sized territories to compete with other European powers there.

With the Conference of Berlin of 1884, Portuguese Africa territories had their borders
formally established on request of Portugal in order to protect the centuries-long
Portuguese interests in the continent from rivalries enticed by the Scramble for Africa.
Portuguese Africa's cities and towns like Nova Lisboa, Sá da Bandeira, Silva Porto,
Malanje, Tete, Vila Junqueiro, Vila Pery and Vila Cabral were founded or
redeveloped inland during this period and beyond. New coastal towns like Beira,
Moçâmedes, Lobito, João Belo, Nacala and Porto Amélia, were also founded. Even
before the turn of the 20th century, railway tracks as the Benguela railway in Angola,
and the Beira railway in Mozambique, started to be built to link coastal areas and
selected inland regions.
Other episodes during this period of the Portuguese presence in Africa include the
1890 British Ultimatum. This forced the Portuguese military to retreat from the land
between the Portuguese colonies of Mozambique and Angola (most of present-day
Zimbabwe and Zambia), which had been claimed by Portugal and included in its
"Pink Map," which clashed with British aspirations to create a Cape to Cairo Railway.
The Portuguese territories in Africa were Cape Verde, São Tomé and Príncipe,
Portuguese Guinea, Angola, and Mozambique. The tiny fortress of São João Baptista
de Ajudá on the coast of Dahomey, was also under Portuguese rule. In addition, the
country still ruled the Asian territories of Portuguese India, Portuguese Timor and
Macau.

[edit] Republic

Main articles: Lisbon Regicide, 5 October 1910 revolution, Portuguese First

Republic, and Estado Novo (Portugal)

Manuel II, the last King of Portugal and the Algarves

On 1 February 1908, the king Dom Carlos I of Portugal and his heir apparent, Prince
Royal Dom Luís Filipe, Duke of Braganza, were murdered in Lisbon. Under his rule,
Portugal was twice declared bankrupt – on 14 June 1892, and again on 10 May 1902 –
causing social turmoil, economic disturbances, protests, revolts and criticism of the
monarchy. Manuel II of Portugal become the new king, but was eventually
overthrown by the 5 October 1910 revolution, which abolished the regime and
instated republicanism in Portugal. Political instability and economic weaknesses
were fertile ground for chaos and unrest during the Portuguese First Republic, which
aggravated by the Portuguese military intervention in World War I, led to a military
coup d'état in 1926 and the creation of the National Dictatorship (Ditadura Nacional).

This in turn led to the establishment of the right-wing dictatorship of the Estado Novo
under António de Oliveira Salazar in 1933. Portugal was one of only five European
countries to remain neutral in World War II. From the 1940s to the 1960s, Portugal
was a founding member of NATO, OECD and the European Free Trade Association
(EFTA). Gradually, new economic development projects and relocation of white
mainland Portuguese citizens into the overseas colonies in Africa were initiated, with
Angola and Mozambique, as the largest and richest overseas territories, being the
main targets of those initiatives.

[edit] End of colonialism

Main articles: Portuguese Colonial War and Movimento das Forças Armadas

Map of the Portuguese Overseas provinces in Africa by the time of the Portuguese
Colonial War (1961–1974).

After India attained independence in 1947, pro-Indian residents of Dadra and Nagar
Haveli, with the support of the Indian government and the help of pro-independence
organisations, liberated the territories of Dadra and Nagar Haveli from Portuguese
rule in 1954.[23] In 1961, São João Baptista de Ajudá's annexation by the Republic of
Dahomey was the start of a process that led to the final dissolution of the centuries-
old Portuguese Empire. According to the census of 1921 São João Baptista de Ajudá
had 5 inhabitants and, at the moment of the ultimatum by the Dahomey Government,
it had only 2 inhabitants representing Portuguese Sovereignty. Another forcible retreat
from overseas territories occurred in December 1961 when Portugal refused to
relinquish the territories of Goa, Daman and Diu. As a result, the Portuguese army
and navy were involved in armed conflict in its colony of Portuguese India against the
Indian Armed Forces. The operations resulted in the defeat of the limited Portuguese
defensive garrison, which was forced to surrender to a much larger military force. The
outcome was the loss of the remaining Portuguese territories in the Indian
subcontinent. The Portuguese regime refused to recognize Indian sovereignty over the
annexed territories, which continued to be represented in Portugal's National
Assembly until the military coup of 1974.

Also in the early 1960s, independence movements in the Portuguese overseas

provinces of Angola, Mozambique and Guinea in Africa, resulted in the Portuguese
Colonial War (1961–1974), that would only end in 1974 after a military coup in
Lisbon — the Carnation Revolution.

[edit] Carnation Revolution

Main article: Carnation Revolution

António Oliveira Salazar Prime Minister (1932–1968) and founder of the Estado
Novo regime.

Throughout the colonial war period Portugal had to deal with increasing dissent, arms
embargoes and other punitive sanctions imposed by most of the international
community. However, the authoritarian and conservative Estado Novo regime, firstly
installed and governed by António de Oliveira Salazar and from 1968 onwards led by
Marcelo Caetano, tried to preserve a vast centuries-long intercontinental empire with
a total area of 2,168,071 km2.[24] The Portuguese government and army successfully
resisted the decolonization of its overseas territories until April 1974, when a
bloodless left-wing military coup in Lisbon, known as the Carnation Revolution, led
the way for the independence of the overseas territories in Africa and Asia, as well as
for the restoration of democracy after two years of a transitional period known as
PREC (Processo Revolucionário Em Curso, or On-Going Revolutionary Process).
This period was characterized by social turmoil and power disputes between left- and
right-wing political forces. Some factions, including Álvaro Cunhal's Portuguese
Communist Party (PCP), unsuccessfully tried to turn the country into a communist
state. The retreat from the overseas territories and the acceptance of its independence
terms by Portuguese head representatives for overseas negotiations, which would
create independent states in 1975 (most notably the People's Republic of Angola and
the People's Republic of Mozambique), prompted a mass exodus of Portuguese
citizens from Portugal's African territories (mostly from Portuguese Angola and
Mozambique).[25][26]
Mário Soares, Prime Minister of Portugal from 1976 to 1978 and from 1983 to 1985
and President of the Portuguese Republic from 1986 to 1996.

Over a million destitute Portuguese refugees fled the former Portuguese colonies.
Mário Soares and António de Almeida Santos were charged with organising the
independence of Portugal's overseas territories. By 1975, all the Portuguese African
territories were independent and Portugal held its first democratic elections in 50
years. However, the country continued to be governed by a military-civilian
provisional administration until the Portuguese legislative election of 1976 that took
place on 25 April, exactly one year after the previous election, and two years after the
Carnation Revolution. It was won by the Portuguese Socialist Party (PS) and Mário
Soares, its leader, became Prime Minister of the 1st Constitutional Government on 23
July. Mário Soares would be Prime Minister from 1976 to 1978 and again from 1983
to 1985. In this capacity Soares tried to resume the economic growth and development
record that had been achieved before the Carnation Revolution, during the last decade
of the previous regime. On the other hand, he initiated the process of adhesion to the
European Economic Community (EEC) by starting adhesion negotiations as early as
1977. However, the country bounced between socialism and adherence to the
neoliberal model. Land reform and nationalizations were enforced; the Portuguese
Constitution (approved in 1976) was rewritten in order to accommodate socialist and
communist principles. Until the constitutional revisions of 1982 and 1989, the
constitution was a highly charged ideological document with numerous references to
socialism, the rights of workers, and the desirability of a socialist economy. Portugal's
economic situation after its transition to democracy, obliged the government to pursue
International Monetary Fund (IMF)-monitored stabilization programs in 1977–78 and
1983–85.

[edit] European integration

Main articles: Portuguese transition to democracy, European Union, Eurozone, and

Schengen Area
The Treaty of Lisbon was signed by the European Union member states on 13
December 2007 in the Jerónimos Monastery, Lisbon.

In 1986, Portugal joined the European Economic Community (EEC) that later became
the European Union (EU). In the following years Portugal's economy progressed
considerably as result of EEC/EU structural and cohesion funds and Portuguese
companies' easier access to foreign markets. Portugal's last overseas territory, Macau,
was not handed over to the People's Republic of China (PRC) until 1999, under the
1987 joint declaration that set the terms for Macau's handover from Portugal to the
PRC. In 2002, the independence of East Timor (Asia) was formally recognized by
Portugal, after an incomplete decolonization process that was started in 1975 because
of the Carnation Revolution.

On 26 March 1995, Portugal started to implement Schengen Area rules, eliminating

border controls with other Schengen members while simultaneously strengthening
border controls with non-member states. In 1996 the country was a co-founder of the
Community of Portuguese Language Countries (CPLP) headquartered in Lisbon.
Expo '98 took place in Portugal and in 1999 it was one of the founding countries of
the euro and the Eurozone.

On 5 July 2004, José Manuel Barroso, then Prime Minister of Portugal, was
nominated President of the European Commission, the most powerful office in the
European Union. On 1 December 2009, the Treaty of Lisbon entered into force, after
had been signed by the European Union member states on 13 December 2007 in the
Jerónimos Monastery, in Lisbon, enhancing the efficiency and democratic legitimacy
of the Union and improving the coherence of its action.

Economic disruption in the wake of the late-2000s financial crisis led the country to
negotiate in 2011 with the IMF and the European Union, through the European
Financial Stability Mechanism (EFSM) and the European Financial Stability Facility
(EFSF), a loan to help the country stabilise its finances.

[edit] Geography
Mount Pico, the highest peak in Portugal, on the volcanic island of Pico in the Azores.

The blue-green lakes of the Lagoa das Sete Cidades within the Sete Cidades Massif
on the island of São Miguel, Azores.

The territory of Portugal includes an area in the Iberian Peninsula (referred to as the
continent by most Portuguese) and two archipelagos in the Atlantic Ocean: the
archipelagos of Madeira and the Azores. It lies between latitudes 32° and 43° N, and
longitudes 32° and 6° W.

Mainland Portugal is split by its main river, the Tagus that flows from Spain and
disgorges in Tagus Estuary, near Lisbon, before escaping into the Atlantic. The
northern landscape is mountainous towards the interior with several plateaus indented
by river valleys, whereas the south, that includes the Algarve and the Alentejo
regions, is characterized by rolling plains.

Portugal's highest peak is the similarly named Mount Pico on the island of Pico in the
Azores. This ancient volcano, which measures 2,351 m (7,713 ft) is a highly iconic
symbol of the Azores, while the Serra da Estrela on the mainland (the summit being
1,991 m (6,532 ft) above sea level) is an important seasonal attraction for skiers and
winter sports enthusiasts.

The archipelagos of Madeira and the Azores are scattered within the Atlantic Ocean:
the Azores straddling the Mid-Atlantic Ridge on a tectonic triple junction, and
Madeira along a range formed by in-plate hotspot geology (much like the Hawaiian
Islands). Geologically, these islands were formed by volcanic and seismic events,
although the last terrestrial volcanic eruption occurred in 1957–58 (Capelinhos) and
minor earthquakes occur sporadically, usually of low intensity.

Portugal's Exclusive Economic Zone, a sea zone over which the Portuguese have
special rights over the exploration and use of marine resources, has 1,727,408 km2.
This is the 3rd largest Exclusive Economic Zone of the European Union and the 11th
largest in the world.

[edit] Climate
Cork oak tree in a wheat field, an iconic image of the Alentejo.

Praia Dona Ana in Lagos, a coastal beach typical of the Algarve.

A view of Serra da Estrela, the highest range on the mainland.

The terraced hills of the wine-making region of the Douro Valley.

Portugal is defined as a Mediterranean climate (Csa in the south, interior, and Douro
region; Csb in the north, centre and coastal Alentejo; and also Semi-arid climate or
Steppe climate (Bsk in certain parts of Beja district) according to the Koppen-Geiger
Climate Classification), and is one of the warmest European countries: the annual
average temperature in mainland Portugal varies from 12 °C (53.6 °F) in the
mountainous interior north to over 18 °C (64.4 °F) in the south and on the Guadiana
river basin. The Algarve, separated from the Alentejo region by mountains reaching
up to 900 metres in Pico da Foia, has a climate similar to that of the southern coastal
areas of Spain or Southern California.

Annual average rainfall in the mainland varies from just over 3,000 mm (118.1 in) in
the northern mountains to less than 300 mm (11.8 in) in the area of the Massueime
River, near Côa, along the Douro river. Mount Pico is recognized as receiving the
largest annual rainfall (over 6,250 mm (246.1 in) per year) in Portugal, according to
Instituto de Meteorologia (English: Portuguese Meteorological Institute).[27]

In some areas, such as the Guadiana basin, annual average temperatures can be as
high as 20 °C (68 °F), but summer highest temperatures may be over 45 °C (113 °F)
.[28] The record high of 47.4 °C (117.3 °F) was recorded in Amareleja, although this
might not be the hottest spot in summer, according to satellite readings.[29]

Snowfalls occur regularly in the interior North and Center of the country in particular
in the districts of Vila Real, Bragança, Viseu and Guarda. In winter temperatures may
drop below −10 °C (14.0 °F) in particular in Serra da Estrela, Serra do Gerês and
Serra de Montesinho. In these places snow can fall any time from October to May. In
the south of the country snowfalls are rare but still occur in the highest elevations.

The country has around 2500 to 3200 hours of sunshine a year, an average of 4–6 h in
winter and 10–12 h in the summer, with higher values in the southeast and lower in
the northwest.

The sea surface temperature on the west coast of mainland Portugal varies from 13 °C
(55.4 °F)-15 °C (59.0 °F) in winter to 18 °C (64.4 °F)-20 °C (68.0 °F) in the summer
while on the south coast it ranges from 15 °C (59.0 °F) in Winter and rises in the
summer to about 23 °C (73.4 °F) occasionally reaching 26 °C (78.8 °F).

Both the archipelagos of the Azores and Madeira have a subtropical climate, although
variations between islands exist, making weather predictions very difficult (owing to
rough topography). The Madeira and Azorean archipelagos have a narrower
temperature range, with annual average temperatures exceeding 20 °C (68 °F) along
the coast (according to the Portuguese Meteorological Institute). Some islands in
Azores do have drier months in the summer. Consequently, the island of the Azores
have been identified as having a Mediterranean climate (both Csa and Csb types),
while some islands (such as Flores or Corvo) are classified as Maritime Temperate
(Cfb) or Humid subtropical (Cfa), respectively, according to Koppen-Geiger
classification. Porto Santo island in Madeira has a semi-arid Steppe climate (BSh).
The Savage Islands, which are part of the regional territory of Madeira are unique in
being classified as a Desert climates (BWh) with an annual average rainfall of
approximately 150 mm (5.9 in). The sea surface temperature in the archipelagos
varies from 17 °C (62.6 °F)-18 °C (64.4 °F) in winter to 24 °C (75.2 °F)-25 °C (77.0
°F) in the summer occasionally reaching 26 °C (78.8 °F).

[edit] Biodiversity

Owing to humans occupying the territory of Portugal for thousands of years, little is
left of the original vegetation. Protected areas of Portugal include one national park
(Portuguese: Parque Nacional), 12 natural parks (Portuguese: Parque Natural), nine
natural reserves (Portuguese: Reserva Natural), five natural monuments (Portuguese:
Monumento Natural), and seven protected landscapes (Portuguese: Paisagem
Protegida), which include the Parque Nacional da Peneda-Gerês, the Parque Natural
da Serra da Estrela and the Paul de Arzila. These natural environments are shaped by
diverse flora, and include widespread species of pine (especially the Pinus pinaster
and Pinus pinea species), the chestnut (Castanea sativa), the cork-oak (Quercus
suber), the holm oak (Quercus ilex), the Portuguese oak (Quercus faginea), and
eucalyptus (Eucalyptus globulus). All are prized for their economic value. Laurisilva
is a unique type of subtropical rainforest found in few areas of Europe and the world:
in the Azores, and in particular on the island of Madeira, there are large forests of
endemic Laurisilva forests (the latter protected as a natural heritage preserve).

There are several species of diverse mammalian fauna, including the fox, badger,
Iberian lynx, Iberian Wolf, wild goat (Capra pyrenaica), wild cat (Felis silvestris),
hare, weasel, polecat, chameleon, mongoose, civet, brown bear[citation needed] (spotted
near Rio Minho, close to Peneda-Gerês) and many others. Portugal is an important
stopover for migratory birds, in places such as Cape St. Vincent or the Monchique
mountain, where thousands of birds cross from Europe to Africa during the autumn or
in the spring (return migration). Most of the avian species congregate along the
Iberian Peninsula since it is the closest stopover between northern Europe and Africa.
Six hundred bird species occur in Portugal (either for nesting or during the course of
migration), and annually there are new registries of nesting species. The archipelagos
of the Azores and Madeira are transient stopover for American, European, and
African birds, while continental Portugal mostly encounters European and African
bird species.

There are over 100 varieties of freshwater fish species, varying from the giant
European catfish (in the Tagus International Natural Park) to some small and endemic
species that live only in small lakes (along the western lakes for example). Some of
these rare and specific species are highly endangered because of habitat loss, pollution
and drought. Upwelling along the west coast of Portugal makes the sea extremely rich
in nutrients and diverse species of marine fish; the Portuguese marine waters are one
of the richest in the world. Marine fish species are more common, and include
thousands of species, such as the sardine (Sardina pilchardus), tuna and Atlantic
mackerel. Bioluminescent species are also well represented (including species in
different colour spectrum and forms), like the glowing plankton that are possible to
observe in some beaches.

There are many endemic insect species, most only found in certain parts of Portugal,
while other species are more widespread like the stag beetle (Lucanus cervus) and the
cicada. The Macronesian islands (Azores and Madeira) have many endemic species
(like birds, reptiles, bats, insects, snails and slugs) that evolved independent from
other regions of Portugal. In Madeira, for example, it is possible to observe more than
250 species of land gastropods.

[edit] Government
Main articles: Government of Portugal and Politics of Portugal
Aníbal Cavaco Silva is the current President of Portugal.

Pedro Passos Coelho is the current Prime Minister.

Portugal has been a democratic republic since the ratification of the Constitution of
1976, with Lisbon, the nation's largest city, as its capital. The constitution grants the
division, or separation, of powers among legislative, executive, and judicial branches.
The four main institutions as described in this constitution are the President of the
Republic, the Parliament, known as the Assembleia da República (English: Assembly
of the Republic), the Government, headed by a Prime Minister, and the courts.

The President, who is elected to a five-year term, has a supervisory non-executive

role: the current President is Aníbal Cavaco Silva. The Parliament is a chamber
composed of 230 deputies elected for a four-year term. The government, whose head
is the Prime Minister (currently Pedro Passos Coelho), chooses a Council of
Ministers, that comprises the Ministers and State Secretaries. The courts are organized
into several levels: judicial, administrative, and fiscal branches. The Supreme Courts
are institutions of last resort/appeal. A thirteen-member Constitutional Court oversees
the constitutionality of the laws.
Portugal operates a multi-party system of competitive legislatures/local administrative
governments at the national-, regional- and local-levels. The Legislative Assembly,
Regional Assemblies and local municipalities and/or parishes, are dominated by two
political parties, the Socialist Party and the Social Democratic Party, in addition to the
Unitarian Democratic Coalition (Portuguese Communist Party plus Ecologist Party
"The Greens"), the Left Bloc and the Democratic and Social Centre – People's Party,
which garner between 5 and 15% of the vote regularly.

[edit] Executive branch

The President, elected to a five-year term by direct, universal suffrage, is also

Commander-in-Chief of the Armed Forces. Presidential powers include the
appointment of the Prime Minister and Council of Ministers (where the President is
obligated by the results from Legislative Elections); dismissing the Prime Minister;
dissolving the Assembly (to call early elections); vetoing legislation (which may be
overridden by the Assembly); and declaring a State of War or siege.

The President is advised on issues of importance by the Council of State, which is

composed of six senior civilian officers, any former Presidents elected under the 1976
Constitution, five-members chosen by the Assembly, and five selected by the
president.

The Government is headed by the presidentially-appointed Prime Minister, who

names a Council of Ministers to act as the government and cabinet. Each government
is required to define the broad outline of its policies in a program, and present it to the
Assembly for a mandatory period of debate. The failure of the Assembly to reject the
program by a majority of deputies confirms the government in office.

[edit] Legislative branch

The Assembly of the Republic is a unicameral body composed of up to 230 deputies.

Elected by universal suffrage according to a system of proportional representation,
deputies serve four-year terms of office, unless the President dissolves the Assembly
and calls for new elections.

[edit] Law and criminal justice

Main articles: Law of Portugal, Law enforcement in Portugal, Crime in Portugal, and
Drug policy of Portugal

The Portuguese legal system is part of the civil law legal system, also called the
continental family legal system. Until the end of the 19th century, French law was the
main influence. Since then, the major influence has been German law. The main laws
include the Constitution (1976, as amended), the Civil Code (1966, as amended) and
the Penal Code (1982, as amended). Other relevant laws are the Commercial Code
(1888, as amended) and the Civil Procedure Code (1961, as amended).

Portuguese law applied in the former colonies and territories and continues to be the
major influence for those countries. Portugal's main police organizations are the
Guarda Nacional Republicana – GNR (National Republican Guard), a gendarmerie;
the Polícia de Segurança Pública – PSP (Public Security Police), a civilian police
force who work in urban areas; and the Polícia Judiciária – PJ (Judicial Police), a
highly specialized criminal investigation police that is overseen by the Public
Ministry.

Portugal was one of the first countries in the world to abolish the death penalty.
Maximum jail sentences are limited to 25 years.

Portugal has arguably the most liberal laws concerning possession of illicit drugs in
the Western world. In 2001 Portugal decriminalized possession of effectively all
drugs that are still illegal in other developed nations including, but not limited to,
marijuana, cocaine, heroin, and LSD. While possession is legal, trafficking and
possession of more than "10 days worth of personal use" are still punishable by jail
time and fines. People caught with small amounts of any drug are given the choice to
go to a rehab facility, and may refuse treatment without consequences. Despite
criticism from other European nations, who stated Portugal's drug consumption would
tremendously increase, overall drug use rose only slightly, whilst use among
teenagers dropped, along with the number of HIV infection cases, which had dropped
50% by 2009.[30][31]

On 31 May 2010, Portugal became the sixth country in Europe and the eighth country
in the world to legally recognize same-sex marriage on the national level. The law
came into force on 5 June 2010.[32]

[edit] Administrative divisions

Main article: Administrative divisions of Portugal

Administratively, Portugal is divided into 308 municipalities (Portuguese: municípios

or concelhos), which are subdivided into 4260 civil parishes (Portuguese: freguesia).
Operationally, the municipality and civil parish, along with the national government,
are the only legally identifiable local administrative units identified by the
government of Portugal (for example, cities, towns or villages have no standing in
law, although may be used as catchment for the defining services). For statistical
purposes the Portuguese government also identifies NUTS, inter-municipal
communities and informally, the district system, used until European integration (and
being phased-out by the national government). Continental Portugal is agglomerated
into 18 districts, while the archipelagos of the Azores and Madeira are governed as
autonomous regions; the largest units, established since 1976, are either mainland
Portugal (Portuguese: Portugal Continental) and the autonomous regions of Portugal
(Azores and Madeira).

The 18 districts of mainland Portugal are: Aveiro, Beja, Braga, Bragança, Castelo
Branco, Coimbra, Évora, Faro, Guarda, Leiria, Lisbon, Portalegre, Porto, Santarém,
Setúbal, Viana do Castelo, Vila Real and Viseu – each district takes the name of the
district capital.

Within the European Union NUTS (Nomenclature of Territorial Units for Statistics)
system, Portugal is divided into seven regions: the Azores, Alentejo, Algarve, Centro,
Lisboa, Madeira and Norte, and with the exception of the Azores and Madeira, these
NUTS areas are subdivided into 28 subregions.

Districts[33]
District Area Population District Area Population
5,518
2,761 km2
km2
1 Lisbon (1,066 sq 2,250,382 10 Guarda 160,925
(2,131 sq
mi)
mi)
3,947
3,517 km2
km2
2 Leiria (1,358 sq 470,895 11 Coimbra 429,987
(1,524 sq
mi)
mi)
2,808
6,747 km2
km2
3 Santarém (2,605 sq 453,633 12 Aveiro 714,218
(1,084 sq
mi)
mi)
5,007
5,064 km2
km2
4 Setúbal (1,955 sq 851,232 13 Viseu 377,629
(1,933 sq
mi)
mi)
10,225 6,608
km2 km2
5 Beja 152,728 14 Bragança 136,252
(3,948 sq (2,551 sq
mi) mi)
4,328
4,960 km2
km2
6 Faro (1,915 sq 451,005 15 Vila Real 206,661
(1,671 sq
mi)
mi)
7,393 km2 2,395
7 Évora (2,854 sq 166,706 16 Porto km2 (925 1,817,119
mi) sq mi)
2,673
6,065 km2
km2
8 Portalegre (2,342 sq 118,448 17 Braga 848,165
(1,032 sq
mi)
mi)
6,675 km2 2,255
Castelo Viana do
9 (2,577 sq 196,262 18 km2 (871 244,826
Branco Castelo
mi) sq mi)
Autonomous Regions
Autonomous Region Area Population Demonym
2
2,333 km (901 sq
Azores 246,746 Azorean
mi)
Madeira 801 km2 (309 sq mi) 267,785 Madeiran

[edit] Foreign relations

Main article: Foreign relations of Portugal

The disputed territory of Olivença

A member state of the United Nations since 1955, Portugal is also a founding member
of NATO (1949), OECD (1961) and EFTA (1960); it left the latter in 1986 to join the
European Economic Community, that would become the European Union in 1993. In
1996 it co-founded the Community of Portuguese Language Countries (CPLP), which
seeks to foster closer economic and cultural ties between the world's Lusophone
nations.

In addition, Portugal is a full member of the Latin Union (1983) and the Organization
of Ibero-American States (1949). It has a friendship alliance and dual citizenship
treaty with its former colony, Brazil. Portugal and England (subsequently, the United
Kingdom of Great Britain and Northern Ireland) share the world's oldest active
military accord through their Anglo-Portuguese Alliance (Treaty of Windsor), which
was signed in 1373.

There are two international territorial disputes, both with Spain:

Olivenza. Under Portuguese sovereignty since 1297, the municipality of Olivenza was
ceded to Spain under the Treaty of Badajoz in 1801, after the War of the Oranges.
Portugal claimed it back in 1815 under the Treaty of Vienna. However, since the 19th
century, it has been continuously and peacefully ruled by Spain which considers the
territory not only de facto but also de jure as an integral part of Spain.

The Savage Islands are a small uninhabited archipelago in the Atlantic Ocean, more
or less midway between Madeira and Canary Islands The archipelago consists of two
small rocky and inhospitable islands and some isolated rocks. The archipelago's total
area is 273 hectares. The archipelago is under Portuguese domination, but it is
geographically closer to the Canary Islands (165 km) than in Madeira (280 km). Over
time there have been several periods of political and military tension between
Portugal and Spain because of the islands. Found in 1364 by Italian navigators, the
islands had belonged to private Portuguese owners until 1971, when the Portuguese
government bought the islands and created a nature reserve covering its entire
territory. However, the islands are claimed by Spain since 1911. Since 1971 until
1976, three Spanish vessels were seized by Portugal. From 1996 until 1997, there
have been several low altitude flybys by Spanish fighters and an landing on Selvagem
Grande Island by a Spanish Air Force helicopter. On June 23, 2005, four Spanish
fishing boats were captured near the islands. On 2007, a Spanish fighter flew again at
low altitude over the islands.

[edit] Military

Main article: Portuguese Armed Forces

Branches of the Portuguese Armed Forces

Portuguese Air Force

F-16 Fighting Falcon
Portuguese Army Portuguese Navy
Chaimite V-200 MEKO-200 PN

The armed forces have three branches: Navy, Army and Air Force. They serve
primarily as a self-defense force whose mission is to protect the territorial integrity of
the country and provide humanitarian assistance and security at home and abroad. As
of 2008, the three branches numbered 39,200 active personnel including 7,500
women. Portuguese military expenditure in 2009 was $5.2 billion, representing 2.1
percent of GDP. Military conscription was abolished in 2004. The minimum age for
voluntary recruitment is 18 years.

The Army (21,000 personnel) comprises three brigades and other small units. An
infantry brigade (mainly equipped with Pandur II APC), a mechanized brigade
(mainly equipped with Leopard 2 A6 tanks and M113 APC) and a Rapid Reaction
Brigade (consisting of paratroopers, commandos and rangers). The Navy (10,700
personnel, of which 1,580 are marines) has five frigates, two submarines, and 28
patrol and auxiliary vessels. The Air Force (7,500 personnel) has the Lockheed F-16
Fighting Falcon and the Dassault/Dornier Alpha Jet as the main combat aircraft.

In addition to the three branches of the armed forces, there is the National Republican
Guard, a security force subject to military law and organization (gendarmerie)
comprising 25,000 personnel. This force is under the authority of both the Defense
and the Interior Ministry. It has provided detachments for participation in
international operations in Iraq and East Timor.

The United States maintains a military presence with 770 troops in the Lajes Air Base
at Terceira Island, in the Azores. The Allied Joint Force Command Lisbon (JFC
Lisbon) – one of the three main subdivisions of NATO's Allied Command Operations
– it is based in Oeiras, near Lisbon.

In the 20th century, Portugal engaged in two major military interventions: World War
I and the Portuguese Colonial War (1961–1974). After the end of the Portuguese
Empire in 1975, the Portuguese Armed Forces have participated in peacekeeping
missions in East Timor, Bosnia, Kosovo, Afghanistan, Somalia, Iraq (Nasiriyah) and
Lebanon. Portugal also conducted several independent unilateral military operations
abroad, as were the cases of the interventions of the Portuguese Armed Forces in
Angola in 1992 and in Guinea-Bissau in 1998 with the main objectives of protecting
and withdrawing of Portuguese and foreign citizens threatened by local civil conflicts.

[edit] Economy
Main articles: Economy of Portugal and Economic history of Portugal

Since the Carnation Revolution (1974) which culminated with the end of one of its
most notable phases of economic expansion (that started in the 1960s),[34] there has
been a significant change in annual economic growth. After the turmoil of the 1974
revolution and the PREC period, Portugal has been trying to adapt itself to a changing
modern global economy. Since the 1990s, Portugal's economic development model
has been slowly changing from one based on public consumption to one focused on
exports, private investment, and development of the high-tech sector. Business
services have overtaken more traditional industries such as textiles, clothing,
footwear, cork (of which Portugal is the world's leading producer),[35] wood products
and beverages.[36]

Most industry, business and finance are concentrated in Lisbon and Porto
metropolitan areas. The districts of Aveiro, Braga, Coimbra, and Leiria are the biggest
economic centres outside those two main metropolitan areas.

The Portuguese currency is the euro (€) and the country's economy is in the Eurozone
since its starting. Portugal's central bank is the Banco de Portugal, which is an
integral part of the European System of Central Banks.

[edit] Sectors

[edit] Primary sector

Main articles: Agriculture in Portugal, Fishing in Portugal, and Mining in Portugal

Most of Portugal's farms have a small area devoted to a diversified intensive farming,
like these in the Oeste subregion.

Agriculture in Portugal is based on small to medium-sized family-owned dispersed

units. However, the sector also includes larger scale intensive farming export-oriented
agrobusinesses backed by companies (like Grupo RAR's Vitacress, Sovena, Lactogal,
Vale da Rosa, Companhia das Lezírias and Valouro). The country produces a wide
variety of crops and livestock products, including green vegetables, rice, corn, barley,
olives, oilseeds, nuts, cherries, bilberry, table grapes, edible mushrooms, dairy
products, poultry and beef. Forestry has also played an important economic role
among the rural communities and industry (namely paper industry that includes
Portucel Soporcel Group, engineered wood that includes Sonae Indústria, and
furniture that includes several manufacturing plants in and around Paços de Ferreira,
the core of Portugal's major industrial operations of IKEA). In 2001, the gross
agricultural product accounted for 4% of the national GDP.

Traditionally a sea-power, Portugal has had a strong tradition in the Portuguese

fishing sector and is one of the countries with the highest fish consumption per
capita.[37] The main landing sites in Portugal (including Azores and Madeira),
according to total landings in weight by year, are the harbours of Matosinhos,
Peniche, Olhão, Sesimbra, Figueira da Foz, Sines, Portimão and Madeira. Portuguese
processed fish products are exported through several companies under a number of
different brands and registered trademarks like Ramirez, the World‘s oldest canned
fish producer still in operation, Bom Petisco, Nero, Combate, Comur, General, Líder,
Manná, Murtosa, Pescador, Pitéu, Tenório, Torreira, Vasco da Gama, etc.

Portugal is a significant European minerals producer and is ranked among Europe's

leading copper producers. It is also a noted producer of tin, tungsten and uranium.
However, the country lacks hydrocarbon exploration potential, as well as iron,
aluminium and coal deposits, a feature that has hindered its mining and metallurgy
sector's development. The Panasqueira and Neves-Corvo mines are among the most
noted Portuguese mines in operation.

[edit] Secondary sector

Industry is diversified, ranging from automobile (Volkswagen Autoeuropa, Peugeot

Citroen), aerospace (Embraer), electronics and textiles, to food, chemicals, cement
and wood pulp. Volkswagen Group's AutoEuropa motor vehicle assembly plant in
Palmela is among the largest foreign direct investment projects in Portugal.

Modern non-traditional technology-based industries like aerospace, biotechnology

and information technology, have been developed in several locations across the
country. Alverca, Covilhã,[38] Évora,[39] and Ponte de Sor are the main centres of
Portuguese aerospace industry, which is led by Brazil-based company Embraer and
the Portuguese company OGMA. Since after the turn of the 21st century, many major
biotechnology and information technology industries have been founded and are
concentrated in the metropolitan areas of Lisbon, Porto, Braga, Coimbra and Aveiro.

[edit] Tertiary sector

Marina beach in Vilamoura, Algarve.

Oeiras Municipality, in Lisbon Metropolitan Area, is home of many of the

headquarters of multinational companies operating in Portugal.

Parque das Nações, one of Lisbon's financial centres.

Thermal Power Plant in Carregado, near Lisbon.

Travel and tourism continues to become extremely important for Portugal, with visitor
numbers forecast to increase significantly over the next years. However, there is
increasing competition from Eastern European destinations such as Croatia who offer
similar attractions, which are often cheaper. Consequently, the country is almost
obligated to focus on its niche attractions such as health, nature and rural tourism in
order to stay ahead of its competitors.[40]

The banking and insurance sectors performed well until the late-2000s financial crisis,
partly reflecting a rapid deepening of the market in Portugal. While sensitive to
various types of market and underwriting risks, both the life and non-life sectors,
overall, are estimated to be able to withstand a number of severe shocks, even though
the impact on individual insurers varies widely.[41]

[edit] State-owned companies

Major State-owned companies include Águas de Portugal (water), ANA (airports),

Caixa Geral de Depósitos (banking), Comboios de Portugal (railways), Companhia
das Lezírias (agriculture), CTT (postal services), RTP (media) and TAP Portugal
(airline). Some of the former are managed by state-run holding company Parpública,
which is a shareholder of several companies, both public and private.

[edit] Listed companies

Companies listed on Euronext Lisbon stock exchange like EDP, Cimpor, Corticeira
Amorim, Galp, Jerónimo Martins, Millennium bcp, Portucel Soporcel, Portugal
Telecom and Sonae, are among the largest corporations of Portugal by number of
employees, net income or international market share. The Euronext Lisbon is the
major stock exchange of Portugal and is part of the NYSE Euronext, the first global
stock exchange. The PSI-20 is Portugal's most selective and widely known stock
index.

[edit] Performance

The Global Competitiveness Report for 2005, published by the World Economic
Forum, placed Portugal's competitiveness in the 22nd position, but the 2008–2009
edition placed Portugal in the 43rd position out of 134 countries and territories.[42]
Research about quality of life by the Economist Intelligence Unit's quality of life
survey placed Portugal as the country with the 19th-best quality of life in the world
for 2005, ahead of other economically and technologically advanced countries like
France, Germany, the United Kingdom and South Korea, but 9 places behind its only
neighbour, Spain.[43] This is despite the fact that Portugal remains the country with the
lowest per capita GDP in Western Europe.[44]

The poor performance of the Portuguese economy was explored in April 2007 by The
Economist, which described Portugal as "a new sick man of Europe".[45] From 2002 to
2007, the unemployment rate increased by 65% (270,500 unemployed citizens in
2002, 448,600 unemployed citizens in 2007).[46] By early December 2009,
unemployment had reached 10.2% – a 23-year record high. In December 2009,
ratings agency Standard and Poor's lowered its long-term credit assessment of
Portugal to "negative" from "stable," voicing pessimism on the country's structural
weaknesses in the economy and weak competitiveness that would hamper growth and
the capacity to strengthen its public finances and reduce debt.[47] In July 2011, ratings
agency Moody's downgraded its long-term credit assessment of Portugal after
warning of deteriorating risk of default in March 2011.[48]
Corruption has become an issue of major political and economic significance for the
country. Some cases are well known and were widely reported in the media, such as
the affairs in several municipalities involving local town hall officials and
businesspersons, as well as a number of politicians with wider responsibilities and
power.[49][50] Nevertheless the Transparency International report for 2010 places
Portugal in 31st position in terms of perceived corruption, just below Israel and Spain,
and 34 positions above Italy.[51]

A report published in January 2011 by the Diário de Notícias, a leading Portuguese

newspaper, demonstrated that in the period between the Carnation Revolution in 1974
and 2010, the democratic Portuguese Republic governments encouraged over
expenditure and investment bubbles through unclear public-private partnerships. This
funded numerous ineffective and unnecessary external consultancy and advising
committees and firms, allowed considerable slippage in state-managed public works,
inflated top management and head officers' bonuses and wages, causing a persistent
and lasting recruitment policy that boosted the number of redundant public servants.
The economy was also damaged by risky credit, public debt creation and mismanaged
European structural and cohesion funds for almost four decades. Apparently, the
Prime Minister Sócrates's cabinet was not able to forecast or prevent any of this when
symptoms first appeared in 2005, and in 2011 the country was on the verge of
bankruptcy.[52]

If analysed under a wider time span, the convergence of the Portuguese economy to
EU levels has been impressive, especially from 1986 to the early 2000s
(decade).[53][54] According to Barry (2003), "what appears to have been crucial in the
Portuguese case, relative to Spain at least, is the degree of labour-market flexibility
that the economy exhibits. (...) Thus Portuguese convergence has been impressive,
even though, consistent with its relatively low human-capital stock, the economy has
specialised in low-tech production."[54]

On April 6, 2011 Prime Minister José Sócrates announced on national television that
the country would request financial assistance from the IMF and the European
Financial Stability Facility, like Greece and the Republic of Ireland had done before.
It was the third time that external financial aid was requested to the IMF – the first
was in the late 1970s following the Carnation Revolution.

In October 2011, Moody's Analytics downgraded nine Portuguese banks, blaming

financial weakness.[55]

[edit] Labour market

Although a developed country and a high income country, Portugal has the lowest
GDP per capita in Western Europe and its population has one of the lowest incomes
per head among member states of the European Union. According to Eurostat, in
2009, Portugal's GDP per capita stood at 80% of the EU27 average,[56] the 10th lowest
in the Union.

The average wage in Portugal is 1,039 € per month (net),[57] and the minimum wage,
which is regulated/ref by law, is €485 per month. Officially, in 2008 the
unemployment rate decreased to 7.3% in the second quarter of 2008.[58] However, it
immediately rose again to higher rates. Influenced by events worldwide, by December
2009, unemployment had surpassed the 10% mark nationwide, by 2010, it was about
11%, and in 2011 it was above 12%. As of March 2012, the unemployment rate is at
14.8%.

[edit] Tourism

Main article: Tourism in Portugal

The Pena National Palace in Sintra is a World Heritage Site and one of Portugal's
most visited landmarks

Portugal is among the 20 most visited countries in the world, receiving an average of
13 million foreign tourists each year.[59] Tourism is playing an increasingly important
role in Portugal's economy, contributing to about 5% of its Gross Domestic Product
(GDP).[citation needed]

Tourist hotspots in Portugal are Lisbon, Algarve and Madeira, but the Portuguese
government continues to promote and develop new tourist destinations, such as the
Douro Valley, the island of Porto Santo, and Alentejo. Lisbon is, after Barcelona, the
European city which attracts the most tourists (with seven million tourists occupying
the city's hotels in 2006, a number that grew 11.8% compared to previous year).[60]
Lisbon in recent years surpassed the Algarve as the leading tourist region in Portugal.
Porto and Northern Portugal, especially the urban areas north of Douro River valley,
was the tourist destination which grew most (11.9%) in 2006, surpassing Madeira (in
2010), as the third most visited destination.[citation needed]

Almourol Castle, a Knights Templar stronghold used during the Christian

Reconquista of Iberia from the Muslim Moors
Most tourists in Portugal are British-, Spanish- or German-origin visitors, travel by
low cost airliners, and not only seek sun and beaches, but increasingly search for
cultural, gastronomic, environmental or nautical experiences (or travel for reasons of
business).[citation needed]

[edit] Tourist regions

The main tourist regions can be broken-down into (by order of importance): the
Greater Lisbon (Portuguese: Lisboa), the Algarve, Greater Porto and Northern
Portugal (Portuguese: Porto and Norte), the Portuguese Islands (Portuguese: Ilhas
Portuguesas: Madeira and Azores), and Alentejo. Other tourist regions include Douro
Sul, Templários, Dão-Lafões, Costa do Sol, Costa Azul, Planície Dourada, that are
unknown to many tourists or visitors.[citation needed]

Most of these regions are grouped in tourism reference areas, which continue to be in
a state of reorganization and evolution, some based on the traditional regions of
Portugal: the Costa Verde (Green Coast); Costa da Prata (Silver Coast)); Costa de
Lisboa (Lisbon Coast); Montanhas (Mountains); Planícies (Plains); Algarve; and the
islands of the archipelagos of Madeira and the Azores.[citation needed]

[edit] Transport

Main articles: Transport in Portugal and Rail transport in Portugal

Porto Metro light rail.

The Orient Station (Gare do Oriente), Lisbon.

By the early 1970s Portugal's fast economic growth with increasing consumption and
purchase of new automobiles set the priority for improvements in transportation.
Again in the 1990s, after joining the European Economic Community, the country
built many new motorways. Today, the country has a 68,732 km (42,708 mi) road
network, of which almost 3,000 km (1,864 mi) are part of system of 44 motorways.
Opened in 1944, the first motorway (which linked Lisbon to the National Stadium)
was an innovative project that made Portugal among one of the first countries in the
world to establish a motorway (this roadway eventually became the Lisbon-Cascais
highway, or A5). But, although a few other tracts were created (around 1960 and
1970), it was only after the beginning of the 1980s that large-scale motorway
construction was implemented. In 1972, Brisa, the highway concessionaire, was
founded to handle the management of many of the regions motorways. On many
highways, toll needs to be paid, see Via Verde.

Vasco da Gama Bridge, over the Tagus River, is the longest bridge in Europe.[61][62]

Vasco da Gama bridge is the longest bridge in Europe.[63][64]

Continental Portugal's 89,015 km2 (34,369 sq mi) territory is serviced by three

international airports located near the principal cities of Lisbon, Porto, Faro and Beja.
Lisbon's geographical position makes it a stopover for many foreign airlines at several
airports within the country. The primary flag-carrier is TAP Portugal, although many
other domestic airlines provide services within and without the country. The
government decided to build a new airport outside Lisbon, in Alcochete, to replace
Lisbon Portela Airport. Currently, the most important airports are in Lisbon, Porto,
Faro, Funchal (Madeira), and Ponta Delgada (Azores), managed by the national
airport authority group ANA – Aeroportos de Portugal.

25 April Bridge across the Tagus River.

A national railway system that extends throughout the continent and into Spain, is
supported and administered by Comboios de Portugal. Rail transport of passengers
and goods is derived using the 2,791 km (1,734 mi) of railway lines currently in
service, of which 1,430 km (889 mi) are electrified and about 900 km (559 mi) allow
train speeds greater than 120 km/h (75 mph). The railway network is managed by the
REFER while the transport of passengers and goods are the responsibility of
Caminhos de Ferro Portugueses (CP), both public companies. In 2006 the CP carried
133 million passengers and 9,750,000 t (9,600,000 long tons; 10,700,000 short tons)
of goods.

The major seaports are located in Leixões, Aveiro, Figueira da Foz, Lisbon, Setúbal,
Sines and Faro.

The two largest metropolitan areas have subway systems: Lisbon Metro and Metro
Sul do Tejo in the Lisbon Metropolitan Area and Porto Metro in the Porto
Metropolitan Area, each with more than 35 km (22 mi) of lines. In Portugal, Lisbon
tram services have been supplied by the Companhia de Carris de Ferro de Lisboa
(Carris), for over a century. In Porto, a tram network, of which only a tourist line on
the shores of the Douro remain, began construction on 12 September 1895 (a first for
the Iberian Peninsula). All major cities and towns have their own local urban transport
network, as well as taxi services.

[edit] Science and technology

Main article: Science and technology in Portugal

Scientific and technological research activities in Portugal are mainly conducted

within a network of R&D units belonging to public universities and state-managed
autonomous research institutions like the INETI – Instituto Nacional de Engenharia,
Tecnologia e Inovação and the INRB – Instituto Nacional dos Recursos Biológicos.
The funding and management of this research system is mainly conducted under the
authority of the Ministry of Science, Technology and Higher Education (MCTES)
itself and the MCTES's Fundação para a Ciência e Tecnologia (FCT). The largest
R&D units of the public universities by volume of research grants and peer-reviewed
publications, include biosciences research institutions like the Instituto de Medicina
Molecular, the Centre for Neuroscience and Cell Biology, the IPATIMUP, the
Instituto de Biologia Molecular e Celular and the Abel Salazar Biomedical Sciences
Institute.
António Egas Moniz was a Portuguese neurologist awarded with the Nobel Prize in
Physiology or Medicine in 1949.

Among the largest non-state-run research institutions in Portugal are the Instituto
Gulbenkian de Ciência and the Champalimaud Foundation, a neuroscience and
oncology research centre, which in addition awards every year one of the highest
monetary prizes of any science prize in the world. A number of both national and
multinational high-tech and industrial companies, are also responsible for research
and development projects. One of the oldest learned societies of Portugal is the
Sciences Academy of Lisbon, founded in 1779.

Iberian bilateral state-supported research efforts include the International Iberian

Nanotechnology Laboratory and the Ibercivis distributed computing platform, which
are joint research programmes of both Portugal and Spain. Portugal is a member of
several pan-European scientific organizations. These include the European Space
Agency (ESA), the European Laboratory for Particle Physics (CERN), ITER, and the
European Southern Observatory (ESO).

The Lisbon Oceanarium – by the time of its opening, it was among the largest
aquariums in the world.

Portugal has the largest aquarium in Europe, the Lisbon Oceanarium, and the
Portuguese have several other notable organizations focused on science-related
exhibits and divulgation, like the state agency Ciência Viva, a programme of the
Portuguese Ministry of Science and Technology to the promotion of a scientific and
technological culture among the Portuguese population,[65] the Science Museum of the
University of Coimbra, the National Museum of Natural History at the University of
Lisbon, and the Visionarium.

With the emergence and growth of several science parks throughout the world that
helped create many thousands of scientific, technological and knowledge-based
businesses, Portugal started to develop several[66] science parks across the country.
These include the Taguspark (in Oeiras), the Coimbra iParque (in Coimbra), the
biocant (in Cantanhede), the Madeira Tecnopolo[67] (in Funchal), Sines Tecnopolo[68]
(in Sines), Tecmaia[69] (in Maia) and Parkurbis[70] (in Covilhã). Companies locate in
the Portuguese science parks to take advantage of a variety of services ranging from
financial and legal advice through to marketing and technological support.
Egas Moniz, a Portuguese physician who developed the cerebral angiography and
leucotomy, received in 1949 the Nobel Prize in Physiology or Medicine – he is the
first Portuguese recipient of a Nobel Prize and the only in the sciences.

The European Innovation Scoreboard 2011, placed Portugal-based innovation in the

15th position, with an impressive increase in innovation expenditure and output.[71]

[edit] Energy

Main articles: Energy in Portugal, Nuclear energy in Portugal, and Renewable

energy in Portugal

Alqueva Dam, in the Alentejo; the Alqueva project, an irrigation and hydroelectric
power generation system, created the largest artificial lake in Western Europe.

Portugal has considerable resources of wind and river power, the two most cost-
effective renewable sources. Since the turn of the 21st century, there has been a trend
towards the development of a renewable resource industry and reduction of both
consumption and use of fossil fuel resources. In 2006, the world's largest solar power
plant at that date, the Moura Photovoltaic Power Station, began operating near Moura,
in the south, while the world's first commercial wave power farm, the Aguçadoura
Wave Farm, opened in the Norte region (2008). By the end of 2006, 66% of the
country's electrical production was from coal and fuel power plants, while 29% were
derived from hydroelectric dams, and 6% by wind energy.[72] In 2008, renewable
energy resource methods began to produce 43% of the nation's consumption of
electricity, even as hydroelectric production decreased due to severe droughts.[73] As
of June 2010, electricity exports had outnumbered imports. In the period between
January and May 2010, 70% of the national production of energy came from
renewable sources.[74]

Portugal‘s national energy transmission company, Redes Energéticas Nacionais

(REN), uses sophisticated modeling to predict weather, especially wind patterns, and
computer programs to calculate energy from the various renewable-energy plants.
Before the solar/wind revolution, Portugal had generated electricity from hydropower
plants on its rivers for decades. But new programs combine wind and water: wind-
driven turbines pump water uphill at night, the most blustery period; then the water
flows downhill by day, generating electricity, when consumer demand is highest.
Portugal‘s distribution system is also now a two-way street. Instead of just delivering
electricity, it draws electricity from even the smallest generators, like rooftop solar
panels. The government aggressively encouraged such contributions by setting a
premium price for those who buy rooftop-generated solar electricity.

[edit] Demographics
Main articles: Demographics of Portugal, Immigration to Portugal, and Portuguese
people

The Instituto Nacional de Estatística (Portuguese: National Institute of Statistics)

estimates that, according to the 2011 census, the population was 10,561,614 (of which
52% was female, 48% was male). This population has been relatively homogeneous
for most of its history: a single religion (Catholicism) and a single language have
contributed to this ethnic and national unity, namely after the expulsion of the Moors,
Moriscos and Sephardi Jews.[75]

Native Portuguese are an Iberian ethnic group, whose ancestry is very similar to other
Western and Southern Europeans and Mediterranean peoples, in particular Spaniards,
with whom they share a common ancestry, history and cultural proximity.

The most important demographic influence in the modern Portuguese seems to be the
oldest one; current interpretation of Y-chromosome and mtDNA data suggests that the
Portuguese have their origin in Paleolithic peoples that began arriving to the European
continent around 45,000 years ago. All subsequent migrations did leave an impact,
genetically and culturally, but the main population source of the Portuguese is still
Paleolithic. Studies of mitochondrial DNA suggest that 7% and 5–9% of modern
Portuguese have some North- and Subsaharan-African ancestry, respectively.[76]

[edit] Urbanization

v
t
e

Largest cities or towns of Portugal

INE 2011 Census
Ci
Ci
R ty Re P R Re P
ty
an na gio o an gio o
na
k m n p. k n p.
me
e
547,63
1 Lisbon Lisbon 11 Queluz Lisbon 75,179
1
237,58 Guimar
2 Porto Norte 12 Norte 66,912
4 ães
Vila
Nova 186,50
3 Norte 13 Viseu Centro 66,143
de 3 Vila Nova
Gaia
 Lisbon Amado 175,13 Rio de Gaia
4 Lisbon 14 Norte 64,815
ra 5 Tinto
143,53
5 Braga Norte 15 Aveiro Centro 61,752
2
Funcha 111,89 Odivela
6 Madeira 16 Lisbon 59,559
l 2 s
Coimb 102,45 Matosi
7 Centro 17 Norte 49,486
ra 5 nhos
Porto 8 Setúbal Lisbon 90,640 18 Amora Lisbon 48,629 Amadora
Ponta
Almad
9 Lisbon 89,533 19 Delgad Azores 46,102
a
a
Agualv
Portim
10 a- Lisbon 79,805 20 Algarve 45,431
ão
Cacém

[edit] Metropolitan Areas

Main article: Metropolitan areas of Portugal

Map of Portugal with the representation of population density (no. of inhabitants / km

²) by municipality.

There are two Greater Metropolitan Areas (GAMs): Lisbon and Porto.[77]

e•d

Metro
Rank City name Population[78] Subregion Population
Area

1 Lisbon Lisbon 2,821,699 Grande Lisboa 2,042,326

 2 Porto Porto 1,672,664 Grande Porto 1,397,805

3 Braga Minho 814,083 Cávado 410,149

4 Aveiro Aveiro 461,819 Baixo Vouga 390,840

5 Faro Algarve 451,005 Algarve 451,005

6 Coimbra Coimbra 422,708 Baixo Mondego 332,306

7 Viseu Viseu 338,229 Dão-Lafões 277,216

[edit] Immigration

Main article: Immigration to Portugal

Portugal's colonial history has long since been a cornerstone of its national identity, as
has its geographic position at the southwestern corner of Europe, looking out into the
Atlantic Ocean. It was the last western colonial European powers to give up its
overseas territories (among them Angola and Mozambique in 1975), turning over the
administration of Macau to the People's Republic of China at the end of 1999.
Consequently, it has both influenced and been influenced by cultures from former
colonies or dependencies, resulting in immigration from these former territories for
both economic and/or personal reasons. Portugal, long a country of emigration (the
vast majority of Brazilians have some Portuguese ancestry),[79] has now become a
country of net immigration,[80] and not just from the last Indian (Portuguese until
1961), African (Portuguese until 1975), and Far East Asian (Portuguese until 1999)
overseas territories. An estimated 800,000 Portuguese returned to Portugal as the
country's African possessions gained independence in 1975.[79] By 2007, Portugal had
10,617,575 inhabitants of whom about 332,137 were legal immigrants.[1]

Since the 1990s, along with a boom in construction, several new waves of Ukrainian,
Brazilian, people from the former Portuguese colonies in Africa and other Africans
have settled in the country. Romanians, Moldovans and Chinese have also chosen
Portugal as destination. Portugal's Romani population, estimated at about 40,000,[81]
offers another element of ethnic diversity. Most Romanis congregate with similar
ethnic groups in the southern parts of the country and sell clothing and handicrafts in
rural markets.

In addition, a number of EU citizens, mostly from the United Kingdom, northern

European or Nordic countries, have become permanent residents in the country (with
the British community being mostly composed of retired pensioners and choosing to
live in the Algarve and Madeira).[82]

[edit] Religion

Main article: Religion in Portugal

The Sanctuary of Our Lady of Fátima, one of the largest Marian shrines in the world.

According to the CIA World Fact Book, 84.5% of the Portuguese population are
Roman Catholic while 2.2% follow other Christian faiths.[83] Some 9% of the
population are self-declared as non-religious (Zuckerman 2005). In addition, the
country has small Protestant, Mormon, Muslim, Hindu, Sikh, Christian Orthodox,
Jehovah's Witnesses, Baha'i, Buddhist and Jewish communities.

Many Portuguese holidays, festivals and traditions have a Christian origin or

connotation. Although relations between the Portuguese state and the Roman Catholic
Church were generally amiable and stable since the earliest years of the Portuguese
nation, their relative power fluctuated. In the 13th and 14th centuries, the church
enjoyed both riches and power stemming from its role in the reconquest, its close
identification with early Portuguese nationalism and the foundation of the Portuguese
educational system, including the first university. The growth of the Portuguese
overseas empire made its missionaries important agents of colonization, with
important roles in the education and evangelization of people from all the inhabited
continents. The growth of liberal and nascent republican movements during the eras
leading to the formation of the First Portuguese Republic (1910–26) changed the role
and importance of organized religion.

Portugal is a secular state: church and state were formally separated during the
Portuguese First Republic, and later reiterated in the 1976 Portuguese Constitution.
Other than the Constitution, the two most important documents relating to religious
freedom in Portugal are: the 1940 Concordata (later amended in 1971) between
Portugal and the Holy See, and the 2001 Religious Freedom Act.

[edit] Languages

Main articles: Languages of Portugal, Portuguese language, Mirandese language,

and Portuguese-based creole languages
Map of the Lusosphere, the Portuguese-speaking world

Portuguese is the official language of Portugal. Portuguese is a Romance language

that originated in what is now Galicia (Spain) and Northern Portugal, from the
Galician-Portuguese language. It is derived from the Latin spoken by the romanized
Pre-Roman peoples of the Iberian Peninsula around 2000 years ago. In the 15th and
16th centuries, it spread worldwide as Portugal established a colonial and commercial
empire (1415–1999). In the present day, Portuguese is spoken as a native language on
4 different continents, with Brazil accounting for the largest number of native
Portuguese speakers in any country.

As a result, nowadays the Portuguese language is also official and spoken in Brazil,
Angola, Mozambique, Cape Verde, São Tomé and Príncipe, Guinea-Bissau, and East
Timor. These countries, plus Macau Special Administrative Region (People's
Republic of China), make up the Lusosphere, term derived from the ancient Roman
province of Lusitania, which currently matches the Portuguese territory south of the
Douro river. Mirandese is also recognized as a co-official regional language in some
municipalities of northeastern Portugal. It retains fewer than 5,000 speakers in
Portugal (a number that can be up to 12,000 if counting second language
speakers).[citation needed]

[edit] Education

Main articles: Education in Portugal and Higher education in Portugal

Headquarters of the New University of Lisbon.

The educational system is divided into preschool (for those under age 6), basic
education (9 years, in three stages, compulsory), secondary education (3 years, till the
12th grade), and higher education (university and polytechnic).
Total adult literacy rate is 99%. Portuguese primary school enrollments are close to
100%. According to the OECD's Programme for International Student Assessment
(PISA) 2009, the average Portuguese 15-year-old student, when rated in terms of
reading literacy, mathematics and science knowledge, is placed at the same level as
those students from the United States, Sweden, Germany, Ireland, France, Denmark,
United Kingdom, Hungary and Taipei, with 489 points (493 is the average).[84] Over
35% of college-age citizens (20 years old) attend one of the country's higher
education institutions[85] (compared with 50% in the United States and 35% in the
OECD countries). In addition to being a key destination for international students,
Portugal is also among the top places of origin for international students. All higher
education students, both domestic and international, totaled 380,937 in 2005.

Portuguese universities have existed since 1290. The oldest Portuguese university was
first established in Lisbon before moving to Coimbra. Historically, within the scope of
the Portuguese Empire, the Portuguese founded in 1792 the oldest engineering school
of Latin America (the Real Academia de Artilharia, Fortificação e Desenho), as well
as the oldest medical college of Asia (the Escola Médico-Cirúrgica de Goa) in 1842.
The largest university in Portugal is the University of Porto. Universities are usually
organized into faculties.

The University of Coimbra, built in 1290, is one of the oldest in continuous operation
in the world.

Institutes and schools are also common designations for autonomous subdivisions of
Portuguese higher education institutions. The Bologna process has been adopted since
2006 by Portuguese universities and polytechnical institutes. Higher education in
state-run educational establishments is provided on a competitive basis, a system of
numerus clausus is enforced through a national database on student admissions.
However, every higher education institution offers also a number of additional vacant
places through other extraordinary admission processes for sportsmen, mature
applicants (over 23 years old), international students, foreign students from the
Lusosphere, degree owners from other institutions, students from other institutions
(academic transfer), former students (readmission), and course change, which are
subject to specific standards and regulations set by each institution or course
department. Most student costs are supported with public money. However, with the
increasing tuition fees a student has to pay to attend a Portuguese state-run higher
education institution and the attraction of new types of students (many as part-time
students or in evening classes) like employees, businessmen, parents, and pensioners,
many departments make a substantial profit from every additional student enrolled in
courses, with benefits for the college or university's gross tuition revenue and without
loss of educational quality (teacher per student, computer per student, classroom size
per student, etc.).
Portugal has entered into cooperation agreements with MIT (US) and other North
American institutions to further develop and increase the effectiveness of Portuguese
higher education and research.

[edit] Health

Main article: Health in Portugal

Hospital of Santa Maria, Lisbon.

According to the latest Human Development Report, the average Life Expectancy in
2011 was 79.5 years.

The Portuguese health system is characterized by three coexisting systems: the

National Health Service (NHS), special social health insurance schemes for certain
professions (health subsystems) and voluntary private health insurance. The NHS
provides universal coverage. In addition, about 25% of the population is covered by
the health subsystems, 10% by private insurance schemes and another 7% by mutual
funds.

The Ministry of Health is responsible for developing health policy as well as

managing the NHS. Five regional health administrations are in charge of
implementing the national health policy objectives, developing guidelines and
protocols and supervising health care delivery. Decentralization efforts have aimed at
shifting financial and management responsibility to the regional level. In practice,
however, the autonomy of regional health administrations over budget setting and
spending has been limited to primary care.

The NHS is predominantly funded through general taxation. Employer (including the
state) and employee contributions represent the main funding sources of the health
subsystems. In addition, direct payments by the patient and voluntary health insurance
premiums account for a large proportion of funding.

Similar to the other Eur-A countries, most Portuguese die from noncommunicable
diseases. Mortality from cardiovascular diseases (CVD) is higher than in the
Eurozone, but its two main components, ischaemic heart disease and cerebrovascular
disease, display inverse trends compared with the Eur-A, with cerebrovascular disease
being the single biggest killer in Portugal (17%). Portuguese people die 12% less
often from cancer than in the Eur-A, but mortality is not declining as rapidly as in the
Eur-A. Cancer is more frequent among children as well as among women younger
than 44 years. Although lung cancer (slowly increasing among women) and breast
cancer (decreasing rapidly) are scarcer, cancer of the cervix and the prostate are more
frequent. Portugal has the highest mortality rate for diabetes in the Eur-A, with a
sharp increase since the late 1980s.

Portugal's infant mortality rate has dropped sharply since the 1980s, when 24 of 1000
newborns died in the first year of life. It is now around 3 deaths per a 1000 newborns.
This improvement was mainly due to the decrease in neonatal mortality, from 15.5 to
3.4 per 1000 live births.

People are usually well informed about their health status, the positive and negative
effects of their behaviour on their health and their use of health care services. Yet
their perceptions of their health can differ from what administrative and examination-
based data show about levels of illness within populations. Thus, survey results based
on self-reporting at the household level complement other data on health status and
the use of services. Only one third of adults rated their health as good or very good in
Portugal (Kasmel et al., 2004). This is the lowest of the Eur-A countries reporting and
reflects the relatively adverse situation of the country in terms of mortality and
selected morbidity.[86]

[edit] Culture
Main article: Culture of Portugal

Belém Tower, Lisbon. A World Heritage Site and a typical example of Portugal's
unique Manueline architecture.

Portugal has developed a specific culture while being influenced by various

civilizations that have crossed the Mediterranean and the European continent, or were
introduced when it played an active role during the Age of Discovery. In the 1990s
and 2000s (decade), Portugal modernized its public cultural facilities, in addition to
the Calouste Gulbenkian Foundation established in 1956 in Lisbon. These include the
Belém Cultural Center in Lisbon, Serralves Foundation and the Casa da Música, both
in Porto, as well as new public cultural facilities like municipal libraries and concert
halls that were built or renovated in many municipalities across the country.

[edit] Architecture
Main article: Architecture of Portugal

Traditional architecture is distinctive and include the Manueline, also known as

Portuguese late Gothic, a sumptuous, composite Portuguese style of architectural
ornamentation of the first decades of the 16th century, incorporating maritime
elements and representations of the Portuguese Age of Discovery. Modern Portugal
has given the world renowned architects like Eduardo Souto de Moura, Álvaro Siza
Vieira (both Pritzker Prize winners) and Gonçalo Byrne. In Portugal Tomás Taveira is
also noteworthy, particularly due to stadium design.[87][88][89]

[edit] Cinema

Main article: Cinema of Portugal

Portuguese cinema has a long tradition, reaching back to the birth of the medium in
the late 19th century. Portuguese film directors such as Arthur Duarte, António Lopes
Ribeiro, Pedro Costa, Manoel de Oliveira, António-Pedro Vasconcelos, João César
Monteiro, João Botelho and Leonel Vieira, are among those that gained notability.
Noted Portuguese film actors include Joaquim de Almeida, Daniela Ruah, Maria de
Medeiros, Diogo Infante, Soraia Chaves, Vasco Santana, Ribeirinho, and António
Silva, among many others.

[edit] Literature

Main article: Portuguese literature

Luís de Camões, Portuguese poet of the 16th century.

Portuguese literature, one of the earliest Western literatures, developed through text as
well as song. Until 1350, the Portuguese-Galician troubadours spread their literary
influence to most of the Iberian Peninsula.[90] Gil Vicente (ca. 1465 – ca. 1536), was
one of the founders of both Portuguese and Spanish dramatic traditions.

Adventurer and poet Luís de Camões (ca. 1524–1580) wrote the epic poem "Os
Lusíadas" (The Lusiads), with Virgil's Aeneid as his main influence. Modern
Portuguese poetry is rooted in neoclassic and contemporary styles, as exemplified by
Fernando Pessoa (1888–1935). Modern Portuguese literature is represented by authors
such as Almeida Garrett, Camilo Castelo Branco, Eça de Queiroz, Sophia de Mello
Breyner Andresen, António Lobo Antunes and Miguel Torga. Particularly popular
and distinguished is José Saramago, recipient of the 1998 Nobel Prize in Literature.

[edit] Cuisine

Main articles: Portuguese cuisine and Portuguese wine

Portuguese cuisine is diverse. The Portuguese consume a lot of dry cod (bacalhau in
Portuguese), for which there are hundreds of recipes. There are more than enough
bacalhau dishes for each day of the year. Two other popular fish recipes are grilled
sardines and caldeirada, a potato-based stew that can be made from several types of
fish. Typical Portuguese meat recipes, that may be made out of beef, pork, lamb, or
chicken, include cozido à portuguesa, feijoada, frango de churrasco, leitão (roast
suckling pig) and carne de porco à alentejana, a very popular northern dish is the
arroz de sarrabulho (rice stewed in pigs blood) or the arroz de cabidela (Rice and
chickens meat stewed in chickens blood).

Typical fast food dishes include the francesinha from Porto, and bifanas (grilled pork)
or prego (grilled beef) sandwiches, which are well known around the country. The
Portuguese art of pastry has its origins in Middle-Ages Catholic monasteries widely
spread across the country. These monasteries, using very few ingredients (mostly
almonds, flour, eggs and some liquor), managed to create a spectacular wide range of
different pastries, of which pastéis de Belém (or pastéis de nata) originally from
Lisbon, and ovos moles from Aveiro are examples. Portuguese cuisine is very diverse,
with different regions having their own traditional dishes. The Portuguese have a
culture of good food and throughout the country there are myriad good restaurants
and small typical tascas.

Portuguese wines have deserved international recognition since the times of the
Roman Empire, which associated Portugal with their god Bacchus. Today the country
is known by wine lovers and its wines have won several international prizes. Some of
the best Portuguese wines are: Vinho Verde, Vinho Alvarinho, Vinho do Douro,
Vinho do Alentejo, Vinho do Dão, Vinho da Bairrada and the sweet: Port Wine,
Madeira Wine and the Moscatel from Setúbal and Favaios. Port Wine is well known
around the world and the most widely known wine type in the world[citation needed]. The
Douro wine region is the oldest in the world[citation needed].

[edit] Music

Main article: Music of Portugal

Mariza, a fado singer

Portuguese music encompasses a wide variety of genres. The most renowned is fado,
a melancholy urban music, usually associated with the Portuguese guitar and saudade,
or longing. Coimbra fado, a unique type of fado, is also noteworthy. Internationally
notable performers include Amália Rodrigues, Carlos Paredes, José Afonso, Mariza,
Carlos do Carmo, António Chainho, Mísia, and Madredeus.

In addition to fado and folk, the Portuguese listen to pop and other types of modern
music, particularly from North America and the United Kingdom, as well as a wide
range of Portuguese and Brazilian artists and bands. Artists with international
recognition include Moonspell, Buraka Som Sistema, Blasted Mechanism and The
Gift, with the two latter being nominees for a MTV Europe Music Award.

Casa da Música, a concert hall in Porto

Portugal has several summer music festivals, such as Festival Sudoeste in Zambujeira
do Mar, Festival de Paredes de Coura in Paredes de Coura, Festival Vilar de Mouros
near Caminha, Boom Festival in Idanha-a-Nova Municipality, and Optimus Alive!,
Rock in Rio Lisboa and Super Bock Super Rock in Greater Lisbon. Out of the summer
season, Portugal has a large number of festivals, designed more to an urban audience,
like Flowfest or Hip Hop Porto. Furthermore, one of the largest international Goa
trance festivals takes place in central Portugal every two years, the Boom Festival,
that is also the only festival in Portugal to win international awards: European Festival
Award 2010 – Green'n'Clean Festival of the Year and the Greener Festival Award
Outstanding 2008 and 2010. There is also the student festivals of Queima das Fitas
are major events in a number of cities across Portugal. In 2005, Portugal held the
MTV Europe Music Awards, in Pavilhão Atlântico, Lisbon.

Fandango is one of the most popular regional dances.

In the Classical music domain, Portugal is represented by names as the pianist Artur
Pizarro, Maria João Pires, Sequeira Costa, the violinist Gerardo Ribeiro, and in the
past by the great cellist Guilhermina Suggia. Notable composers include José Vianna
da Motta, Carlos Seixas, João Domingos Bomtempo, João de Sousa Carvalho, Luís de
Freitas Branco and his student Joly Braga Santos, Fernando Lopes-Graça, Emmanuel
Nunes and Sérgio Azevedo.

The indie and alternative rock movements are also popular in Portugal. For example,
Finished With My Ex is a Portuguese independent music duo, whose genres variate
from Alternative rock, garage rock to electronic rock, acoustic, industrial rock,
formed in 2012 in Braga. The group consists of singer-songwriter Bruce Buckley
(vocals, multi-instrumentalism) and guitarist Chris (guitar, multi-instrumentalism).
The band is influenced by bands such as Marilyn Manson, The White Stripes, etc., of
which the two members try to capture some "sounds" while remaining faithful to the
bands "originality and visual image." The band also makes use of red and black colors
in their visuals.[91][92][93]

[edit] Painting

It has also a rich history as far as painting is concerned. The first well-known painters
date back to the 15th century – like Nuno Gonçalves – were part of the Gothic
painting period. José Malhoa, known for his work Fado, and Columbano Bordalo
Pinheiro (who painted the portraits of Teófilo Braga and Antero de Quental) were
both references in naturalist painting.

The 20th century saw the arrival of Modernism, and along with it came the most
prominent Portuguese painters: Amadeo de Souza-Cardoso, who was heavily
influenced by French painters, particularly by the Delaunays. Among his best known
works is Canção Popular a Russa e o Fígaro. Another great modernist painter/writer
was Almada Negreiros, friend to the poet Fernando Pessoa, who painted his (Pessoa's)
portrait. He was deeply influenced by both Cubist and Futurist trends. Prominent
international figures in visual arts nowadays include painters Vieira da Silva, Júlio
Pomar, Helena Almeida, Joana Vasconcelos, Julião Sarmento and Paula Rego.

[edit] Sport

Main article: Sport in Portugal

Opening ceremony of the UEFA Euro 2004, at Estádio do Dragão, Porto.

Surfing and bodyboarding are very popular in Portugal. In the picture, the World
Surfing Championships are being held on Madeira Island.

Football is the most popular sport in Portugal. There are several football competitions
ranging from local amateur to world-class professional level. The legendary Eusébio
is still a major symbol of Portuguese football history. FIFA World Player of the Year
winners Luís Figo and Cristiano Ronaldo, are among the numerous examples of other
world-class football (soccer) players born in Portugal and noted worldwide.
Portuguese football managers are also noteworthy, with José Mourinho, André Villas-
Boas, Fernando Santos, Carlos Queiroz and Manuel José among the most renowned.

The Portuguese national football team has titles in the FIFA World Youth
Championship and in the UEFA youth championships. The main national team –
Selecção Nacional – finished second in Euro 2004 (held in Portugal), reached the
third place in the 1966 FIFA World Cup, and reached the fourth place in the 2006
FIFA World Cup, their best results in major competitions to date.

Sport Lisboa e Benfica, Futebol Clube do Porto, and Sporting Clube de Portugal are
the largest sports clubs by popularity and by number of trophies won, often known as
"os três grandes" ("the big three"). They have 12 titles won in the European UEFA
club competitions, were present in many finals and have been regular contenders in
the last stages almost every season. Other than football, many Portuguese sports
clubs, including the "big three", compete in several other sports events with a varying
level of success and popularity, these may include roller hockey, basketball, futsal,
handball, and volleyball.

Portugal has a successful roller hockey team, with 15 world titles and 20 European
titles, making it the country with the most wins in both competitions. The most
successful Portuguese roller hockey clubs in the history of European championships
are Futebol Clube do Porto, Sporting Clube de Portugal, Sport Lisboa e Benfica and
Óquei de Barcelos.

The Portuguese national rugby union team made a dramatic qualification into the
2007 Rugby World Cup and became the first all amateur team to qualify for the
World Cup since the dawn of the professional era. The Portuguese national rugby
sevens team has performed well, becoming one of the strongest teams in Europe, and
proved their status as European champions in several occasions.

In athletics, the Portuguese have won a number of gold, silver and bronze medals in
the European, World and Olympic Games competitions. Cycling, with Volta a
Portugal being the most important race, is also a popular sports event and include
professional cycling teams such as Sport Lisboa e Benfica, Boavista, Clube de
Ciclismo de Tavira, and União Ciclista da Maia.

The country has also achieved notable performances in sports like fencing, judo,
kitesurf, rowing, sailing, surfing, shooting, triathlon and windsurf, owning several
European and world titles. The paralympic athletes have also conquered many medals
in sports like swimming, boccia and wrestling.

In motorsport, Portugal is internationally noted for the Rally of Portugal, and the
Estoril, Algarve Circuits and the revived Porto Street Circuit which holds a stage of
the WTCC every two years, as well as for a number of internationally noted pilots in
varied motorsports.

In equestrian sports, Portugal won the only Horseball-Pato World Championship (in
2006), achieved the third position in the First Horseball World Cup (organized in
Ponte de Lima, Portugal, in 2008), and has achieved several victories in the European
Working Equitation Championship.

In swimming sports, Portugal has two major sports: swimming and water polo.

Northern Portugal has its own original martial art, Jogo do Pau, in which the fighters
use staffs to confront one or several opponents.

Other popular sport-related recreational outdoor activities with thousands of

enthusiasts nationwide include airsoft, fishing, golf, hiking, hunting and orienteering.

[edit] See also

Portugal portal
European Union portal
NATO portal

Index of Portugal-related articles

Outline of Portugal

Wikipedia books: Portugal

[edit] References
Notes

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87. ^ (Portuguese) Estádios de Tomás Taveira e Souto Moura premiados, Diário de Notícias (July
8, 2005)
88. ^ Tomás Taveira, Geoffrey Broadbent (introduction), Publisher: St Martins Pr (February
1991)
89. ^ (Portuguese) Tomás Tveira desenha estádio do Palmeiras no Brasil, Diarioeconomico.com
90. ^ Poesia e Prosa Medievais, p. 9, para. 4
91. ^ "Finished With My Ex's biography". Finished With My Ex. finishedwithmyex.com.
http://finishedwithmyex.wix.com/finishedwithmyex#!__page-0/bio. Retrieved 2012-07-27.
92. ^ "Finished With My Ex". phpbbserver.com. Vimaranes Metallvm.
http://www.phpbbserver.com/nehebkau/viewtopic.php?t=3535&mforum=nehebkau&fb_sourc
e=message. Retrieved 2012-07-27.
93. ^ Melo, Rui. "Os motores já aquecem para mais um submarino". Submarino. Submarino.
http://blogdosubmarino.blogspot.pt/2012/07/os-motores-ja-aquecem-para-mais-um.html.
Retrieved 2012-07-27.

Sources

Bliss, Jorge Braga de; Bliss, C.J. (1990). Unity with Diversity in the European
Economy: the Community's Southern Frontier. London, England: Centre for
Economic Policy Research. ISBN 978-0-521-39520-5.
Juang, Noelle Anne (2008). Africa and the Americas: Culture, Politics, and History:
A Multidisciplinary Encyclopedia. 2. ISBN 978-1-85109-441-7.
Page, Penny M. (2003). Colonialism: An International, Social, Cultural, and Political
Encyclopedia. 2. ISBN 978-1-57607-335-3.
Brockey, Liam Matthew (2008). Portuguese Colonial Cities in the Early Modern
World. ISBN 978-0-7546-6313-3.
Ribeiro, Ângelo (2004) (in Portuguese). História de Portugal I — A Formação do
Território [History of Portugal: The Formation of the Territory]. QuidNovi. ISBN
989-554-106-6.
Ribeiro, José Hermano (2004) (in Portuguese). História de Portugal II — A
Afirmação do País [History of Portugal II - A Affirmation of Nation]. QuidNovi.
ISBN 989-554-107-4.
de Macedo, José Hermano (2004) (in Portuguese). História de Portugal III — A
Epopeia dos Descobrimentos [History of Portugal III - The Epoch of Discoveries].
QuidNovi. ISBN 989-554-108-2.
de Macedo, José Hermano (2004) (in Portuguese). História de Portugal IV — Glória
e Declínio do Império [History of Portugal IV - Glory and Decline of Empire].
QuidNovi. ISBN 989-554-109-0.
de Macedo, José Hermano (2004) (in Portuguese). História de Portugal V — A
Restauração da Indepêndencia [History of Portugal IV - The Restoration of
Independence]. QuidNovi. ISBN 989-554-110-4.
Saraiva, José Hermano (2004) (in Portuguese). História de Portugal X — A Terceira
República [History of Portugal X - The Third Republic]. QuidNovi. ISBN 989-554-
115-5.
Loução, Paulo Alexandre (2000) (in Portuguese). Portugal, Terra de Mistérios
[Portugal: Land of Mysteries] (3rd ed.). Ésquilo. ISBN 972-8605-04-8.
Muñoz, Mauricio Pasto (2003) (in Portuguese). Viriato, A Luta pela Liberdade
[Viriato: The Struggle for Liberty] (3rd ed.). Ésquilo. ISBN 972-8605-23-4.
Grande Enciclopédia Universal. Durclub. 2004.
(in Portuguese) Constituição da República Portuguesa [Constitution of the
Portuguese Republic] (VI Revisão Constitucional ed.). 2004.
History of Portugal
From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia
Jump to: navigation, search

History of Portugal

Prehistoric[show]

Roman rule[show]

Germanic kingdoms[show]

711–1139[show]

Kingdom of Portugal[show]

Portuguese Republic[show]

Topics[show]

v
t
e

The history of Portugal, a European and an Atlantic nation, dates back to the Early
Middle Ages. In the 15th and 16th centuries, it ascended to the status of a world
power during Europe's "Age of Discovery" as it built up a vast empire including
possessions in South America, Africa, Asia and Australasia. In the next two centuries,
Portugal gradually lost much of its wealth and status as the Dutch, English and French
took an increasing share of the spice and slave trades (the economic basis of its
empire), by surrounding or conquering the widely-scattered Portuguese trading posts
and territories, leaving it with ever fewer resources to defend its overseas interests.

Signs of military decline began with two disastrous battles: the Battle of Alcácer
Quibir in Morocco in 1578 and Spain's abortive attempt to conquer England in 1588 -
Portugal was then in a dynastic union with Spain, and contributed ships to the Spanish
invasion fleet. The country was further weakened by the destruction of much of its
capital city in a 1755 earthquake, occupation during the Napoleonic Wars and the loss
of its largest colony, Brazil, in 1822. From the middle of the 19th century to the late
1950s, nearly two-million Portuguese left Europe to live in Brazil and the United
States (U.S.).[1]

In 1910, there was a revolution that deposed the monarchy. Amid corruption,
repression of the church, and the near bankruptcy of the state, a military coup in 1926
installed a dictatorship that remained until another coup in 1974. The new government
instituted sweeping democratic reforms and granted independence to all of Portugal's
African colonies in 1975.

Portugal is a founding member of the North Atlantic Treaty Organization (NATO),

the Organisation for Economic Cooperation and Development (OECD), and the
European Free Trade Association (EFTA). It entered the European Community (now
the European Union) in 1986.

Contents
[hide]

1 Etymology
2 Neolithic
3 Roman Lusitania and Gallaecia
4 Germanic kingdoms (5th-7th centuries)
5 Moorish rule and the Reconquista (711-1249)
o 5.1 Affirmation of Portugal
6 Naval exploration and Portuguese Empire (15th-16th centuries)
o 6.1 The New World
7 1580 crisis, Iberian Union and decline of the Empire
8 Portuguese Restoration War (1640-1668)
9 Pombaline era
o 9.1 Spanish invasion of Portugal (1762)
10 Crises of the nineteenth century
11 The First Republic (1910–1926)
o 11.1 28 May 1926 coup d'état
12 New State (Estado Novo) (1933–1974)
13 The Third Republic (1974-)
14 See also
15 Notes
16 External links

[edit] Etymology
Portugal's name derives from the Roman name Portus Cale. Cale was the name of an
early settlement located at the mouth of the Douro River, which flows into the
Atlantic Ocean in the north of what is now Portugal. Around 200 BC, the Romans
took the Iberian Peninsula from the Carthaginians during the Second Punic War, and
in the process conquered Cale and renamed it Portus Cale (Port of Cale). During the
Middle Ages, the region around Portus Cale became known by the Suevi and
Visigoths as Portucale.

The name Portucale evolved into Portugale during the 7th and 8th centuries, and by
the 9th century, that term was used extensively to refer to the region between the
rivers Douro and Minho, the Minho flowing along what would become the northern
border between Portugal and Spain. By the 11th and 12th century, Portugale was
already referred to as Portugal.

The etymology of the name Cale is mysterious, as is the identity of the town's
founders. Some historians have argued that Greeks were the first to settle Cale and
that the name derives from the Greek word kallis (καλλις), 'beautiful', referring to the
beauty of the Douro valley. Still others have claimed that Cale originated in the
language of the Gallaeci people indigenous to the surrounding region (see below).
Others argue that Cale[2] is a Celtic name like many others found in the region. The
word cale or cala, would mean 'port', an 'inlet' or 'harbour,' and implied the existence
of an older Celtic harbour.[3] Others argue it is the stem of Gallaecia. Another theory
claims it derives from Caladunum.[4]

In any case, the Portu part of the name Portucale became Porto, the modern name for
the city located on the site of the ancient city of Cale at the mouth of the Douro River.
And Port became the name in English of the wine from the Douro Valley region
around Porto. The name Cale is today reflected in Gaia (Vila Nova de Gaia), a city on
the left bank of the river.

[edit] Neolithic
Main article: Prehistoric Iberia

The main language areas in Iberia, circa 300 BC.

The region of present-day Portugal was inhabited by Neanderthals and then by Homo
sapiens, who roamed the border-less region of the northern Iberian peninsula.[5] These
were subsistence societies that, although they did not establish prosperous settlements,
did establish organized societies. Neolithic Portugal experimented with domestication
of herding animals, the raising of some cereal crops and pluvial or marine fishing.[5]

Early in the first millennium BC, several waves of Celts invaded Portugal from
central Europe and inter-married with the local populations, forming different ethnic
groups, with many tribes. Chief among these tribes were the Calaicians or Gallaeci of
northern Portugal, the Lusitanians of central Portugal, the Celtici of Alentejo, and the
Cynetes or Conii of the Algarve. Among the lesser tribes or sub-divisions were the
Bracari, Coelerni, Equaesi, Grovii, Interamici, Leuni, Luanqui, Limici, Narbasi,
Nemetati, Paesuri, Quaquerni, Seurbi, Tamagani, Tapoli, Turduli, Turduli Veteres,
Turdulorum Oppida, Turodi, and Zoelae.

There were in the southern part the country, some small, semi-permanent commercial
coastal settlements founded by Phoenicians-Carthaginians (such as Tavira, in the
Algarve).

According to John Koch,[6] Cunliffe, Karl, Wodtko and other scholars, Celtic culture
may have developed first in far Southern Portugal and Southwestern Spain,
approximately 500 years prior to anything recorded in Central Europe.[7][8] The
Tartessian language from the southwest of the Iberian peninsula, which John T. Koch
has claimed to be able to translate, is being accepted by a number of philologists and
other linguists as the first attested Celtic language,[6][9][10] but the linguistic
mainstream continues to treat Tartessian as an unclassified (Pre-Indo-European?)
language,[11][12] and Koch's view of the evolution of Celtic is not generally accepted.

[edit] Roman Lusitania and Gallaecia

Main articles: Lusitania, Gallaecia, and Hispania

Ancient Roman mosaic in Conimbriga.

The first Roman invasion of the Iberian Peninsula occurred in 219 BC. Within 200
years, almost the entire peninsula had been annexed to the Roman Republic. The
Carthaginians, Rome's adversary in the Punic Wars, were expelled from their coastal
colonies.
The Roman conquest of what is now part of modern day Portugal took several
decades: it started from the south, where the Romans found friendly natives, the
Conii. It suffered a severe setback in 194 BC, when a rebellion began in the north.
The Lusitanians and other native tribes, under the leadership of Viriathus, wrested
control of all of the Portuguese land. Rome sent numerous legions and its best
generals to Lusitania to quell the rebellion, but to no avail — the Lusitanians kept
conquering territory. The Roman leaders decided to change their strategy. They
bribed Viriathus's ambassador to kill his own leader. Viriathus was assassinated, and
the resistance was soon over.

Rome installed a colonial regime. During this period, Lusitania grew in prosperity and
many of modern day Portugal's cities and towns were founded. The complete
Romanization of Portugal, intensified during the rule of Augustus, took three
centuries and was stronger in Southern Portugal, most of which were administrative
dependencies of the Roman city of Pax Julia, currently known as Beja. The city was
named Pax Julia in honour of Julius Caesar and to celebrate peace in Lusitania.
Augustus renamed it Pax Augusta, but the early name prevailed. In 27 BC, Lusitania
gained the status of Roman province. Later, a northern province of Lusitania was
formed, known as Gallaecia, with capital in Bracara Augusta, today's Braga.

Numerous Roman sites are scattered around present-day Portugal, some urban
remains are quite large, like Conimbriga and Mirobriga. Several works of
engineering, such as baths, temples, bridges, roads, circus, theatres and layman's
homes are preserved throughout the country. Coins, some of which coined in
Portuguese land, sarcophagus and ceramics are numerous. Contemporary historians
include Paulus Orosius (c. 375-418)[13] and Hydatius (c. 400–469), bishop of Aquae
Flaviae, who reported on the final years of the roman rule and arrival of the Germanic
tribes.

[edit] Germanic kingdoms (5th-7th centuries)

Main articles: Visigoths and Suevi

Germanic kingdoms in Iberia, 560.

In the early 5th century, Germanic tribes invaded the peninsula, namely the Suevi, the
Vandals (Silingi and Hasdingi) and their allies, the Sarmatian Alans. Only the
kingdom of the Suevi (Quadi and Marcomanni) endured after the arrival of another
wave of Germanic invaders, the Visigoths, who conquered all of the Iberian Peninsula
and expelled or partially integrated the Vandals and the Alans. The Visigoths
eventually conquered the Suevi kingdom and its capital city Bracara in 584–585.

The Germanic tribe of the Buri also accompanied the Suevi in their invasion of the
Iberian Peninsula and colonization of Gallaecia (modern northern Portugal and
Galicia). The Buri settled in the region between the rivers Cávado and Homem, in the
area known as thereafter as Terras de Boiro or Terras de Bouro (Lands of the
Buri).[14]

Other minor influences from this period include some 5th century vestiges of Alan
settlement, which were found in Alenquer, Coimbra and even Lisbon.[15]

[edit] Moorish rule and the Reconquista (711-1249)

Main articles: Al-Andalus, Reconquista, and History of Portugal (1112–1279)

Mértola's mosque was transformed into a Christian church in 1238.

Landing near Algeciras in the spring of 711, the Islamic Moors (mainly Berbers with
some Arabs) from North Africa invaded the Iberian Peninsula.,[16] destroying the
Visigothic Kingdom. Many of the ousted Gothic nobles took refuge in the
unconquered north Asturian highlands. From there they aimed to reconquer their
lands from the Moors: this war of reconquest is known in Portuguese (and Spanish) as
the Reconquista.

In 868, Count Vímara Peres reconquered and governed the region between the rivers
Minho and Douro. The county was then known as Portucale (i.e., Portugal).

While it had its origins as a dependency of the Kingdom of León, Portugal

occasionally gained de facto independence during weak Leonese reigns.

Portugal gained its first de jure independence (as the Kingdom of Galicia and
Portugal) in 1065 under the rule of Garcia II. Because of feudal power struggles,
Portuguese and Galician nobles rebelled. In 1072, the country rejoined León under
Garcia II's brother Alfonso VI of León.
The Reconquista, 790-1300.

In 1095, Portugal separated almost completely from the Kingdom of Galicia. Its
territories consisting largely of mountain, moorland and forest were bounded on the
north by the Minho, on the south by the Mondego River.

At the end of the 11th century, the Burgundian knight Henry became count of
Portugal and defended his independence, merging the County of Portucale and the
County of Coimbra. Henry declared independence for Portugal while a civil war
raged between León and Castile.

Henry died without achieving his aims. His son, Afonso Henriques, took control of
the county. The city of Braga, the unofficial Catholic centre of the Iberian Peninsula,
faced new competition from other regions. Lords of the cities of Coimbra and Porto
(then Portucale) with Braga's clergy demanded the independence of the renewed
county.

Portugal traces its national origin to 24 June 1128, with the Battle of São Mamede.
Afonso proclaimed himself first Prince of Portugal and in 1139 the first King of
Portugal. By 1143, with the assistance of a representative of the Holy See at the
conference of Zamora, Portugal was formally recognized as independent, with the
prince recognized as Dux Portucalensis. In 1179 Afonso I was declared, by the Pope,
as king. After the Battle of São Mamede, the first capital of Portugal was Guimarães
from which the first king ruled. Later, when Portugal was already officially
independent, he ruled from Coimbra.

[edit] Affirmation of Portugal

Main article: History of Portugal (1279–1415)

From 1249 to 1250 the Algarve, the southernmost region, was finally re-conquered by
Portugal from the Moors. In 1255 the capital shifted to Lisbon.[17] Neighboring Spain
would not complete their Reconquista until 1492 almost 250 years later.[18]
Portugal's land-based boundaries have been notably stable in history. The border with
Spain has remained almost unchanged since the 13th century. The Treaty of Windsor
(1386) created an alliance between Portugal and England that remains in effect to this
day. Since early times, fishing and overseas commerce have been the main economic
activities. Henry the Navigator's interest in exploration together with some
technological developments in navigation made Portugal's expansion possible and led
to great advances in geographic, mathematical, scientific knowledge and technology,
more specifically naval technology.

[edit] Naval exploration and Portuguese Empire

(15th-16th centuries)
Main articles: Portugal in the period of discoveries and Portuguese Empire

Portuguese discoveries and explorations: first arrival places and dates; main
Portuguese spice trade routes in the Indian Ocean (blue); territories of the Portuguese
empire under King John III rule (1521-1557) (green). The disputed discovery of
Australia is not shown.

During the 15th and 16th centuries, Portugal was a leading European power, ranking
with England, France and Spain in terms of economic, political, and cultural
influence. Though not predominant in European affairs, Portugal did have an
extensive colonial trading empire throughout the world backed by a powerful
thalassocracy.

July 25, 1415 marked the beginning of the Portuguese Empire, when the Portuguese
Armada departed to the rich trade Islamic centre of Ceuta in North Africa with King
John I and his wife Phillipa of Lancaster and their sons Prince Duarte (future king),
Prince Pedro, Prince Henry the Navigator (born in Porto in 1394) and Prince Afonso,
and legendary Portuguese hero Nuno Álvares Pereira.[19] On August 21, 1415, Ceuta,
the city on the coast of North Africa directly across from Gibraltar, was conquered by
Portugal, and the long-lived Portuguese Empire was founded.[20]

The conquest of Ceuta had been helped by the fact that a major civil war had been
engaging the Muslims of the Magrib (North Africa) since 1411.[21] This same civil
war between the Muslims prevented a re-capture of Ceuta from the Portuguese, when
Muhammad IX, the Left-Handed King of Granada, laid siege to Ceuta and attempted
to coordinate the forces in Morocco and attempted to get aid and assistance for the
effort from Tunis.[22] The Muslim attempt to retake Ceuta was ultimately unsuccessful
and Ceuta remained the first part of the new Portuguese Empire.[23] However, further
steps were taken that would soon expand the Portuguese Empire.

In 1418 two of the captains of Prince Henry the Navigator, João Gonçalves Zarco and
Tristão Vaz Teixeira, were driven by a storm to an island which they called Porto
Santo ("Holy Port") in gratitude for their rescue from the shipwreck. In 1419, João
Gonçalves Zarco disembarked on Madeira Island. Uninhabited Madeira Island was
colonized by the Portuguese in 1420.[24]

Between 1427 and 1431, most of the Azorean islands were discovered and these
uninhabited islands were colonized by the Portuguese in 1445. A Portuguese
expedition may have attempted to colonize the Canary Islands as early as 1336, but
Castile objected to any claim by the Portuguese to the Canary Islands. Castile began
its conquest of the Canaries in 1402. Castile expelled the last Portuguese from the
Canary islands 1459. The Canary Islands would eventually be part of the Spanish
Empire.[25]

In 1434, Gil Eanes turned the Cape Bojador, south of Morocco. The trip marked the
beginning of the Portuguese exploration of Africa. Before the turn, very little
information was known in Europe about what lay around the cape. At the end of the
13th century and the beginning of the 14th, those who tried to venture there became
lost, which gave birth to legends of sea monsters. Some setbacks occurred: in 1436
the Canaries were officially recognized as Castilian by the Pope; earlier they were
recognized as Portuguese. Also, in 1438 in a military expedition to Tangier, the
Portuguese were defeated.

However, the Portuguese did not give up their exploratory efforts. In 1448, on a small
island known as Arguim off the coast of Mauritania, an important castle was built,
working as a feitoria, a trading post, for commerce with inland Africa. Some years
before the first African gold was brought to Portugal, circumventing the Arab
caravans that crossed the Sahara. Some time later, the caravels explored the Gulf of
Guinea which lead to the discovery of several uninhabited islands: Cape Verde,
Fernão Póo, São Tomé, Príncipe and Annobón.[26]

On November 13, 1460, Prince Henry the Navigator died.[27] He had been the leading
patron of all maritime exploration by Portugal up to that time. Immediately following
Henry's death, there was a lapse of further exploration. Henry's patronage of
explorations had shown that profits could be made in trade which followed the
exploration of new lands. Accordingly when exploration was commenced again
private merchants led the way in attempting to stretch trade routes further down the
African coast.[28]

In 1470s, Portuguese trading ships reached the Gold Coast.[29] In 1471, the Portuguese
captured Tangier, after years of attempts. Eleven years later in 1482, the fortress of
São Jorge da Mina in the town of Elmina on the Gold Coast in the Gulf of Guinea was
built. (Setting sail aboard the fleet of ships taking the materials and building crews to
Elmina on this trip in December 1481 was Christopher Columbus.) In 1483, Diogo
Cão reached and explored the Congo River.

[edit] The New World

In 1484, Portugal officially rejected Christopher Columbus's idea of reaching India

from the west, because it was seen as unreasonable. Some historians have claimed
that the Portuguese had already performed fairly accurate calculations concerning the
size of the world and therefore knew that sailing west to reach the Indies would
require a far longer journey than navigating to the east. However, this continues to be
debated. Thus began a long-lasting dispute which eventually resulted in the signing of
the Treaty of Tordesillas with Spain in 1494. The treaty divided the (largely
undiscovered) world equally between the Spanish and the Portuguese, along a north-
south meridian line 370 leagues (1770 km/1100 miles) west of the Cape Verde
islands, with all lands to the east belonging to Portugal and all lands to the west to
Spain.

Map of Brazil issued by the Portuguese explorers in 1519.

A remarkable achievement was the turning of the Cape of Good Hope by Bartolomeu
Dias in 1487.[30] The richness of India was now accessible. Indeed the name of the
cape stems from this promise of rich trade with the east. In 1489, the King of Bemobi
gave his realms to the Portuguese king and became Christian. Between 1491 and
1494, Pêro de Barcelos and João Fernandes Lavrador explored North America. At the
same time, Pêro da Covilhã reached Ethiopia by land. Vasco da Gama sailed for
India, and arrived at Calicut on 20 May 1498, returning in glory to Portugal the next
year.[31] The Monastery of Jerónimos was built, dedicated to the discovery of the route
to India.

In the spring of 1500, Pedro Álvares Cabral set sail from Cape Verde with 13 ships
and crews and a list of nobles that included Nicolau Coelho, Bartolomeu Dias and his
brother Diogo, Duarte Pacheco Pereira (author of the Esmeraldo) along with various
other nobles, nine chaplains and some 1,200 men.[32] From Cape Verde they sailed
southwest across the Atlantic. On April 22, 1500, they caught sight of land in the
distance.[33] They disembarked and claimed this new land for Portugal. This was the
coast of what would later become the Portuguese colony of Brazil.[34]

However, the real goal of the expedition was to open sea trade to the empires of the
east. Trade with the east had effectively been cut off since the fall of Constantinople
in 1453. Accordingly, Cabral turned from exploring the coasts of the new land of
Brazil and sailed to the southeast back across the Atlantic and around the Cape of
Good Hope. Cabral reached Sofala on the east coast of Africa in July 1500.[35] Later
in 1505, a Portuguese fort would be established here and the land around the fort
would become the Portuguese colony of Mozambique.[36]

Then they sailed on to the east and landed in Calicut in India in September 1500.[37]
Here they traded for pepper and, more significantly opened European sea trade with
the empires of the east. No longer would the Islamic occupation of Constantinople
form a barrier between Europe and the east.Ten years later in 1510, Afonso de
Albuquerque after attempting and failing to capture and occupy Zamorin's Calicut
militarily, conquered Goa on the west coast of India.[38]

João da Nova discovered Ascension in 1501 and Saint Helena in 1502; Tristão da
Cunha was the first to sight the archipelago still known by his name 1506. In 1505,
Francisco de Almeida was engaged to improve the Portuguese trade with the far east.
Accordingly, he sailed to East Africa. Several small Islamic states along the coast of
Mozambique, Kilwa, Brava and Mombasa were destroyed or became subjects or
allies of Portugal.[39] Almeida then sailed on to Cochin, made peace with the ruler and
built a stone fort there.[40]

The arrival of the Portuguese in Japan, the first Europeans who managed to reach it,
initiating the Nanban ("southern barbarian") period of active commercial and cultural
exchange between Japan and the West.

The two million Portuguese people ruled a vast empire with many millions of
inhabitants in the Americas, Africa, the Middle East and Asia. From 1514, the
Portuguese had reached China and Japan. In the Indian Ocean and Arabian Sea, one
of Cabral's ships discovered Madagascar (1501), which was partly explored by
Tristão da Cunha (1507); Mauritius was discovered in 1507, Socotra occupied in
1506, and in the same year Lourenço de Almeida visited Ceylon.

In the Red Sea, Massawa was the most northerly point frequented by the Portuguese
until 1541, when a fleet under Estevão da Gama penetrated as far as Suez. Hormuz, in
the Persian Gulf, was seized by Afonso de Albuquerque in 1515, who also entered
into diplomatic relations with Persia. In 1521, a force under Antonio Correia
conquered Bahrain ushering in a period of almost 80 years of Portuguese rule of the
Persian Gulf archipelago[41] (for further information see Bahrain as a Portuguese
dominion).

On the Asiatic mainland the first trading stations were established by Pedro Álvares
Cabral at Cochin and Calicut (1501); more important were the conquests of Goa
(1510) and Malacca (1511) by Afonso de Albuquerque, and the acquisition of Diu
(1535) by Martim Afonso de Sousa. East of Malacca Albuquerque sent Duarte
Fernandes as envoy to Siam (now Thailand) in 1511, and dispatched to the Moluccas
two expeditions (1512, 1514), which founded the Portuguese dominion in Maritime
Southeast Asia.[42]

The Portuguese established their base in the Spice Islands on the island of Ambon.[43]
Fernão Pires de Andrade visited Canton in 1517 and opened up trade with China,
where in 1557 the Portuguese were permitted to occupy Macau. Japan, accidentally
reached by three Portuguese traders in 1542, soon attracted large numbers of
merchants and missionaries. In 1522 one of the ships in the expedition that Ferdinand
Magellan organized in the Spanish service completed the first voyage around the
world.

By the end of the 15th century, Portugal expelled some local Jews, along with those
refugees that came from Castile and Aragon after 1492. In addition, many Jews were
forcibly converted to Catholicism and remained as Conversos. Many Jews remained
secretly Jewish, in danger of persecution by the Portuguese Inquisition. In 1506, 3,000
"New Christians" were massacred in Lisbon.[44]

[edit] 1580 crisis, Iberian Union and decline of the

Empire
Main articles: 1580 Portuguese succession crisis, Iberian Union, and Dutch–
Portuguese War

On August 4, 1578, while fighting in Morocco, young King Sebastian died in battle
without an heir and his body was not found.[45] His death lead to a dynastic crisis. The
late king's elderly granduncle, Cardinal Henry, became king.[46] Henry I died a mere
two years later on January 31, 1580.[47] Portugal was worried about the maintenance
of its independence and sought help to find a new king.

Philip II of Spain was on his mother's side the grandson of King Manuel I, and on that
basis claimed the Portuguese throne. He was opposed by António, Prior of Crato, the
illegitimate son of one of the younger sons of Manuel I. As a result, following Henry's
death Spain invaded Portugal and the Spanish king became Philip I of Portugal in
1580. The Spanish and Portuguese Empires came under a single rule.

This did not, however, end resistance to Spanish rule. The Prior of Crato held out in
the Azores until 1583, and continued to actively seek to recover the throne until his
death in 1595. Impostors claimed to be King Sebastian in 1584, 1585, 1595 and 1598.
"Sebastianism", the myth that the young king will return to Portugal on a foggy day,
has prevailed until modern times.

After the 16th century, Portugal gradually saw its wealth decreasing. Portugal was
officially an autonomous state, but, in actuality, the country was under the rule of the
Spanish from 1580 to 1640.[48] The Consejo de Portugal independent inasmuch as it
was one of the key administrative units used by the Castilian monarchy, on legally
equal terms with the Consejo de Indias.[49]

The joining of the two crowns deprived Portugal of a separate foreign policy, and
Spain's enemies became Portugal's. England had been an ally of Portugal since the
Treaty of Windsor in 1386. War between Spain and England led to a deterioration of
the relations with Portugal's oldest ally, and the loss of Hormuz. From 1595 to 1663
Dutch-Portuguese War led to invasions of many countries in Asia and commercial
interests in Japan, Africa and South America. In 1624, the Dutch seized Salvador, the
capital of Brazil.[50] In 1630, the Dutch seized Pernambuco in northern Brazil.[51] The
Treaty of 1654 returned Pernambuco to Portuguese control.[52] Both the English and
the Dutch continued to aspire to dominate both the Atlantic slave trade and the spice
trade with the Far East.

The Dutch intrusion into Brazil was long lasting and troublesome to Portugal. The
Seven Provinces (the Dutch) captured a large portion of the Brazilian coast including
the entire coasts except that of Bahia and much of the interior of most contemporary
Northeastern states (Bahia, Sergipe, Alagoas, Pernambuco, Paraíba, Rio Grande do
Norte and Ceará), while Dutch privateers sacked Portuguese ships in both the Atlantic
and Indian Oceans.

This was reversed, beginning with a major Spanish-Portuguese military operation in

1625. This laid the foundations for the recovery of remaining Dutch controlled areas.
The other smaller, less developed areas were recovered in stages and relieved of
Dutch piracy in the next two decades by local resistance and Portuguese expeditions.
After the dissolution of the Iberian Union in 1640, Portugal would reestablish its
authority over some lost territories of the Portuguese Empire.

[edit] Portuguese Restoration War (1640-1668)

Main article: Portuguese Restoration War

At home, life was calm and serene with the first two Spanish kings; they maintained
Portugal's status, gave excellent positions to Portuguese nobles in the Spanish courts,
and Portugal maintained an independent law, currency and government. It was even
proposed to move the Spanish capital to Lisbon. Later, Philip IV tried to make
Portugal a Spanish province, and Portuguese nobles lost power.

Because of this, as well as the general strain on the finances of the Spanish throne as a
result of the Thirty Years War, on 1 December 1640, the Duke of Braganza, one of
the great native noblemen and a descendant of King Manuel I, was proclaimed king as
John IV, and a war of independence against Spain was launched. Ceuta governors did
not accept the new king; they maintained their allegiance to Spain. Although Portugal
had substantially attained its independence in 1640, the Spanish continued to try to
reassert their control for the next twenty-eight years, only accepting Portuguese
independence in 1668.

In the 17th century the Portuguese emigrated in large numbers to Brazil. By 1709,
John V prohibited emigration, since Portugal had lost a sizable fraction of its
population. Brazil was elevated to a vice-kingdom.

[edit] Pombaline era

Main articles: Portugal from the Restoration to the 1755 Earthquake and Sebastião
de Melo, Marquis of Pombal

Sebastião José de Carvalho e Melo, Marquis of Pombal.

In 1738, Sebastião de Melo, the talented son of a Lisbon squire, began a diplomatic
career as the Portuguese Ambassador in London and later in Vienna. The Queen
consort of Portugal, Archduchess Maria Anne Josefa of Austria, was fond of Melo;
and after his first wife died, she arranged the widowed de Melo's second marriage to
the daughter of the Austrian Field Marshal Leopold Josef, Count von Daun. King
John V of Portugal, however, was not pleased and recalled Melo to Portugal in 1749.
John V died the following year and his son, Joseph I of Portugal was crowned. In
contrast to his father, Joseph I was fond of de Melo, and with the Queen Mother's
approval, he appointed Melo as Minister of Foreign Affairs. As the King's confidence
in de Melo increased, the King entrusted him with more control of the state.

By 1755, Sebastião de Melo was made Prime Minister. Impressed by British

economic success he had witnessed while Ambassador, he successfully implemented
similar economic policies in Portugal. He abolished slavery in Portugal and in the
Portuguese colonies in India; reorganized the army and the navy; restructured the
University of Coimbra, and ended discrimination against different Christian sects in
Portugal.
This 1755 copper engraving shows the ruins of Lisbon in flames and a tsunami
overwhelming the ships in the harbor.

But Sebastião de Melo's greatest reforms were economic and financial, with the
creation of several companies and guilds to regulate every commercial activity. He
demarcated the region for production of Port to ensure the wine's quality, and this was
the first attempt to control wine quality and production in Europe. He ruled with a
strong hand by imposing strict law upon all classes of Portuguese society from the
high nobility to the poorest working class, along with a widespread review of the
country's tax system. These reforms gained him enemies in the upper classes,
especially among the high nobility, who despised him as a social upstart.

Disaster fell upon Portugal in the morning of 1 November 1755, when Lisbon was
struck by a violent earthquake with an estimated Richter scale magnitude of 9. The
city was razed to the ground by the earthquake and the subsequent tsunami and
ensuing fires. Sebastião de Melo survived by a stroke of luck and then immediately
embarked on rebuilding the city, with his famous quote: "What now? We bury the
dead and feed the living."

Despite the calamity, Lisbon suffered no epidemics and within less than one year was
already being rebuilt. The new downtown of Lisbon was designed to resist subsequent
earthquakes. Architectural models were built for tests, and the effects of an
earthquake were simulated by marching troops around the models. The buildings and
big squares of the Pombaline Downtown of Lisbon still remain as one of Lisbon's
tourist attractions: They represent the world's first quake-proof buildings.[citation needed]
Sebastião de Melo also made an important contribution to the study of seismology by
designing an inquiry that was sent to every parish in the country.

Following the earthquake, Joseph I gave his Prime Minister even more power, and
Sebastião de Melo became a powerful, progressive dictator. As his power grew, his
enemies increased in number, and bitter disputes with the high nobility became
frequent. In 1758 Joseph I was wounded in an attempted assassination. The Távora
family and the Duke of Aveiro were implicated and executed after a quick trial. The
Jesuits were expelled from the country and their assets confiscated by the crown.
Sebastião de Melo showed no mercy and prosecuted every person involved, even
women and children. This was the final stroke that broke the power of the aristocracy
and ensured the victory of the Minister against his enemies. Based upon his swift
resolve, Joseph I made his loyal minister Count of Oeiras in 1759.
Following the Távora affair, the new Count of Oeiras knew no opposition. Made
"Marquis of Pombal" in 1770, he effectively ruled Portugal until Joseph I's death in
1779. However, historians also argue that Pombal‘s "enlightenment," while far-
reaching, was primarily a mechanism for enhancing autocracy at the expense of
individual liberty and especially an apparatus for crushing opposition, suppressing
criticism, and furthering colonial economic exploitation as well as intensifying book
censorship and consolidating personal control and profit.[53]

The new ruler, Queen Maria I of Portugal, disliked the Marquis (See Távora affair),
and forbade him from coming within 20 miles of her, thus curtailing his influence.

[edit] Spanish invasion of Portugal (1762)

Main article: Spanish Invasion of Portugal (1762)

In 1762 France and Spain tried to force Portugal to join the Bourbon Family Compact,
by asserting that Britain had become too powerful. Joseph refused to accept this and
protested that his 1704 alliance with Britain was no threat.

In spring 1762 Spanish troops invaded Portugal from the north as far as the Douro,
while a second column captured Almeida and threatened to advance on Lisbon. The
arrival of a force of British troops helped Portugal, blocking the Spanish advance and
driving them back across the border following the Battle of Valencia de Alcántara. At
the Treaty of Paris in 1763 Spain agreed to hand back Almeida to Portugal.

[edit] Crises of the nineteenth century

Main articles: History of Portugal (1777-1834) and History of Portugal (1834-1910)

In 1807 Portugal refused Napoleon Bonaparte's demand to accede to the Continental

System of embargo against the United Kingdom; a French invasion under General
Junot followed, and Lisbon was captured on 8 December 1807. British intervention in
the Peninsular War restored Portuguese independence, the last French troops being
expelled in 1812. The war cost Portugal the province of Olivença,[54] now governed
by Spain. Rio de Janeiro in Brazil, was the Portuguese capital between 1808 and
1821. In 1820 constitutionalist insurrections took place at Oporto (24 August) and
Lisbon (15 September). Lisbon regained its status as the capital of Portugal when
Brazil declared its independence from Portugal in 1822.

The death of John VI in 1826 led to a crisis of royal succession. His eldest son, Pedro
I of Brazil, briefly became Pedro IV of Portugal, but neither the Portuguese nor the
Brazilians wanted a unified monarchy; consequently, Pedro abdicated the Portuguese
crown in favor of his 7-year-old daughter, Maria da Glória, on the condition that when
of age she would marry his brother, Miguel. Dissatisfaction at Pedro's constitutional
reforms led the "absolutist" faction of landowners and the church to proclaim Miguel
as king in February 1828. This led to the Liberal Wars in which Pedro, eventually
forced Miguel to abdicate and go into exile in 1834, and placed his daughter on throne
as Queen Maria II.
In 1890 the British government made an ultimatum delivered on 11 January 1890, to
Portugal, forcing the retreat of Portuguese military forces in the land between the
Portuguese colonies of Mozambique and Angola (most of present-day Zimbabwe and
Zambia). The area had been claimed by Portugal, which had included it in its "Pink
Map", but this clashed with British aspirations to create a railroad link between Cairo
and Cape Town, thereby linking its colonies from the north of Africa to the very
south. This diplomatic clash leading to several waves of protest, prompted the
downfall of the Portuguese government. The 1890 British Ultimatum was considered
by Portuguese historians and politics at that time, the most outrageous and infamous
action of the British against her oldest ally.[55]

[edit] The First Republic (1910–1926)

Main article: Portuguese First Republic

The First Republic has, over the course of a recent past, lost many historians to the
New State. As a result, it is difficult to attempt a global synthesis of the republican
period in view of the important gaps that still persist in our knowledge of its political
history. As far as the October 1910 Revolution is concerned, a number of valuable
studies have been made,[56] first among which ranks Vasco Pulido Valente‘s
polemical thesis. This historian posited the Jacobin and urban nature of the revolution
carried out by the Portuguese Republican Party (PRP) and claimed that the PRP had
turned the republican regime into a de facto dictatorship.[57] This vision clashes with
an older interpretation of the First Republic as a progressive and increasingly
democratic regime that presented a clear contrast to Salazar‘s ensuing dictatorship.[58]

The revolution immediately targeted the Catholic Church: churches were plundered,
convents were attacked and religious (priests and nuns) were harassed. Scarcely had
the provisional government been installed when it began devoting its entire attention
to an anti-religious policy, in spite of a disastrous economic situation. On 10 October
– five days after the inauguration of the Republic – the new government decreed that
all convents, monasteries and all religious orders were to be suppressed. All religious
were expelled and their goods confiscated. The Jesuits were forced to forfeit their
Portuguese citizenship.

A series of anti-Catholic laws and decrees followed each other in rapid succession. On
3 November, a law legalizing divorce was passed; then laws recognizing the
legitimacy of children born outside wedlock, authorizing cremation, secularizing
cemeteries, suppressing religious teaching in the schools and prohibiting the wearing
of the cassock, were passed. In addition, the ringing of church bells and times of
worship were subjected to certain restraints, and the public celebration of religious
feasts was suppressed. The government even interfered with the seminaries, reserving
the right to name the professors and determine the programs. This whole series of
laws authored by Afonso Costa culminated in the law of Separation of Church and
State, which was passed on 20 April 1911.

A republican constitution was approved in 1911, inaugurating a parliamentary regime

with reduced presidential powers and two chambers of parliament.[59] The Republic
provoked important fractures within Portuguese society, notably among the
essentially monarchist rural population, in the trade unions, and in the Church. Even
the PRP had to endure the secession of its more moderate elements, who formed
conservative republican parties like the Evolutionist party and the Republican Union.
In spite of these splits, the PRP, led by Afonso Costa, preserved its dominance,
largely due to a brand of clientelist politics inherited from the monarchy.[60] In view of
these tactics, a number of opposition forces were forced to resort to violence in order
to enjoy the fruits of power. There are few recent studies of this period of the
Republic‘s existence, known as the ‗old‘ Republic. Nevertheless, an essay by Vasco
Pulido Valente should be consulted (1997a), as should the attempt to establish the
political, social, and economic context made by M. Villaverde Cabral (1988).

The PRP viewed the outbreak of the First World War as a unique opportunity to
achieve a number of goals: putting an end to the twin threats of a Spanish invasion of
Portugal and of foreign occupation of the African colonies and, at the internal level,
creating a national consensus around the regime and even around the party.[61] These
domestic objectives were not met, since participation in the conflict was not the
subject of a national consensus and since it did not therefore serve to mobilise the
population. Quite the opposite occurred: existing lines of political and ideological
fracture were deepened by Portugal‘s intervention in the First World War.[62] The lack
of consensus around Portugal‘s intervention in turn made possible the appearance of
two dictatorships, led by General Pimenta de Castro (January–May 1915) and Sidónio
Pais (December 1917-December 1918).

Sidonismo, also known as Dezembrismo (English "Decemberism"), aroused a strong

interest among historians, largely as a result of the elements of modernity that it
contained.[63] António José Telo has made clear the way in which this regime predated
some of the political solutions invented by the totalitarian and fascist dictatorships of
the 1920s and 1930s.[64] Sidónio Pais undertook the rescue of traditional values,
notably the Pátria (English: "Homeland"), and attempted to rule in a charismatic
fashion.

A move was made to abolish traditional political parties and to alter the existing mode
of national representation in parliament (which, it was claimed, exacerbated divisions
within the Pátria) through the creation of a corporative Senate, the founding of a
single-party (the National Republican Party), and the attribution of a mobilising
function to the leader. The state carved out an economically interventionist role for
itself while, at the same time, repressing working-class movements and leftist
republicans. Sidónio Pais also attempted to restore public order and to overcome some
of the rifts of the recent past, making the republic more acceptable to monarchists and
Catholics.

The vacuum of power created by Sidónio Pais‘ murder[65] on 14 December 1918, led
the country to a brief civil war. The monarchy‘s restoration was proclaimed in the
north of Portugal on 19 January 1919, and four days later a monarchist insurrection
broke out in Lisbon. A republican coalition government, led by José Relvas,
coordinated the struggle against the monarchists by loyal army units and armed
civilians. After a series of clashes the monarchists were definitively chased from
Oporto on 13 February 1919. This military victory allowed the PRP to return to
government and to emerge triumphant from the elections held later that year, having
won the usual absolute majority.
Official portrait of President António José de Almeida, by Henrique Medina.

It was during this restoration of the ‗old‘ republic that an attempted reform was
carried out in order to provide the regime with greater stability. In August 1919 a
conservative president was elected – António José de Almeida (whose Evolutionist
party had come together in wartime with the PRP to form a flawed, because
incomplete, Sacred Union) – and his office was given the power to dissolve
parliament. Relations with the Holy See, restored by Sidónio Pais, were preserved.
The president used his new power to resolve a crisis of government in May 1921,
naming a liberal[disambiguation needed] government (the Liberal party being the result of the
postwar fusion of Evolutionists and Unionists) to prepare the forthcoming elections.

These were held on 10 July 1921, with victory going, as was usually the case, to the
party in power. However, liberal government did not last long. On 19 October a
military pronunciamento was carried out during which – and apparently against the
wishes of the coup‘s leaders – a number of prominent conservative figures, including
Prime Minister António Granjo, were assassinated. This event, known as the ‗night of
blood‘[66] left a deep wound among political elites and public opinion. There could be
no greater demonstration of the essential fragility of the Republic‘s institutions and
proof that the regime was democratic in name only, since it did not even admit the
possibility of the rotation in power characteristic of the elitist regimes of the
nineteenth century.

A new round of elections on 29 January 1922 inaugurated a fresh period of stability:

the PRP once again emerged from the contest with an absolute majority. Discontent
with this situation had not, however, disappeared. Numerous accusations of
corruption, and the manifest failure to resolve pressing social concerns wore down the
more visible PRP leaders while making the opposition‘s attacks more deadly. At the
same time, moreover, all political parties suffered from growing internal factionalism,
especially the PRP itself. The party system was fractured and discredited.[67]

This is clearly shown by the fact that regular PRP victories at the ballot box did not
lead to stable government. Between 1910 and 1926 there were forty-five
governments. The opposition of presidents to single-party governments, internal
dissent within the PRP, the party‘s almost non-existent internal discipline, and its
desire to group together and lead all republican forces made any government‘s task
practically impossible. Many different formulas were attempted, including single-
party governments, coalitions, and presidential executives, but none succeeded. Force
was clearly the sole means open to the opposition if the PRP wanted to enjoy the
fruits of power.[68]

[edit] 28 May 1926 coup d'état

Main article: 28 May 1926 coup d'état

Gomes da Costa and his troops march victorious into Lisbon on 6 June 1926.

By the mid-1920s the domestic and international scenes began to favour another
authoritarian solution, wherein a strengthened executive might restore political and
social order. Since the opposition‘s constitutional route to power was blocked by the
various means deployed by the PRP to protect itself, it turned to the army for support.
The political awareness of the armed forces had grown during the war, and many of
whose leaders had not forgiven the PRP for sending it to a war it did not want to
fight.[69]

They seemed to represent, to conservative forces, the last bastion of ‗order‘ against
the ‗chaos‘ that was taking over the country. Links were established between
conservative figures and military officers, who added their own political and
corporative demands to the already complex equation. The pronunciamento of 28
May 1926 enjoyed the support of most army units and even of most political parties.
As had been the case in December 1917, the population of Lisbon did not rise to
defend the Republic, leaving it at the mercy of the army.[69]

There are few global and up-to-date studies of this turbulent third phase of the
Republic‘s existence.[70] Nevertheless, much has been written about the crisis and fall
of the regime and the 28 May movement.[71] The First Republic continues to be the
subject of an intense debate. A recent historiographical balance sheet, elaborated by
Armando Malheiro da Silva (2000,) is a good introduction into this debate. Three
main interpretations can be identified. For some historians the First Republic was a
progressive and increasingly democratic regime. For others it was essentially a
prolongation of the liberal and elitist regimes of the 19th century. A third group
chooses to highlight the regime‘s revolutionary, Jacobin and dictatorial nature.

[edit] New State (Estado Novo) (1933–1974)

Main article: Estado Novo (Portugal)

Portuguese colonies in Africa by the time of the Colonial War.

Political chaos, several strikes, harsh relations with the church, and considerable
economic problems aggravated by a disastrous military intervention in the First World
War led to the military 28 May 1926 coup d'état. This coup installed the "Second
Republic" that would become the Estado Novo in 1933, led by António de Oliveira
Salazar, which transformed Portugal into a proto-Fascist Axis-leaning state. This later
evolved into some mixture of single-party corporative regime.

In 1961 the Portuguese army was involved in armed action in its colony in Goa
against an Indian invasion (See Operation Vijay). The operations resulted in a
humiliating Portuguese defeat and the loss of the colonies in India. Independence
movements also became active in Portuguese Angola, Portuguese Mozambique and
Portuguese Guinea; the Portuguese Colonial War started. Portugal, during this period,
was never an outcast, and was a founding member of the North Atlantic Treaty
Organization (NATO), the Organisation for Economic Cooperation and Development
(OECD) and the European Free Trade Association (EFTA).

After the death of Salazar in 1970, his replacement by Marcelo Caetano offered a
certain hope that the regime would open up, the primavera marcelista (Marcelist
spring). However the colonial wars in Africa continued, political prisoners remained
incarcerated, freedom of association was not restored, censorship was only slightly
eased and the elections remained tightly controlled.

The regime retained its characteristic traits: censorship, corporativeness, with a

market economy dominated by a handful of economical groups, continuous
surveillance and intimidation of several sectors of society through the use of a
political police and techniques instilling fear (such as arbitrary imprisonment,
systematic political persecution and even assassination of anti-regime insurgents).

[edit] The Third Republic (1974-)

Main articles: History of Portugal (1974-1986), History of Portugal (1986-2000),
and Portugal in the 2000s
The "Carnation Revolution" of 1974, an effectively bloodless left-wing military coup,
installed the "Third Republic". Broad democratic reforms were implemented. In 1975,
Portugal granted independence to its Overseas Provinces (Províncias Ultramarinas in
Portuguese) in Africa (Mozambique, Angola, Guinea-Bissau, Cape Verde and São
Tomé and Príncipe). Nearly 1 million Portuguese or persons of Portuguese descent
left these former colonies as refugees.[72]

In that same year, Indonesia invaded and annexed the Portuguese province of
Portuguese Timor (East Timor) in Asia before independence could be granted. The
massive exodus of the Portuguese military and citizens from Portuguese Angola and
Mozambique, would prompt an era of chaos and severe destruction in those territories
after independence from Portugal in 1975. From May 1974 to the end of the 1970s,
over a million Portuguese citizens from Portugal's African territories (mostly from
Portuguese Angola and Mozambique) left those territories as destitute refugees - the
retornados.[73][74]

The newly-independent countries were ravaged by brutal civil wars in the following
decades - the Angolan Civil War (1975–2002) and Mozambican Civil War (1977–
1992) - responsible for millions of deaths and refugees. The Asian dependency of
Macau, after an agreement in 1986, was returned to Chinese sovereignty in 1999.
Portugal applied international pressure to secure East Timor's independence from
Indonesia, as East Timor was still legally a Portuguese dependency, and recognized as
such by the United Nations. After a referendum in 1999, East Timor voted for
independence and Portugal recognized its independence in 2002.

With the 1975–76 independence of its colonies, other than Macau, the 560 year old
Portuguese Empire effectively ended. Simultaneously 15 years of war effort also
came to an end; many Portuguese returned from the colonies (the retornados) and
came to comprise a sizeable number of the population: approximately 580,000 of
Portugal's 9,8 million citizens in 1981.[75] This opened new paths for the country's
future just as others closed. In 1986, Portugal entered the European Economic
Community and left the European Free Trade Association which was founded by
Portugal and its partners in 1960. The country joined the Euro in 1999. The
Portuguese empire ended de facto in 1999 when Macau was returned to China, and de
jure in 2002 when East Timor was independent.

[edit] See also

Portugal portal

Economic history of Portugal

History of Europe
History of European Union
History of Morocco
History of Portugal (711–1112)
History of Spain
List of Portuguese Cortes
List of Portuguese monarchs
List of Prime Ministers of Portugal
 Monuments of Portugal
Presidents of Portugal
Timeline of Portuguese history

[edit] Notes
Constructs such as ibid., loc. cit. and idem are discouraged by Wikipedia's
style guide for footnotes, as they are easily broken. Please improve this
article by replacing them with named references (quick guide), or an
abbreviated title. (May 2010)

1. ^ "Portugal Seeks Balance of Emigration, Immigration". Migrationinformation.org. 2002-08-

09. http://www.migrationinformation.org/Profiles/display.cfm?ID=77. Retrieved 2010-08-22.
2. ^ Local etymology: a derivative ... - Google Books. Books.google.com.
http://books.google.com/books?id=apcmAAAAMAAJ&pg=PA160&dq=lisbon+etymology&l
r=#PPA55,M1. Retrieved 2010-08-22.
3. ^ Celtic Linguistics. Books.google.com.
http://books.google.com/books?id=POGEbFpGHigC&pg=RA1-
PA270&dq=celtic+cale+harbour&lr=&sig=RIIpretXAIvSW54ICvMH82IDcrw. Retrieved
2010-08-22.
4. ^ Dictionary of Greek and Roman Geography. Books.google.com.
http://books.google.com/books?id=_sYPAAAAYAAJ&pg=PA477&dq=Cale,++name++Porto
+greek&lr=. Retrieved 2010-08-22.
5. ^ a b David Birmingham (2003), p.11
6. ^ a b Koch, John (2009). Tartessian: Celtic from the Southwest at the Dawn of History in Acta
Palaeohispanica X Palaeohispanica 9 (2009). Palaeohispanica. pp. 339–351. ISSN 1578-
5386. http://ifc.dpz.es/recursos/publicaciones/29/54/26koch.pdf. Retrieved 2010-05-17.
7. ^ Cunliffe, Karl, Guerra, McEvoy, Bradley; Oppenheimer, Rrvik, Isaac, Parsons, Koch,
Freeman and Wodtko (2010). Celtic from the West: Alternative Perspectives from
Archaeology, Genetics, Language and Literature. Oxbow Books and Celtic Studies
Publications. pp. 384. ISBN 978-1-84217-410-4.
http://www.oxbowbooks.com/bookinfo.cfm/ID/88298//Location/DBBC.
8. ^ "Rethinking the Bronze Age and the Arrival of Indo-European in Atlantic Europe".
University of Wales Centre for Advanced Welsh and Celtic Studies and Institute of
Archaeology, University of Oxford.
http://www.oxbowbooks.com/pdfs/books/Celtic%20West%20conf.pdf. Retrieved 24 May
2010.
9. ^ "O'Donnell Lecture 2008 Appendix".
http://www.wales.ac.uk/Resources/Documents/Research/ODonnell.pdf.
10. ^ http://www.aber.ac.uk/aberonline/en/archive/2008/05/au7608/
11. ^ Broderick, George (2010). "Die vorrömischen Sprachen auf der iberischen Halbinsel". In
Hinrichs, Uwe (in German). Das Handbuch der Eurolinguistik (1st ed.). Wiesbaden,
Germany: Otto Harrassowitz Verlag. pp. 304–305. ISBN 3-447-05928-1.
http://books.google.com.au/books?id=3VDH7oKtViYC&pg=PA305.
12. ^ http://multitree.org/codes/txr
13. ^ David Rohrbacher, "Orosius," in The Historians of Late Antiquity (Routledge, 2002), pp.
135–137. Rohrbacher bases the date of birth on Augustine's description of Orosius as a
"young priest" and a "son by age" in the period 414–418, which would place his age at 30 or
younger.
14. ^ Domingos Maria da Silva, Os Búrios, Terras de Bouro, Câmara Municipal de Terras de
Bouro, 2006. (in Portuguese)
15. ^ Milhazes, José. Os antepassados caucasianos dos portugueses - Rádio e Televisão de
Portugal in Portuguese.
16. ^ H. V. Livermore, A New History of Portugal (Cambridge University Press: London, 1969)
pp. 32-33.
17. ^ H. V. Livermore, A New History of Portugal (Cambridge University Press: London, 1969)
p. 76.
18. ^ Robin Hallett, Africa to 1875: A Modern History (University of Michigan Press: Ann Arbor,
1970) pp. 47-48
19. ^ H. V. Livermore, A New History of Portugal (Cambridge University Press: London, 1969)
pp. 106-107.
20. ^ Ibid., 108.
21. ^ Ibid.
22. ^ Ibid., p. 109.
23. ^ Ibid.
24. ^ Ibid., p. 109.
25. ^ Robin Hallett, Africa to 1875: A Modern History, p. 249.
26. ^ Robin Hallett, Africa to 1875: A Modern History, p. 248.
27. ^ Ibid., p. 164.
28. ^ Ibid.
29. ^ Ibid.
30. ^ H. V. Livermore, A New History of Portugal, p. 129.
31. ^ Robin Hallett, Africa to 1875: A Modern History, p. 164.
32. ^ H.V. Livermore, A New History of Portugal, p. 138-139.
33. ^ Ibid.
34. ^ Ibid.
35. ^ Ibid.
36. ^ Robin Hallett, Africa to 1875: A Modern History, p. 217.
37. ^ H.V. Livermore, A New History of Portugal, p.139.
38. ^ Percival Spear, India: A Modern History (University of Michigan Press, Ann Arbor, 1961)
pp. 162-163.
39. ^ H. V. Livermore, A New History of Portugal, p. 140.
40. ^ Ibid.
41. ^ Juan Cole, Sacred Space and Holy War, IB Tauris, 2007 p37
42. ^ H. V. Livermore, A New History of Portugal, p. 142.
43. ^ Colin Brown, A Short History of Indonesia: The Unlikely Nation, (Allen & Unwin Pub.:
Crows Nest, New South Wales, Australia, 2003) p. 33.
44. ^ Rebecca Weiner,The Virtual Jewish History Tour Portugal
45. ^ H. V. Livermore, A New History of Portugal, pp. 157-158.
46. ^ Ibid., p. 158.
47. ^ Ibid., 161.
48. ^ Ibid., pp. 163-172.
49. ^ Elliott, J.H. (2002). Imperial Spain 1469-1716 (Repr. ed.). London [u.a.]: Penguin Books.
pp. 274. ISBN 0-14-100703-6.
50. ^ Ibid., p. 170.
51. ^ Ibid.
52. ^ Ibid., p. 184.
53. ^ Kenneth Maxwell, Pombal, Paradox of the Enlightenment (Cambridge: Cambridge
University Press, 1995), 83, 91–108, 160–62.
54. ^ Ertl, Alan W. (2008). Toward an Understanding of Europe: A Political Economic Precis of
Continental Integration. Dissertation.com. p. 303. ISBN 978-1-59942-983-0.
http://books.google.co.uk/books?id=X9PGRaZt-
zcC&pg=PA303&dq=province+Oliven%C3%A7a+peninsular+war&hl=en&ei=oAaVTOCOI
pCQjAe7q_CtBw&sa=X&oi=book_result&ct=result&resnum=2&ved=0CDIQ6AEwAQ#v=o
nepage&q=province%20Oliven%C3%A7a%20peninsular%20war&f=false.
55. ^ João Ferreira Duarte, The Politics of Non-Translation: A Case Study in Anglo-Portuguese
Relations
56. ^ Wheeler, 1972
57. ^ Pulido Valente, 1982
58. ^ Oliveira Marques, 1991
59. ^ Miranda, 2001
60. ^ Lopes, 1994
61. ^ Teixeira, 1996a
62. ^ Ribeiro de Meneses, 2000
63. ^ José Brandão, 1990; Ramalho, 1998; Ribeiro de Meneses, 1998, Armando Silva, 1999;
Samara, 2003 and Santos, 2003
64. ^ Teixeira, 2000, pp. 11-24
 65. ^ Medina, 1994
66. ^ Brandão, 1991
67. ^ Lopes, 1994; João Silva, 1997
68. ^ Schwartzman, 1989; Pinto, 2000
69. ^ a b Ferreira, 1992a
70. ^ Marques, 1973; Telo, 1980 & 1984
71. ^ Cruz, 1986; Cabral, 1993; Rosas, 1997; Martins, 1998; Pinto, 2000; Afonso, 2001
72. ^ Portugal - Emigration, Eric Solsten, ed. Portugal: A Country Study. Washington: GPO for
the Library of Congress, 1993.
73. ^ Flight from Angola, The Economist (August 16, 1975).
74. ^ Dismantling the Portuguese Empire, Time Magazine (Monday, July 07, 1975).
75. ^ Andrea L. Smith (August 1, 2002). Europe's Invisible Migrants.
http://books.google.com/books?id=6i_LwP-
YW0oC&pg=PA86&lpg=PA86&dq=retornados+population+of+portugal&source=bl&ots=F3
li3LecHd&sig=bhvTUvvG_uEOowhaQ-
aU5ZmD0sA&hl=en&sa=X&ei=EaCFT4yzNOLc0QG6nOzpBw&ved=0CDMQ6AEwAg#v=
onepage&q=retornados%20population%20of%20portugal&f=false. "Thus among the 580,000
Portuguese enumerated in the 1981 census who had lived in the African colonies prior to
1975, 60 percent had been born in Portugal."

Economic history of Portugal

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History of Portugal

Prehistoric[show]

Roman rule[show]

Germanic kingdoms[show]

711–1139[show]

Kingdom of Portugal[show]

Portuguese Republic[show]

Topics[show]

v
 t
e

The economic history of Portugal covers the development of the economy

throughout the course of Portuguese history. It has its roots prior to nationality, when
Roman occupation developed a thriving economy in Hispania, in the provinces of
Lusitania and Gallaecia, as producers and exporters to the Roman Empire. This
continued under the Visigoths and then Al-Andalus Moorish rule, until the Kingdom
of Portugal was established in 1139.

With the end of Portuguese reconquista and integration in the European Middle Age
economy, the Portuguese were at the forefront of maritime exploration of the age of
discovery, expanding to become the first global empire. Portugal then became the
world's main economic power during the Renaissance, introducing most of Africa and
the East to European society, and establishing a multi-continental trading system
extending from Japan to Brazil.[1]

In 1822, Portugal lost its main colony, Brazil. Portuguese territorial claims in Africa
were challenged during the Scramble for Africa. Political chaos and economic
problems endured from the last years of the monarchy to the first Republic of 1910–
1926, which led to the installing of a national dictatorship in 1926. While Finance
Minister António de Oliveira Salazar managed to discipline the Portuguese economy,
it evolved into a single party corporative regime in 1933—the Estado Novo. The
country underwent a regime change in 1974, the Carnation Revolution, a leftist
military coup, culminating with the end of one of its most notable periods of
economic growth, which had started in the 1960s.[2] From 1974 to the end of the
1970s, over a million Portuguese citizens arrived from the former African overseas
colonies, most as destitute refugees—the retornados.[3][4] In 1986, Portugal entered
the European Economic Community and left the EFTA. The European Union's
structural and cohesion funds and the growth of many of Portugal's main exporting
companies were leading forces in the development of the Portuguese economy, and
the resultant increase in the standard of living and quality of life. Similarly, for several
years Portuguese subsidiaries of large multinational companies ranked among the
most productive in the world.[5][6][7] Tourism accounts for about 5% of the Gross
Domestic Product (GDP), while fisheries and agriculture each account for about 4%.

The country adopted the euro in 1999. Despite being both a developed country and a
high income country, Portugal's GDP per capita was of about 80% of the EU27
average.[8] The Global Competitiveness Report of 2008–2009 ranked Portugal 43rd
out of 134 countries and territories.[9] Research by the Economist Intelligence Unit's
(EIU) Quality of Life survey in 2005[10] ranked Portugal 19th in the world.

As far as to companies is concerned, the country is home to a number of world

players with international reputation, like Grupo Portucel Soporcel, a major world
player in the international paper market, Sonae Indústria, the largest producer of
wood-based panels in the world, Corticeira Amorim, the world leader in cork
production, and Conservas Ramirez, the oldest canned fish producer in continuous
operation.
Contents
[hide]

1 Pre-nationality
o 1.1 Roman province
o 1.2 Germanic rule
o 1.3 Al-Andalus
2 Kingdom of Portugal
o 2.1 Middle ages
o 2.2 Expansion of the Portuguese empire (15th and 16th centuries)
o 2.3 Atlantic Islands' sugar trade
o 2.4 Guinean gold
o 2.5 Spice trade
o 2.6 Triangular trade between China, Japan, and Europe
o 2.7 Expansion in South America
o 2.8 Expansion in sub-Saharan Africa
o 2.9 Decline: 17th to 19th century
3 The Portuguese Republic
o 3.1 The economy under the "Estado Novo" regime
3.1.1 Retrospective analysis
o 3.2 Revolutionary change, 1974
3.2.1 Nationalization
3.2.2 Land reform
3.2.3 The brain drain
3.2.4 Role of the new public sector
3.2.5 The non-financial public enterprises
3.2.6 General government
3.2.7 Macroeconomic disequilibria and public debt
3.2.8 Changing structure of the economy
3.2.9 Economic growth, 1960–73 and 1981–90
o 3.3 European Union integration: the 1990s and 2000s
3.3.1 The BPN and BPP bailouts
o 3.4 Economic crisis: the 2010s
4 See also
5 References
6 Bibliography

[edit] Pre-nationality
Before the arrival of Romans in Iberia, the peninsula had a rural-based subsistence
economy with very limited trade, with the exception of large cities on the
Mediterranean coast, which had contact with Greek and Phoenician traders. Iberians
and Celts were some of the first groups present in the territory, with the Celtic
economy centered on cattle raising, agriculture, and metal working.

[edit] Roman province

See also: Economy of Hispania

Roman fish preserving plant, Setúbal.

The territory's mineral wealth made it an important strategic region during the early
metal ages, and one of the first objectives of the Romans when invading the peninsula
was to access the mines and other resources. After the Second Punic War, from 29 BC
to 411 AD, Rome governed the Iberian peninsula, expanding and diversifying the
economy, and extending trade with the Roman Empire. Indigenous peoples paid
tribute to Rome through an intricate web of alliances and allegiances. The economy
experienced a major production expansion, profiting from some of the best
agricultural lands under Roman hegemony and fueled by roads, trade routes, and the
minting of coins, which eased commercial transactions. Lusitania developed, driven
by an intensive mining industry; fields explored included the Aljustrel mines
(Vipasca), São Domingos, and Riotinto in the Iberian Pyrite Belt, which extended to
Seville, and contained copper, silver, and gold. All mines belonged to the Roman
Senate, and were operated by slaves.

Subsistence agriculture was replaced by large farming units (Roman villas) producing
olive oil, cereals, and wine, and rearing livestock. This farming activity was located
mainly in the region to the south of the Tagus River, the third largest grain-producing
area in the Roman Empire.

There was also development in fishing activity, producing the valued garum or
liquamen, a condiment obtained from the maceration of fish, preferably tuna and
mackerel, exported throughout the entire empire. The largest producer of the entire
Roman Empire was in Tróia Peninsula, near modern Setúbal, south of Lisbon.
Remains of garum manufacturing plants show a sharp growth of the canning industry
in Portugal, mainly on the coast of Algarve, but also in Póvoa de Varzim, Angeiras
(Matosinhos), and the estuary of the Sado River, which made it one of the most
important centers for canners in Hispania. At the same time, specialized industries
also developed. The fish salting and canning in turn required the development of salt,
shipbuilding, and ceramic industries, to facilitate the manufacture of amphorae and
other containers that allowed the storage and transport of commodities such as oil,
wine, cereals, and preserves.

[edit] Germanic rule

A golden triente minted at Braga during the reign of Wittiza and bearing his rough
effigy.

With the decline of the Roman Empire, circa 410–418, Suebi and Visigoths took over
the power vacuum left by Roman administrators and established themselves as
nobility, with some degree of centralized power at their capitals in Braga and Toledo.
Although it suffered some decline, Roman law remained in the Visigothic Code, and
infrastructure, such as roads, bridges, aqueducts, and irrigation systems, was
maintained to varying degrees. While trade dwindled in most of the former Roman
lands in Europe, it survived to some degree in Visigothic Hispania.

[edit] Al-Andalus

In 711, Moors occupied large parts of the Iberian Peninsula, establishing the Al-
Andalus. They maintained much of the Roman legacy; they repaired and extended
Roman infrastructure, using it for irrigation, while introducing new agricultural
practices and novel crops, such as sugar cane, rice, citrus fruit, apricots, and cotton.
Trade flourished with effective systems of contract relied upon by merchants, who
would buy and sell on commission, with money lent to them by wealthy investors, or
a joint investment of several merchants, who were often Muslim, Christian, and
Jewish.

Little is directly known from the economic structures of the region due to the paucity
of Arab sources. It is however possible to advance a few assertions. The constant
warfare between Muslims and Christians and among Muslims certainly costed the
region dearly and must have participated to the rampant problems of underpopulation
experienced by the Gharb al-Andalus. As a matter of example, several attempts to
repopulate the regions north of Coimbra to guarantee a line of defense against the
Christian kingdom failed. The economy was heavily influenced both by structural
Islamic habits (creation of cities) and the direction chosen by the dominating Muslim
ruler of the Maghrib and al-Andalus. For instance, the great interest paid by the
Almohad dynasty to the Atlantic helped develop the military and civilian (trade,
fishery) activities of the western Iberian ports such as Sevilla, Lisbon, etc. Despite a
general impression of sustained development, specially during the 10th and 11th
centuries when the area witnessed a noticeable demographic expansion, the Gharb al-
Andalus also underwent some dramatic episodes such as the great famine of 740
which decimated the Berber colonists of the Douro region.[11]

Business partnerships would be made for many commercial ventures, and bonds of
kinship enabled trade networks to form over huge distances. Muslims were involved
in trade extending into Asia, and Muslim merchants traveled long distances for
commercial activities.[12] After 800 years of warfare, the Catholic kingdoms gradually
became more powerful and eventually expelled the Moors from the peninsula. In the
case of the Kingdom of Portugal it happened in the 13th century; in the Algarve. The
combined forces of Portugal, Aragon and Castile defeated the last Iberian Muslim
strongholds in the 15th century.

[edit] Kingdom of Portugal

King Afonso I of Portugal.

In 1139, the Kingdom of Portugal achieved independence from the Kingdom of León,
having doubled its area through the Reconquista (the reconquest of former Christian
lands to the Muslim rulers established in the Iberian Peninsula) under Afonso
Henriques, first King of Portugal. His successor, Sancho I, accumulated the first
national treasury, and supported new industries and the middle class of merchants.
Moreover, he created several new towns, such as Guarda in 1199, and took great care
in populating remote areas.

[edit] Middle ages

Starting in 1212, Afonso II of Portugal established the state's administration,

designing the first set of Portuguese written laws. These were mainly concerned with
private property, civil justice, and minting. He sent ambassadors to European
kingdoms outside the Iberian Peninsula to begin commercial relations. The earliest
references of commercial relations between Portugal and the County of Flanders
document Portuguese attendance at Lille's fair in 1267.[13] In 1297, with the
Reconquista completed, King Denis pursued policies on legislation and centralization
of power, adopting Portuguese as the official language. He ordered the exploration of
mines of copper, silver, tin, and iron, and organized for the export of surplus
production to other European countries. On 10 May 1293, King Denis instituted the
Bolsa de Comércio, a commercial fund for the defense of Portuguese traders in
foreign ports,[14] such as the County of Flanders, which were to pay certain sums
according to tonnage, accrued to them when necessary. In 1308, he signed Portugal's
first commercial agreement with England.[15] He distributed land, promoted
agriculture, organized communities of farmers and took a personal interest in the
development of exports, founding and regulating regular markets in a number of
towns. In 1317, he made a pact with the Genoese merchant sailor Manuel Pessanha
(Pesagno), appointing him Admiral and giving him trade privileges with his
homeland, in return for twenty warships and crews. The intention was the defense of
the country against pirates, and it laid the basis for the Portuguese Navy and the
establishment of a Genoese merchant community in Portugal.[16]

Agriculture was Portugal's main activity, with produce mostly consumed internally.
Wine and dried fruits from the Algarve (figs, grapes, and almonds) were sold in
Flanders and England, salt from Setúbal and Aveiro was a profitable export to
northern Europe, and leather and kermes, a scarlet dye, were also exported. Industry
was minimal, and Portugal imported armor and munitions, fine clothes, and several
manufactured products from Flanders and Italy. Since the 13th century, a monetary
economy had been stimulated, but barter still dominated trade, and coinage was
limited; foreign currency was also used until the beginning of the 15th century.[17]

In the second half of the 14th century, outbreaks of bubonic plague led to severe
depopulation: the economy was extremely localized in a few towns, and migration
from the country led to land being abandoned to agriculture and resulted in rises in
rural unemployment. Only the sea offered alternatives, with most populations settling
in fishing and trading coastal areas.[18]

Between 1325 and 1357, Alfonso IV granted public funding to raise a proper
commercial fleet and ordered the first maritime explorations, with the help of
Genoese sailors under the command of admiral Manuel Pessanha. Forced to reduce
their activities in the Black Sea, the Republic of Genoa had turned to the north
African trade of wheat and olive oil (valued also as an energy source), and a search
for gold, although they also visited the ports of Bruges (Flanders) and England. In
1341, the Canary Islands were officially discovered under the patronage of the
Portuguese king, but in 1344 Castile disputed them, further propelling the
development of the Portuguese navy.[19]

To promote settlement, the Sesmarias law was issued in 1375, expropriating vacant
lands and leasing it to unemployed cultivators, without great effect: by the end of the
century, Portugal faced food shortages, having to import wheat from north Africa.
After the 1383–1385 Crisis—combining a succession crisis, war with Castile, and
Lisbon plagued by famine and anarchy—a newly elected Aviz dynasty, with strong
links to England, marked an eclipse of the conservative land-oriented aristocracy.

[edit] Expansion of the Portuguese empire (15th and 16th centuries)

Henry the Navigator was an important figure in the early days of the Portuguese
Empire, being responsible for the beginning of the European worldwide explorations
and maritime trade.

In 1415, Ceuta was occupied by the Portuguese with the aim of controlling navigation
of the African coast, expanding Christianity with the avail of the papacy, and
providing the nobility with war. The king's son, Henry the Navigator, then became
aware of the profitability of the Saharan trade routes. Governor of the rich 'Order of
Christ' and holding valuable monopolies on resources in the Algarve, he sponsored
voyages down the coast of Mauritania, gathering a group of merchants, shipowners,
and stakeholders interested in the sea lanes. Later, his brother Prince Pedro granted
him a "Royal Flush" of all profits from trading within the discovered areas. Soon the
Atlantic islands of Madeira (1420) and Azores (1427) were reached and began to be
settled, producing wheat for export to Portugal. By the beginning of the reign of King
Duarte I in 1433, the Real became the currency unit in Portugal,[20] and remained so
up to the XX century.

In January 1430, Princess Isabella of Portugal married Philip III, Duke of Burgundy,
Count of Flanders. Around 2,000 Portuguese accompanied her, developing great
activity in trade and finance in what was then the richest European court. With
Portuguese support, Bruges shipyard was started, and in 1438 the Duke granted the
Portuguese traders the opportunity to elect consuls with legal powers, thus giving full
civil jurisdiction to the Portuguese community. In 1445, the Portuguese Feitoria of
Bruges was built.

In 1443, Prince Pedro, Henry's brother, granted him the monopoly of navigation, war,
and trade in the lands south of Cape Bojador. Later, this monopoly would be enforced
by the Papal bulls Dum Diversas (1452) and Romanus Pontifex (1455), granting
Portugal the trade monopoly for the newly discovered lands.[21]

When the Portuguese first sailed down the Atlantic, extending their influence on
coastal Africa, they were interested in gold.[22] Trade in sub-Saharan Africa was
controlled by Muslims, who controlled trans-Saharan trade routes for salt, kola,
textiles, fish, and grain, and engaged in the Arab slave trade.[23]
To attract Muslim traders along the routes traveled in North Africa, the first factory
trading post was built in 1445 on the island of Arguin, off the coast of Mauritania.
Portuguese merchants accessed the interior via the Senegal and Gambia rivers, which
bisected long-standing trans-Saharan routes. They brought in copperware, cloth, tools,
wine, and horses, and later included arms and ammunition. In exchange, they received
gold from the mines of Akan, Guinea pepper (a trade which lasted until Vasco da
Gama reached India in 1498), and ivory. The expanding market opportunities in
Europe and the Mediterranean resulted in increased trade across the Sahara.[24] There
was a very small market for African slaves as domestic workers in Europe, and as
workers on the sugar plantations of the Mediterranean and later Madeira. The
Portuguese found they could make considerable amounts of gold by transporting
slaves from one trading post to another, along the Atlantic coast of Africa: Muslim
merchants had a high demand for slaves, which were used as porters on the trans-
Saharan routes, and for sale in the Islamic Empire.

[edit] Atlantic Islands' sugar trade

Expansion of sugar cane agriculture in Madeira's captaincies started in 1455, using

advisers from Sicily and (largely) the Genoese capital to produce the "sweet salt" rare
in Europe. Already cultivated in Algarve, the accessibility of Madeira attracted
Genoese and Flemish traders keen to bypass Venetian monopolies. Sugarcane
production became a leading factor in the island's economy, and the establishment of
plantations on Madeira, the Canary Islands, and the Cape Verde Islands increased the
demand for labor. Rather than trading slaves back to Muslim merchants, there was an
emerging market for agricultural workers on the plantations. By 1500, the Portuguese
had transported approximately 81,000 slaves to these various markets,[25] and the
proportion of imported slaves in Madeira reached 10% of the total population by the
16th century.[26] By 1480, Antwerp had some 70 ships engaged in the Madeira sugar
trade, with refining and distribution concentrated in the city. By the 1490s, Madeira
had overtaken Cyprus in the production of sugar,[27] and the success of sugar
merchants such as Bartolomeo Marchionni would propel the investment in
exploratory travel.

[edit] Guinean gold

Elmina Castle viewed from the sea in 1668.

Gold Cruzado minted during King Manuel I of Portugal's reign (1495–1521)

In 1469, responding to meager returns from African explorations, King Afonso V

granted monopoly of trade in part of the Gulf of Guinea to the merchant Fernão
Gomes. For an annual rent of 200,000 reais, Gomes was to explore 100 leagues of the
coast of Africa annually, for five years (later the agreement would be extended for
another year).[28] He gained monopoly trading rights for a popular substitute of black
pepper, then called "malagueta", the guinea pepper (Aframomum melegueta), for
another yearly payment of 100,000 reais.[28] The Portuguese found Muslim merchants
entrenched along the African coast as far as the Bight of Benin.[29] The slave coast, as
the Bight of Benin was known, was reached by the Portuguese at the start of the
1470s. It was not until they reached the Kingdom of Kongo's coast in the 1480s that
they exceeded Muslim trading territory.

Under Gomes' sponsorship, the equator was crossed and the islands of the Gulf of
Guinea were reached, including São Tomé and Príncipe.

On the coast, Gomes found a thriving alluvial gold trade among the natives and
visiting Arab and Berber traders at the port then named Mina (meaning "the mine"),
where he established a trading post. Trade between Elmina and Portugal grew over
the next decade. The port became a major trading center for gold and slaves
purchased from local African peoples along the slave rivers of Benin. Using his
profits from African trade, Fernão Gomes assisted the Portuguese king in the
conquests of Asilah, Alcacer Ceguer, and Tangier in Morocco.

Given the large profits, in 1482 the newly crowned king John II ordered a factory to
be built in Elmina, to manage the local gold industry: Elmina Castle.[30] São Jorge da
Mina Factory centralized trade, which was held again as a royal monopoly. The
Company of Guinea was founded in Lisbon as a government institution that was to
deal with trade and fix the prices of the goods.

15th century Portuguese exploration of the African coast is commonly regarded as the
harbinger of European colonialism, and marked the beginning of the Atlantic slave
trade, Christian missionary evangelization, and the first globalization processes,
which were to become a major element of European colonialism until the end of the
18th century. By the beginning of the colonial era there were forty forts operating
along the coast. They acted mainly as trading posts and rarely saw military action, but
the fortifications were important, as arms and ammunition were being stored prior to
trade.[31]

[edit] Spice trade

16th century drawing of Lisbon's downtown showing Ribeira Palace where Casa da
Índia (House of India) was located.
See also: Casa da Índia and Portuguese India

The profitable eastern spice trade was cornered by the Portuguese in the 16th century.
In 1498, Vasco da Gama's pioneering voyage reached India by sea, opening the first
European direct trade in the Indian Ocean. Up to this point, spice imports to Europe
had been brought overland through India and Arabia, based on mixed land and sea
routes through the Persian Gulf, Red Sea, and caravans, and then across the
Mediterranean by the Venetians for distribution in Western Europe, which had a
virtual monopoly on these valuable commodities. By establishing these trade routes,
Portugal undercut the Venetian trade with its abundance of middlemen.

The Republic of Venice had gained control over much of the trade routes between
Europe and Asia. After traditional land routes to India had been closed by the
Ottoman Turks, Portugal hoped to use the sea route pioneered by Gama to break the
Venetian trading monopoly. Portugal aimed to control trade within the Indian Ocean
and secure the sea routes linking Europe to Asia. This new sea route around the Cape
of Good Hope was firmly secured for Portugal by the activities of Afonso de
Albuquerque, who was appointed the Portuguese viceroy of India in 1508. Early
Portuguese explorers established bases in Mozambique and Zanzibar and oversaw the
construction of forts and factories (trading posts) along the African coast, in the
Indian subcontinent, and other places in Asia, which solidified the Portuguese
hegemony.
Portuguese discoveries, explorations, conquests and overseas settlements by the 16th
century.

At Lisbon the Casa da Índia (House of India) was the central organization that
managed all Portuguese trade overseas under royal monopoly during the 15th and
16th centuries. Established around 1500, it was the successor of the House of Guinea,
the House of Guinea and Mina, and the House of Mina (respectively, the Casa da
Guiné, Casa de Guiné e Mina, and Casa da Mina in Portuguese). Casa da Índia
maintained a royal monopoly on the trade in pepper, cloves, and cinnamon, and levied
a 30 percent tax on the profits of other articles.

The export and distribution to Europe was made by the Portuguese factory in
Antwerp. For about thirty years, from 1503 to 1535, the Portuguese cut into the
Venetian spice trade in the eastern Mediterranean. By 1510, King Manuel I of
Portugal was pocketing a million cruzados yearly from the spice trade alone, and this
led François I of France to dub Manuel I "le roi épicier", meaning "the grocer king".

In 1506, about 65% of the state income was produced by taxes on overseas activity.
Income started to decline mid-century because of the costs of maintaining a presence
in Morocco and domestic waste. Also, Portugal did not develop a substantial domestic
infrastructure to support this activity, but relied on foreigners for many services
supporting their trading enterprises, and therefore a lot of money was consumed in
this way. In 1549, the Portuguese trade center in Antwerp went bankrupt and was
closed. As the throne became more overextended in the 1550s, it increasingly relied
on foreign financing. By about 1560, the income of the Casa da Índia was not able to
cover its expenses. The Portuguese monarchy had become, in Garrett Mattingly's
words, the owner of "a bankrupt wholesale grocery business".

[edit] Triangular trade between China, Japan, and Europe

A Portuguese carrack in Nagasaki, 17th century.

Goa had functioned from the start as the capital of Portuguese India, the central
shipping base of a commercial net linking Lisbon, Malacca, and as far as China and
the Maluku Islands (Ternate) since 1513.

The first official visit of Fernão Pires de Andrade to Guangzhou (1517-1518) was
fairly successful, and the local Chinese authorities allowed the embassy led by Tomé
Pires, brought by de Andrade's flotilla, to proceed to Beijing.

In 1542, Portuguese traders arrived in Japan. According to Fernão Mendes Pinto, who
claimed to have been present in this first contact, they arrived at Tanegashima, where
locals were impressed by firearms that would be immediately made by the Japanese
on a large scale.[32] The arrival of the Portuguese in Japan in 1543 initiated the
Nanban trade period, with the hosts adopting several technologies and cultural
practices, such as the arquebus, European-style cuirasses, European ships,
Christianity, decorative art, and language. In 1570, after an agreement between Jesuits
and a local daimyo, the Portuguese were granted a Japanese port where they founded
the city of Nagasaki,[33] thus creating a trading center which for many years was
Japan's main gateway to the world.

Soon after, in 1557, Portuguese merchants established a colony on the island of

Macau. Chinese authorities allowed the Portuguese to settle through an annual
payment, creating a warehouse. After the Chinese banned direct trade by Chinese
merchants with Japan, the Portuguese filled this commercial vacuum as
intermediaries.[34] Engaging in the triangular trade between China, Japan, and Europe,
the Portuguese bought Chinese silk and sold it to the Japanese in return for Japanese-
mined silver; since silver was more highly valued in China, the Portuguese could then
use their newly-acquired metal to buy even larger stocks of Chinese silk.[34] However,
by 1573, after the Spanish established a trading base in Manila, the Portuguese
intermediary trade was trumped by the prime source of incoming silver to China from
the Spanish Americas.[35][36]

As Portugal increased its presence along China's coast, they began trading in slaves.
As slave trade was not outlawed in China, many Chinese slaves were sold to Portugal
by Chinese slave traders.[37][38] Since the 16th century, Chinese slaves existed in
Portugal, most of them Chinese children, and a large number were shipped to the
Indies.[39] Chinese prisoners were sent to Portugal, where they were sold as slaves;
they were prized and regarded as better than Moorish and black slaves.[40] The first
known visit of a Chinese person to Europe dates to 1540, when a Chinese scholar,
enslaved during one of several Portuguese raids somewhere on the southern China
coast, was brought to Portugal. Purchased by João de Barros, he worked with the
Portuguese historian on translating Chinese texts into Portuguese.[41] Dona Maria de
Vilhena, a Portuguese noble woman from Évora, Portugal, owned a Chinese male
slave in 1562.[42][43][44] In the 16th century, a small number of Chinese slaves, around
29–34 people, were in southern Portugal, where they were used in agricultural
labor.[45] Chinese boys were captured in China, and through Macau were brought to
Portugal and sold as slaves in Lisbon. Some were then sold in Brazil, a Portuguese
colony.[46][47][48] Due to hostility from the Chinese regarding the trafficking in Chinese
slaves, in 1595 a law was passed by Portugal banning the selling and buying of
Chinese slaves.[49] On 19 February 1624, the King of Portugal forbade the
enslavement of Chinese people of either sex.[50][51]

Guarding its trade from European and Asian competitors, Portugal dominated not
only the trade between Asia and Europe, but also much of the trade between different
regions of Asia, such as India, Indonesia, China, and Japan. Jesuit missionaries, such
as the Basque Francis Xavier, followed the Portuguese to spread Roman Catholicism
to Asia, with mixed results.

[edit] Expansion in South America

Portuguese map by Lopo Homem (c. 1519) showing the coast of Brazil and natives
extracting brazilwood, as well as Portuguese ships.
Main articles: Colonial Brazil and Economic history of Brazil

During the 16th century, Portugal also started to colonize its newly discovered
territory of Brazil. However, temporary trading posts were established earlier to
collect Brazilwood, used as a dye, and with permanent settlements came the
establishment of the sugar cane industry and its intensive labor. Several early
settlements were founded, among them the colonial capital, Salvador, established in
1549 at the Bay of All Saints in the north, and the city of Rio de Janeiro in the south,
in March 1567. The Portuguese colonists adopted an economy based on the
production of agricultural goods that were exported to Europe. Sugar became by far
the most important Brazilian colonial product until the early 18th century, when gold
and other minerals assumed a higher importance.[52][53]

The first attempt to establish a Portuguese presence in Brazil was made by John III in
1533. His solution was simplistic; he divided the coastline into fifteen sections, each
about 150 miles long, and granted these strips of land, on a hereditary basis, to fifteen
courtiers, who become known as donatários. Each courtier was told that he and his
heirs could found cities, grant land, and levy taxes over as much territory as they
could colonize inland from their stretch of coastline. Only two of the donatários were
to have any success in this venture. In the 1540s, John III was forced to change his
policy. He placed Brazil under direct royal control (as in Spanish America) and
appointed a governor general. The first governor general of Brazil arrived in 1549 and
headquartered himself at Bahia (today known as Salvador). It remained the capital of
Portuguese Brazil for more than two centuries, until replaced by Rio de Janeiro in
1763.

The economic strength of Portuguese Brazil derived at first from sugar plantations in
the north, established as early as the 1530s by one of the two successful donatários.
But from the late 17th century onward, Brazil benefited at last from the mineral
wealth which underpinned Spanish America. Gold was found in 1693 in the southern
inland region of Minas Gerais. The discovery set off the first great gold rush of the
Americas, opening up the interior as prospectors swarmed westwards, and
underpinning Brazil's economy for much of the 18th century. Diamonds were also
discovered in large quantities in the same region in the 18th century.

Colonists gradually moved west into the interior. Accompanying the first governor
general in 1549 were members of the newly founded order of Jesuits. In their mission
to convert the Indians, they were often the first European presence in new regions far
from the coast. They frequently clashed with adventurers also pressing inland (in
great expeditions known as bandeiras) to find silver and gold or to capture Indians as
slaves. These two groups, with their very different motives, brought a Portuguese
presence far beyond the Tordesillas Line. By the late 17th century, the territory of
Brazil encompassed the entire basin of the Amazon as far west as the Andes. At the
same time, Portuguese colonists had moved south along the coast beyond Rio de
Janeiro. A Portuguese town was established on the River Plate in 1680, provoking a
century of Spanish-Portuguese border conflicts in what is now Uruguay. Meanwhile,
the use of the Portuguese language gradually gave the central region of South
America an identity and a culture distinct from that of its Spanish neighbours.

[edit] Expansion in sub-Saharan Africa

Main articles: Economy of Angola and Economy of Mozambique

Flag of the Company of Guinea established in the 15th century.

After initiating the European slave trade in Sub-Saharan Africa through its
involvement in the African slave trade, Portugal played a decreasing role in it over the
next few centuries. Although they were the first Europeans to establish trading
settlements in Sub-Saharan Africa, they failed to press home their advantage.
Nevertheless, they retained a clear presence in the three regions which received their
particular attention during the original age of exploration. The closest of these, on the
sea journey from Portugal, was Portuguese Guinea, known also, from its main
economic activity, as the Slave Coast. The local African rulers in Guinea, who
prospered greatly from the slave trade, had no interest in allowing the Europeans to
move any further inland than the fortified coastal settlements where the trading took
place. In the 15th century, Portugal's Company of Guinea was one of the first
chartered commercial companies established by Europeans in other continents during
the Age of Discovery. The Company's task was to deal with the spices and to fix the
prices of the goods. The Portuguese presence in Guinea was largely limited to the port
of Bissau. For a brief period in the 1790s, the British attempted to establish a rival
foothold on an offshore island, at Bolama. By the 19th century, however, the
Portuguese were sufficiently secure in Bissau to regard the neighbouring coastline as
their own special territory.

Queen Nzinga in peace negotiations with the Portuguese governor in Luanda, 1657.

Thousands of miles down the coast, in Angola, the Portuguese found it harder to
consolidate their early advantage against encroachments by Dutch, British, and
French rivals. Nevertheless, the fortified Portuguese towns of Luanda (established in
1587 with 400 Portuguese settlers) and Benguela (a fort from 1587, a town from
1617) remained almost continuously in their hands. As in Guinea, the slave trade
became the basis of the local economy, with raids carried ever further inland by local
natives to gain captives. More than a million men, women, and children were shipped
from this region across the Atlantic. In this region, unlike Guinea, the trade remained
largely in Portuguese hands. Nearly all the slaves who came from this area were
destined for Brazil.

The deepest Portuguese penetration into the continent was from the east coast, up the
Zambezi, with an early settlement as far inland as Tete. This was a region of powerful
and rich African kingdoms. The eastern coastal area was also much visited by Arabs
pressing south from Oman and Zanzibar. From the 16th to 19th centuries the
Portuguese and their merchants were just one among many rival groups competing for
the local trade in gold, ivory, and slaves.

Even if the Portuguese hold on these three African regions was tenuous, they clearly
remained the main European presence in Sub-Saharan Africa. It was natural to assert
their claim, therefore, in all three regions when the scramble for Africa began later.
Prolonged military campaigns were required to retain and impose Portuguese control
over the Africans in these territories in the late 19th century. The boundaries of
Portuguese Guinea were agreed upon in two stages in 1886 with France, the colonial
power in neighbouring Senegal and Guinea. No other nation presented a challenge for
the vast and relatively unprofitable area of Angola. The most likely scene of conflict
was Portuguese East Africa, where Portugal's hope of linking up with Angola clashed
with Britain's plans for the Rhodesias. There was a diplomatic crisis in 1890, but the
borders between British and Portuguese colonies were agreed upon by treaty in 1891.

[edit] Decline: 17th to 19th century

Ribeira Palace where Casa da Índia (House of India) was located, first half of the
18th century, Lisbon.

During the 15th and 16th centuries, with its global empire that included possessions in
Africa, Asia, and South America, Portugal remained one of the world's major
economic, political, and cultural powers. English, Dutch, French, and Omani interests
in and around Portugal's well-established overseas possessions and trading outposts
tested Portuguese commercial and colonizing hegemony in Asia, Africa, and the New
World. In the 17th century, the lengthy Portuguese Restoration War (1640–1668)
between Portugal and Spain ended the sixty-year period of the Iberian Union (1580–
1640).

This 1755 copper engraving shows the ruins of Lisbon in flames and a tsunami
overwhelming the ships in the harbor.

The 1755 Lisbon earthquake and, in the 19th century, armed conflicts with French
and Spanish invading forces and the loss of its largest territorial possession abroad,
Brazil, disrupted political stability and potential economic growth. The Scramble for
Africa during the 19th century pressed the country to divert larger investments into
the continent to secure its interests there. By the late 19th century, the country's
resources were exhausted by its overstretched empire, which was now facing
unprecedented competition. Portugal had one of the highest illiteracy rates in Western
Europe, a lack of industrialization, and underdeveloped transportation systems. The
Industrial Revolution, which had spread out across several other European countries,
creating more advanced and wealthier societies, was almost forgotten in Portugal.
Under the rule of Carlos I, the penultimate King of Portugal, the country was twice
declared bankrupt—on 14 June 1892, and 10 May 1902—causing socioeconomic
disturbances, socialist and republican antagonism, and press criticism of the
monarchy. However, it was during this period that the predecessor of the Lisbon
Stock Exchange was created in 1769 as the Assembleia dos Homens de Negócio in
Praça do Comércio Square, in Lisbon's city center. In 1891, the Bolsa de Valores do
Porto (Porto Stock Exchange) in Porto was founded. The Portuguese colonies in
Africa started a period of great economic development fuelled by ambitious Chartered
Companies and a new wave of colonization.

With the beginning of the French revolutionary and Napoleonic wars, Portugal
entered a period exceeding five decades during which major issues were decided
largely by the influence and pressures of foreign powers. Portugal continued faithful
to its alliance with Britain during the French wars, and sheltered by geography, was
able for a time to remain largely independent of French imperialism. In 1801, a petty
border invasion by Spanish forces allied to France seized the Portuguese border
district of Olivença in what was called the War of the Oranges. The first effects of
modern economic development began to be felt by the beginning of the 19th century,
not so much in terms of Portugal's domestic expansion but as a consequence of
foreign competition and imports. Industrializing Britain had begun to produce so
many goods—primarily textiles—so cheaply that they cut deeply into the domestic
market in Portugal and into Portuguese exports to its colony of Brazil. Just as harsh in
its effects as British competition was the closure of markets by war and the
independence of Brazil in 1822, which during 1796–1806 had accounted for three-
quarters of all Portuguese commerce, re-exports from Brazil totaling 60–80% of all
Portuguese exports; most of this valuable trade was lost. Altogether, using the level of
the year 1800 as 100, Portuguese manufactured exports, while never very extensive,
declined to 66 in 1805 and 10 in 1810 and recovered to only 27 in 1820.[54] The period
from 1808 to 1826 was a time of general price deflation, with a particularly sharp
decline in prices and commerce between 1817 and 1820. These economic pressures
were of great importance in encouraging the coastal bourgeoisie to support a revolt
for representative government that might provide more stimulus for economic
development.

Sebastião José de Carvalho e Melo, Marquis of Pombal, "The Expulsion of the

Jesuits" by Louis-Michel van Loo and Claude-Joseph Vernet, 1766.

Similarly, the loss of Brazil, coupled with the general problem of reviving commerce
in a deflated market, encouraged the first real effort to increase Portuguese
manufacturing since the Marquis of Pombal. The first two waves of Portuguese pre-
industrialization were the Ericeira program of 1675–1690 and the Pombaline efforts
of 1769–1778. The third occurred in the two years after the triumph of liberalism in
1820. 177 new manufacturing establishments were set up, an increase of 15 percent,
bringing the total to 1,031 shops, most of them very small. In the following eighteen
months, from mid-1822 to the end of 1823, the number rose by 20 percent, the main
beneficiary being the Porto district. During the following decade of internal turmoil
there was little advance in commerce, but a new wave of industrialization developed
after 1835. The Septembrist movement of 1836 was to some extent an industrialists'
movement, as some of its leaders were industrialists and small merchants, and it drew
support from artisans and workers. Certain Septembrist leaders, especially Sá da
Bandeira, were the first to conceive of the economic development of Portuguese
Africa to complement the expanded commerce and industry of metropolitan Portugal.
In general, the mechanization of Portuguese industry began around 1835, but its
dependence on the importation of steam engines and other machinery made the
process very slow. By 1845, only 30 of 634 manufacturing plants (only a few of
which could be called factories) possessed steam power. In the post-1835 phase of
mechanization, the Lisbon region progressed more rapidly than did Porto.

The basis of the Portuguese economy, agriculture, began to change, but also very
slowly. At the beginning of the 19th century, only about one-sixth of the land mass of
Portugal was under cultivation; it is doubtful if the proportion had ever been any
higher. The economic reforms of the liberal regime—selling church and some royal
lands, beginning the breakup of aristocratic entailed estates, and abolishing many
seigneurial obligations—greatly enlarged the land market and the opportunities for
agriculture. Though many foreiro and emphyteutic rights were swept away, the
reforms rallied most of the wealthier elements to the liberal regime. The extent of land
under cultivation increased, though not as dramatically as in Spain during the same
period. Among the peasantry, subsistence cultivation of corn and potatoes also
increased. Market production increased somewhat, and between 1839 and 1855
Portugal exported grain for the first time in centuries. It is not entirely clear, however,
whether this was due to greatly increased production or due to a shift in commercial
and transportation patterns, for considerable grain was also imported from Spain.
There was no significant improvement in agricultural technique, which was scarcely
as advanced as Spain's. Thus the changes in Portuguese landholding and agriculture
between 1834 and 1855 were not in any drastic productive reform, but simply in the
consolidation of a new class of middle and large landholders, drawn from the upper
middle class and the aristocracy, which now controlled the primary sources of wealth.
This class was able, together with major commercial and financial interests, to largely
control Portuguese governance for nearly seventy years after the return of the Charter
in 1842.
Minister Fontes Pereira de Melo.

Fontes Pereira de Melo was the chief proponent of a policy of economic development
that became known as fontismo, the Portuguese equivalent of the Spanish economic
expansion and railroad building of 1855–1865. Fontes consolidated the national debt
at 3% and created a new ministry of public works, building more roads, beginning
telegraph construction, and encouraging railroad expansion. New credit was obtained,
foreign investment was stimulated, and taxes were both increased and reorganized,
while tariff duties were lowered. In general, the program was aimed at laying some of
the foundations, particularly in communication and transportation, for a more modern
economy. There was little attempt at direct industrialization, however, and the costs
were borne mostly by the lower classes in the form of excise taxes. Property taxes, as
in Spain, tended to be rigged in favor of the large holders to the detriment of small
property owners. This general orientation characterized the economic policy of
Portuguese government for the next generation. Bad economic conditions in 1855–
1856, however, together with criticism for too-generous concessions to foreign
investors, played a major role in the erosion of the Portuguese government's political
support, leading to Fontes's resignation in 1856. Fontismo as practiced in the 1850s
and 1860s stressed commerce, finance, and transportation.

The first bona fide Portuguese bank, the Bank of Lisbon, was founded in 1821. The
number of banks increased to three by 1858, thirteen by 1867, and fifty-one by 1875.
Deposits increased eightfold between 1858 and 1875. The first Portuguese bankers
came primarily from wholesale commerce, since this was the major source of profit
and capital formation in the traditional Portuguese economy. Some large landowners
also became involved, but 19th century Portuguese banking showed little interest in
trying to finance industrial development. Its resources were limited, and it preferred
easy, high-interest earnings through short-term loans, state bonds, transportation
projects, and real estate mortgages. Portuguese railroad construction was begun soon
after that of Spain and on much the same financial terms, but the rhythm of its
development was considerably slower. Foreign capital, technology, and political
favoritism played a major role. The first short railway out of Lisbon was built in 1856,
and the kilometers of track increased. By the 1860s, the center of attention in public
affairs was taken by the financial situation, which bedeviled Portuguese government
to the end of the monarchy in 1910 and throughout the history of the parliamentary
republic that followed. Government debt mounted rapidly, nearly doubling between
1854 and 1869, when it hit a level of almost fifty dollars per capita, a crushing burden
for so poor a country. The royal jewels were sold and the royal estates mortgaged, but
the main problem was poor government management, waste and corruption, and
above all, extremely low revenue from an unproductive economy. All entailment of
estates was abolished in 1863, opening up the market for agricultural production, but
the effects of this were slow in arriving; fontismo relied mainly on foreign investment
and the raising of loans, while encouraging free trade (to the detriment of home-
grown manufacturing) and maintaining high excises.

A new opposition movement among radical intellectuals began after 1865. In 1867, a
small element of middle class progressives joined with the more liberal of the
Historicals to form a loosely organized grouping known as the Popular or Reformist
party. Protests among the lower classes over excises and among businessmen over
foreign competition and taxes mounted steadily. An attempt by the government to
raise excises further was blocked by a merchants' revolt in Porto and several other
cities on the first day of 1868 (and hence termed the janeirinha). The Fusionist
cabinet was forced to resign and was replaced with a Reformist ministry that hoped to
reduce the budget and balance the tax structure. Lacking organized support, internal
unity, and a clear-cut program, it accomplished little. The major development in the
Portuguese economy of the late 19th century was the expansion of agriculture, which
got underway around the middle of the century but accelerated only in the 1890s.
There were at least three main factors involved. The population increased steadily,
and despite emigration, the demand for food steadily mounted. Secondly, all
morgados (entailment of estates) were finally abolished in 1863, completing the
opening up of the land market. Third, the first tariff of the century that provided real
protection for grain was adopted in 1889. Altogether, between 1874 and 1934 the
extent of land under cultivation in Portugal increased by 70 percent. The new land
inheritance law after 1863 provided for equal division of property among heirs, and
the average size of Portuguese cultivation units remained uneconomically small. In
1868, five years after the final extinction of morgados, there were 5,678,385 agrarian
properties averaging 1.55 hectares. In much of the Minho, minifundia were even more
the rule than in Spanish Galicia. Some landlords owned many small properties and
renting was still common, but there may have been a slightly higher percentage of
small peasant proprietors than in Spain generally. Many renters retained long-term
emphyteutic rights. Expansion of peasant agriculture was encouraged by the decline
in fixed rental costs under the slow inflation of the later 19th century. The cultivation
of corn was extended, and some improvement in technique was made possible by
increased use of fertilizer, mainly manure, and new sources of water.

The greatest extension of cultivation occurred not in the heavily populated, cultivated
Minho, but in the southern two-thirds of Portugal, where the Alentejo was finally
repopulated by the close of the century. In part because of the agricultural expansion,
the 1890s were a decade of rapid growth in commerce. This occurred despite the tariff
of 1892, which marked Portugal's swing, though to a lesser degree, toward the general
trend of heavier protectionism in Europe during the late 19th century. There was also
a new wave of industrialization around the turn of the 20th century, yet it was modest
and hardly served to compensate for the extremely slow growth of domestic
manufactures. Portugal still suffered from the main deficiencies of underdeveloped
countries: lack of capital for productive investment, skilled labor, technological know-
how (there were only 150 qualified engineers in Portugal in 1870), and industrial raw
materials. There was a notable increase in corporate investment during the second half
of the century, but it was quite small by comparison with the industrialized countries.
Even during the first decade of the 20th century, corporate investment in commerce
exceeded that in industry.

By the end of the 18th century, the weight of Portuguese society had begun to shift for
the first time since the Middle Ages. Though the traditional peasant structure
remained almost unchanged, a new upper middle class of wealth and potential
influence was beginning to emerge. It was made up of elements of the commercial
bourgeoisie in the coastal towns, an elite of educated bureaucrats and officeholders,
and some of the non-aristocratic and petty noble landholders in central and south-
central Portugal. The traditional aristocracy was already in decline. However, the
incipient shift in the weight of Portuguese elites had no immediate political
consequences, for the preeminence of the virtually absolute Portuguese monarchy
remained unquestioned. The reforms of an elitist enlightened despotism fulfilled
nearly all the ambitions of the new upper middle class. The republican revolt was
more a sign of changing times, rather than an immediate threat. The real problem was
the national financial crisis precipitated by the diplomatic humiliation and political
uncertainty. A banking moratorium had to be declared, and the state neared
bankruptcy in 1891–1892. Foreign creditors demanded international control of
Portuguese customs and the German government urged a naval demonstration off
Lisbon similar to that recently brandished against Venezuela. The eminent cultural
historian and political critic Oliveira Martins became minister of finance in a new
nonparty government in 1892, but failed to win passage on effective financial
reforms. Portugal was indeed twice declared bankrupt in the final decades of
monarchy – on 14 June 1892, and again on 10 May 1902 – causing industrial
disturbances, socialist, and republican antagonism and press criticism of the
monarchy.

[edit] The Portuguese Republic

4 centavos 1917 – after the Republican revolution a new currency was adopted:
Portuguese escudo replaced the real at the rate of 1,000 réis to 1 escudo

On 1 February 1908, King Carlos I was assassinated while travelling to Lisbon.

Manuel II became the new king, but was eventually overthrown during the revolution
on 5 October 1910, which abolished the monarchy and instated republicanism.

Along with new national symbols, a new currency was adopted. The "Escudo" was
introduced on 22 May 1911 to replace the Real (Portuguese for "royal"), at the rate of
1,000 réis to 1 escudo. The escudo's value was initially set at 4$50 escudos = 1 pound
sterling, but after 1914 it's value fell, being fixed in 1928 at 108$25 to the pound. This
was altered to 110$00 escudos to the pound in 1931.[55]

Portugal's First Republic (1910–26) became, in the words of historian Douglas L.

Wheeler, "midwife to Europe's longest surviving authoritarian system". Under the
sixteen-year parliamentary regime of the republic, with its forty-five governments,
growing fiscal deficits, financed by money creation and foreign borrowing, climaxed
in hyper-inflation and a moratorium on Portugal's external debt service. The cost of
living around 1926 was thirty times higher than what it had been in 1914. Fiscal
imprudence and accelerating inflation gave way to massive capital flight, crippling
domestic investment. Burgeoning public sector employment during the First Republic
was accompanied by a perverse shrinkage in the share of the industrial labor force in
total employment. Although some headway was made toward increasing the level of
literacy, 68.1 percent of Portugal's population was still classified as illiterate by the
1930 census.

[edit] The economy under the "Estado Novo" regime

This section does not cite any references or sources. (July 2012)

Salazar observing Edgar Cardoso's Santa Clara Bridge maquette in Coimbra.

The First Republic was ended by a military coup in May 1926, but the newly installed
government failed to fix the nation's precarious financial situation. Instead, President
Óscar Fragoso Carmona invited António de Oliveira Salazar to head the Ministry of
Finance, and the latter agreed to accept the position provided he would have veto
power over all fiscal expenditures. At the time of his appointment in 1928, Salazar
held the Chair of Economics at the Law School of the University of Coimbra and was
considered by his peers to be Portugal's most distinguished authority on inflation. For
forty years, first as minister of finance (1928–32) and then as prime minister (1932–
68), Salazar's political and economic doctrines shaped the progress of the country.

From the perspective of the financial chaos of the republican period, it was not
surprising that Salazar considered the principles of a balanced budget and monetary
stability as categorical imperatives. By restoring equilibrium, both in the fiscal budget
and in the balance of international payments, Salazar succeeded in restoring Portugal's
credit worthiness at home and abroad. Because Portugal's fiscal accounts from the
1930s until the early 1960s almost always had a surplus in the current account, the
state had the wherewithal to finance public infrastructure projects without resorting
either to inflationary financing or borrowing abroad.

At the nadir of the Great Depression, Premier Salazar laid the foundations for his
Estado Novo, the "New State". Neither capitalist nor communist, Portugal's economy
was quasi-traditional. The corporative framework within which the Portuguese
economy evolved combined two salient characteristics: extensive state regulation and
predominantly private ownership of the means of production. Leading financiers and
industrialists accepted extensive bureaucratic controls in return for assurances of
minimal public ownership of economic enterprises and certain monopolistic (or
restricted-competition) privileges.

Within this framework, the state exercised extensive de facto authority regarding
private investment decisions and the level of wages. A system of industrial licensing
('condicionamento' industrial), introduced by law in 1931, required prior authorization
from the state for setting up or relocating an industrial plant. Investment in machinery
and equipment, designed to increase the capacity of an existing firm, also required
government approval. The political system was ostensibly corporatist, as political
scientist Howard J. Wiarda makes clear: "In reality both labor and capital—and
indeed the entire corporate institutional network—were subordinate to the central
state apparatus."

Under the old regime, Portugal's private sector was dominated by some forty
prominent families. These industrial dynasties were allied by marriage with the large,
traditional landowning families of the nobility, who held most of the arable land in the
southern part of the country in large estates. Many of these dynasties had business
interests in Portuguese Africa. Within this elite group, the top ten families owned all
the important commercial banks, which in turn controlled a disproportionate share of
the economy. Because bank officials were often members of the boards of directors of
borrowing firms in whose stock the banks participated, the influence of the large
banks extended to a host of commercial, industrial, and service enterprises. Portugal's
shift toward a moderately outward-looking trade and financial strategy, initiated in the
late 1950s, gained momentum during the early 1960s. Until that time the country
remained very poor and largely underdeveloped due to its disadvantaged starting
position. However, by the late 1950s, a growing number of industrialists, as well as
government technocrats, favored greater Portuguese integration with the industrial
countries to the north, as a badly needed stimulus to Portugal's economy. The
influence of the Europe-oriented technocrats was rising within Salazar's cabinet. This
was confirmed by the substantial increase in the foreign investment component in
projected capital formation between the first (1953–58) and second (1959–64)
economic development plans; the first plan called for a foreign investment component
of less than 6 percent, but the latter envisioned a 25 percent contribution.
EFTA member states since 1995.
Former member states, now EU member states. Portugal joined the then EEC in 1986
(now the EU), leaving the EFTA where it was a founding member in 1960.

The newly influential Europe-oriented industrial and technical groups persuaded

Salazar that Portugal should become a charter member of the European Free Trade
Association (EFTA) when it was organized in 1959. In the following year, Portugal
also became a member of the General Agreement on Tariffs and Trade (GATT), the
International Monetary Fund, and the World Bank.

In 1958, when the Portuguese government announced the 1959–64 Six-Year Plan for
National Development, a decision had been reached to accelerate the country's rate of
economic growth, a decision whose urgency grew with the outbreak of guerrilla
warfare in Angola in 1961 and in Portugal's other African territories thereafter.
Salazar and his policy advisers recognized that additional military expenditure needs,
as well as increased transfers of official investment to the "overseas provinces", could
only be met by a sharp rise in the country's productive capacity. Salazar's commitment
to preserving Portugal's "multiracial, pluricontinental" state led him reluctantly to
seek external credits beginning in 1962, an action from which the Portuguese treasury
had abstained for several decades.

Portuguese Military Expenses during the Portuguese Colonial War: OFMEU –

National Budget for Overseas Military Expenses; * conto – popular expression for
"1000 $ (PTE)".

Beyond military measures, the official Portuguese response to the "winds of change"
in the African colonies was to integrate them administratively and economically more
closely with the mainland. This was accomplished through population and capital
transfers, trade liberalization, and the creation of a common currency, the so-called
Escudo Area. The integration program established in 1961 provided for the removal
of Portugal's duties on imports from its overseas territories by January 1964. The
latter, on the other hand, were permitted to continue to levy duties on goods imported
from Portugal but at a preferential rate, in most cases 50 percent of the normal duties
levied by the territories on goods originating outside the Escudo Area. The effect of
this two-tier tariff system was to give Portugal's exports preferential access to its
colonial markets. The economies of the overseas provinces, especially those of both
the Overseas Province of Angola and Mozambique, boomed.

Portuguese overseas territories in Africa during the Estado Novo regime: Angola and
Mozambique were by far the two largest of those territories.

Despite the opposition to protectionist interests, the Portuguese government

succeeded in bringing about some liberalization of the industrial licensing system, as
well as in reducing trade barriers to conform with EFTA and GATT agreements. The
last years of the Salazar era witnessed the creation of important privately organized
ventures, including an integrated iron and steel mill, a modern ship repair and
shipbuilding complex, vehicle assembly plants, oil refineries, petrochemical plants,
pulp and paper mills, and electronic plants. As economist Valentim Xavier Pintado
observed, "Behind the facade of an aged Salazar, Portugal knew deep and lasting
changes during the 1960s."
Prime Minister Marcelo Caetano.

The liberalization of the Portuguese economy continued under Salazar's successor,

Prime Minister Marcello José das Neves Caetano (1968–74), whose administration
abolished industrial licensing requirements for firms in most sectors and in 1972
signed a free trade agreement with the newly enlarged EC. Under the agreement,
which took effect at the beginning of 1973, Portugal was given until 1980 to abolish
its restrictions on most community goods and until 1985 on certain sensitive products
amounting to some 10 percent of the EC's total exports to Portugal. EFTA
membership and a growing foreign investor presence contributed to Portugal's
industrial modernization and export diversification between 1960 and 1973.

Notwithstanding the concentration of the means of production in the hands of a small

number of family-based financial-industrial groups, Portuguese business culture
permitted a surprising upward mobility of university-educated individuals with
middle-class backgrounds into professional management careers. Before the
revolution, the largest, most technologically advanced (and most recently organized)
firms offered the greatest opportunity for management careers based on merit rather
than birth.

By the early 1970s, Portugal's fast economic growth with increasing consumption and
purchase of new automobiles set the priority for improvements in transportation. Brisa
– Autoestradas de Portugal was founded in 1972, and the State granted the company a
30-year concession to design, build, manage, and maintain express motorways.

[edit] Retrospective analysis

In 1960, at the initiation of Salazar's more outward-looking economic policy,

Portugal's per capita GDP was only 38 percent of the European Community (EC-12)
average; by the end of the Salazar period, in 1968, it had risen to 48 percent, and by
1973, under the leadership of Marcelo Caetano, Portugal's per capita GDP had
reached 56.4 percent of the EC-12 average.[56] On a long term analysis, after an
extended period of economic divergence before 1914, and a period of chaos during
the First Republic (1910–1926), the Portuguese economy recovered slightly until
1950, entering thereafter on a path of strong economic convergence until the
Carnation Revolution in April 1974. Portuguese economic growth in the period 1950–
1973 under the Estado Novo regime (and even with the effects of an expensive war
effort in African territories against independence guerrilla groups from 1961 onwards)
created an opportunity for real integration with the developed economies of Western
Europe. Through emigration, trade, tourism, and foreign investment, individuals and
firms changed their patterns of production and consumption, bringing about a
structural transformation. Simultaneously, the increasing complexity of a growing
economy brought new technical and organizational challenges, stimulating the
formation of modern professional and management teams.[2][57] The economy of
Portugal and its overseas territories on the eve of the Carnation Revolution (a military
coup on 25 April 1974) was growing well above the European average. Average
family purchasing power was rising together with new consumption patterns and
trends and this was promoting both investment in new capital equipment and
consumption expenditure for durable and nondurable consumer goods. The Estado
Novo regime economic policy encouraged and created conditions for the formation of
large and successful business conglomerates. Economically, the Estado Novo regime
maintained a policy of corporatism that resulted in the placement of a big part of the
Portuguese economy in the hands of a number of strong conglomerates, including
those founded by the families of António Champalimaud (Banco Totta & Açores,
Banco Pinto & Sotto Mayor, Secil, Cimpor), José Manuel de Mello (CUF –
Companhia União Fabril), Américo Amorim (Corticeira Amorim) and the dos Santos
family (Jerónimo Martins). Those Portuguese conglomerates had a business model
with similarities to South Korean chaebols and Japanese keiretsus and zaibatsus. The
Companhia União Fabril (CUF) was one of the largest and most diversified
Portuguese conglomerates with its core businesses (cement, chemicals,
petrochemicals, agrochemicals, textiles, beer, beverages, metallurgy, naval
engineering, electrical engineering, insurance, banking, paper, tourism, mining, etc.)
and corporate headquarters located in mainland Portugal, but also with branches,
plants and several developing business projects all around the Portuguese Empire,
specially in the Portuguese territores of Angola and Mozambique. Other medium
sized family companies specialized in textiles (for instance those located in the city of
Covilhã and the northwest), ceramics, porcelain, glass and crystal (like those of
Alcobaça, Caldas da Raínha and Marinha Grande), engineered wood (like SONAE
near Porto), canned fish (like those of Algarve and the northwest), fishing, food and
beverages (alcoholic beverages, from liqueurs like Licor Beirão and Ginjinha, to beer
like Sagres, were produced across the entire country, but Port Wine was one of its
most reputed and exported alcoholic beverages), tourism (well established in
Estoril/Cascais/Sintra and growing as an international attraction in the Algarve since
the 1960s) and in agriculture (like the ones scattered around the Alentejo – known as
the breadbasket of Portugal) completed the panorama of the national economy by the
early 1970s. In addition, rural areas' populations were committed to agrarianism that
was of great importance for a majority of the total population, with many families
living exclusively from agriculture or complementing their salaries with farming,
husbandry and forestry yields.

Besides that, the overseas territories were also displaying impressive economic
growth and development rates from the 1920s onwards. Even during the Portuguese
Colonial War (1961–1974), a counterinsurgency war against independentist guerrilla
and terrorism, the overseas territories of Angola and Mozambique (Portuguese
Overseas Provinces at the time) had continuous economic growth rates and several
sectors of its local economies were booming. They were internationally notable
centres of production of oil, coffee, cotton, cashew, coconut, timber, minerals (like
diamonds), metals (like iron and aluminium), banana, citrus, tea, sisal, beer (Cuca and
Laurentina were successful beer brands produced locally), cement, fish and other sea
products, beef and textiles. Tourism was also a fast-developing activity in Portuguese
Africa both by the growing development of and demand for beach resorts and wildlife
reserves.

Labour unions were not allowed and a minimum wage policy was not enforced.
However, in a context of an expanding economy, bringing better living conditions for
the Portuguese population in the 1960s, the outbreak of the colonial wars in
Portuguese Africa set off significant social changes, among them the rapid
incorporation of more and more women into the labour market. Marcelo Caetano
moved on to foster economic growth and some social improvements, such as the
awarding of a monthly pension to rural workers who had never had the chance to pay
social security. The objectives of Caetano's pension reform were threefold: enhancing
equity, reducing fiscal and actuarial imbalance, and achieving more efficiency for the
economy as a whole, for example, by establishing contributions less distortive to
labour markets or by allowing the savings generated by pension funds to increase the
investments in the economy. In 1969, with the replacement of António de Oliveira
Salazar by Marcelo Caetano, the Estado Novo-controlled nation got indeed a very
slight taste of democracy and Caetano allowed the formation of the first democratic
labour union movement since the 1920s.

Caetano's Portuguese Government began also a military reform that gave the
opportunity to militia officers who completed a brief training program and had served
in the overseas territories' defensive campaigns, of being commissioned at the same
rank as military academy graduates in order to increase the number of officials
employed against the African insurgencies, and at the same time cut down military
costs to alleviate an already overburdened government budget. Thus, a group of
disgusted captains started to instigate their peers to conspire against the new laws
proposed by the regime.[58] The protest of Portuguese Armed Forces captains against a
decree law: the Dec. Lei nº 353/73 of 1973.[59][60] would therefore lay behind a
military coup in 25 April 1974 – the Carnation Revolution.

[edit] Revolutionary change, 1974

Main article: Processo Revolucionário Em Curso

The anti-Estado Novo MFA-led Carnation Revolution had a devastating impact on the
Portuguese economy and social structure. It prompted a mass exodus of Portuguese
citizens from Portugal's African territories (mostly from the then overseas territories
of Angola and Mozambique), creating over a million Portuguese destitute refugees –
the retornados.[3][4] Although the military-led coup returned democracy to Portugal,
ending the unpopular Colonial War where thousands of Portuguese soldiers had been
conscripted into military service, and replacing the authoritarian Estado Novo (New
State) regime and its secret police which repressed elemental civil liberties and
political freedoms, it also paved the way for the end of Portugal as an intercontinental
empire and an intermediate emerging power.

The Portuguese economy had changed significantly prior to the revolution, in

comparison with its position in 1961—total output (GDP at factor cost) had grown by
120 percent in real terms. The pre-revolutionary period was characterized by robust
annual growth rates for GDP (6.9 percent), industrial production (9 percent), private
consumption (6.5 percent), and gross fixed capital formation (7.8 percent).

The post revolution period was, however, characterized by chaos and negative
economic growth, as industries became nationalized and the effects of the decoupling
of Portugal from its former overseas territories, especially Angola and Mozambique,
were felt. Heavy industry came to an abrupt halt. All sectors of the economy,
including manufacturing, mining, chemical, defence, finance, agriculture, and fishing,
collapsed. Portugal quickly went from the country with the highest growth rate in
Western Europe to the lowest, and experienced several years of negative growth. This
was amplified by the mass emigration of skilled workers and entrepreneurs (among
them were António Champalimaud and José Manuel de Mello) due to communism-
inspired political intimidation and economic stagnation.

Only in 1991, 16 years later, did the GDP as a percentage of EC-12 average climb to
54.9 percent (nearly comparable with that which had existed by the time of the
Carnation Revolution in 1974), mainly as a result of participation in the European
Economic Community since 1985. Post revolution Portugal was not able to achieve
the same growth rates as its predecessors.[2][57][61]

[edit] Nationalization

The reorganization of the MFA coordinating committee in March 1975 brought into
prominence a group of Marxist-oriented officers. In league with the General
Confederation of Portuguese Workers-National Intersindical (Confederação Geral dos
Trabalhadores Portugueses-Intersindical Nacional—CGTP-IN), the communist-
dominated trade union confederation known as Intersindical prior to 1977, they
sought a radical transformation of the nation's social system and political economy.
This change of direction from a purely pro-democracy coup to a communist-oriented
one became known as the Processo Revolucionário Em Curso (PREC). Abandoning
its moderate-reformist posture, the MFA leadership set out on a course of sweeping
nationalizations and land expropriations. During the balance of that year, the
government nationalized all Portuguese-owned capital in the banking, insurance,
petrochemical, fertilizer, tobacco, cement, and wood pulp sectors of the economy, as
well as the Portuguese iron and steel company, major breweries, large shipping lines,
most public transport, two of the three principal shipyards, core companies of the
Companhia União Fabril (CUF) conglomerate, radio and TV networks (except that of
the Roman Catholic Church), and important companies in the glass, mining, fishing,
and agricultural sectors. Because of the key role of the domestic banks as holders of
stock, the government indirectly acquired equity positions in hundreds of other firms.
An Institute for State Participation was created to deal with the many disparate and
often tiny enterprises in which the state had thus obtained a majority shareholding.
Another 300 small to medium enterprises came under public management as the
government "intervened" to rescue them from bankruptcy following their takeover by
workers or abandonment by management.

Although foreign direct investment was statutorily exempted from nationalization,

many foreign-controlled enterprises curtailed or ceased operation because of costly
forced labor settlements or worker takeovers. The combination of revolutionary
policies and a negative business climate brought about a sharp reversal in the trend of
direct investment inflows from abroad.

After the coup, both the Lisbon and Porto stock exchanges were closed by the
revolutionary National Salvation Junta; they would be reopened a couple of years
later.[62]

A study by the economists Maria Belmira Martins and José Chaves Rosa showed that
a total of 244 private enterprises were directly nationalized during the 16 months from
14 March 1975, to 29 July 1976. Nationalization was followed by the consolidation of
the several private firms in each industry into state monopolies. As an example,
Quimigal, the chemical and fertilizer entity, represented a merger of five firms. Four
large companies were integrated to form the national oil company, Petróleos de
Portugal (Petrogal). Portucel brought together five pulp and paper companies. The
fourteen private electric power enterprises were joined into a single power generation
and transmission monopoly, Electricidade de Portugal (EDP). With the
nationalization and amalgamation of the three tobacco firms under Tabaqueira, the
state gained complete control of this industry. The several breweries and beer
distribution companies were integrated into two state firms, Central de Cervejas
(Centralcer) and Unicer; and a single state enterprise, Rodoviária, was created by
merging the 93 nationalized trucking and bus lines. The 47 cement plants, formerly
controlled by the Champalimaud interests, were integrated into Cimentos de Portugal
(Cimpor). The government also acquired a dominant position in the export-oriented
shipbuilding and ship repair industry. Former private monopolies retained their
company designations following nationalization. Included among these were the iron
and steel company Siderurgia Nacional, the railway Caminhos de Ferro Portugueses
(CP), and the national airline, Transportes Aéreos Portugueses (TAP).

Unlike other sectors, where existing private firms were typically consolidated into
state monopolies, the commercial banking system and insurance industry were left
with a degree of competition. By 1979, the number of domestic commercial banks
was reduced from 15 to 9. Notwithstanding their public status, the remaining banks
competed with each other and retained their individual identities and policies.

Before the revolution, private enterprise ownership dominated the Portuguese

economy to a degree unmatched in other western European countries. Only a handful
of wholly owned or majority owned state entities existed; these included the post
office (CTT), two of three telecommunications companies (CTT and TLP), the
armaments industry, and the ports, as well as the National Development Bank and
Caixa Geral de Depósitos, the largest savings bank. The Portuguese government held
minority interests in TAP, the national airline, in Siderurgia Nacional, the third
telecommunications company Radio Marconi, and in oil refining and oil marketing
firms. The railroads, two colonial banks (Banco de Angola and BNU), and the Bank
of Portugal were majority privately owned but publicly administered. Finally,
although privately owned, the tobacco companies were operated under government
concessions.

Two years after the military coup, the enlarged public sector accounted for 47 percent
of the country's gross fixed capital formation (GFCF), 30 percent of total value added
(VA), and 24 percent of employment. These compared with 10 percent of GFCF, 9
percent of VA, and 13 percent of employment for the traditional public sector of
1973. Expansion of the public sector since the revolution was particularly apparent in
heavy manufacturing, in public services including electricity, gas, transport, and
communications, and in banking and insurance. Further, according to the Institute for
State Participation, these figures did not include private enterprises under temporary
state intervention, with minority state participation (less than 50 percent of the
common stock), or worker-managed firms and agricultural collectives.

[edit] Land reform

 This section does not cite any references or sources. (July 2012)

In the agricultural sector, the collective farms set up in Alentejo after the 1974–75
expropriations due to the coup proved incapable of modernizing, and their efficiency
declined. According to government estimates, about 900,000 hectares (2,200,000
acres) of agricultural land were occupied between April 1974 and December 1975 in
the name of land reform (reforma agrária); around 32% of these were ruled illegal. In
January 1976, the government pledged to restore the illegally occupied lands to their
owners, and in 1977, it promulgated the Land Reform Review Law. Restoration
began in 1978.

[edit] The brain drain

This section does not cite any references or sources. (July 2012)

Compounding the problem of massive nationalizations was the brain drain of

managerial and technical expertise away from public enterprises. The income-leveling
measures of the MFA revolutionary regime, together with the "anti-fascist" purges in
factories, offices, and large agricultural estates, induced an exodus of human capital,
mainly to Brazil. This loss of managers, technicians, and businesspeople inspired a
popular Lisbon saying: "Portugal used to send its legs to Brazil, but now we are
sending our heads."[citation needed]

A detailed analysis of Portugal's loss of managerial resources is contained in Harry M.

Makler's follow-up surveys of 306 enterprises, conducted in July 1976, and again in
June 1977. His study makes clear that nationalization was greater in the modern,
large, and technically advanced industries than in the traditional ones such as textiles,
apparel, and construction. In small enterprises (50–99 employees), only 15 percent of
the industrialists left as compared with 43 percent in the larger organizations. In the
largest firms (1,000 or more employees), more than half left. Makler's calculations
show that the higher the socioeconomic class of the person, the greater the likelihood
that they had left the firm. He also notes that "the more upwardly mobile also were
more likely to have quit than those who were downwardly socially mobile."
Significantly, a much larger percentage of professional managers (52 percent)
compared with owners of production such as founders (18%), heirs (21%), and
owner-managers (32%) had left their enterprises.[citation needed]

The constitution of 1976 confirmed the large and interventionist role of the state in the
economy. Its Marxist character, which lasted until the 1989 revisions, was revealed in
a number of its articles, which pointed to a "classless society" and the "socialization
of the means of production" and proclaimed all nationalizations made after 25 April
1974, as "irreversible conquests of the working classes". The constitution also defined
new power relationships between labor and management, with a strong bias in favor
of labor. All regulations with reference to layoffs, including collective redundancy,
were circumscribed by Article 53.[citation needed]
[edit] Role of the new public sector

This section does not cite any references or sources. (July 2012)

After the revolution, the Portuguese economy experienced a rapid, and sometimes
uncontrollable, expansion of public expenditures—both in the general government
and in public enterprises. The lag in public sector receipts resulted in large public
enterprise and government deficits. In 1982, the borrowing requirement of the
consolidated public sector reached 24 percent of GDP, its peak level; it was reduced
to 9 percent of GDP by 1990.

To rein in domestic demand growth, the Portuguese government was obliged to

pursue International Monetary Fund (IMF)-monitored stabilization programs in 1977–
78 and 1983–85. The large negative savings of the public sector (including the state-
owned enterprises) became a structural feature of Portugal's political economy after
the revolution. Other official impediments to rapid economic growth after 1974
included all-pervasive price regulation, as well as heavy-handed intervention in factor
markets and the distribution of income.

In 1989, Prime Minister Aníbal Cavaco Silva succeeded in mobilizing the required
two-thirds vote in the National Assembly to amend the constitution, thereby
permitting the denationalization of the state-owned banks and other public enterprises.
Privatization, economic deregulation, and tax reform became the salient concerns of
public policy as Portugal prepared itself for the challenges and opportunities of
membership in the EC's single market in the 1990s.

[edit] The non-financial public enterprises

This section does not cite any references or sources. (July 2012)

Following the sweeping nationalizations of the mid-1970s, public enterprises became

a major component of Portugal's consolidated public sector. Portugal's nationalized
sector in 1980 included a core of fifty non-financial enterprises, which were entirely
government owned. This so-called public non-financial enterprise group included the
Institute of State Participation, a holding company with investments in some seventy
subsidiary enterprises; a number of state-owned entities manufacturing or selling
goods and services grouped with nationalized enterprises for national accounts
purposes (arms, agriculture, and public infrastructure such as ports); and a large
number of over 50 percent EPNF-owned subsidiaries operating under private law.
Altogether, these public enterprises accounted for 25 percent of VA in GDP, 52
percent of GFCF, and 12 percent of Portugal's total employment. In terms of VA and
GFCF, the relative scale of Portugal's public entities exceeded that of the other
western European economies, including the EC member countries.

Although the nationalizations broke up the concentration of economic power that had
been held by financial-industrial groups, the subsequent merger of several private
firms into single publicly owned enterprises left domestic markets even more
monopolized. Apart from special cases, as in iron and steel, where the economies of
scale are optimal for very large firms, there was some question as to the desirability of
establishing national monopolies. The elimination of competition following the
official takeover of industries such as cement, chemicals, and trucking probably
reduced managerial incentives for cost reduction and technical advance.

It was not surprising that numerous nationalized enterprises experienced severe

operating and financial difficulties. State operations faced considerable uncertainty as
to the goals of public enterprises, with negative implications for decision making,
often at odds with market criteria. In many instances, managers of public firms were
less able than their private-sector counterparts to resist strong wage demands from
militant unions. Further, public firm managers were required for political expediency
to maintain a redundant labor force and freeze prices or utility rates for long periods
in the face of rising costs. Overstaffing was particularly flagrant at Petrogal, the
national petroleum monopoly, and Estaleiros Navais de Setúbal (Setenave), the
wholly state-owned shipbuilding and repairing enterprise. The failure of the public
transportation firms to raise fares during a time of accelerating inflation resulted in
substantial operating losses and obsolescence of the sector's capital stock.

As a group, the public enterprises performed poorly financially and relied excessively
on debt financing from both domestic and foreign commercial banks. The operating
and financial problems of the public enterprise sector were revealed in a study by the
Bank of Portugal covering the years 1978–80. Based upon a survey of fifty-one
enterprises, which represented 92 percent of the sector's VA, the analysis confirmed
the debilitated financial condition of the public enterprises, as evidenced by their
inadequate equity and liquidity ratios. The consolidated losses of the firms included in
the survey increased from 18.3 to 40.3 million contos from 1978 to 1980, or 4.6
percent to 6.1 percent of net worth, respectively. Losses were concentrated in
transportation and to a lesser extent transport equipment and materials (principally
shipbuilding and ship repair). The budgetary burden of the public enterprises was
substantial: enterprise transfers to the Portuguese government (mainly taxes) fell short
of government receipts in the forms of subsidies and capital transfers. The largest
nonfinancial state enterprises recorded (inflation-discounted) losses in the seven-year
period from 1977 to 1983 equivalent to 11 percent on capital employed.
Notwithstanding their substantial operating losses and weak capital structure, these
large enterprises financed 86 percent of their capital investments from 1977 to 1983
through increased debt, of which two-thirds was foreign. The rapid buildup of
Portugal's external debt from 1978 to 1985 was largely associated with the public
enterprises.

[edit] General government

This section does not cite any references or sources. (July 2012)

The share of general government expenditure (including capital outlays) in GDP rose
from 23 percent in 1973 to 46 percent in 1990. On the revenue side, the upward trend
was less pronounced: the share increased from nearly 23 percent in 1973 to 39.2
percent in 1990. From a modest surplus before the revolution in 1973, the government
balance swung to a wide deficit of 12 percent of GDP in 1984, declining thereafter to
around 5.4 percent of GDP in 1990. Significantly, both current expenditures and
capital expenditures roughly doubled their shares of GDP between 1973 and 1990:
government current outlays rose from 19.5 percent to 40.2 percent, capital outlays
from 3.2 percent to 5.7 percent.

Apart from the growing investment effort, which included capital transfers to the
public enterprises, government expenditure patterns since the revolution reflected
rapid expansion in the number of civil servants and pressure to redistribute income,
mainly through current transfers and subsidies, as well as burgeoning interest
obligations. The category "current transfers" nearly tripled its share of GDP between
1973 and 1990, from under 5 percent to 13.4 percent, reflecting the explosive growth
of the social security system, both with respect to the number of persons covered and
the upgrading of benefits. Escalating interest payments on the public debt, from less
than half a percent of GDP in 1973 to 8.2 percent of GDP in 1990, were the result of
both a rise in the debt itself and higher real effective interest rates.

The narrowing of the government deficit since the mid-1980s and the associated
easing of the borrowing requirement was caused both by a small increase in the share
of receipts (by two percentage points) and the relatively sharper contraction of current
subsidies, from 7.6 percent of GDP in 1984 to 1.5 percent of GDP in 1990. This
reduction was a direct consequence of the gradual abandonment by the government of
its policy of curbs on rises in public utility rates and food prices, against which it paid
subsidies to public enterprises.

Tax reform—comprising both direct and indirect taxation—was a major element in a

more comprehensive effort to modernize the economy in the late 1980s. The key
objective of these reforms was to promote more efficient and market-oriented
economic performance.

Prior to the reform, about 90 percent of the personal tax base consisted of labor
income. Statutory marginal tax rates on labor income were very high, even at
relatively low income levels, especially after the revolution. The large number of tax
exemptions and fiscal benefits, together with high marginal tax rates, entailed the
progressive erosion of the tax base through tax avoidance. Furthermore, Portuguese
membership in the EC created the imperative for a number of changes in the tax
system, especially the introduction of the value-added tax.

Reform proceeded in two major installments: the VAT was introduced in 1986; the
income tax reform, for both personal and corporate income, became effective in 1989.
The VAT, whose normal rate was 17%, replaced all indirect taxes, such as the
transactions tax, railroad tax, and tourism tax. Marginal tax rates on both personal and
corporate income were substantially cut, and in the case of individual taxes, the
number of brackets was reduced to five. The basic rate of corporate tax was 36.5%,
and the top marginal tax rate on personal income was cut from 80% to 40%. A 25%
capital gains tax was levied on direct and portfolio investment. Business proceeds
invested in development projects were exempt from capital gains tax if the assets
were retained for at least two years.
Preliminary estimates indicated that part of the observed increase in direct tax revenue
in 1989–90 was of a permanent nature, the consequence of a redefinition of taxable
income, a reduction in allowed deductions, and the termination of most fiscal benefits
for corporations. The resulting broadening of the income tax base permitted a
lowering of marginal tax rates, greatly reducing the disincentive effects to labor and
saving.

[edit] Macroeconomic disequilibria and public debt

This section does not cite any references or sources. (July 2012)

Mário Soares of the Socialist Party (PS), served as Prime Minister of Portugal from
1976 to 1978 and from 1983 to 1985. Portugal's economic situation obliged the
government to pursue International Monetary Fund (IMF)-monitored stabilization
programs in 1977–78 and 1983–85.

Between 1973 and 1988, the general government debt/GDP ratio quadrupled,
reaching a peak of 74 percent in 1988. This growth in the absolute and relative debt
was only partially attributable to the accumulation of government deficits. It also
reflected the reorganization of various public funds and enterprises, the separation of
their accounts from those of the government, and their fiscal consolidation. The rising
trend of the general government debt/GDP ratio was reversed in 1989, as a surge in
tax revenues linked to the tax reform and the shrinking public enterprise deficits
reduced the public sector borrowing requirement (PSBR) relative to GDP. After
falling to 67% in 1990, the general government debt/GDP ratio was expected to
continue to decline, reflecting fiscal restraint and increased proceeds from
privatization.
The financing structure of the public deficits had changed since the mid-1980s due to
two factors. First, the easing of the PSBR and the government's determination to
reduce the foreign debt/GDP ratio led to a sharp reduction in borrowing abroad.
Second, since 1985 the share of nonmonetary financing had increased steeply, not
only in the form of public issues of Treasury bills but also, since 1987–88, in the form
of medium-term Treasury bonds.

The magnitude of the public sector deficit (including that of the public enterprises)
had a crowding-out effect on private investment. The nationalized banks were obliged
by law to increase their holding of government paper bearing negative real interest
rates. This massive absorption of funds by the public sector was largely at the expense
of private enterprises whose financing was often constrained by quantitative credit
controls.

Portugal's membership in the EC resulted in substantial net transfers averaging 1.5

percent of annual GDP during 1987–90. The bulk of these transfers were "structural"
funds that were used for infrastructure developments and professional training.
Additional EC funds, also allocated through the public sector, were designed for the
development of Portugal's agricultural and industrial sectors.

After 1985, the PSBR began to show a substantial decline, largely as a result of the
improved financial position of public enterprises. Favorable exogenous factors (lower
oil prices, lower interest rates, and depreciation of the dollar) helped to moderate
operating costs. More important, however, was the shift in government policy. Public
enterprise managers were given greater autonomy in investment, labor, and product
pricing. Significantly, the combined deficit of the nonfinancial public enterprises fell
to below 2 percent of GDP on average in 1987–88 from 8 percent of GDP in 1985–
86. In 1989 the borrowing requirements of those enterprises fell further to 1 percent of
GDP.

In April 1990, legislation concerning privatization was enacted following an

amendment to the constitution in June 1989 that provided the basis for complete (100
percent) divestiture of nationalized enterprises. Among the stated objectives of
privatization were to modernize economic units, increase their competitiveness, and
contribute to sectoral restructuring; to reduce the role of the state in the economy; to
contribute to the development of capital markets; and to widen the participation of
Portuguese citizens in the ownership of enterprises, giving particular attention to the
workers of the enterprises and to small shareholders.

The government was concerned about the strength of foreign investment in

privatizations and wanted to reserve the right to veto some transactions. But, as a
member of the EC, Portugal would eventually have to accept investment from other
member countries on parity with investment of its nationals. Significantly,
government proceeds from privatization of nationalized enterprises would primarily
be used to reduce public debt, and to the extent that profits would rise after
privatization, tax revenues would expand. In 1991, proceeds from privatization were
expected to amount to 2.5 percent of GDP.

[edit] Changing structure of the economy

 This section does not cite any references or sources. (July 2012)

The Portuguese economy had changed significantly by 1973, compared with its
position in 1961. Total output (GDP at factor cost) grew by 120 percent in real terms.
The industrial sector was three times greater, and the services sector doubled;
however, agriculture, forestry, and fishing advanced by only 16 percent.
Manufacturing, the major component of the secondary sector, tripled during this time.
Industrial expansion was concentrated in large-scale enterprises using modern
technology.

The composition of GDP also changed markedly from 1961 to 1973. The share of the
primary sector (agriculture, forestry, and fishing) in GDP shrank from 23 to 16.8
percent, and the contribution of the secondary (or industrial) sector (manufacturing,
construction, mining, electricity, gas, and water) increased from 37 to 44 percent. The
services sector's share in GDP remained constant at 39.4 percent. Within the industrial
sector, the contribution of manufacturing advanced from 30 to 35 percent and that of
construction from 4.6 to 6.4 percent.

The progressive "opening" of Portugal to the world economy was reflected in the
growing shares of exports and imports (both visible and invisible) in national output
and income. Further, the composition of Portugal's balance of international payments
altered substantially. From 1960 to 1973, the merchandise trade deficit widened, but
owing to a growing surplus on invisibles—including tourist receipts and emigrant
worker remittances—the deficit in the current account gave way to a surplus from
1965 onwards. Beginning with that year, the long-term capital account typically
registered a deficit, the counterpart of the current account surplus. Even though the
nation attracted a rising level of capital from abroad (both direct investments and
loans), official and private Portuguese investments in the "overseas territories" were
greater still, causing the net outflow on the long-term capital account.

The growth rate of Portuguese merchandise exports during the period 1959 to 1973
was 11 percent per annum. In 1960 the bulk of exports was accounted for by a few
products such as canned fish, raw and manufactured cork, cotton textiles, and wine.
By contrast, in the early 1970s, Portugal's export list underwent diversification,
including both consumer and capital goods. Several branches of Portuguese industry
became export-oriented, and in 1973 over one-fifth of Portuguese manufactured
output was exported.

The radical nationalization-expropriation measures in the mid-1970s were initially

accompanied by a policy-induced redistribution of national income from property
owners, entrepreneurs, and private managers and professionals to industrial and
agricultural workers. This wage explosion favoring workers with a high propensity to
consume had a dramatic impact on the nation's economic growth and pattern of
expenditures. Private and public consumption combined rose from 81 percent of
domestic expenditure in 1973 to nearly 102 percent in 1975. The counterpart of
overconsumption in the face of declining national output was a contraction in both
savings and fixed capital formation, depletion of stocks, and a huge balance-of-
payments deficit. The rapid increase in production costs associated with the surge in
unit labor costs between 1973 and 1975 contributed significantly to the decline in
Portugal's ability to compete in foreign markets. Real exports fell between 1973 and
1976, and their share in total expenditures declined from nearly 26 percent to 16.5
percent.

The economic dislocations of metropolitan Portugal associated with the income

leveling and nationalization-expropriation measures were exacerbated by the sudden
loss of the nation's African colonies in 1974 and 1975 and the reabsorption of
overseas settlers, the global recession, and the international energy crisis.

Over the longer period, 1973–90, the composition of Portugal's GDP at factor cost
changed significantly. The contribution of agriculture, forestry, and fishing as a share
of total production continued its inexorable decline, to 6.1 percent from 12.2 percent
in 1973. In contrast to the pre-revolutionary period, 1961–73, when the industrial
sector grew by 9 percent annually and its contribution to GDP expanded, industry's
share narrowed from 44 to 38.4 percent of GDP. Manufacturing, the major component
of the industrial sector, contributed relatively less to GDP in 1990, falling from 35 to
28 percent. Most striking was the 16 percentage point increase in the participation of
the services sector from 39 percent to 55.5 percent. Most of this growth reflected the
proliferation of civil service employment and the associated cost of public
administration, together with the dynamic contribution of tourism services during the
1980s.

[edit] Economic growth, 1960–73 and 1981–90

There was a striking contrast between the economic growth and levels of capital
formation in the 1960–73 period and in the 1980s. The pre-revolutionary period was
characterized by robust annual growth rates for GDP (6.9 percent), industrial
production (9 percent), private consumption (6.5 percent), and gross fixed capital
formation (7.8 percent). By way of contrast, the 1980s exhibited slower annual
growth rates for GDP (2.7 percent), industrial production (4.8 percent), private
consumption (2.7 percent), and fixed capital formation (3.1 percent). As a result of
worker emigration and the military draft, employment declined during the earlier
period, but increased by 1.4 percent annually during the 1980s. Significantly, labor
productivity (GDP growth/employment growth) grew by a sluggish rate of 1.3 percent
annually in the more recent period compared with the extremely rapid annual growth
rate of 7.4 percent earlier. Inflation, as measured by the GDP deflator, averaged a
modest 4 percent a year before the revolution compared with nearly 18 percent
annually during the 1980s.[2][57][61] In 1960, Portugal joined the European Free Trade
Association (EFTA) as a founding member.

Although the investment coefficients were roughly similar (24 percent of GDP
allocated to fixed capital formation in the earlier period compared to 26.7 percent
during the 1980s), the overall investment productivity or efficiency (GDP growth
rate/investment coefficient) was nearly three times greater before the revolution (28.6
percent) than in the 1980s (10.1 percent).

In 1960, at the initiation of Salazar's more outward-looking economic policy,

Portugal's per capita GDP was only 38 percent of the EC-12 average; by the end of
the Salazar period, in 1968, it had risen to 48 percent, and in 1973, on the eve of the
revolution, Portugal's per capita GDP had reached 56.4 percent of the EC-12 average.
In 1975, when revolutionary turmoil peaked, Portugal's per capita GDP declined to
52.3 percent of the EC-12 average. Convergence of real GDP growth toward the EC
average occurred as a result of Portugal's economic resurgence since 1985. In 1991
Portugal's GDP per capita climbed to 54.9 percent of the EC average, exceeding by a
fraction the level attained during the worst revolutionary period.[63] In addition, the
events of 1974 prompted a mass exodus of citizens from Portugal's African territories
(mostly from Portuguese Angola and Mozambique), creating over a million
Portuguese destitute refugees known as the retornados.[64]

Portugal entered the European Economic Community (EEC) in 1986 and left the
European Free Trade Association (EFTA), which it had helped found in 1960. An
important external influx of structural and cohesion funds was managed by the
country as the EEC evolved to the European Union (EU) and beyond.

[edit] European Union integration: the 1990s and 2000s

In the 1990s many motorways were opened. Shown is the A28 motorway in the
Grande Porto subregion.

Portugal experienced a strong recovery in a few decades after the leftist turmoil of
1974, the ultimate loss of its overseas empire in 1975, and the adhesion to the
European Economic Community in 1986.

The European Union's structural and cohesion funds, and the growth of many of
Portugal's main exporting companies, which became leading world players in a
number of economic sectors, such as engineered wood, injection molding, plastics,
specialized software, ceramics, textiles, footwear, paper, cork, and fine wine, among
others, was a major factor in the development of the Portuguese economy and
improvements in the standard of living and quality of life. Similarly, for several years,
the Portuguese subsidiaries of large multinational companies, such as Siemens
Portugal, Volkswagen Autoeuropa, Qimonda Portugal, IKEA, Nestlé Portugal,
Microsoft Portugal,[5] Unilever/Jerónimo Martins, and Danone Portugal, ranked
among the best in the world for productivity.[65][66]
In 2002, Portugal introduced the single European currency, the euro. Together with
other EU member states Portugal founded the Eurozone.

Among the most notable Portugal-based global companies that expanded

internationally in the 1990s and first decade of the 21st century were Sonae, Sonae
Indústria, Amorim, Sogrape, EFACEC, Portugal Telecom, Jerónimo Martins, Cimpor,
Unicer, Millennium bcp, Lactogal, Sumol + Compal, Cerealis, Frulact, Ambar, Bial,
Critical Software, Active Space Technologies, YDreams, Galp Energia, Energias de
Portugal, Visabeira, Renova, Delta Cafés, Derovo, Teixeira Duarte, Soares da Costa,
Portucel Soporcel, Salsa jeans, Grupo José de Mello, Valouro, Sovena Group,
Simoldes, Iberomoldes, and Logoplaste.[citation needed]

Although being both a developed and a high income country, Portugal had the lowest
GDP per capita in western Europe, and the average income was one of the lowest in
the European Union. According to the Eurostat it had the sixth-lowest purchasing
power of the 27 member states of the European Union for the period 2005–2007.[67]
However, research about quality of life by the Economist Intelligence Unit's (EIU)
Quality-of-life Survey[10] placed Portugal 19th in the world for 2005, ahead of other
economically and technologically advanced countries such as France, Germany, the
United Kingdom, and South Korea, but nine places behind its only neighbour, Spain.

Several new stadiums were built for the UEFA Euro 2004,[68] but a number of these
have remained underutilized since then. Shown is the Algarve Stadium.

The Global Competitiveness Report for 2005, published by the World Economic
Forum, placed Portugal 22nd, ahead of countries and territories such as Spain, Ireland,
France, Belgium, and Hong Kong. On the Technology index, Portugal ranked 20th,
on the Public Institutions Index, Portugal ranked 15th best, and on the
Macroeconomic Index, Portugal was placed 37th.[69] The Global Competitiveness
Index 2007–2008 placed Portugal 40th out of 131 countries and territories.[70]
However, the Global Competitiveness Report 2008–2009 edition placed Portugal 43rd
out of 134.[9]

Related to the notable economic development that was seen in Portugal from the
1960s to the early 21st century (with an abrupt but short-lived halt after 1974), the
development of tourism, which allowed increased exposure for national cultural
heritage, particularly in regards to architecture and local cuisine, improved further.
The adoption of the euro and the organization of Expo 98 World Fair in Lisbon, the
2001 European Culture Capital in Porto, and the Euro 2004 football championship,
were also important landmarks in the economic history of the country.

GDP growth in 2006, at 1.3%, was the lowest in all of Europe. In the first decade of
the 21st century, the Czech Republic, Greece, Malta, Slovakia, and Slovenia all
overtook Portugal in terms of GDP (PPP) per head. Greece had been a regular
comparison point for Portugal since EU adhesion as both countries were formerly
ruled by authoritarian governments and share similar EU-membership history, number
of inhabitants, market size and tastes, national economies, mediterranean culture,
sunny weather, and tourist appeal; however, the Greek economic and financial wealth
of the first five years of the 21st century was artificially boosted and was hampered by
lack of sustainability, and they were caught out by a massive crisis by 2010.[71][72][73]
Portuguese GDP per head has fallen from just over 80% of the EU 25 average in 1999
to just over 70% in 2007. This poor performance of the Portuguese economy was
explored in April 2007 by The Economist, which described Portugal as "a new sick
man of Europe".[74] From 2002 to 2007, the unemployment rate increased by 65%; the
number of unemployed citizens grew from 270,500 in 2002 to 448,600 in 2007.[75] By
December 2009, the unemployment rate had passed the 10% mark.

Overall, the late 1990s and the first decade of the 21st century were marked by a
lagging economy where Portugal not only failed to catch up to the EU average, but
actually fell behind for a period. This is partly because the EU gave money to
Portugal in return for enforcing a ban on agriculture in areas where agriculture had
traditionally been done, ensuring that Portugal could not be self-sufficient. Public
expenditure rose to unsustainable levels and the number of public servants, which had
been on the rise since the 1974 Carnation Revolution, reached unprecedented
proportions. State-funded and supported construction projects such as those related to
the Expo 98 World Fair in Lisbon, the 2004 European Football Championship, and a
number of new motorways, proved to have little positive effect in fostering
sustainable growth. The short-term impact of these major investments was exhausted
by the end of the first decade of the 21st century, and the aim of achieving faster
economic growth and the improvement of the population's purchasing power in
relation to the EU average did not materialize. To make matters worse, the late 2000s
recession, when much of the industrialized world entered a deep recession, led to
increased unemployment and a downturn.

In December 2009, ratings agency Standard and Poor's lowered its long-term credit
assessment of Portugal from "stable" to "negative", voicing pessimism on the
country's structural economic weaknesses and poor competitiveness, which would
hamper growth and the capacity to strengthen its public finances and reduce debt.[76]
Lack of government regulation; easy lending in the housing market, including Spain's
and US markets, meant anyone could qualify for a home loan with no government
regulations in place, and with key players, including bankers and politicians in several
countries, making the wrong financial decisions, saw the world's biggest financial
collapse. Portugal had to add a chronic public servant overcapacity problem, a severe
sovereign debt crisis and a small, relatively weak, economy to the equation.

Notwithstanding the bad macroeconomic environment, modern non-traditional

technology-based industries like aerospace, biotechnology and information
technology, were developed in several locations across the country. Alverca,
Covilhã,[77] Évora,[78] and Ponte de Sor became the main centres of Portuguese
aerospace industry, led by Brazil-based company Embraer and the Portuguese
company OGMA. Since after the turn of the 21st century, many major biotechnology
and information technology industries were founded and proliferated in the
metropolitan areas of Lisbon, Porto, Braga, Coimbra and Aveiro.

[edit] The BPN and BPP bailouts

During the global economic crisis, it was known in 2008–2009 that two Portuguese
banks (Banco Português de Negócios (BPN) and Banco Privado Português (BPP))
had been accumulating losses for years due to bad investiments, embezzlement and
accounting fraud. In the grounds of avoiding a potentially serious financial crisis in
the Portuguese economy, the Portuguese government decided to give them a bailout,
eventually at a future loss to taxpayers. Because of that, the role of Banco de Portugal
(BdP) (Portuguese Central Bank) in regulating and supervising the Portuguese
banking system, when it was led by Vítor Constâncio from 2000 to 2010, has been the
subject of heated argument, particularly whether Vítor Constâncio and the BdP had
the means to do something or whether they revealed gross incompetence. In
December 2010, Constâncio was appointed vice president of the European Central
Bank, for an eight-year mandate, being responsible for banking supervision.[79]
Shortly after, in April 2011, the Portuguese Government would request international
financial assistance as the State itself would be declared insolvent.[80]

[edit] Economic crisis: the 2010s

From 2005 to 2011, José Sócrates of the Socialist Party (PS) was the Prime Minister
and the leader of the Portuguese Government. His term in office would be
remembered as one of the worst periods in the post-WWII economic history of
Portugal due to record high unemployment, loss of family purchasing power, and
economic downturn. The State went bankrupt. Income taxes in Portugal rose
considerably to make inroads into its huge deficit. It was the third time that external
financial aid was requested to the IMF – the first was in the late 1970s following the
Carnation Revolution.
Main articles: Late-2000s recession in Europe and European sovereign debt crisis

In the opening weeks of 2010, renewed anxiety about the excessive levels of debt in
some EU countries and, more generally, about the health of the Euro spread from
Ireland and Greece to Portugal, Spain, and Italy.

Some senior German policy makers went as far as to say that emergency bailouts to
Greece and future EU aid recipients should bring with it harsh penalties.[81]

In 2010, PIIGS and PIGS acronyms were widely used by international bond analysts,
academics, and the international economic press when referring to the
underperforming economies of Portugal, Italy, Ireland, Greece, and Spain.

In the summer of 2010, Moody's Investors Service cut Portugal's sovereign bond
rating down two notches from an Aa2 to an A1.[82] Due to spending on economic
stimuli, Portugal's debt had increased sharply compared to the gross domestic product.
Moody noted that the rising debt would weigh heavily on the government's short-term
finances.[83] Earlier in the year, Portugal was one of the countries identified in the
2010 Euro Crisis as concern spread over increasing government deficit and debt levels
in certain countries.

Also in 2010, the country reached a record high unemployment rate of nearly 11%, a
figure not seen for over two decades, while the number of public servants remained
very high.

International financial markets compelled the Portuguese Government led by Prime

Minister José Sócrates, to make radical changes in economic policy, like other
European governments had done before. Thus, in September 2010, the Portuguese
Government announced a fresh austerity package following other Eurozone partners,
through a series of tax hikes and salary cuts for public servants. In 2009, the deficit
had been 9.4 percent, one of the highest in the Eurozone and way above the European
Union's Stability and Growth Pact three percent limit.

In November 2010, risk premiums on Portuguese bonds hit euro lifetime highs as
investors and creditors worried that the country would fail to reign in its budget deficit
and debt. The yield on the country's 10-year government bonds reached 7 percent – a
level the Portuguese Finance Minister Fernando Teixeira dos Santos had previously
said would require the country to seek financial help from international institutions.
Prime Ministers Pedro Passos Coelho, from Portugal (left) and Rodriguez Zapatero,
from Spain (right), in October 2011 - with economic downturn and a rising
unemployment rate (over 10% unemployment rate in Portugal and 20% in Spain by
2011), the two countries of the Iberian Peninsula were trapped right in the middle of
the European sovereign debt crisis.

A report published in January 2011 by the Diário de Notícias, a leading Portuguese

newspaper, demonstrated that in the period between the Carnation Revolution in 1974
and 2010, the democratic Portuguese Republic governments encouraged over
expenditure and investment bubbles through unclear public-private partnerships. This
has funded numerous ineffective and unnecessary external consultancy and advising
committees and firms, allowed considerable slippage in state-managed public works,
inflated top management and head officers' bonuses and wages, causing a persistent
and lasting recruitment policy that has boosted the number of redundant public
servants. The economy had also been damaged by risky credit, public debt creation
and mismanaged European structural and cohesion funds for almost four decades.
Apparently, the Prime Minister Sócrates's cabinet was not able to forecast or prevent
any of this when symptoms first appeared in 2005, and later was incapable of doing
anything to ameliorate the situation when the country was on the verge of bankruptcy
in 2011.[84]

On 23 March 2011, José Sócrates resigned following passage of a no confidence

motion sponsored by all five opposition parties in parliament over spending cuts and
tax increases.[85]

On 6 April 2011, the resigning Prime Minister announced on the television that the
country, facing a status of bankruptcy, would request financial assistance to the IMF
(at the time managed by Dominique Strauss-Kahn) and the European Financial
Stability Facility, like Greece and the Republic of Ireland had done before.

In order to accomplish the European Union/IMF-led rescue plan for Portugal's

sovereign debt crisis worth 78 billion euros, in July and August 2011 the new
government led by Pedro Passos Coelho announced it was going to cut on state
spending and increase austerity measures, including public servant wage cuts and
additional tax increases.

On June 7, 2012, Portugal's largest listed bank by assets Millennium bcp was rescued
by the Portuguese Government headed by Passos Coelho, through 3 billion euros
($3.8 billion) in state funds it took from the country's bailout package.[86]

[edit] See also

Economic history
Economy of Portugal
Economic history of Brazil
Economic history of Europe
Economic history of Spain
Economic history of the world
Elmina Castle
 Company of Guinea
Fort Jesus
Island of Mozambique
Mozambique Company
Macau
Nagasaki
Niassa Company
Portuguese East India Company
Portuguese East Africa
Portuguese India
Portuguese West Africa
Portuguese real
Portuguese escudo
Slavery in Portugal

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A9cada+de+1520,+os+portugueses+compravam+numerosos+chineses+(homens,+mulheres+e
+crian%C3%A7as)+para+vend%C3%AA-
los+como+escravos&hl=en&ei=Mq5dTIy2HYT48AaC6om4DQ&sa=X&oi=book_result&ct=
result&resnum=1&ved=0CCUQ6AEwAA#v=snippet&q=chineses%20compravam%20de%20
1520%20portugueses&f=false. Retrieved 14 July 2010.
49. ^ Maria Suzette Fernandes Dias (2007). Legacies of slavery: comparative perspectives.
Cambridge Scholars Publishing. p. 71. ISBN 1-84718-111-2.
http://books.google.com/books?id=XHm4AAAAIAAJ&q=The+Japanese+and+the+Chinese+
showed+strong+reluctance+to+the+idea+of+their+people+being+taken+as+slaves+by+the+P
ortuguese.&dq=The+Japanese+and+the+Chinese+showed+strong+reluctance+to+the+idea+of
+their+people+being+taken+as+slaves+by+the+Portuguese.&hl=en&ei=PdgOTdDACsP58Aa
IoLGXDg&sa=X&oi=book_result&ct=result&resnum=1&ved=0CCMQ6AEwAA. Retrieved
14 July 2010.
50. ^ Gary João de Pina-Cabral (2002). Between China and Europe: person, culture and emotion
in Macao. Berg Publishers. p. 114. ISBN 0-8264-5749-5.
http://books.google.com/books?id=SDvOJRO7qu8C&pg=PA115&dq=chinese+declared+that
+they+cannot+and+should+not+be+made+captive&hl=en&ei=j7JdTPf4GYT58Abhw-
 S1DQ&sa=X&oi=book_result&ct=result&resnum=1&ved=0CCUQ6AEwAA#v=onepage&q
=1624%20royal%20decree&f=false. Retrieved 14 July 2010.
51. ^ Gary João de Pina-Cabral (2002). Between China and Europe: person, culture and emotion
in Macao. Berg Publishers. p. 115. ISBN 0-8264-5749-5.
http://books.google.com/books?id=SDvOJRO7qu8C&pg=PA115&dq=chinese+declared+that
+they+cannot+and+should+not+be+made+captive&hl=en&ei=j7JdTPf4GYT58Abhw-
S1DQ&sa=X&oi=book_result&ct=result&resnum=1&ved=0CCUQ6AEwAA#v=onepage&q
=chinese%20declared%20that%20they%20cannot%20and%20should%20not%20be%20made
%20captive&f=false. Retrieved 14 July 2010.
52. ^ JSTOR: Anglo-Portuguese Trade, 1700–1770. JSTOR. Retrieved on 16 August 2007.
53. ^ Janick, Jules. Lecture 34. Retrieved on 16 August 2007
54. ^ THE LIBRARY OF IBERIAN RESOURCES ONLINE A History of Spain and Portugal
Vol. 2 Stanley G. Payne
55. ^ BBC. "Overview of the Portuguese escudo". BBC.
http://news.bbc.co.uk/hi/english/static/in_depth/business/2001/euro_cash/spent_currencies/esc
udo.stm. Retrieved 2 May 2011.
56. ^ [Problems of Democratic Transition and Consolidation, Juan José Linz
http://books.google.com/books?id=TqRn1lAypsgC&pg=PA128&dq=Financial+crisis+1974+
Portugal#PPA129,M1]
57. ^ a b c [4], Joaquim da Costa Leite (Aveiro University) – Instituições, Gestão e Crescimento
Económico: Portugal, 1950–1973
58. ^ (Portuguese) Cronologia: Movimento dos capitães, Centro de Documentação 25 de Abril,
University of Coimbra
59. ^ (Portuguese) A Guerra Colonial na Guine/Bissau (07 de 07), Otelo Saraiva de Carvalho on
the Decree Law, RTP 2 television, youtube.com.
60. ^ (Portuguese) Arquivo Electrónico: Otelo Saraiva de Carvalho, Centro de Documentação 25
de Abril, University of Coimbra
61. ^ a b [5] Tiago Neves Sequeira (University of Beira Interior), CRESCIMENTO ECONÓMICO
NO PÓS-GUERRA: OS CASOS DE ESPANHA, PORTUGAL E IRLANDA
62. ^ (Portuguese) História da Bolsa de Valores de Lisboa, Millennium bcp
63. ^ Economic Growth and Change, U.S. Library of Congress, countrystudies.us
64. ^ Dismantling the Portuguese Empire, Time Magazine (Monday, 7 Jul. 1975)
65. ^ A Siemens executive, Carlos de Melo Ribeiro, pointed to labor costs and productivity as
major reasons why shipping semiconductors to Portugal for final production is more
advantageous than retaining the work in Germany or Britain – Siemens Builds on Long
History in Portugal, to the Benefit of Both, By Karen E. Thuermer, October 1997, in Keller
Publishing [6]
66. ^ "The investment made in Portugal by the VW group has enabled "this plant to become one
of the best in the VW Group and indeed in the whole automotive industry in terms of quality,
productivity, absenteeism, safety, and many other decisive criteria", Gerd Heuss upon the
manufacturing of car nº 1 million in Palmela", June 2003., AICEP – Business Development
Agency
67. ^ (Portuguese) Portugueses perderam poder de compra entre 2005 e 2007 e estão na cauda da
Zona Euro, Público (11 December 2008)
68. ^ Is Euro 2004 worth it for Portugal?, BBC News (2 June 2004)
69. ^ [7]
70. ^ Global Competitiveness Index 2007–2008
71. ^ Patrice Hill, Portugal's economy might mimic Greece's, The Washington Times (30 April
2010)
72. ^ Anita Raghavan, After Greece, Forbes (22 April 2010)
73. ^ Commission assesses stability programmes of Greece and Portugal, Europa (13 February
2007)
74. ^ "A new sick man of Europe", The Economist, 14 April 2007.
http://www.economist.com/world/europe/displaystory.cfm?story_id=9009032
75. ^ Luis Miguel Mota, População desempregada aumentou 65% em cinco anos, Destak.pt (6
June 2008)
76. ^ Standard and Poor's pessimistic on Portugal, Agence France-Presse (7 December 2009)
77. ^ (Portuguese) Aleia vai montar avião até agora vendido em kit e jactos portugueses em 2011,
14 April 2008
 78. ^ (Portuguese) Évora aprova isenções fiscais aos projectos da Embraer, Diário Digital (22
August 2008)
79. ^ "2010". Diário Económico. 31 December 2010.
http://213.13.186.1/clippingfileant/imprensa2/tif_targ_color/2010/12/33379675.pdf.
80. ^ "EU summit begins in the shadow of Portugal's crisis". The Guardian. UK. 24 March 2011.
http://www.guardian.co.uk/business/2011/mar/24/summit-begins-portugal-crisis. Retrieved 24
March 2011.
81. ^ (English) 'Merkel Economy Adviser Says Greece Bailout Should Bring Penalty',
http://www.businessweek.com/news/2010-02-15/merkel-economy-adviser-says-greece-
bailout-should-bring-penalty.html, retrieved 15 February 2010
82. ^ Bond credit ratings
83. ^ BBC News -Moody's downgrades Portugal debt
84. ^ (Portuguese) Grande investigação DN Conheça o verdadeiro peso do Estado, Diário de
Notícias (7 January 2011)
85. ^ "Portuguese parliament votes against austerity plan". France 24. 23 March 2011.
http://www.france24.com/en/20110323-portuguese-parliament-votes-against-austerity-plan-
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86. ^ Portugal's BCP says to start repaying state funds early, Reuters (June 7, 2012)

Geography of Portugal
From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia
Jump to: navigation, search

Geography of Portugal
Continent Europe

Region Iberian Peninsula, Southern Europe

Coordinates: 39°22′13.65″N
Coordinates
8°8′25.13″W39.3704583°N 8.1403139°W

Ranked 110
92,391 km2 (35,672 sq mi)
Area
99.52% land
†% water

Borders Total land borders: Spain (1214 km)

Highest Mount Pico

point 2351 m
 Lowest point Sea level (Atlantic Ocean

Longest
Tagus (275 km within Portugal)
river

Largest lake Lake Alqueva

Portugal is a coastal nation in southwestern Europe, located at the western end of the
Iberian Peninsula, bordering Spain (on its northern and eastern frontiers: a total of
1,214 km (754 mi)). Portuguese territory also includes a series of archipelagoes in the
Atlantic Ocean (the Azores and Madeira), which are strategic islands along western
sea approaches to the Strait of Gibraltar and the Mediterranean Sea. In total, the
country occupies an area of 92,090 km2 (35,560 sq mi) of which 91,470 km2 (35,320
sq mi) is land and 620 km2 (240 sq mi) water.[1]

Despite these definitions, Portugal's border with Spain remains a unresolved territorial
dispute between the two countries. Portugal does not recognise the border between
Caia and Cuncos River deltas, since the beginning of the 1801 occupation of Olivenza
by Spain. This territory, though under de facto Spanish occupation, remains a de jure
part of Portugal, consequently no border is henceforth recognised in this area.

Contents
[hide]

1 Physical
o 1.1 Coastline
o 1.2 Continent
o 1.3 Archipelagos
2 Climate
3 Environment
4 See also
5 References
6 External links

[edit] Physical
Portugal is located on the western coast of the Iberian Peninsula and plateau, that
divides the inland Mediterranean Sea from the Atlantic Ocean. It is located on the
Atlantic coast of this plateau, and crossed by several rivers which have their origin in
Spain. Most of these rivers flow from east to west disgorging in the Atlantic; from
north to south, the primary rivers are the Minho, Douro, Tagus and the Guadiana.[2]

[edit] Coastline
Portuguese Exclusive Economic Zone

The continental shelf has an area of 28,000 km2 (11,000 sq mi), although its width is
variable from 150 km in the north to 25 km in the south.[2] Its strong relief is marked
by deep submarine canyons and the continuation of the main rivers. The Estremadura
Spur separates the Iberian Abyssal and Tagus Abyssal Plains, while the continental
slope is flanked by sea-mounts and abuts against the prominent Goringe Bank in the
south.[2] Currently, the Portuguese government claims a 200 metre depth, or to a depth
of exploitation.

The Portuguese coast is extensive; in addition to approximately 943 km (586 mi))

along the coast of continental Portugal, the archipelagos of the Azores (667 km) and
Madeira (250 km) are primarily surrounded by rough cliff coastlines. Most of these
landscapes alternate between rough cliffs and fine sand beaches; the region of the
Algarve is recognized for its tourist-friendly sand beaches, while at the same time its
steep coastlines around Cape St. Vincent is well known for steep and foreboding
cliffs. An interesting feature of the Portuguese coast is Ria Formosa with some sandy
islands and a mild and pleasant climate characterized by warm but not very hot
summers and generally mild winters.

Alternatively, the Ria de Aveiro coast (near Aveiro, referred to as "The Portuguese
Venice"), is formed by a delta (approximately 45 km length and a maximum 11 km
width) rich in fish and sea birds. Four main channels flow through several islands and
islets at the mouth of the Vouga, Antuã, Boco, and Fontão Rivers. Since the 16th
century, this formation of narrow headlands formed a lagoon, that, due to its
characteristics allowed the formation and production of salt. It was also recognized by
the Romans, whose forces exported its salt to Rome (then seen as a precious
resource).

The Azores are also sprinkled with both alternating black sand and boulder-lined
beaches, with only a rare exception is their a white sand beach (such as on the island
of Santa Maria in Almagreira. The island of Porto Santo is one of the few extensive
dune beaches in Portugal, located in the archipelago of Madeira.

Tidal gauges along the Portuguese coast have identified a 1 to 1.5 mm rise in sea
levels, causing large estuaries and inland deltas in some major rivers to overflow.[2]
As a result of its maritime possessions and coastline, Portugal has the third largest
Exclusive Economic Zone of the European Union countries (and eleventh in the
world). The sea-zone, over which Portugal exercises special territorial rights over the
economic exploration and use of marine resources encircles an area of 1,727,408 km2
(divided as: Continental Portugal 327,667 km2, Azores Islands 953,633 km2, Madeira
Islands 446,108 km2

[edit] Continent

Main article: Geology of the Iberian Peninsula

Tectonic structures of Europe, showing Iberia and the three "Portuguese" tectonic
regions (far left)

Hot, dry conditions sparked dozens of devastating wildfires in southern and central
Portugal and central Spain in the summer of 2003. By the time this image was taken
on January 19, 2004, the scars had begun to fade in areas, though the scars in Central
Portugal and across the border in Spain are still dark red in the false-color image.

The Portuguese territory came into existence during the history of Godwana and
became aligned with European landforms after the super-continent Pangea began its
slow separation into several smaller plates. The Iberian plate was formed during the
Cadomian Orogeny of the late Neoproterozoic (about 650-550 Ma), from the margins
of the Gondwana continent. Through collisions and accretion a group of island arcs
(that included the Central Iberian Plate, Ossa-Morena Plate, South Portuguese Plate)
began to disintegrate from Godwana (along with other European fragments). These
plates never separated substantially from each other since this period (López-Guijarro
et al. 2008). By the Mesozoic, the three "Portuguese plates" were a part of the
Northern France Armoric Plate until the Bay of Biscay began to separate. Following
the separation of the Iberian Abyssal Plain, Iberia and Europe began to drift
progressively from North America, as the Mid-Atlantic fracture zone pulled the three
plates away from the larger continent. Eventually, Iberia collided with southern
France attaching the region into a peninsula of Europe (during the Cenozoic). Since
the late Oligocene, the Iberian plate has been moving as part of the Eurasian plate,
with the boundary between Eurasia and Africa situated along the Azores–Gibraltar
fracture zone.[3][4][5][6][7][8][9][10][11][12]

The Iberian peninsula, defined by is coastline, is due to a fragment of the Variscan

tectonic fracture zone, the Iberian-Hesperian Massif, which occupies the west-central
part of the plateau.[2] This formation is crossed by the Central Cordillera, along a east-
northeast to west-southwest alignment, parallel to the European Baetic Chain (an
aspect of the Alpine Chain).[2] The Central Cordillera is itself divided into two blocks,
while three main river systems drain the differing geomorphological terrains:[2]

the Northern Meseta (with a mean altitude of 800 meteres) is drained by the
Douro River (running east to west);
the Southern Meseta (within a range of 200 to 900 metres altitude) is drained
by the Tagus River (running east to west) from Spain, and the Guadiana River
(running north to south), comprising the Lower Tagus and Sado Basins.

To the north the landscape is mountainous in the interior areas with plateaus, cut by
four breakings lines that allow the development of more fertile agricultural areas.

The south down as far as the Algarve features mostly rolling plains with a climate
somewhat warmer and drier than the cooler and rainier north. Other major rivers
include the Douro, the Minho and the Guadiana, similar to the Tagus in that all
originate in Spain. Another important river, the Mondego, originates in the Serra da
Estrela (the highest mountains in mainland Portugal at 1,993 m).

No large natural lakes exist in Continental Portugal, where the largest inland water
surfaces are dam-originated reservoirs, (such as the Alqueva reservoir with 250 km2,
the largest in Europe). However, there are several lagoons in Portugal with a river as
origin:

in Serra da Estrela, the Comprida Lagoon (Lagoa Comprida) and the Escura
Lagoon (Lagoa Escura) were formed from ancient glaciers.
the Pateira de Fermentelos is a small natural lagoon near Aveiro

Some lagoons are near the Atlantic Ocean. For instance, the Albufeira Lagoon (in the
Setúbal Peninsula) and Óbidos Lagoon (near Foz do Arelho, Óbidos). In the Azores
archipelago lagoons were formed in extinct volcanos. Lagoa do Fogo and Lagoa das
Sete Cidades (two small lakes connected by a narrow passage) are the most famous
lakes in São Miguel Island.
[edit] Archipelagos

In addition to continental Europe, Portugal consists of two Autonomous Regions in

the Atlantic Ocean, consisting of the archipelagos of Madeira and Azores. Madeira is
located on the African Tectonic Plate, and comprises the main island of Madeira,
Porto Santo and the smaller Savage Islands. The Azores, which are located between
the junction of the African, European and North American Plates, straddle the Mid-
Atlantic Ridge. There are nine islands in this archipelago, usually divided into three
groups (Western, Central and Eastern) and several smaller Formigas (rock
outcroppings) located between São Miguel and Santa Maria Islands. Both island
groups are volcanic in nature, with historic volcanology and seismic activity
persisting to the present time. In addition, there are several submarine volcanos in the
Azores (such as Dom João de Castro Bank), that have erupted historically (such as the
Serrata eruption off the coast of Terceira Island). The last major volcanic event
occurred in 1957-58 along the western coast of Faial Island, which formed the
Capelinhos Volcano. Seismic events are common in the Azores. The Azores are
occasionally subject to very strong earthquakes, as is the continental coast. Wildfires
occur mostly in the summer in mainland Portugal and extreme weather in the form of
strong winds and floods also occurs mainly in winter. The Azores are occasionally
stricken by tropical cyclones such as Hurricane Jeanne (1998) and Hurricane Gordon
(2006).

[edit] Climate
See also: Climate

Most of Portugal has a Mediterranean climate according to the Köppen climate

classification: Csa in the land south of Tagus River, inland Douro Valley in the North
and Madeira Islands. Csb north of that river, Costa Vicentina in coastal Southern
Portugal, and the eastern group of the Azores islands. Most of the Azores have an
Oceanic climate or Cfb, while a small region in inland Alentejo has Bsk or semi-arid
climate. The Savage Islands, that belong to the Madeira archipelago, also has an arid
climate with an annual average rainfall of around 150 mm (5.9 in). The sea surface
temperatures in these archipelagos vary from 16–18 °C (60.8–64.4 °F) in winter to
23–24 °C (73.4–75.2 °F) in the summer, occasionally reaching 26 °C (78.8 °F).

The annual average temperature in mainland Portugal varies from 12–13 °C (53.6–
55.4 °F) in the mountainous interior north to 17–18 °C (62.6–64.4 °F) in the south (in
general the south is warmer and drier than the north). The Madeira and Azores
archipelagos have a narrower temperature range with the annual average temperature
sometimes exceeding 20 °C (68 °F) in the south coast of Madeira Island. Extreme
temperatures occur in the mountains in the northeast of the country in winter, where
they may fall to −15 °C (5 °F), and in southeastern parts in the summer, sometimes
exceeding 45 °C (113 °F). The official absolute extreme temperatures are −16 °C (3.2
°F) in Penhas da Saúde on 4 February 1954 and 47.4 °C (117.3 °F) in Amareleja in
the Alentejo region, on 1 August 2003.[13] There are, however, unofficial records of
50.5 °C (122.9 °F) on 4 August 1881 in Riodades, São João da Pesqueira.[14] It's very
plausible since this region is known for its microclimate. The annual average rainfall
varies from a bit more than 3,000 mm (118.1 in) in the mountains in the north to less
than 600 mm (23.6 in) in southern parts of Alentejo. The country has around 2500–
3200 hours of sunshine a year, an average of 4-6h in winter and 10-12h in the
summer, with higher values in the southeast and lower in the northwest. The sea
surface temperature is higher in the south coast where it varies from 15–16 °C (59–
60.8 °F) in January to 22–23 °C (71.6–73.4 °F) in August, occasionally reaching 25
°C (77 °F); on the west coast the sea surface temperature is around 14–15 °C (57.2–59
°F) in winter and 18–20 °C (64–68 °F) in the summer, with higher values as one goes
southwards.

[edit] Environment
Main article: Conservation areas of Portugal

Serra da Estrela, the highest mountain range in continental Portugal and popular
tourist winter destination

The volcanic lake of Lagoa das Furnas, on the island of São Miguel

Praia da Marinha one of the dichtomous sand and cliff beaches of the Algarve (near
Lagoa)

Environment - current issues: soil erosion; air pollution caused by industrial and
vehicle emissions; water pollution, especially in coastal areas

Environment - international agreements:

party to: Air Pollution, Biodiversity, Climate Change, Desertification, Endangered
Species, Hazardous Wastes, Law of the Sea, Marine Dumping, Marine Life
Conservation, Ozone Layer Protection, Ship Pollution, Tropical Timber 83, Tropical
Timber 94, Wetlands
signed, but not ratified: Air Pollution-Persistent Organic Pollutants, Air Pollution-
Volatile Organic Compounds, Climate Change-Kyoto Protocol, Environmental
Modification, Nuclear Test Ban

Terrain: mountainous and hilly north of the Tagus River, rolling plains in south

Elevation extremes:
lowest point: Atlantic Ocean 0 m
highest point: Ponta do Pico (Pico or Pico Alto) on Ilha do Pico in the Azores 2,351 m

Natural resources: fish, forests (cork), tungsten, iron ore, uranium ore, marble,
arable land, hydroelectric power

Land use:
arable land: 26%
permanent crops: 9%
permanent pastures: 9%
forests and woodland: 36%
other: 20% (1993 est.)

Irrigated land: 6,300 km2 (1993 est.)

[edit] References
Notes

1. ^ "Portugal". CIA - The World Factbook. https://www.cia.gov/library/publications/the-world-

factbook/geos/po.html. Retrieved 2009-11-28.
2. ^ a b c d e f g Eldridge M. Moores and Rhodes Whitmore Fairbridge (1997), p.612
3. ^ Srivastava, Schouten & Roest Klitgord1990.
4. ^ Le Pichon & Sibuet 1971.
5. ^ Le Pichon, Sibuet & Francheteau 1971.
6. ^ Sclater, Hellinger & Tapscott 1977.
7. ^ Grimaud, S.; Boillot, G.; Collette, B.J.; Mauffret, A.; Miles; P.R.; Roberts, D.B. (January
1982). "Western extension of the Iberian-European plate-boundary during early Cenozoic
(Pyrenean) convergence: a new model". Marine Geology 45 (1-2): 63−77. doi:10.1016/0025-
3227(82)90180-3.
8. ^ JL Olivet, JM Auzende, P Beuzart (September 1983). "Western extension of the Iberian-
European plate boundary during the Early Cenozoic (Pyrenean) convergence: A new model
— Comment". Marine Geology 53 (3): 237−238. doi:10.1016/0025-3227(83)90078-6.
9. ^ S. Grimaud, G. Boillot, B.J. Collette, A. Mauffret, P.R. Miles and D.B. Roberts (September
1983). "Western extension of the Iberian-European plate boundary during the Early Cenozoic
(Pyrenean) convergence: A new model — Reply". Marine Geology 53 (3): 238−239.
doi:10.1016/0025-3227(83)90079-8.
10. ^ Olivet et al. 1984.
11. ^ Schouten, Srivastava & Klitgord 1984.
12. ^ Savostovin et al. 1986.
13. ^ [1]
14. ^ Dan dan the weatherman

Sources

Central Intelligence Agency, ed. (2010). "Portugal: CIA World Factbook".

Langley, Virginia: Central Intelligence Agency.
 https://www.cia.gov/library/publications/the-world-factbook/geos/po.html.
Retrieved 27 December 2010.
Symington, Martin (2003). "Portugal". Eyewitness Travel Guide series.
Dorling Kindersley Publishing. ISBN 0-7894-9423-X.
Moores, Eldridge M.; Fairbridge, Rhodes Whitmore, eds. (1997).
Encyclopedia of European and Asian Regional Geology. London, England:
Chapman & Hall. pp. 611–619. http://books.google.ca/books?id=tFqp-
D3oVccC&pg=PA611&dq=%22Geography+of+Portugal%22&hl=en&ei=z-
MYTZ6SFMTE4ga7rKyGAg&sa=X&oi=book_result&ct=result&resnum=2&
ved=0CCkQ6AEwATgU#v=onepage&q=%22Geography%20of%20Portugal
%22&f=false.
Le Pichon, X.; Sibuet, J.C. (September 1971). "Earth planet". Earth and
Planetary Science Letters 12 (1): 83−88. Bibcode 1971E&PSL..12...83L.
doi:10.1016/0012-821X(71)90058-6.
Le Pichon, X., Sibuet, J. C. & Francheteau, J. (23 March 1977). "The fit of the
continents around the North Atlantic Ocean". Tectonophysics 38 (3-4):
169−209. Bibcode 1977Tectp..38..169L. doi:10.1016/0040-1951(77)90210-4.
Savostovin, L. A., Sibuet, J. C., Zonenshain, L. P., Le Pichon, X. & Roulet,
M. J. (1986). "Kinematic evolution of the Tethys belt from the Atlantic ocean
to the pamirs since the Triassic". Tectonophysics 123: 1−35. Bibcode
1986Tectp.123....1S. doi:10.1016/0040-1951(86)90192-7.
Schouten, H., Srivastava, S. P. & Klitgord, K. (1984). Trans. Am. Geophys.
Un. 65: 190.
Sclater, J. G., Hellinger, S. & Tapscott, C. R. J. (1977). "Paleobathymetry Of
Atlantic Ocean From Jurassic To Present". Journal of Geology 85 (5):
509−552. Bibcode 1977JG.....85..509S. doi:10.1086/628336. ISSN 0022-
1376.
Seber, D.; Barazangi, M.; Ibenbrahim, A.; Demnati, A. (1996). "Geophysical
evidence for lithospheric delamination beneath the Alboran Sea and Rif--Betic
mountains". Nature 379 (6568): 785–790. Bibcode 1996Natur.379..785S.
doi:10.1038/379785a0.
Srivastava, S.P.; Schouten, H.; Roest, W.R.; Klitgord, K.D.; Kovacs, L.C.;
Verhoef, J.; Macnab, R. (19 April 1990). "Iberian Plate Kinematics: A
Jumping Plate Boundary between Eurasia and Africa". Nature 344 (6268):
756. Bibcode 1990Natur.344..756S. doi:10.1038/344756a0.

Culture of Portugal
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Jump to: navigation, search
A 19th century Portuguese couple with typical rural clothes from Minho province, in
a Singer sewing machine advertisement card, distributed at World Columbian
Exposition, Chicago, 1893.

The cultura portuguesa is the result of a complex flow of different civilizations

during the past Millennia. From prehistoric cultures, to its Pre-Roman civilizations
(such as the Lusitanians, the Gallaeci, the Celtici, and the Cynetes, amongst others),
passing through its contacts with the Phoenician-Carthaginian world, the Roman
period (see Hispania, Lusitania and Gallaecia), the Germanic invasions and
consequent settlement of the Suevi and Buri (see Suebic Kingdom of Galicia) and the
Visigoth (see Visigothic Kingdom), and, finally, the Moorish Umayyad invasion of
Hispania and the subsequent Reconquista, all have made an imprint on the country's
culture and history.

The name of Portugal itself reveals much of the country's early history, stemming
from the Roman name Portus Cale, a Latin name meaning "Port of Cale" (some argue
that Cale is a word of Celtic origin, which also means port or harbour), later
transformed into Portucale, and finally into Portugal, who emerged as a county of the
Kingdom of León (see First County of Portugal and Second County of Portugal) and
became an independent kingdom in 1139. During the 15th and 16th centuries,
Portugal was a major economic, political, and cultural power, its global empire
stretching from Brazil to the Indies.

Portugal, as a country with a long history, is home to several ancient architectural

structures, as well as typical art, furniture and literary collections mirroring and
chronicling the events that shaped the country and its peoples. It has a large number of
cultural landmarks ranging from museums to ancient church buildings to medieval
castles, which testify its rich national cultural heritage.
Contents
[hide]

1 Overview
2 Architecture
3 Dance
4 Cinema
o 4.1 Comedy
o 4.2 Recent films
5 Cuisine
o 5.1 Food
o 5.2 Alcoholic beverages
6 Literature
7 Music
o 7.1 Fado
o 7.2 Portuguese rock
o 7.3 Traditional music
o 7.4 Popular music
o 7.5 Folk
o 7.6 Philharmonic music
o 7.7 Canções de intervenção (political songs)
o 7.8 Classical music
o 7.9 Hip hop
o 7.10 Students festivals
o 7.11 Summer musical festivals
8 Painting
9 Theater
10 Festivities and holidays
11 National holidays
12 Sports and games
13 Stereotypes
14 See also

[edit] Overview

Rua Augusta (street) in the Pombaline Baixa (Lower Town), Lisbon.

The Portuguese participate in many cultural activities, indulging their appreciation of
art, music, drama, and dance. Portugal has a rich traditional folklore (Ranchos
Folclóricos), with great regional variety. Many cities and towns have a museum and a
collection of ancient monuments and buildings. Many towns have at least a cinema,
some venues to listen to music and locations to see arts and crafts. In the larger cities
visits to the theatre, concerts or galleries of modern exhibitions are popular, and
Portugal can boast not only international-scale venues in Lisbon, Porto, Braga,
Guimarães and Coimbra but also many acclaimed artists from various disciplines. The
importance of the arts is illustrated by the fact that on the death of Amália Rodrigues,
the "Queen of Fado" (fado is Portugal's national music) in October 1999, three days of
national mourning was declared. In 1998, José Saramago, one of Portugal's well-
known writers, was awarded the Nobel Prize for literature. In 2001, Porto was
European Capital of Culture, contributing to a current renaissance in artistic creation,
and in 2004 Portugal hosted the European football finals in specially constructed
stadiums.

In smaller towns and villages, cultural activity may revolve around local folklore,
with musical groups performing traditional dance and song. Local festivities are very
popular during the summer season in all kinds of localities ranging from villages to
cities, as well as beach holidays from July to September. Portuguese people in almost
all major towns and the cities like to go shopping in malls which are generally well
equipped with modern facilities and offer a wide variety of attractions ranging from
shops and stores of the most renowned brands to cinemas, restaurants and
hypermarkets. Café culture is also regarded as an important cultural feature of the
Portuguese. As the most popular sport, football events involving major Portuguese
teams are always widely followed with great enthusiasm. There are a number of
bullrings in Portugal, although the passion for bullfighting varies from region to
region.

[edit] Architecture

Jeronimos Monastery is Portugal's best example of its Manueline architecture.

Main article: Architecture of Portugal

Since the second millennium BC, there has been important construction in the area
where Portugal is situated today. Portugal boasts several scores of medieval castles, as
well as the ruins of several villas and forts from the period of Roman occupation.
Modern Portuguese architecture follow the most advanced trends seen in European
mainstream architecture with no constraints, though preserving some of its singular
characteristics. The azulejo and the Portuguese pavement are two typical elements of
Portuguese-style architecture. Portugal is perhaps best known for its distinctive
Manueline architecture with its rich, intricate designs attributed to Portugal's Age of
Discoveries. Another type of architecture is Baroque Johanine. It has this name
because it was developed during the reign of King John V, which lasted 44 years.
Thanks to the gold of Brazil, hired foreign artists, such Nicolao Nasoni, King John V,
ordered to perform various works of art. The creations of Portuguese artists can be
seen on the altars of gilded panels and tiles, blue and white, that adorn churches, halls,
staircases and gardens. During this period were built in Portugal in the great works of
art which are: Library of the Convent and Convent of Mafra, the Tower of the Clerics,
the Baroque Library, the Church and stairs of Bom Jesus de Braga, the Shrine of Our
Lady of Remedies in Lamego, the Palace and the Port of Ash Solar de Mateus in Vila
Real.

[edit] Dance

A traditional dance

Folk dances include: Circle dance, Fandango (of the Ribatejo region), Two Steps
Waltz, Schottische (Chotiça), Corridinho (of the Algarve and Estremadura regions),
Vira (of the Minho region), Bailarico, Vareirinha, Malhão, Vareira, Maneio, Vira de
Cruz, Vira Solto, Vira de Macieira, Sapatinho, Tau-Tau, Ciranda, Zé que Fumas,
Regadinho, O Pedreiro and Ó Ti Taritatu. There are also variations of these dances
called the Chamarita in the Azores. Dance apparel is highly varied, ranging from
work clothes to the Sunday best, with rich distinguished from the poor.

[edit] Cinema
Main article: Cinema of Portugal

In the 1990s around 10 full-length fictional works were produced per annum,
Portugal's filmmakers tending to be artisans. Financing of Portuguese cinema is by
state grants and from television stations. The internal market is very small and
Portuguese penetration of international markets is fairly precarious. A film is
considered a success when it draws an audience of more than 150.000, which few
Portuguese films manage to achieve.
Manoel de Oliveira

Director Manoel de Oliveira is the oldest director in the world, and continues to make
films at the age of 103. Since 1990 has made an average of one film per annum. He
has received international recognition awards and won the respect of the
cinematography community all over the world. Retrospectives of his works have been
shown at the Los Angeles Film Festival (1992), the National Gallery of Art in
Washington, D.C. (1993), the San Francisco Film Festival, and the Cleveland
Museum of Art (1994). Despite his international recognition, the films of Oliveira
(and that of other Portuguese directors) are neglected locally.

João César Monteiro, a member of the generation that founded the "New Portuguese
Cinema" in the 1960s which was influenced by the Nouvelle Vague, a provocative
film maker in the 1990s made "O Último Mergulho" (1992), "A Comédia de Deus"
(1995), "Le Bassin de John Wayne" (1997) and "As Bodas de Deus" (1998). "A
Comédia de Deus" won the Jury's Special Prize at the Venice Film Festival in 1995.

Teresa Villaverde is a younger filmmaker and in the 1990s she surfaced as a director,
her film (Três Irma's, 1994) won the best actress award at the Venice Film Festival.

[edit] Comedy

A Canção de Lisboa: (lit. The Song of Lisbon) is a Portuguese film comedy from
1933, directed by José Cottinelli Telmo, and starring Vasco Santana and Beatriz
Costa. Manuel de Oliveira had a minor role in this film. It was the second Portuguese
sound feature film (the first was A Severa, a 1931 documentary by Manoel de
Oliveira, was originally filmed without soundtrack, which was added afterwards), and
still is one of the best-loved films in Portugal. Several of its lines and songs are still
quoted today!

O Pai Tirano: (lit. The Tyrant Father) is a Portuguese film comedy from 1941,
directed by António Lopes Ribeiro, starring Vasco Santana, Francisco Ribeiro and
Leonor Maia. It's one of the best-known comedies of the Golden Age of Portuguese
Cinema. Still popular six decades after its release.
Pátio das Cantigas: (lit. The Courtyard of Songs) A comedy/ musical from 1942
directed by Francisco Ribeiro, with Vasco Santana (as Narciso), António Silva (as
Evaristo), Francisco Ribeiro (as Rufino) and others. It's a portrait of the relations
between neighbours in a Lisbon courtyard. A story made of small episodes of humor,
friendship, rivalry, and love.

[edit] Recent films

O Crime do Padre Amaro: (lit. The Crime of Father Amaro) is a Portuguese film
(2005) adapted from a book of Eça de Queiroz, directed by Carlos Coelho da Silva.
This was a low quality production sponsored by Sociedade Independente de
Comunicação (television channel). Even so this film beat all the records of box- office
of all the Portuguese film in Portugal. The main characters are Jorge Corrula as Padre
Amaro and Soraia Chaves as Amélia, and the main ingredients of this film are the sex
and the nudity.

Zona J: is a Portuguese drama/romance film directed by Leonel Vieira in 1998,

starring Sílvia Alberto, Ana Bustorff, Núria Madruga, Milton Spencer and Félix
Fontoura.

Sorte Nula: (lit. The Trunk) directed by Fernando Fragata, starring Hélder Mendes,
António Feio, Adelaide de Sousa, Rui Unas, Isabel Figueira, Bruno Nogueira, Carla
Matadinho, Tânia Miller and Zé Pedro.

Alice directed by Marco Martins and starring Beatriz Batarda, Nuno Lopes, Miguel
Guilherme, Ana Bustorff, Laura Soveral, Ivo Canelas, Carla Maciel, José Wallenstein
and Clara Andermatt is a multi-prize film from 2005. Have won prizes in Cannes film
festival; Las Palmas Festival in Spain; Golden Globes in Portugal; Mar del Plata
International Film Festival in Argentina, Raindance film Festival in United Kingdom
and other prizes.

Filme do Desassossego or Film of Disquiet directed by João Botelho, starring

Cláudio da Silva, Alexandra Lencastre, Rita Blanco, Catarina Wallenstein, Margarida
Vila-Nova, Mónica Calle, Marcello Urgeghe and Ricardo Aibéo in 2010. Inspired by
a book of Fernando Pessoa.

Meu Querido Mês de Agosto directed by Miguel Gomes is a hybrid

fiction/documentary film from 2009 that achieved some visibility at the Cannes Film
Festival.

Tabu directed by Miguel Gomes starring Ana Moreira, Carloto Cotta, Ivo Mueller,
Laura Soveral, Manuel Mesquita, Isabel Muñoz Cardoso, Henrique Espírito Santo and
Teresa Madruga. The film won two prizes in Berlin International Film Festival in
2012 and another two in Las Palmas Festival in Spain.

Rafa, a short-film directed by João Salaviza, starring Rodrigo Perdigão and Joana de
Verona.This film have win the best short film is Berlin International Film Festival in
2012.
Arena, directed by João Salaviza staring Carloto Cotta, won in 2009 Cannes film
festival, the Golden Palm for best short film.

Sangue do meu Sangue directed by João Canijo, starring Rita Blanco, Nuno Lopes,
Cleia Almeida, Anabela Moreira, Rafael Morais and Fernando Luís. Is a multi-prized
film from 2012 that won prizes in: International auteur cinema festival of Barcelona;
Miami Festival, Pau Festival in France; New Vision Award in Crossing Europe
Festival in Austria; San Sebastin Festival; Otra Mirada Prize by TVE channel in
Spain; Faial Film Festival in Portugal; Golden Globes in Portugal; Auteur Portuguese
Society in Portugal and Ways of Portuguese cinema in Coimbra, Portugal.

O Barão directed by Edgar Pêra, starring Nuno Melo, Luísa Costa Gomes, Leonor
Keil, Edgar Pêra, Marina Albuquerque, Miguel Sermão and Marcos Barbosa in 2010.

[edit] Cuisine
Main article: Portuguese cuisine

A dish of cozido à portuguesa.

[edit] Food

Each region of Portugal has its own traditional dishes, including various kinds of
meat, seafood, fresh fish, dried and salted cod (bacalhau), and the famous Cozido à
Portuguesa (a Portuguese stew).

[edit] Alcoholic beverages

Main article: Wines of Portugal

Portugal is a country of wine lovers and winemakers, known since the Roman
Empire-era; the Romans immediately associated Portugal with its God of Wine
Bacchus. Today, many Portuguese wines are known as some of the world's best:
Vinho do Douro, Vinho do Alentejo, Vinho do Dão, Vinho Verde, and the sweet: Port
Wine (Vinho do Porto, literally Porto's wine), Madeira wine, Muscatel of Setúbal, and
Moscatel of Favaios. Beer is also widely consumed, with the largest national beer
brands being Sagres and Super Bock. Liqueurs, like Licor Beirão and ginjinha, are
popular.

[edit] Literature
Main article: Portuguese literature

The Lusiads

Portuguese literature has developed since the 12th century from the lyrical works of
João Soares de Paiva, Paio Soares de Taveirós and King D.Dinis. They wrote mostly
from Galician-Portuguese and oral traditions known as "Cantigas de amor e amigo"
and "Cantigas de escárnio e maldizer", which were sung by Troubadours the first
ones and the last ones by jograis.

Following chroniclers such as Fernão Lopes after the 15th century, fiction has its
roots in chronicles and histories with theatre, following Gil Vicente, the father of
Portuguese theatre, whose works was critical of the society of his time.

Classical lyrical texts include Os Lusíadas, by Luís de Camões that is a epic book
about the history of Portugal and have elements of Greek mythology if from the 16th
century.

Romanticism and Realism period authors from 19th century including Antero de
Quental, Almeida Garrett, Camilo Pessanha, Camilo Castelo Branco, Eça de Queiroz,
Alexandre Herculano, Ramalho Ortigão, Júlio Dinis and others.

Portuguese modernism is found in the works of Fernando Pessoa, José Régio, Miguel
Torga, Mário de Sá Carneiro and others.

Following the Carnation Revolution in 1974, the Portuguese society, after several
decades of repression, regained freedom of speech.

José Saramago received the Nobel Prize for Literature in 1998.

Herberto Hélder is a young poet highly considered in Portugal from the recent wave
of writers such us Valter Hugo Mãe, José Luís Peixoto, Gonçalo M. Tavares, Jorge
Reis-Sá, Maria Antonieta Preto, José Ricardo Pedro and others.

[edit] Music
Main articles: Music of Portugal and Music history of Portugal
Portuguese Guitars

Portuguese musical traditions are diverse and dynamic, they reflect multifarious
historical, cultural, and political processes with influences from non-European
cultures from both North and sub-Saharan Africa and Brazil.

Polyphonic music, employing multiple vocal parts in harmony, was developed in the
15th century. The Renaissance fostered a rich output of compositions for solo
instruments and ensembles as well as for the voice.

The 1960s started a period of expansion and innovation with pop, rock and jazz
introduced and evolving, political song developed, the fado of Lisbon and the
Coimbra were revitalized. Music from the former African colonies and Brazil
occupied an increasingly important place in the capital's musical life and local styles
of rap and hip hop emerged.

The modern revival of academic music was primarily work of Luís de Freitas Branco,
and continued by Joly Braga Santos. Composers like António Victorino d'Almeida,
Jorge Peixinho, Miguel Azguime, Pedro Amaral, and João Pedro Oliveira are known
internationally. Orchestras include the Orquestra Sinfónica Portuguesa and the
Gulbenkian Orchestra. Oporto has had its own symphony orchestra since 1962, when
the Chamber Orchestra was set up by the Gulbenkian Foundation. Lisbon also has a
metropolitan orchestra, and the National Theatre of São Carlos in Lisbon, which was
built in the late 18th century, has its own orchestra and ballet company. Among
notable pianists, Maria João Pires has won worldwide acclaim.

Cultural centres such as the Belém Cultural Centre and the Culturgest, both in Lisbon,
have expanded opportunities for major concerts. Madredeus is among the most
successful popular music groups. Singer Dulce Pontes is also widely admired, and
Carlos Paredes is considered by many to be Portugal's finest guitarist. Folk music and
dancing and the traditional fado remain the country's fundamental forms of musical
expression.
[edit] Fado

Main article: Fado

Amália Rodrigues, the "Queen of Fado"

Fado (translated as destiny or fate) is a music genre which can be traced from the
1820s, but possibly with much earlier origins. It is characterized by mournful tunes
and lyrics, often about the sea or the life of the poor. The music is usually linked to
the Portuguese word saudade, a unique word with no accurate translation in any other
language. (Home-sickness has an approximate meaning. It is a kind of longing, and
conveys a complex mixture of mainly nostalgia, but also sadness, pain, happiness and
love). Some enthusiasts claim that Fado's origins are a mixture of African slave
rhythms with the traditional music of Portuguese sailors and Arabic influence.

There are two main varieties of fado, namely those of the cities of Lisbon and
Coimbra. The Lisbon style is the most popular, while Coimbra's is the more refined
style. Modern fado is popular in Portugal, and has produced many renowned
musicians. According to tradition, to applaud fado in Lisbon you clap your hands, in
Coimbra you cough as if clearing your throat.

Mainstream fado performances during the 20th century included only a singer, a
Portuguese guitar player and a classical guitar player but more recent settings range
from singer and string quartet to full orchestra.

The ingredients of Fado are a shawl, a guitar, a voice and heartfelt emotion.

Themes include: destiny, deep-seated feelings, disappointments in love, the sense of

sadness and longing for someone who has gone away, misfortune, the ups and downs
of life, the sea, the life of sailors and fishermen, and last but not least "Saudade" (one
of the main themes used in fado, that means a kind of longing).
Fado is probably the oldest urban folk music in the world and represents the heart of
the Portuguese soul, and for that matter fado performance is not successful if an
audience is not moved to tears.

[edit] Portuguese rock

Main article: Portuguese rock

The Portuguese rock started to be noted in 1980 with the release of Ar de Rock by Rui
Veloso, which was the first popular Portuguese rock song, other Portuguese bands and
singers such Sétima Legião, Rádio Macau, Jafumega, Mão Morta, Taxi, Peste e Sida,
were popular to. Before that, Portugal had a vibrant underground progressive rock
scene in the 1970s like Tantra, Quarteto 1111, José Cid and others in 1950 and 1960
rock and roll scene with bands like Os Conchas and Os Sheiks. Among the numerous
bands and artists which followed its genesis, are Xutos & Pontapés, GNR, UHF, and
Moonspell.

[edit] Traditional music

See also: List of Portuguese traditional instruments

In all the times and all places mankind always showed great ingenuity making sound
and music from existing materials in its natural environment. The voice and the
clapping of hands can certainly be considered the first instrumental forms used by
man.

The Iberian Peninsula was home to a lot of different peoples and cultures, so its
normal to these cultures to influence the others but still retain a little of their aspects -
this happened with the Portuguese music. Even in the present one can find types of
instruments from different places, such as the bagpipes and the Arab adufe, but they
are now and forever a part of the Portuguese culture. From the Pauliteiros de Miranda
in the Terra de Miranda to the Corridinho in the Algarve, the traditional music and
songs transpire a poetic character that tells the history of a community to other people
and generations to come.

[edit] Popular music

The 1980s and 1990s were marked by the search for a new musical discourse in urban
popular music, the increase, commodification and industrialization of musical
production, and the mediatization and expansion of music consumption. The boom in
Portuguese musical production was accompanied by both the diversification of the
musical domains and styles produced and consumed in Portugal and the emergence of
new styles which are increasingly taking the global market into account. The
denominated Pop music uses melodies easily to memorize, becoming very popular
and commercial; it's also characterized by the amount of publicity made (through
videos, magazines, appealing clothing, etc.).

It is possible to note two stylistic tendencies in the popular music of the 1980s and
1990s:
 A musical discourse created by Portuguese musicians that is integrated within
the major international developments experienced by commercial popular
music;
A new musical style that vindicates its Portugueseness by both drawing upon
various musical elements which musicians and audiences alike identify as
Portuguese and emphasizing the Portuguese language.

[edit] Folk

Folk music is the joint of the traditional songs of a community that express through a
poetic character their beliefs and tell their history to other people and generations. The
danças do vira (Minho), Pauliteiros de Miranda (Miranda), Corridinho do Algarve or
Bailinho (Madeira), are some examples of dances created by the sound of folk. Some
of the typical instruments used are a guitar, mandolin, bagpipes, accordion, violin,
drums, Portuguese guitar and an enormous variety of wind and percussion
instruments.

[edit] Philharmonic music

In the popular culture the philharmonic bands represent each locality and play
different types of music, from popular to classical. Lidia Costa, Carlos Marques,
Alberto Madurai, José Caminos and Railcar Morays are some of the most important
names in philharmonic music.

[edit] Canções de intervenção (political songs)

Political songs (canções de intervenção) played an important part in the protests

against the totalitarian regime that ruled Portugal from 1926 up to the 1974
revolution. Once it was created as an object to criticize what was wrong, mainly in a
political point of view. One of its main protagonists was José (Zeca) Afonso (1929–
1987) but others also contributed to its development, for example Adriano Correia de
Oliveira, José Mário Branco, Luís Cilia, Francisco Fanhais, José Jorge Letria, José
Barata Moura and Sérgio Godinho. They traced a new course for urban popular music
and influenced a further generation of musicians, some of whom also participated in
the protest movement and are still active, including Fausto, Vitorino, Janita Salomé
and Júlio Pereira, among others.

This musical style reflects a confluence of influences from traditional music, French
urban popular songs of the 1960s, African music and Brazilian popular music. By the
late 1970s the revolutionary climate had subsided and the need to express political
militancy through song was no longer felt by poets, composers and singers, who
subsequently redefined both their role and their creative contribution.

[edit] Classical music

Portugal has been an important centre of practice and production of music over the
centuries, as the music history of Portugal expresses. In contemporary classical music,
notable Portuguese musicians include the pianists Artur Pizarro, Maria João Pires and
equeira Costa, and the composers: Fernando Lopes-Graça, Emmanuel Nunes, João
Pedro Oliveira, Jorge Peixinho, Constança Capdeville, Clotilde Rosa, Fernando
Corrêa de Oliveira, Cláudio Carneyro, Frederico de Freitas, Joly Braga Santos and
Isabel Soveral.

[edit] Hip hop

Main article: Hip hop Tuga

Hip hop has been important since the 1980s with areas like Chelas, Amadora, Cacém
and the South Bank of the Tagus are considered to be the cradle of Hip Hop Tuga.

The compilation called "Rapublica" released in 1994, which featured young rising
artists and groups such as Black Company and Boss Ac, is responsible for
establishing hip hop in Portugal. The refrain from a song called "Não sabe nadar, yo"
("Can't swim, yo!") was used by the president of Portugal, Mário Soares in a speech
about the cave painting in Foz Côa saying that "As gravuras não sabem nadar, yo!"
("The paintings can‘t swim, yo!").

Apart from Lisbon, other urban centers also established vibrant hip hop scenes during
the early nineties, especially Porto, that gave birth to important groups such as Mind
Da Gap. More recently other local scenes have also developed on other urban centers,
such as Coimbra and Faro.

There are two major showcase events, Flowfest and Hip Hop Porto. Flowfest, in
Coimbra, started in 2005. Hip Hop Porto is a free event held at Casa da Música, in
September. It features mainly the northern hip hop names as headliners, drawing a
very local audience. Its first edition in 2005 carded Rodney P, NBC, Blackmastah,
Bomberjack, Rui Miguel Abreu, etc. Usually the event is held outdoors, but in 2006
the heavy rains made the event relocate to the parking lot of the building, causing a
really "underground" look.

[edit] Students festivals

Festivals organised by students of several higher education institutions, take place

every year across the country, being the one held at Coimbra the oldest and most
traditional of all, copied and adapted by other universities. These include the music
festivals of Queima das Fitas and Semana Académica (Aveiro, Portugal|Aveiro,
Braga: Enterro da Gata, Coimbra, Covilhã, Faro, Portugal|Faro, Lisbon, Porto, etc.).

[edit] Summer musical festivals

Summer festivals include: Vilar de Mouros Festival, Festival Sudoeste, Rock in Rio
Lisboa, Super Bock Super Rock, Festival de Paredes de Coura, Boom Festival, Ilha
do Ermal Festival, etc.

[edit] Painting
Detail of the Saint Vincent Panels, by Nuno Gonçalves.
See also: List of Portuguese painters

Portuguese art was very restricted in the early years of nationality, during the
reconquista, to a few paintings in churches, convents and palaces.

It was after the 15th century, with national borders established and with the
discoveries, that Portuguese art expanded. Some kings, like John I already had royal
painters. It is during this century that Gothic art was replaced by a more humanistic
and Italian-like art.

During the reign of King Alfonso V, an important Portuguese artist Nuno Gonçalves
shaped Portuguese art, leading it to gain local characteristics (Escola Nacional,
National School). His influence on Portuguese art continued after his death. He was
the royal painter for the famous Retábulo do Altar das Relíquias de São Vicente in the
Cathedral of Lisbon (Sé de Lisboa). The painting caught fire and was replaced by a
Baroque structure. Parts of his work still exist and can be found in the Museu
Nacional de Arte Antiga National (Museum of Ancient Art).

During the Golden Age of Portugal, in the late 15th century and early 16th century,
Portuguese artists were influenced by Flemish art, and were in turn influential on
Flemish artists of the same period. During this period, Portuguese art became
internationally well-known, mostly because of its very original and diverse
characteristics, but little is known about the artists of this time due to the medieval
culture that considered painters to be artisans. The anonymous artists in the
Portuguese "escolas" produced art not only for metropolitan Portugal but also for its
colonies, namely Malacca or Goa and even Africa, gratifying the desires of local
aristrocatic clients and religious clients.
In the 19th century, naturalist and realist painters like Columbano, Henrique Pousão
and Silva Porto revitalized painting against a decadent academic art.

In the early 20th century, Portuguese art increased both in quality and quantity,
mainly due to members of the Modernist movement like Amadeo de Souza Cardoso
and Almada Negreiros. In the post-war years the abstractionist painter Vieira da Silva
settled in Paris and gained widespread recognition, as did her contemporary Paula
Rego.

[edit] Theater

Gil Vicente, 16th century Portuguese playwright.

Portugal never developed a great Dramatic theatre tradition due primarily to the fact
that the Portuguese were more passionate about lyric or humorous works than
dramatic art. Gil Vicente is often seen as the father of Portuguese theatre - he was the
leading Portuguese playwright in the 16th century. During the 20th century, theatre
found a way to reach out to the people, specially the middle class, through what in
Portugal is known as "Revista" - a form of humorous and cartoonish theatre designed
to expose and criticize social (and political) issues, but in a way that entertains and
amuses the audience.

Gil Vicente (1435–1536) is considered the first great Portuguese playwright.

Frequently called the father of Portuguese theatre, he portrays the society of the 16th
century. Anticipating the seventeenth-century French writer Jean de Santeul's well-
known phrase "castigat ridendo mores", Gil Vicente became famous for his satirical
plays such as the "Triologia das Barcas" ("Auto da Barca do Inferno" (1517), "Auto
da Barca do Purgatório" (1518); "Auto da Barca da Glória" (1518)). In these plays, he
creates some characters who are representative of their social group. This results in
not only comical, but also strong critical situations. Gil Vicente also wrote other
important plays such as "Auto da Índia" (1509), "Auto da Fama" (1510), and "Farsa
de Inês Pereira" (1523).

Another relevant playwright of the 16th century is António Ferreira (1528–1569),

who wrote "A Castro" (1587), a well-known tragedy about the forbidden love
between D. Pedro I and D. Inês de Castro. António Ferreira is considered the father of
Renaissance culture in Portugal.

One of the most famous playwrights of the 18th century is António José da Silva
(1705–1739), commonly known as "O Judeu" because of his Judaic origins. He wrote
several plays such as "Os Encantos de Medeia" (1735), "As Variedades de Proteu"
(1737) and "Precipício de Faetonte" (1738).

Almeida Garrett (1799–1854) was a turning point in Portuguese literature as far as the
themes are concerned. His most outstanding play is "Frei Luís de Sousa" (1844),
which became a classic of Portuguese theatre. Garrett also wrote "Um Auto de Gil
Vicente" (1838), "Filipa de Vilhena" (1846) and "O Alfageme de Santarém" (1842).
These three plays as well as "Frei Luís de Sousa" are somehow connected with
Portuguese history. Furthermore, Garrett is also the founder of the "Conservatório
Geral de Arte Dramática" as well as of the "Teatro Nacional D. Maria II".

As far as the 20th century is concerned, it's worth noticing Bernardo Santareno's
(1920–1980) work. His most famous play is "O Judeu", based upon the life of
António José da Silva, mentioned above. Santareno also wrote "A Promessa" (1957),
"O Crime da Aldeia Velha" (1959) and "Anunciação" (1962). Most of his plays deal
with universal questions such as liberty, oppression and discrimination.

Born in 1926, Luís de Sttau Monteiro (1926–1993) wrote several plays, some of them
portraying and criticising Portuguese society of his time. His most famous play is
"Felizmente Há Luar" (1961), which is a strong criticism of the political context of
that time (dictatorship – Estado Novo). "O Barão" (1965), "A Guerra Santa" (1967)
and "Sua Excelência" (1971) were also written by Sttau Monteiro.

In the 20th century theatre in Portugal became more popular with the "Revista" – a
comical and satirical form of theatre. It is a creative way of expressing one's ideas as
well as criticising political and social problems. The most important actors who
performed this form of theatre in the 20th century were Vasco Santana (1898–1958),
Beatriz Costa (1907–1996) and Ivone Silva (1935–1987). Nowadays it is worth
mentioning Maria João Abreu, José Raposo and Fernando Mendes, who perform this
form of theatre at the well known "Parque Mayer" (a theatre in Lisbon where the
"Revista" used to be performed).

Important Portuguese actors are Ruy de Carvalho, Eunice Muñoz, Rui Mendes, Irene
Cruz, Luís Miguel Cintra, just to name a few.

In later years, theatre in Portugal has developed into many other forms as in any other
European country. Almost every repertoire can be seen in Portugal. Many companies
have the works of Shakespeare, Molière, Brecht, Becket or Chekhov, and Portuguese
classic and modern authors on their repertoire. Other companies show more
experimental projects. All this makes the theatre repertoire very varied. Some of the
most important professional theatre companies nowadays are: Teatro da Cornucópia,
Teatro da Comuna, Teatro Aberto, Teatro Meridional, Teatro da Garagem,
Companhia de Teatro de Almada, Companhia Teatral do Chiado, A Barraca, Teatro
dos Aloés, Teatro Praga, Artistas Unidos, Seiva Trupe, As boas raparigas, ACTA,
among many others.

Portugal hosts several festivals such as FITEI, ACERT and FIAR, and one of the most
important is Festival Internacional de Teatro de Almada (International Theatre
Festival of Almada), organized for 25 years by Companhia de Teatro de Almada
(Almada Theatre Company), with directors Joaquim Benite and Vitor Gonçalves.

[edit] Festivities and holidays

During the summer, in the month of June, festivities dedicated to three saints known
as Santos Populares take place all over Portugal. Why the populace associated the
saints to these pagan festivities is not known. But they are possibly related to Roman
or local deities from the time before Christianity spread in the region. The three saints
are Saint Anthony, Saint John and Saint Peter. Common fare in these festivities are
wine, água-pé (mostly grape juice), and traditional bread along with sardines. During
the festivities are many weddings, traditional street dances and fireworks.

Saint Anthony is celebrated on the night of 12th-13 June, especially in Lisbon (where
that saint was born and lived most of his life), with Marchas Populares (a street
carnival) and other festivities. In the meantime, several marriages known as
Casamentos de Santo António (Marriages of Saint Anthony) are made. But the most
popular saint is Saint John, he is celebrated in many cities and towns throughout the
country on the night of the 23rd-24th, especially in Porto and Braga, where the
sardines, caldo verde (traditional soup) and plastic hammers to hammer in another
person's head for luck are indispensable. The final saint is Saint Peter, celebrated in
the night of 28th-29th, especially in Póvoa de Varzim and Barcelos, the festivities are
similar to the others, but more dedicated to the sea and with an extensive use of fire
(fogueiras). In Póvoa de Varzim, there is the Rusgas in the night, another sort of street
carnival. Each festivity is a municipal holiday in the cities and towns where it occurs.

Carnival in Portugal
Carnival is also widely celebrated in Portugal, some traditional carnivals date back
several centuries. Loulé, Alcobaça, Mealhada, Funchal, Torres Vedras, Ovar and
Figueira da Foz, among several other localities, hold several days of festivities, with
parades where social and political criticism abound, along with music and dancing in
an environment of euphorya. There are some localities which preserve a more
traditional carnival with typical elements of the ancient carnival traditions of Portugal
and Europe. However, several parades in most localities have adopted many elements
of the tropical Brazilian Carnival.

On January 6, Epiphany is celebrated by some families, especially in the North and

Center, where the family gathers to eat "Bolo-Rei" (literally, King Cake, a cake made
with crystallized fruits); this is also the time for the traditional street songs - "As
Janeiras" (The January ones).

Saint Martin Day, is celebrated on November 11. This day is the peak of three days,
often with very good weather, it is known as Verão de São Martinho ("Saint Martin
summer"), the Portuguese celebrate it with jeropiga (a sweet liqueur wine) and
roasted Portuguese chestnuts (castanhas assadas), and it is called Magusto.

[edit] National holidays

Date Name Remarks
New Year's Day. Beginning of the year, marks the
January 1 Ano Novo
traditional end of "holiday season".
Carnival. (Also called Mardi Gras). Not an official
holiday, but declared by the government as a non-
working day. Very ancient festival celebrating the end
Tuesday,
Carnaval of the winter. It gained Christian connotations, and now
date varies
marks the first day of a period of 40 days before Easter
Week (Semana Santa, Holy Week), thus also known as
Entrudo.
Friday, date
Sexta-Feira Santa Good Friday.
varies
Easter. Used for family gathering to eat Pão-de-Ló and
"Folar" (an Easter cake) and Easter eggs. In the North, a
sort of church members processions (compasso) visits
and blesses every home with an open door, thus
Sunday,
Páscoa meaning they are Catholics. Traditionally, this is the
date varies
second visit of children and non-married youngsters to
their godparents, receiving an Easter gift. The first visit
is on Palm Sunday, 7 days before, where children give
flowers and palms to their godparents.
Literally, "Freedom Day". Celebrates the Carnation
April 25 Dia da Liberdade Revolution, marking the end of the dictatorial regime.
Event of 1974.
May 1 Dia do Trabalhador Labour Day.
Thursday,
Corpo de Deus Corpus Christi. Christian feast celebrating the Eucharist.
date varies
 Portugal Day. Marks the date of Camões death. Camões
Dia de Portugal, de
wrote The Lusiads, Portugal's national epic. Event of
Camões e das
June 10 1580. Celebrated in many of Portuguese communities in
Comunidades
the United States of America, such as the Ironbound in
Portuguesas
Newark, New Jersey
August 15 Assunção Assumption of Mary.
Implantação da Implantation of the Republic, or Republic Day. Event of
October 5
República 1910.
November
Todos os Santos All Saints Day. Day used for visiting deceased relatives.
1
December Restauração da
Restoration of Independence. Event of 1640.
1 Independência
December Imaculada Immaculate Conception. Patron Saint of Portugal since
8 Conceição 1646.
Christmas Day. Celebrated in the 24th to the 25th as a
December family gathering to eat codfish with potatoes and
Natal
25 cabbage, roasted kid and turkey; seasonal sweets and
dry fruits; drink Port wine; and share gifts.

Portuguese popular song: (English Translation)

"Santo António já se acabou. (Saint Anthony is over)

O São Pedro está-se a acabar. (Saint Peter is ending)
São João, São João, São João, (Saint John, Saint John, Saint John)
Dá cá um balão para eu brincar." (Give me a balloon, for me to play)

[edit] Sports and games

Main article: Sport in Portugal
See also: Football in Portugal

Portuguese football fans supporting the Portuguese national football team.

Football is the most popular sport in Portugal. Football started to become well known
in Portugal in the final decades of the 19th century, brought by Portuguese students
who returned from England.

The first person responsible for its implementation would have been Guilherme Pinto
Basto (according to some people, his brothers Eduardo and Frederico would have
brought the first ball from England). It was he who had the initiative to organise an
exhibition of the new game, which took place in October 1888, and it was also him
who organized the first football match in January of the following year. The match,
played where today the Campo Pequeno, involved opposing teams from Portugal and
England. The Portuguese team won the game 2-1. Consequently, football started
attracting the attention of the high society, being distinguished by the Luso-British
rivalry.

Later, the game spread, being practiced in colleges, and leading to the foundation of
clubs all over the country. Until the end of the century, associations such as Clube
Lisbonense, Carcavelos, Braço de Prata, the Real Ginásio Clube Português, the
Estrela Futebol Clube, the Futebol Académico, the Campo de Ourique, the Oporto
Cricket, and the Sport Clube Vianense were founded to practice this sport or created
sections for competing. The first match, between Lisbon and Porto, took place in
1894, attended by King D. Carlos. The Clube Internacional de Futebol (founded in
1902) was the first Portuguese team to play abroad defeating, in 1907, the Madrid
Futebol Clube in the Spanish capital.

Currently, one of the most important teams in Portugal, the oldest being the Boavista
Futebol Clube, was founded in 1903. The Futebol Clube do Porto, after an
unsuccessful attempt in 1893, appeared in 1906, stimulated by José Monteiro da
Costa, among others. The Sporting Clube de Portugal was founded in 1906 by the
Viscount of Alvalade and his grandson José de Alvalade. Sport Lisboa e Benfica, was
born in 1904 (the club maintained the foundation date of Sport Lisboa, founded in
1904, when in 1908 assimilated the Grupo Sport Benfica, founded in 1906). They are
all clubs that traditionally have several sports activities but they give great distinction
to football, making use of teams of professional players, which frequently participate
in European competitions.

In May 2006, the Portuguese national team was ranked 7th out of 205 countries by
FIFA. The legendary Eusébio is still a symbol of Portuguese football. Luís Figo was
voted 2001 Player of the Year by FIFA, after finishing 2nd in 2000. Manuel Rui
Costa and Cristiano Ronaldo are also noteworthy, although Vítor Baía is the player in
history with most titles won, including all European club cups. Moreover, José
Mourinho is regarded as one of the most successful and well-paid football managers
in football's history. The main domestic football competition is the Superliga, where
the dominating teams are S.L. Benfica, FC Porto, and Sporting CP. Portugal hosted
and nearly won EURO 2004, getting defeated in the final by surprise winner Greece.
The Portuguese national team also reached the semi-finals of the FIFA World Cup
twice, in 1966, when Eusebio was the top scorer, with 9 goals, and also in 2006. The
year 2006 was the year that Portugal nearly won the FIFA World Cup tournament,
ranking 4th overall, being defeated by France and Germany. This was the first time
since 1966, that the Portuguese football team had advanced to a such a high
qualifying round in a World Cup tournament. The team was welcomed back proudly
from its country.

Other than football, many other professional and well organized sport competitions
take place every season in Portugal, including basketball, swimming, athletics, tennis,
gymnastics, futsal, handball, and volleyball among the hundreds of sports played in
this country.
Cycling, with Volta a Portugal as the most important race, is also popular.

In rink hockey, Portugal is the country with the most world titles: 15 World
Championships and 20 European Championships, and in rugby sevens, the Portuguese
team has won many international trophies, having as of July 2006, five European
Championship titles.

Golf is also worth mentioning, since its greatest players play in the sunny region of
the Algarve, during the Algarve Open.

The Autódromo Fernanda Pires da Silva in the Estoril, near Lisbon, is the main
Portuguese race track, where many motorsport competitions are held, including the
World Motorcycling Championship and A1 Grand Prix.

Rallying (with the Rally of Portugal and Rally Madeira) and off-road (with the Baja
Portugal 1000 and recently Lisboa-Dakar) events also have international recognition.

Triathlon is also giving important steps, thanks to the world cup leader Vanessa
Fernandes, and her European and world titles. She is also the duathlon European and
world champion.

The national team of shooting sports won the gold medal in the teams event, and
Paulo Cleto won silver in the single men's competition.

Martial arts like judo have also brought many medals to this country, namely Telma
Monteiro, who conquered gold twice at the European Championships in the -52 kg
category, bronze in 2005 world championship in Cairo, and achieved silver in 2007
World Judo Championships. Nuno Delgado, who conquered the bronze medal in the
2000 Summer Olympics in Sydney, also became the European champion in 1999 (in
Bratislava), and vice-champion in the year of 2003.

Manuel Centeno is also a major name in Portuguese sports, as he conquered the

national, European and the world titles, in 2006 in bodyboarding after being the
European champion back in 2001.

In surfing, Justin Mujica, European surfing champion in 2004, is now back in the
competitions after recovering from a knee injury. Tiago Pires reached the number one
position at ASP WQS rating, and will probably be part of the main surfing
competition. Ruben Gonzalez is an international acclaimed surfer and the only one to
achieve the national title in two consecutive tournaments.

The Portuguese team of basketball made a unique qualification to the European

Championships and made through the second round, where it was eliminated.

"Os Lobos" (Portugal national rugby union team) made a dramatic qualification to the
2007 Rugby World Cup, becoming the world's only all-amateur team ever to qualify
for that kind of event.

In fencing, Joaquim Videira won the silver medal at the épée 2006 World Fencing
Championships, and has conquered numerous medals in the world cup.
The major Portuguese professional sports leagues, championships and events include:

Portuguese Football Championship and Cup of Portugal in football.

Portuguese Futsal First Division in futsal.
Portuguese Basketball League in basketball.
Portuguese Rink Hockey Championship in rink hockey.
Portuguese Handball League in handball.
Campeonato Nacional Honra/Super Bock in rugby.
Portuguese Volleyball League A1 in volleyball.
Portuguese Beach Soccer League in beach soccer.
Volta a Portugal in cycling.
Rally of Portugal in motor racing.

The country has an ancient martial art known as "Jogo do Pau" (Portuguese Stick
Fencing), which is used for self-protection and for duels between young men in
disputes over young women. Having its origin in the Middle Ages, Jogo do Pau uses
wooden staves as a combat weapon.

Other sports are the "Jogos Populares", a wide variety of traditional sports played for
fun.

In addition to this, other popular sport-related recreational outdoor activities with

thousands of enthusiasts nationwide include airsoft, fishing, golf, hiking, hunting, and
orienteering.

Architecture of Portugal
From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia
Jump to: navigation, search

Cloisters of Jerónimos Monastery in Lisbon, built in Manueline style in the 1520s.

Architecture of Portugal refers to the architecture practised in the territory of

present-day Portugal since before the foundation of the country in the 12th century.
The term may also refer to buildings created under Portuguese influence or by
Portuguese architects in other parts of the world, particularly in the Portuguese
Empire.
Portuguese architecture, like all aspects of Portuguese culture, is marked by the
history of the country and the several peoples that have settled and influenced the
current Portuguese territory. These include Romans, Germanic peoples and Arabs, as
well as the influence from the main European artistic centres from which were
introduced to the broad architectural styles: Romanesque, Gothic, Renaissance,
Baroque and Neoclassicism. Among the main local manifestations of Portuguese
architecture are the Manueline, the exuberant Portuguese version of late Gothic; and
the Pombaline style, a mix of late Baroque and Neoclassicism that developed after the
Great Lisbon Earthquake of 1755.

In the 20th century, Portuguese architecture has produced a number of renowned

personalities like Fernando Távora, Eduardo Souto de Moura and, especially, Álvaro
Siza.

Contents
[hide]

1 Early architecture
o 1.1 Megaliths
o 1.2 Pre-Roman villages
2 Roman period
3 Pre-Romanesque
4 Moorish period
o 4.1 Castles
o 4.2 Mosques
5 Romanesque style (1100-c. 1230)
o 5.1 Cathedrals and monasteries
o 5.2 Castles
6 Gothic (c. 1200 - c.1450)
o 6.1 Churches and monasteries
o 6.2 Castles and palaces
7 Manueline style (c.1490 - c.1520)
8 Renaissance and Mannerism (c.1520 - c.1650)
o 8.1 Plain style (1580-1640)
9 Restoration architecture (1640-1717)
10 Baroque style (1717-1755)
11 Pombaline style (1755-1860)
12 Modern Architecture
13 See also
14 Footnotes
15 References
16 External links

[edit] Early architecture

Anta (dolmen) in Cabeção, near Mora, in the Alentejo.

[edit] Megaliths

The earliest examples of architectural activity in Portugal date from the Neolithic and
consist of structures associated with Megalith culture. The Portuguese hinterland is
dotted with a large number of dolmens (called antas or dólmens), tumuli (mamoas)
and menhirs. The Alentejo region is particularly rich in megalithic monuments, like
the notable Anta Grande do Zambujeiro, located near Évora. Standing stones can be
found isolated or forming circular arrays (stone circles or cromlechs). The Almendres
Cromlech, also located near Évora, is the largest of the Iberian Peninsula, containing
nearly 100 menhirs arranged in two elliptical arrays on an East-West orientation.

[edit] Pre-Roman villages

Pre-historic fortified villages dating from the Chalcolithic are found along the Tagus
river like that of Vila Nova de São Pedro, near Cartaxo, and the Castro of Zambujal,
near Torres Vedras.

Iron age house in Citânia de Briteiros

These sites were occupied in the period around the years 2500-1700 BC and were
surrounded by stone walls and towers, a sign of the conflictivity of the time.

Starting around the 6th century BC, Northwest Portugal, as well as neighbouring
Galicia in Spain, saw the development of the Castro culture (cultura castreja). This
region was dotted with hillfort villages (called citânias or cividades) that for the most
part continued to exist under Roman domination, when the area became incorporated
into the province of Gallaecia. Notable archaeological sites are the Citânia de Sanfins,
near Paços de Ferreira, Citânia de Briteiros, near Guimarães, and the Cividade de
Terroso, near Póvoa do Varzim. For defensive reasons, these hillforts were built over
elevated terrain and were surrounded by rings of stone walls (Terroso had three wall
rings). Houses were round in shape with walls made of stone without mortar, while
the roofs were made of grass shoots. Baths were built in some of them, like in
Briteiros and Sanfins.

[edit] Roman period

Roman Temple of Évora

Architecture developed significantly in the 2nd century BC with the arrival of the
Romans, who called the Iberian Peninsula Hispania. Conquered settlements and
villages were often modernised following Roman models, with the building of a
forum, streets, theatres, temples, baths, aqueducts and other public buildings. An
efficient array of roads and bridges was built to link the cities and other settlements.

Braga (Bracara Augusta) was the capital of the Gallaecia province and still has
vestiges of public baths, a public fountain (called Idol's Fountain) and a theatre. Évora
boasts a well-preserved Roman temple, probably dedicated to the cult of Emperor
Augustus. A Roman bridge crosses the Tâmega River by the city of Chaves (Aquae
Flaviae). Lisbon (Olissipo) has the remains of a theatre in the Alfama neighbourhood.

The best-preserved remains of a Roman village are those of Conimbriga, located near
Coimbra. The excavations revealed city walls, baths, the forum, an aqueduct, an
amphitheatre, and houses for the middle classes (insulae), as well as luxurious
mansions (domus) with central courtyards decorated with mosaics. Another important
excavated Roman village is Miróbriga, near Santiago do Cacém, with a well
preserved Roman temple, baths, a bridge and the vestiges of the only Roman
hippodrome known in Portugal.
Roman bridge of Aquae Flaviae, today's Chaves.

In the hinterland, wealthy Romans established villae, country houses dedicated to

agriculture. Many villae contained facilities likes baths and were decorated with
mosaics and paintings. Important sites are the Villae of Pisões (near Beja), Torre de
Palma (near Monforte) and Centum Cellas (near Belmonte). The latter has the well-
preserved ruins of a three-storey tower which was part of the residence of the villa
owner.

[edit] Pre-Romanesque

Saint Frutuoso Chapel near Braga, a Greek cross building of Byzantine influence (7th
century).

Roman domination in Hispania was ended with the invasions by Germanic peoples
(especially Sueves and Visigoths) starting in the 5th century AD. Very few buildings
survive from the period of Visigoth domination (c.580-770), most of them modified in
subsequent centuries. One of these is the small Saint Frutuoso Chapel, near Braga,
which was part of a Visigothic monastery built in the 7th century. The building has a
Greek cross floorplan with rectangular arms and a central cupola; both the cupola and
the arms of the chapel are decorated with arch reliefs. The chapel shows clear
influences of Byzantine buildings like the Mausoleum of Galla Placidia in Ravenna.

After 711, in the period of dominance of the Iberian Peninsula by the Moors, the
Christian Kingdom of Asturias (c.711-910), located in the Northern part of the
peninsula, was a centre of resistance (see Reconquista). In addition, many Christians
(Mozarabs) lived in Moorish territories and were allowed to practicise their religion
and build churches. Asturian architecture and Mozarabic art influenced Christian
buildings in the future Portuguese territory, as seen on the few structures that have
survived from this time. The most important of these is the Church of São Pedro de
Lourosa, located near Oliveira do Hospital, which bears an inscription that gives 912
as the year of its construction. The church is a basilica with three aisles separated by
horseshoe arches, a narthex on the façade and mullioned, horseshoe-shaped windows
of Asturian influence on the central aisle.

Other preromanesque churches built under Asturian and Mozarabic influence are São
Pedro de Balsemão, near Lamego, with a basilica floorplan, and the Chapel of São
Gião, near Nazaré, although some authors consider that these buildings may be of
Visigoth origin. The inner spaces of these buildings are all divided by typical
horseshoe arches. The Visigothic Saint Frutuoso Chapel was also modified in the 10th
century, when the arm chapels were given a round flooplan and horseshoe arches.

[edit] Moorish period

Main gate (Porta de Loulé) of the old Moorish city centre (Almedina) of Silves.

The invasion of the Iberian Peninsula in the year 711 by Moors from the Maghreb put
an end to Visigoth rule in Hispania, called Al-Andalus by the newcomers. Moorish
presence strongly influenced art and architecture in Portuguese territory, especially in
Southern Portugal, where the Reconquista was only finished in 1249. However, in
contrast to neighbouring Spain, few Islamic buildings in Portugal have survived intact
to this day. Traditional houses in many cities and villages in Portugal have simple,
white façades that lend the ensemble of streets and neighbourhoods a distinct Islamic
look, similar to that of villages in Northern Africa. Many villages and city
neighbourhoods have retained the street layout from Islamic times, like the Alfama in
Lisbon. Moorish buildings were often constructed with the rammed earth (taipa) and
adobe techniques, followed by whitewashing.

[edit] Castles

Main article: Castles in Portugal

The Moors built strong castles and fortifications in many cities but, although many
Portuguese mediaeval castles originated in the Islamic period, most of them have been
extensively remodelled after the Christian reconquest. One of the best-preserved is
Silves Castle, located in Silves, the ancient capital of the Al-Garb, today's Algarve.
Built between the 8th and 13th centuries, Silves Castle has preserved its walls and
square-shaped towers from the Moorish period, as well as 11th-century cisterns -
water reservoirs used in case of a siege. The old Moorish centre of the city - the
Almedina - was defended by a wall and several fortified towers and gates, parts of
which are still preserved.

View of Mértola; the Main Church, formerly a mosque, is on the foreground.

Another notable Islamic castle in the Algarve is Paderne Castle, whose ruined walls
evidence the taipa building technique used in its construction. The Sintra Moorish
Castle, near Lisbon, has also preserved rests of walls and a cistern from Moorish
times. Part of the Moorish city walls have been preserved in Lisbon (the so-called
Cerca Velha) and Évora. Moorish city gates with a characteristic horseshoe-arched
profile can be found in Faro and Elvas.

[edit] Mosques

Many mosques were built all over Portuguese territory during Muslim domination,
but virtually all of these have been turned into churches and cathedrals, and Islamic
features cannot be identified anymore. Thus, the Cathedrals of Lisbon, Silves and
Faro, for instance, are probably built over the remains of the great mosques after the
Reconquista.

The only exception to this rule is the Main Church (Matriz) of Mértola, in the
Alentejo region. The Mértola Mosque was built in the second half of the 12th century
and, even though it has suffered several modifications, it is still the best-preserved
mediaeval mosque in Portugal. Inside the church has an approximate square-shaped
floorplan with 4 aisles with a total of 12 columns that support a 16th-century
Manueline rib vaulting. Even though the roof has been modified and some aisles have
been suppressed in the 16th century, the labyrinthic interior with its "forest" of pillars
clearly relates to other contemporary mosques in Spain and Maghreb. The inner wall
still has a mihrab, a decorated niche that indicates the direction of Mecca. In addition
the church has three horseshoe arches with an alfiz, a typical Islamic decorative
feature.
[edit] Romanesque style (1100-c. 1230)
See also: Romanesque architecture and List of regional characteristics of
Romanesque churches

A side portal in the church of the Benedictine Monastery of Rates with zoomorphic
and anthropomorphic decoration (c. 1096).

[edit] Cathedrals and monasteries

The Romanesque style was introduced in Portugal between the end of the 11th and the
beginning of the 12th century. The most influential of the first Portuguese
Romanesque monuments were Braga Cathedral and the Monastery of Rates. The
Cathedral of Braga was rebuilt in the 1070s by bishop Pedro and consecrated in 1089,
although only the apse was finished at the time. The bishop's ambitious plan was to
create a pilgrimage church, with a three aisled nave, an ambulatory and a large
transept. A relic of this early project may be a small Eastern chapel located nowadays
outside the church itself.

Building activity gained pace after 1095, when Count Henry took possession of the
Condado Portucalense. Count Henry came to Portugal with a number of noblemen
and also Benedictine monks of Cluny Abbey, which was headed by Henry's brother,
Hugh. The Benedictines and other religious orders gave great impulse to Romanesque
architecture during the whole 12th century. Count Henry sponsored the building of
the Monastery of Rates (begun in 1096), one of the fundamental works of the first
Portuguese Romanesque, although the project was modified several times during the
12th century. The relevance of its architecture and sculptures with diverse
architectural influences make this temple a case study that is reflected in the
production of further Romanesque art of the nascent kingdom of Portugal.
Façade of the Old Cathedral of Coimbra (begun 1162).

The worshops of Braga and Rates were very influential in Northern Portugal. Extant
12th-century Romanesque monastic churches are found in Manhente (near Barcelos),
with a portal dating from around 1117; Rio Mau (near Vila do Conde); with an
exceptional apse dating from 1151; Travanca (near Amarante); Paço de Sousa (near
Penafiel); Bravães (near Ponte da Barca), Pombeiro (near Felgueiras) and many
others.

The spread of Romanesque in Portugal followed the North-South path of the

Reconquista, specially during the reign of Afonso Henriques, Count Henry's son and
first King of Portugal. In Coimbra, Afonso Henriques created the Santa Cruz
Monastery, one of the most important of the monastic foundations of the time,
although the current building is the result of a 16th century remodelling. Afonso
Henriques and his successors also sponsored the building of many cathedrals in the
bishop seats of the country. This generation of Romanesque cathedrals included the
already-mentioned Braga, Oporto, Coimbra, Viseu, Lamego and Lisbon.

Almourol Castle, built c. 1171 on an island of the Tagus by the Templar Knights. The
highest tower is the square-shaped keep of the castle.

All Portuguese Romanesque cathedrals were later extensively modified with the
exception of the Cathedral of Coimbra (begun 1162), which has remained unaltered.
Coimbra Cathedral is a Latin cross church with a three-aisled nave, a transept with
short arms and three East chapels. The central aisle is covered by a stone barrel
vaulting while the lateral aisles are covered by groin vaults. The second storey of the
central aisle has an arched gallery (triforium), and the crossing is topped by a dome.
This general scheme is related to that of the Cathedral of Santiago de Compostela in
Galicia, although the Coimbra building is much less ambitious.

Lisbon Cathedral (begun c.1147) is very similar to Coimbra Cathedral, except that the
West façade is flanked by two massive towers, a feature observed in other cathedrals
like Oporto and Viseu. In general, Portuguese cathedrals had a heavy, fortress-like
appearance, with crenellations and little decoration apart from portals and windows.

A remarkable religious Romanesque building is the Round Church (Rotunda) in the

Castle of Tomar, which was built in the second half of the 12th century by the
Templar Knights. The church is a round structure with a central arched octagon, and
was probably modelled after the Dome of the Rock in Jerusalem, which was
mistakenly believed by the crusaders to be a remnant of the Temple of Solomon. The
Church of the Holy Sepulchre of Jerusalem may also have served as model.

[edit] Castles

Main article: Castles in Portugal

The troubled times of the Portuguese Reconquista meant that many castles had to be
built to protect villages from Moors and Castilians. King Afonso Henriques sponsored
the building of many fortifications (often remodelling Moorish castles as Lisbon
Castle) and granted land to Military Orders - specially the Templar Knights and the
Knights Hospitallers - who became responsible for the defence of borders and
villages. The Templar Knights built several fortresses along the line of the Tagus
river, like the castles of Pombal, Tomar and Belver and Almourol. They are credited
as having introduced the keep to Portuguese military architecture.

[edit] Gothic (c. 1200 - c.1450)

Main article : Portuguese Gothic architecture
Central aisle of the church of Alcobaça Monastery (12th-13th century).

[edit] Churches and monasteries

Gothic architecture was brought to Portugal by the Cistercian Order. The first fully
Gothic building in Portugal is the church of the Monastery of Alcobaça, a magnificent
example of the clear and simple architectural forms favoured by the Cistercians. The
church was built between 1178 and 1252 in three phases, and seems inspired by the
Abbey of Clairvaux, in the Champagne. Its three aisles are very tall and slender,
giving an exceptional impression of height. The whole church is covered by rib
vaulting and the main chapel has an ambulatory and a series of radiant chapels. The
vault of the ambulatory is externally supported by flying buttresses, typical features of
Gothic architecture and a novelty at the time in Portugal.

After the foundation of Alcobaça, the Gothic style was chiefly disseminated by
mendicant orders (mainly Franciscan, Augustinians and Dominicans). Along the 13th
and 14th centuries, several convents were founded in urban centres, important
examples of which can be found in Oporto (São Francisco Church), Coimbra
(Monastery of Santa Clara-a-Velha), Guimarães (São Francisco, São Domingos),
Santarém (São Francisco, Santa Clara), Elvas (São Domingos), Lisbon (ruins of
Carmo Convent) and many other places. Mendicant Gothic churches usually had a
three-aisled nave covered with wooden roof and an apse with three chapels covered
with rib vaulting. These churches also lacked towers and were mostly devoid of
architectural decoration, in tone with mendicant ideals. Mendicant Gothic was also
adopted in several parish churches built all over the country, for instance in Sintra
(Santa Maria), Mafra, Lourinhã and Loulé.

Flamboyant Gothic in the Monastery of Batalha: church façade (left) and Founder's
Chapel (right).

Many of the Romanesque cathedrals were modernised with Gothic elements. Thus,
the Romanesque nave of Oporto Cathedral is supported by flying buttresses, one of
the first built in Portugal (early 13th century). The apse of Lisbon Cathedral was
totally remodelled in the first half of the 14th century, when it gained a Gothic
ambulatory illuminated by a clerestory (high row of windows on the upper storey).
The ambulatory has a series of radiant chapels illuminated with large windows,
contrasting with the dark Romanesque nave of the cathedral. An important transitional
building is Évora Cathedral, built during the 13th century; even though its floorplan,
façade and elevation are inspired by Lisbon Cathedral, its forms (arches, windows,
vaults) are already Gothic. Many Gothic churches maintained the fortress-like
appearance of Romanesque times, like the already-mentioned Évora Cathedral, the
Church of the Monastery of Leça do Balio (14th century) near Matosinhos, and even
as late as the 15th-century, with the Main Church of Viana do Castelo.

Several Gothic cloisters were built and can still be found in the Cathedrals of Oporto,
Lisbon and Évora (all from the 14th century) as well as in monasteries like Alcobaça,
Santo Tirso and the Convent of the Order of Christ.

In the early 15th century, the building of the Monastery of Batalha, sponsored by
King John I, led to a renovation of Portuguese Gothic. After 1402, the works were
trusted to Master Huguet, of unknown origin, who introduced the Flamboyant Gothic
style to the project. The whole building is decorated with Gothic pinnacles (crockets),
reliefs, large windows with intrincate tracery and elaborate crenellations. The main
portal has a series of archivolts decorated with a multitude of statues, while the
tympanum has a relief showing Christ and the Evangelists. The Founder's Chapel and
the Chapter House have elaborate star-ribbed vaulting, unknown in Portugal until
then. Batalha influenced 15th-century workshops like those of Guarda Cathedral,
Silves Cathedral and monasteries in Beja (Nossa Senhora da Conceição) and
Santarém (Convento da Graça).

View of Bragança Castle. The large keep tower was built in the 15th century.

Another Gothic variant was the so-called Mudéjar-Gothic, which developed in

Portugal towards the end of the 15th century, specially in the Alentejo region. The
name Mudéjar refers to the influence of Islamic art in the Christian kingdoms of the
Iberian Peninsula, specially in the Middle Ages. In the Alentejo and elsewhere,
Mudéjar influence in several buildings is evident in the profile of windows and
portals, often with horseshoe arches and a mullion, circular turrets with conical
pinnacles, Islamic merlons etc., as well as tile (azulejo) decoration. Examples include
the portico of St Francis Church of Évora, the courtyard of the Sintra Royal Palace
and several churches and palaces in Évora, Elvas, Arraiolos, Beja, etc. Múdejar
eventually intermingled with the Manueline style in the early 16th century.

[edit] Castles and palaces

During the Gothic era, several castles had to be either built or reinforced, especially
along the border with the Kingdom of Castille. Compared to previous castles, Gothic
castles in Portugal tended to have more towers, often of circular or semi-circular plan
(to increase resistance to projectiles), keep towers tended to be polygonal, and castle
gates were often defended by a pair of flanking towers. A second, lower wall curtain
(barbicans) were often built along the perimeter of the main walls to prevent war
machines from approaching the castle. Features like machicolations and improved
arrowslits became also widespread.

Starting in the 14th century, keep towers became larger and more sophisticated, with
rib vaulting roofs and facilities like fireplaces. Keep towers with improved residential
characteristics can be found in the castles of Beja, Estremoz and Bragança, while
some later castles (15th century) became real palaces, like those in Penedono, Ourém
and Porto de Mós. The most significant case is the Castle of Leiria, turned into a royal
palace by King John I. Some rooms of the palace are decorated with splendid Gothic
loggias, from which the surrounding landscape could be appreciated by the King and
Queen.

[edit] Manueline style (c.1490 - c.1520)

Main article : Manueline

Manueline nave of Jerónimos Monastery in Lisbon.

Portuguese Late Gothic architecture is characterised by the development of a

sumptuous style called Manueline in honour of King Manuel I, under whose reign
(1495–1521) most buildings of the style were built or begun. Manueline mixes
aspects of Late Gothic with Renaissance architecture and decoration, revealing
influences from Spanish (Plateresque, Isabelline), Italian and Flemish contemporary
art, as well as elements borrowed from Islamic (Mudéjar) tradition. Manueline
buildings are also often decorated with naturalistic motifs typical of the Age of
Discovery, like spiralling motifs that remind of ropes used in ships, as well as a rich
array of animal and vegetal motifs.

The first known building in Manueline style is the Monastery of Jesus of Setúbal. The
church of the monastery was built from 1490 to 1510 by Diogo Boitac, an architect
considered one of the main creators of the style. The nave of the church has three
aisles of equal height, revealing an attempt to unify inner space which reaches its
climax in the nave of the church of the Jerónimos Monastery in Lisbon, finished in the
1520s by architect João de Castilho. The nave of the Setúbal Monastery is supported
by spiralling columns, a typical Manueline feature that is also found in the nave of
Guarda Cathedral and the parish churches of Olivenza, Freixo de Espada à Cinta,
Montemor-o-Velho and others. Manueline buildings also usually carry elaborate
portals with spiralling columns, niches and loaded with Renaissance and Gothic
decorative motifs, like in Jerónimos Monastery, Santa Cruz Monastery of Coimbra
and many others.
[edit] Renaissance and Mannerism (c.1520 - c.1650)
Main article: Renaissance architecture in Portugal

The adoption of the austere Renaissance style did not catch on well in Portugal.
Introduced by a French architect in 1517, it was mainly practiced from the 1530s on
by foreign architects and was therefore called estrangeirada (foreign-influenced). In
later years this style slowly evolved into Mannerism. The painter and architect
Francisco de Holanda, writer of the book Diálogos da Pintura Antiga ("Dialogues on
Ancient Painting"), dissiminated in this treatise the fundamentals of this new style.

Nave of Church of São Roque in Lisbon (1565-1587).

The basilica of Nossa Senhora da Conceição in Tomar was one of the earliest
churches in pure Renaissance style. It was begun by the Castilian architect Diogo de
Torralva in the period 1532-1540. Its beautiful and clear architecture turns it into one
of the best early Renaissance buildings in Portugal. The small church of Bom Jesus de
Valverde, south of Évora, attributed to both Manuel Pires and Diogo de Torralva, is
another early example.

The most eminent example of this style is the Claustro de D. João III (Cloister of
John III) in the Convent of the Order of Christ in Tomar. Started under the Portuguese
King João III, it was finished during the reign of Philip I of Portugal (also King of
Spain under the name of Philip II). The first architect was the Spaniard Diogo de
Torralva, who began the work in 1557, only to be finished in 1591 by Philip II's
architect, the Italian Filippo Terzi. This magnificent, two-storey cloister is considered
one of the most important examples of Mannerist architecture in Portugal.

However, the best known Portuguese architect in this period was Afonso Álvares,
whose works include the cathedrals of Leiria (1551–1574), Portalegre (begun 1556),
and the Church of São Roque in Lisbon. During this period he evolved into the
Mannerist style.

This last church was completed by the Jesuit architect, the Italian Filippo Terzi, who
also built the Jesuit college at Évora, the Monastery of São Vicente de Fora in Lisbon
and the episcopal palace in Coimbra. He had an enormous production and, besides
churches, he also built several aqueducts and fortresses.

In his wake came several Portuguese architects :

 Miguel de Arruda : Church of Our Lady of Grace (in Évora)
Baltasar Álvares, best known for the Sé Nova in Coimbra and the Igreja de
São Lourenço in Porto.
Francisco Velasquez : Cathedral of Mirando do Douro and the designs for the
monastery of S. Salvador (Grijó)
the military architect Manuel Pires : St. Anton's church in Évora.

[edit] Plain style (1580-1640)

View of the Monastery of Tibães with the church façade, near Braga

During the union of Portugal and Spain, the period between 1580 and 1640, a new
style developed called "Arquitecture chã" (plain architecture) by George Kubler.[1]
Basically mannerist, this style also marked by a clear structure, a sturdy appearance
with smooth, flat surfaces and a moderate arrangement of space, lacking excessive
decorations. It is a radical break with the decorative Manueline style. This simplified
style, caused by limited financial resources, expresses itself in the construction of hall
churches and less impressive buildings. In resistance to the Baroque style that was
already the standard in Spain, the Portuguese continued to apply the plain style to
express their separate identity as a people.

Baltasar Alvares built some of the most impressive examples in this style : the
Sé Nova of Coimbra (1598–1640), the S Lourenço or Grilos church in Porto
(begun 1614) and the church S Antão in Lisbon (1613–1656; now destroyed)..
Other examples are the several Benedictine constructions in this period, such
as the renovation by João Turriano of the Monastery of Tibães and the
Monastery of São Bento (now the Portuguese Parliament).
Francisco de Mora designed the convent of Nossa Senhora dos Remédios
(Évora) for the order of the Discalced Carmelites (1601–1614)
Pedro Nunes Tinoco designed in 1616 the church of S Marta (Lisbon) for the
Order of the Poor Clares.

When king Filipe II made his Joyous Entry in Lisbon in 1619, several temporary
triumphal arches were erected in the Flemish style of Hans Vredeman de Vries. The
tract literature of Wendel Dietterlin[2] also increased the interest in Flemish Baroque
architecture and art. This influence can be seen in the façade of the S Lourenço or
Grilos church in Porto, begun in 1622 by Baltasar Alvares.

This was also the period of the rise of the azulejos and the use of carved gilded wood
(talha dourada) on altars and ceilings.
[edit] Restoration architecture (1640-1717)
The Baroque style follows naturally from and is the expression of the Counter-
Reformation, a reaction of the Roman Catholic Church against the upcoming
Protestantism. But since the ideas of Protestantism did not take root at all in Portugal,
the Baroque style did not really catch on at a time when it was the prevailing style in
the rest of Europe. Furthermore, this style was too much associated with the Jesuits
and Spanish rule.

Instead a new style, a transition from the Plain Style to Late Baroque, was adopted
when Portugal regained its independence in 1640. It was a period of declining
economic and military power, with fewer projects and lesser opulence as a
consequence.

José Fernandes Pereira[3] identified the first period from 1651 to 1690 as a period of
experimentation.

The nobility were the first to show their regained power. A typical example is
the Palace of the Marqueses da Fronteira in Benfica (Lisbon) (started in 1667).
This country manor house still follows Italian Mannerism examples, but there
is already a heavy influence of the Baroque style in the perfect harmony of the
house and the surrounding gardens, the splendour of the staircase and the
many iconographic, decorative elements in the rooms. The large azulejos (tile
panels) covering the walls with equestrian portraits, historical battle scenes or
trumpet-blowing monkeys, created by the workshops of Jan van Oort and
Willem van der Kloet in Amsterdam, are unique.

Church of Santa Engracia, Lisbon

The Piedmontese Theatine priest and architect Camillo-Guarino Guarini

designed the church of Santa Maria della Divina Providência in Lisbon. The
elliptical floor plan, adopted in the church, stands apart in the Portuguese 17th
century architecture. But his sketchbook however showed a different floor
 plan and elevation. Even if his designs, influenced by the Roman Baroque
architect Francesco Borromini, were not exactly followed in this church, they
were often publicized and they spread the influence of Borromini in
Portugal.[4]

Other realisations in this period include :

o Jacome Mendes : the church of Nossa Senhora da Piedade (in
Santarém, 1665)
o The church of S. Agostinho (1667) in Vila Viçosa
o João Turriano : the Monastery of S Clara-a-Velha in Coimbra (1649–
1696)
o The church of Portimão, possibly by João Nunes Tinoco (1660).

The next period, between 1690 and 1717, saw the cautious introduction of the
Baroque style in Portugal. The Church of Santa Engrácia (now the National Pantheon
of Santa Engracia), begun in 1682 by João Nunes Tinoco and continued by João
Antunes is a centralised structure, built in the form of a Greek cross (a cross with
arms of equal length), crowned with a central dome (only completed in 1966 !) and
the façades are ondulated like in the Baroque designs of Borromini. . It goes back to a
design by the Italian architect Donato Bramante of the St. Peter's Basilica in Rome. It
is perhaps the only truly Baroque building in Portugal. This time Rome, instead of
Flanders, became the example to be followed for the construction of buildings.

The church of Senhor da Cruz in Barcelos, built by João Antunes in 1701-1704 is an

unusual experiment because of its four-leaf clover plan.

[edit] Baroque style (1717-1755)

The year 1697 is an important year for Portuguese architecture. In that year gold,
gems and later diamonds were found in Minas Gerais, Brazil. Mining exploration was
strongly controlled by the Portuguese Crown, which imposed heavy taxes on
everything extracted (one fifth of all gold would go to the Crown). These enormous
proceeds caused Portugal to prosper and become the richest country of Europe in the
18th century. King João V, who reigned between 1706 and 1750, tried to rival the
French king Louis XIV, also called the Sun King, by engaging in a large number of
expensive building activities. But the French king could rely on local experience for
the glorification and his name and of France. The Palace of Versailles was
transformed for Louis XIV into a marvelous palace by architect Louis Le Vau, painter
and designer Charles Le Brun and the landscape architect André Le Nôtre. The
Portuguese king, on the other hand, had to make up the lack of local experience and
tradition with foreign artists who were lured to Portugal with huge amounts of money.

King João V squandered his money lavishly, starting numerous building projects,
many of which were never finished.

The Mafra National Palace is among the most sumptuous Baroque buildings in
Portugal. This monumental palace-monastery-church complex is even larger than the
El Escorial, an immense 16th century Spanish royal palace north of Madrid to
emphasize the symbolic affirmation of his power. The king appointed Johann
Friedrich Ludwig (known in Portugal as João Frederico Ludovice) as the architect.
This German goldsmith (!) had received some experience as an architect, working for
the Jesuits in Rome. His design for the palace is a synthesis of St. Peter's Basilica in
the Vatican, the Jesuit Sant'Ignazio church in Rome and the Palazzo Montecitorio,
designed by Gian Lorenzo Bernini.

This design was in line with the king's desire to imitate the Eternal City, and with his
ambition to found a "second Rome" at the river Tagus. His envoys in Rome had to
provide the king with models and floor plans of many Roman monuments.

Palace of Queluz

On of these was the Patriarchal palace in Lisbon. The Piedmontese architect Filippo
Juvarra was brought to Lisbon to draw up the plans. But this project was also toned
down because Juvarra only stayed for a few months and left – against his engagement
– to London.

Other important constructions were :

1729-1748 : the Águas Livres aqueduct in Lisbon (by Manuel da Maia,

Antonio Canevari and Custódio Vieira), described by contemporaties as the
‗greatest work since the Romans‘. It provided Lisbon with water, but also the
many new monumental fountains built by the Hungarian Carlos Mardel
1728-1732 : the Quinta de S Antão do Tojal (by the Italian architect Antonio
Canevari)
1753 : the Opera house of Lisbon (destroyed 1755) (by Giovanni Carlo
Sicinio-Bibiena)
(completed in 1750) Palace of Necessidades (by Eugenio dos Santos, Custodio
Vieira, Manuel da Costa Negreiros and Caetano Tomas de Sousa)
from 1747 : the Queluz Palace, the country residence for the king's younger
brother (by Mateus Vicente de Oliveira and Jean-Baptiste Robillon). This
palace is the country's second major example in Baroque style. However the
façade shows already some Rococo details.
Intricately worked façade of the Palácio do Raio in Braga

His most spectacular undertaking was however the building in Rome of the St John
the Baptist chapel with the single purpose of obtaining the blessing of the pope
Benedict XIV for this chapel. The chapel was designed by Luigi Vanvitelli in 1742
and built by Nicola Salvi in the church S Antonio dei Portoghesi. After the
benediction, the chapel was disassembled and transported to Lisbon. It was assembled
again in 1747 in the S Roque church. It is opulently decorated with porphyry, the
rarest marbles and precious stones. Its design already foreshadows the classical
revival.

A different and more exuberant Baroque style with some Rococo touches, more
reminiscent of the style in Central Europe, developed in the northern part of Portugal.
The Italian architect Nicolau Nasoni designed the church and the spectacular granite
tower of São Pedro dos Clérigos in Porto. One of his successors was the painter and
architect José de Figueiredo Seixas, who had been one of his disciples. The sanctuary
Bom Jesus do Monte near Braga, built by the architect Carlos Luis Ferreira Amarante
is a notable example of a pilgrimage site with a monumental, cascading Baroque
stairway that climbs 116 metres. This last example already shows the shift in style to
Neo-classicism.

The Palácio do Raio (by André Soares) is an outstanding Baroque-Rococo urban

palace with richly decorated façade in Braga. Several country houses and manors in
late-Baroque style were built in this period. Typical examples are the homes of the
Lobo-Machado family (in Guimarães), the Malheiro (Viana do Castelo) and the
Mateus (Vila Real).

[edit] Pombaline style (1755-1860)

Main article : Pombaline style
Praça do Comércio with the arch leading to Augusta street, in Lisbon

The 1755 Lisbon earthquake and the subsequent tsunami and fires destroyed many
buildings in Lisbon. Joseph I of Portugal and his Prime Minister Sebastião de Melo,
Marquis of Pombal hired architects and engineers to rebuild the damaged portions of
Lisbon, including the Pombaline Downtown.

The Pombaline style is a secular, utilitarian architecture marked by pragmatism. It

follows the Plain style of the military engineers, with regular, rational arrangements,
mixed with Rococo details and a Neo-classical approach to structure. The Baixa
district of Lisbon was rebuilt by Eugénio dos Santos and Carlos Mardel. The Marquis
of Pombal imposed strict conditions on the rebuilding. Architectural models were
tested by having troops march around them to simulate an earthquake, making the
Pombaline one of the first examples of earthquake-resistant construction. The Praça
do Comércio, the Augusta street and the Avenida da Liberdade are notable examples
of this architecture. This Square of Commerce was given a regular, rational
arrangement in line with the reconstruction of the new Pombaline Downtown, the
Baixa.

The Pombaline style of architecture is also to be found in Vila Real de Santo António
(1773–4) a new town in the Algarve, built by Reinaldo Manuel dos Santos. The style
is clearly visible in the urban arrangement and especially in the main square.

In Porto, at the initiative of the prison governor João de Almada e Melo, the Rua de S
João was reconstructed (after 1757), and the Relação law court, the Court of Appeal
Gaol (1765) and the prison were rebuilt. The British colony of port traders introduced
the Palladian architecture in the Praça da Ribeira (1776–1782), the Factory House
(1785–1790) and the S Antonio Hospital (1770).

Portuguese modern architecture: buildings at Parque das Nações, Lisbon

[edit] Modern Architecture

Portugal‘s longstanding traditions, geographic isolation, extended period under an
authoritarian government, along with a group of very talented architects, have kept
Portuguese architecture clean of capricious imitations. Portugal has an architecture
that carefully evolved within the local tradition through a balanced process of
absorbing universal influences, until slowly emerging onto the center stage of the
architecture world.

One of the top architecture schools in the world, known as "Escola do Porto" or
School of Porto, is located in Portugal. Its alumni include Fernando Távora, Álvaro
Siza (winner of the 1992 Pritzker prize) and Eduardo Souto de Moura (winner of the
2011 Pritzker prize). Its modern heir is the Faculdade de Arquitectura (School of
Architecture) of the University of Porto.

Although Portuguese architecture is usually associated with the internationally

accredited Alvaro Siza, there are others equally responsible for the positive trends in
current architecture. "Many Portuguese architects are sons of Siza, but Tavora is a
grandfather to all of us." The influence of Sizas own teacher, Fernando Tavora,
echoes across generations.[5]

The Fundação Calouste Gulbenkian, built in 1960s and designed by Rui Atouguia,
Pedro Cid and Alberto Pessoa, is one of the very best, defining examples of 20th-
century Portuguese architecture.

In Portugal Tomás Taveira is also noteworthy, particularly due to stadium

design.[6][7][8] Other renowned Portuguese architects include Pancho Guedes and
Gonçalo Byrne.

Carrilho da Graça‘s Centro de Documentação da Presidência da República

(Documentation Archive of the President of the Portuguese Republic), is one of
Lisbon‘s best-kept architectural secrets.[citation needed]

[edit] See also

Azulejo
Portuguese pavement

[edit] Footnotes
1. ^ "Portuguese Plain Architecture: Between Spices and Diamonds, 1521-1706" (ISBN
0-8195-4045-5)
2. ^ "Architectura von Ausstellung, Symmetrie und Proportion der Säulen"
(Architecture of Exhibition, Symmetry and Proportion of Columns) (1591)
3. ^ José Fernandes Pereira. Arquitectura Barroca em Portugal. Instituto de Cultura e
Língua Portuguesa. 1986.
4. ^ Morrogh, Andrew (March 1998). "Guarini and the Pursuit of Originality: The
Church for Lisbon and Related Projects". Journal of the Society of Architectural
Historians (Journal of the Society of Architectural Historians, Vol. 57, No. 1) 57 (1):
6–29. doi:10.2307/991402. JSTOR 991402.
5. ^ Modern Portugal- Architecture in the Age of Masses
6. ^ (Portuguese) Estádios de Tomás Taveira e Souto Moura premiados, Diário de
Notícias (July 8, 2005)
7. ^ Tomás Taveira, Geoffrey Broadbent (introduction), Publisher: St Martins Pr
(February 1991)
 8. ^ (Portuguese) Tomás Taveira desenha estádio do Palmeiras no Brasil,
Diarioeconomico.com

[edit] References
Kingsley, Karen, Gothic Art, Visigothic Architecture in Spain and Portugal: A
Study in Masonry, Documents and Form, 1980; International Census of
Doctoral Dissertations in Medieval Art, 1982—1993
KUBLER, George, y SORIA, Martin, "Art and Architecture in Spain and
Portugal and their Dominions, 1500-1800", New York, 1959.
Kubler, George, "Portuguese Plain Architecture: Between Spices and
Diamonds, 1521-1706 " ; Wesleyan University Press, Middletown,
Connecticut 1972; ISBN 0-8195-4045-5
Toman, Rolf - Romanik; Könemann Verlagsgesellschaft mbH, Köln, 1996 (in
Dutch translation : Romaanse Kunst : Architectuur, Beeldhouwkunst,
Schilderkunst) ISBN 3-89508-449-2
Toman, Rolf - Barock ; Könemann Verlagsgesellschaft mbH, Köln, 1997 (in
Dutch translation : Barok : Architectuur, Beeldhouwkunst, Schilderkunst);
ISBN 3-89508-919-2
Underwood, D.K. - "The Pombaline Style and International Neoclassicism in
Lisbon and Rio de Janeiro."; U. of Pennsylvania Editor, 1988

Manueline
From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia
Jump to: navigation, search

The Tower of Belém, in Lisbon, is one of the most representative examples of

Manueline style.

The Manueline (Portuguese: estilo manuelino, IPA: [ᶤʃˈtilu m nweˈɫinu]), or

Portuguese late Gothic, is the sumptuous, composite Portuguese style of
architectural ornamentation of the first decades of the 16th century, incorporating
maritime elements and representations of the discoveries brought from the voyages of
Vasco da Gama and Pedro Álvares Cabral. This innovative style synthesizes aspects
of Late Gothic architecture with influences of the Spanish Plateresque style, Italian
urban architecture, and Flemish elements. It marks the transition from Late Gothic to
Renaissance. The construction of churches and monasteries in Manueline was largely
financed by proceeds of the lucrative spice trade with Africa and India.

The style was given its name, many years later, by Francisco Adolfo de Varnhagen,
Viscount of Porto Seguro, in his 1842 book, Noticia historica e descriptiva do
Mosteiro de Belem, com um glossario de varios termos respectivos principalmente a
architectura gothica, in his description of the Jerónimos Monastery. Varnhagen
named the style after King Manuel I, whose reign (1495–1521) coincided with its
development. The style was much influenced by the astonishing successes of the
voyages of discovery of Portuguese navigators, from the coastal areas of Africa to the
discovery of Brazil and the ocean routes to the Far East, drawing heavily on the style
and decorations of East Indian temples.

Although the period of this style did not last long (from 1490 to 1520), it played an
important part in the development of Portuguese art. The influence of the style
outlived the king. Celebrating the newly maritime power, it manifested itself in
architecture (churches, monasteries, palaces, castles) and extended into other arts such
as sculpture, painting, works of art made of precious metals, faience and furniture.

Contents
[hide]

1 Characteristics
2 Examples
3 Famous Manueline Artists
o 3.1 Architects
o 3.2 Painters
4 See also
5 References

[edit] Characteristics
The window of the Convent of Christ in Tomar is a well known example of
Manueline style

Manueline interior of the Jerónimos Monastery in Lisbon.

This decorative style is characterized by virtuoso complex ornamentation in portals,

windows, columns and arcades. In its end period it tended to become excessively
exuberant as in Tomar.

Several elements appear regularly in these intricately carved stoneworks:

elements used on ships: the armillary sphere (a navigational instrument and

the personal emblem of Manuel I and also symbol of the cosmos), spheres,
anchors, anchor chains, ropes and cables.
elements from the sea, such as shells, pearls and strings of seaweed.
 botanical motifs such as laurel branches, oak leaves, acorns, poppy capsules,
corncobs, thistles.
symbols of Christianity such as the cross of the Order of Christ (former
Templar knights), the military order that played a prominent role and helped
finance the first voyages of discovery. The cross of this order decorated the
sails of the Portuguese ships.
elements from newly discovered lands (such as the tracery in the Claustro
Real in the Monastery of Batalha, suggesting Islamic filigree work, influenced
by buildings in India)
columns carved like twisted strands of rope
semicircular arches (instead of Gothic pointed arches) of doors and windows,
sometimes consisting of three or more convex curves
multiple pillars
eight-sided capitals
lack of symmetry
conical pinnacles
bevelled crenellations
ornate portals with niches or canopies.

[edit] Examples
When King Manuel I died in 1521, he had funded 62 construction projects. However,
much original Manueline architecture in Portugal was lost or damaged beyond
restoration in the 1755 Lisbon earthquake and subsequent tsunami. In Lisbon, the
Ribeira Palace, residence of King Manuel I, and the Hospital Real de Todos os Santos
(All-Saints Hospital) were destroyed, along with several churches. The city, however,
still has outstanding examples of the style in the Jerónimos Monastery (mainly
designed by Diogo Boitac and João de Castilho) and in the small fortress of the Belém
Tower (designed by Francisco de Arruda). Both are located close to each other in the
Belém neighbourhood. The portal of the Church of Nossa Senhora da Conceição
Velha, in downtown Lisbon, has also survived destruction.

Manueline exterior of the Jerónimos Monastery in Lisbon.

Outside Lisbon, the church and chapter house of the Convent of the Order of Christ at
Tomar (designed by Diogo de Arruda) is a major Manueline monument. In particular,
the large window of the chapter house, with its fantastic sculptured organic and
twisted rope forms, is one of the most extraordinary achievements of the Manueline
style.
Other major Manueline monuments include the arcade screens of the Royal Cloister
(designed by Diogo Boitac) and the Unfinished Chapels (designed by Mateus
Fernandes) at the Monastery of Batalha and the Royal Palace of Sintra.

Other remarkable Manueline buildings include the church of the Monastery of Jesus
of Setúbal (one of the earliest Manueline churches) (also designed by Diogo Boitac),
the Santa Cruz Monastery in Coimbra, the main churches in Golegã, Vila do Conde,
Moura, Caminha, Olivenza and portions of the cathedrals of Braga (main chapel),
Viseu (rib vaulting of the nave) and Guarda (main portal, pillars, vaulting).

Civil buildings in manueline style exist in

Évora, home to the Évora Royal Palace (1525, by Pedro de Trillo, Diogo de
Arruda and Francisco de Arruda) and the Castle of Évoramonte (1531)
Viana do Castelo, Guimarães and some other towns.

The style was extended to the decorative arts and spread throughout the Portuguese
Empire, to the islands of the Azores, Madeira, enclaves in North Africa, Brazil, Goa
in India and even Macau, China. Its influence is apparent in Southern Spain, the
Canary Islands, North Africa and the former Spanish colonies of Peru and Mexico.

[edit] Famous Manueline Artists

Tomb of Mateus Fernandes

A piece by Vasco Fernandes

[edit] Architects

Diogo Boitac
 Mateus Fernandes
Diogo de Arruda

[edit] Painters

Vasco Fernandes
Jorge Afonso
Cristóvão de Figueiredo
Garcia Fernandes
Gregório Lopes

[edit] References
Turner, J., Grove Dictionary of Art, MacMillan Publishers Ltd., 1996; ISBN
0-19-517068-7
The Rough Guide to Portugal, March 2005, 11th edition, ISBN 1-84353-438-
X
Smith, Robert C., The Art of Portugal 1500-1800; Weidenfeld & Nicolson,
London, 1968 ISBN 0-297-76096-3
Atanázio, A Arte do Manuelino, Lisbon, Presença, 1984.
Cinema of Portugal
From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia
Jump to: navigation, search

Maria do Mar (1930), directed by Leitão de Barros.

Cinema of Europe

By country[show]

Lists[show]

v
t
e

The Cinema of Portugal has a long tradition, reaching back to the birth of the
medium in the late 19th century. In the 1950s, Cinema Novo, (literally "New
Cinema") sprang up as a movement concerned with showing realism in film, in the
vein of Italian Neorealism and the French New Wave. Directors Manoel de Oliveira
and João César Monteiro have gained Portuguese cinema international attention.

Contents
[hide]

1 Silent films
o 1.1 The early days
o 1.2 The pioneers and the producing houses
o 1.3 The foreign Portuguese cinematography
 o 1.4 The new generation
2 Sound films
o 2.1 1930s-1940s
o 2.2 1950s
o 2.3 1960s
o 2.4 1970s
o 2.5 1980s
o 2.6 1990s
o 2.7 2000s
o 2.8 2010s
3 Festivals
4 See also
5 References
6 Bibliography
7 External links

[edit] Silent films

Portuguese silent film began its course on June 18, 1896, at the Real Colyseu da Rua
da Palma nº 288, in Lisbon, as Edwin Rousby presented Robert William Paul's
Animatograph, using a Teatrograph projector. This places the Portuguese début
around six months after the Lumière brothers's inaugural presentation in Paris.

[edit] The early days

However, the Portuguese audience was already familiar with photograph projection,
first at the "cicloramas", "dioramas" and the "stereoscopic" views and, later, the magic
lantern, with the projection of transparent photographs in glass plate then colored.

On December 28, 1894, the German photographer Carlos Eisenlohr opened his
"Imperial Exhibition" at the galleries of the Avenida Palace Hotel. Beyond the
projections already familiar to the Lisbon audience, he presented the great novelty:
the live photograph - shown not through an Edison Kinetograph, as it was announced
at the time, but by the Elektrotachyscop or Schnellseher, an invention by Ottomar
Anschutz, that A. J. Ferreira calls Electro-Tachiscópio Eisenlohr. The device
projected images of actions, of a dog passing by or the gallop of a horse, contained in
disks of small diameter that produced images of extremely short seconds.

In the beginning of 1895, the tobacco shop Tabacaria Neves presents Edison's
Kinetoscope (in fact, a copy of said invention, built in London by Robert William
Paul, ordered by the Greek George Georgiades, who presented the machine in
Lisbon). Unlike the precededing invention, the Kinestoscope provided individual
visioning and the film with about 1380 photographs enabled a projection of 20
seconds.

The machine that presented the movie session at the Real Colyseu was not the
Cinematograph of the Lumiére brothers, but rather one of its competitors, the
Teatrograph, also by Robert W. Paul, that merely projected. The machine projected
behind the screen, where natural size images appeared for about a minute. The session
was very well received and in the upcoming months, many were the machines
swirling at the movie theatres of Lisbon, vying for the favour of the movie audience.

At the Real Colyseu of the Rua da Palma of António Santos Júnior, on June 18, 1896,
Edwin Rousby showed the films of the producing house of British Robert-William
Paul, for whom it worked. Those are films of about a minute, "animated views" taken
by the operators of the British proucer: "Parisian balls", "The Pont Neuf in Paris",
"The Train", "The Serpentine Dance", "A Barber and Shoeshine Store in
Washington".

Edwin Rousby meets Manuel Maria da Costa Veiga, a photographer with electrical
and mechanical skills, who assisted him in preparing his session. Thrilled, Costa
Veiga begins acting as an exhibitor, acquiring a projectoscope from Edison that same
year and showing films in Lisbon venues.

Robert W. Paul will also send his operator Henry Short to Southern Europe, to record
the animated views of landscapes enrichening the programme of the English
producing house. Short also passes by Portugal, registering several views that, though
destined to be shown in London, would be integrated in the program of Rousby's
Portuguese sessions, in 1897.

The success is overwhelming, prolonging his stays and increasing the sessions.
However, when Rousby proceeds with his tour to the Teatro-Circo Príncipe Real, in
Oporto, that the animated photograph gains not only an enthusiast but also a
professional, who would found Portuguese cinema: Aurélio da Paz dos Reis.

Saída do Pessoal da Fábrica Confiança, the first Portuguese film, by Aurélio Paz dos
Reis

From July to August, Rousby presents his films at the Teatro do Príncipe Real
(currently the Teatro Sá da Bandeira), without achieving, however, the success of
Lisbon.

[edit] The pioneers and the producing houses

Three years after beginning is exhibition business, Costa Veiga purchases a movie
camera and registers his first film, Aspectos da Praia de Cascais ("Views of the
Cascais beach"), with images of King D. Carlos bathing in Cascais. Costa Veiga
begins recording official visits and other relevant political events of the nation. He
founds the first Portuguese producing house, "Portugal Film", headquartered in Algés,
close to his home.

In 1909 are born, in Lisbon, the "Portugália Film", of João Freire Correia and Manuel
Cardoso, financed by D. Nuno de Almada, and the"Empresa Cinematográfica Ideal"
of Júlio Costa.

João Freire Correia, a photographer, begins his activity by buying a projector for the
opening of the "Salão Ideal ao Loreto" in 1904, the first Portuguese movie theatre. He
founds his producing company five years later, for which he'll turn several films, such
as the Batalha de Flores ("Battle of Flowers") that garnered vast success. He was the
operator of O Rapto de Uma Actriz ("The kidnapping of an Actress"), the first scripted
Portuguese film, directed by Lino Ferreira in 1907.

Freire Correia however directed two documentaries of significant success in 1909: A

Cavalaria Portuguesa ("The Portuguese Cavalry") and the O Terramoto de Benavente
("The earthquake of Benavente"). The first showed already some technique on image
capture, displaying the prowess of Portuguese cavalry in such a way as to create
situations of danger, fictitious, to the audience. The earthquake was filmed in April,
having been shown two days later - a remarkable speed - and with the export of 22
copies abroad.

João Freire Correia would also be responsible for the production of the two versions
of Os Crimes de Diogo Alves ("The Crimes of Diogo Alves"), whose direction he
entrusted first to Lino Ferreira in 1909 but that remained incomplete, with João
Tavares a then directing a second version in 1911.

Of note still the early attempt at sound films with the incomplete Grisette (1908),
using the Gaumont method but with the adaptations by Freire Correia, who attempted
to synchronize image and sound. Portugália produced also the first film from the
adaptation of a literary work. Carlota Ângela was based in the work with the same
name by Camilo Castelo Branco and was directed by João Tavares, in 1912.

Júlio Costa, partnering with João Almeida, acquired the "Salão Ideal" from Freire
Correia and Nuno Almada in 1908 and starts the "Empresa Cinematográfica Ideal",
producer and distributor. Remodelled and appropriately refitted, the Salão Ideal
presents a predecessor of the talkies, the "Animatógrafo Falado" (Spoken
Animatograph): a group of people reads the texts and produces sound in synch with
the film's exhibition. That group was made up by the Volunteer Firefighters of Ajuda,
of which not only Júlio Costa but also António Silva, the unforgettable actor of the
Portuguese Golden Age comedies, were members.

While waiting for the construction of his studio at Rua Marquês Ponte de Lima, Júlio
Costa begins his activity filming "views". He begins filming features with Chantecler
Atraiçoado ("Chantecler Betrayed") and then with Rainha depois de Morta ("Queen
After Dead"), by Carlos Santos, the first Portuguese film with an historic motif. Júlio
Costa's company was also a pioneer for having grouped for the first time production,
distribution and exhibition. The company would cease activity after a suspicious fire.
In 1918, "Lusitânia Film" is born, a production company with an ambitious project,
led by Celestino Soares and Luís Reis Santos. They rework the old studio of
Portugália Film, in São Bento, and begin activities filming documentaries.

Still in 1918, two short films are done outdoors by Costa Veiga and directed by young
Leitão de Barros: Malmequer ("Daisy") and Mal de Espanha ("Evil From Spain").
The shooting of O Homem dos Olhos Tortos ("The man with the Twisted Eyes")
begins, based upon a police serial by Reinaldo Ferreira, directed by Leitão de Barros.
However, due to financial pressures, it would remain incompelte. A well-organized
conspiracy would close down the company that intended to film A Severa as its next
production.

Closed the "cycle of Lisbon", the first Oporto producer is founded, who would ensure
for some years the continuous production of cinema in Portugal.

[edit] The foreign Portuguese cinematography

After founding a production company bearing his name in 1910, the Oporto exhibitor
Nunes de Mattos, adds "Invicta Film" to its corporate name, two years later.

The company films current events and documentaries, among them O Naufrágio do
Silurian ("The Sinking of the Silurian"), of which 108 copies will be shipped to
Europe. In November 1917, Nunes de Mattos decides to found the second "Invicta
Film, Lda", increasing the number of partners and the equity. Henrique Alegria takes
over the Art Direction and they acquire the Quinta da Prelada, in Oporto, where the
studios and laboratories of the producer are to be built.

In 1918 they leave for Paris, from where they bring a technical team from the Pathé
studios. The team is led by Georges Pallu, the director who would author virtually all
the feature films of the Oporto producing house. In the team were also André
Lecointe, architect-decorator; Albert Durot, camera operator and Georges and
Valentine Coutable - the couple who would be, respectively, the Chief Lab and Chief
Editor. Durot would later be replaced by Maurice Laumann, also from Pathé.

For six years, "Invicta Film" produces several films and documentaries, enrichening
the Portuguese film landscape. In 1924, however, the company shows severe financial
distress, leading to laying off all its personnel and ensuring only the lab work. They
would shutdown in 1928.

Rino Lupo is another milestone of cinematography. He shows up through Georges

Pallu, who accepts his direction of Mulheres da Beira ("Women from Beira"), after a
tale by Abel Botelho, with photography by Artur Costa de Macedo. Though the
financial disagreements and the unfulfilment of deadlines force his removal from the
company, Rino Lupo still directs Os Lobos ("The Wolves"), another pearl of the
Portuguese silent cinema. He'll direct other movies, however without the quality of
the earlier works.

Three other companies are set up in the 20s to fill in the gap from the brief existence
of the Portuguese studios: "Caldevilla Film", "Fortuna Film" and "Pátria Film". These
also follow the Portuguese motif, hiring foreign technicians to use their experience in
the Portuguese production. Though the directors brought from French production
houses were presented as recognised stars in their countries, in fact, they made use of
that limelight to progress their careers without having the claimed background.

Raul de Caldevilla founds in 1920 his "Caldevilla Film", placing production in

Lisbon, at Quinta das Conchas, in Lumiar. Frenchman Maurice Mariaud is the
director chosen for the works Os Faroleiros ("The Lighthouse Men") and As Pupilas
do Senhor Reitor ("The Wards of the Dean"), for its only two productions. The
company would shut down due to acute disagreement among partners due to financial
matters.

Virgínia de Castro e Almeida, a writer of children's books, founds in Lisbon the

studio "Fortuna Film". She hires a French lawyer, Roger Lion, to direct productions
based upon her books. With him, he brings actress Gil-Clary, his wife, Maxudian and
the cameramen Daniel Quintin and Marcel Bizot. They shoot A Sereia de Pedra ("The
Stone Mermaid") and Olhos da Alma ("Eyes of the Soul"), the latter shot in Nazaré, in
what was its first screen register.

Henrique Alegria leaves "Invicta Film", in 1922, to found "Pátria Film" with Raul
Lopes Freire. They buy Quinta das Conchas, where Maurice Mariaud directs O Fado
("The Fado"). This company too would cease to operate after shooting Aventuras de
Agapito - Fotografia Comprometedora ("Adventures of Agapito - Compromising
Photograph"), the fourth film directed by Roger Lion in Portugal.

[edit] The new generation

At the end of the roaring twenties, the "young Turks" begin the regency of the cinema
estates, with the return of Leitão de Barros and the emergence of young António
Lopes Ribeiro (who would soon launch Manoel de Oliveira), Jorge Brum do Canto,
Chianca de Garcia and Arthur Duarte.

Their agenda is to move away from the previous productions, taking inspiration in the
esthetic designs of the French, German and Russian cinemas. The casts also support
this disruptive move, bringing to the screen the stars of the Revista, by contrast to the
spoken theatre. Stars such as Eduardo Brazão, Brunilde Júdice, António Pinheiro or
Pato Moniz fade, and a new school begins with the presence of Vasco Santana,
António Silva, Maria Matos, Ribeirinho or Maria Olguim.

At the same time, the relationship of the State with cinema was also to change from
the end of the 20s. The installed powers understood these youngsters dominated the
cinema press and influenced masses with the perspectives and the way the conveyed
their messages, a privileged means of propaganda for the new regime.

António Lopes Ribeiro launches his career benefiting from the 100 metres Law. He
films Uma Batida em Malpique ("A huntin Malpique") and Bailando ao Sol
("Dancing in the Sun") (1928), the latter with photography by Aníbal Contreiras. He
will later depart with Leitão de Barros in a visit through the European studios, where
he'll meet Dziga Vertov and Eiseinstein.
Leitão de Barros, who screens at Lopes Ribeiro's home the 9,5 mm film he had made
with his brother-in-law in Nazaré, is spurred and returns to filming with Nazaré,
Praia de Pescadores ("Nazaré, Beach of Fishermen"). Again in Nazaré, Leitão de
Barros films Maria do Mar ("Mary of the Sea"), the second ethnofiction in the history
of cinema, a milestone for the bleak Portuguese cinematography esthetics. He also
directs Lisboa, Crónica Anedótica ("Lisbon, an Anectodal Chronicle") (1929), where
in a gathering of multiple city scenes, he displays Chaby Pinheiro, repeaters Adelina
Abranches and Alves da Cunha, Nascimento Fernandes, and the unforgettable Vasco
Santana and Beatriz Costa.

Inspired by Marcel l'Herbier, Jorge Brum do Canto opens with A Dança dos
Paroxismos ("The Dance of the Paroxisms") (1928), with his own script and where he
plays the main role. It opens with a private session in 1930, and will only be seen
again in 1984.

Manoel de Oliveira shoots Douro, Faina Fluvial ("Douro, River Works"), and
António Lopes Ribeiro persuades him to take it to the V International Critics
Congress, where it receives the praise of Pirandello.

But will again be Leitão de Barros who will leave a print in movie history, with A
Severa, based upon the work by Júlio Dantas, with the direction of the first
Portuguese talkie. A new era of Portuguese cinema was to begin.

[edit] Sound films

[edit] 1930s-1940s

With the beginning of the Estado Novo right-wing dictatorship, in 1933, a new genre
of film started, based on the comedy and musical genres, famously the " A Comédia
À Portuguesa", with focus in contemporary life and more light matters, and the
intention of taking the minds of the people from the difficult times faced.

The Golden Age, as it is known, began that same year with the release of A Canção
de Lisboa, and dominated the country for the next two decades, eventually fading
away during the 1950s and giving way to the Novo Cinema in the 1960s. Another
famous titles from this popular era are Aldeia da Roupa Branca (1938), O Pátio das
Cantigas and O Pai Tirano (1941), O Costa do Castelo (1943), A Menina da Rádio
(1944) and O Leão da Estrela (1947).

During this period historic films also emerged as an important genre in the Portuguese
industry, as a medium for the state party to develop its nationalist propaganda and
conservative values, namely As Pupilas do Senhor Reitor (1935), Bocage (1936),
Amor de Perdição (1943), Inês de Castro (1945), Camões (1946) and Frei Luís de
Sousa (1950). A sub-genre of these nationalist films were those related to the culture
of Fado and the rise to popularity of Amália Rodrigues, the greatest name of the
Portuguese song. Some of those films are Capas Negras and Fado, História de Uma
Cantadeira, both from 1947.
1942 saw the release of Aniki-Bóbó, the first full-length non-documentary film from
Manoel de Oliveira, who would only return to fiction film-making twenty-one years
later. This film is a milestone in Portuguese film not only because it differ from the
tone most in vogue at the time, dealing with social issues, but also because it can be
stated that it predated the first Italian neo-realism movies for a few years.

[edit] 1950s

The Fifties were mainly years of stagnation with the continuity of the same movies
made in the earlier decades, government censorship and glorification of the colonial
empire - see Chaimite (1953); although the first signs of the winds to come were
being given by films like Saltimbancos (1951) and Nazaré (1952), both directed by
Manuel Guimarães and inspired by the Italian neo-realism.

In 1958 opens the Portuguese Cinematheque with a retrospective of American movies

that inspired the French filmmakers of the Nouvelle Vague, an event lauded by then
new critics Alberto Seixas Santos e António Pedro Vasconcelos.

[edit] 1960s

The first year of the new decade brought a new generation, fronted by Dom Roberto
(1962), Os Verdes Anos and Pássaros de Asas Cortadas (1963).

This new fase was named Cinema Novo or Novo Cinema (New Cinema), referring
to Portuguese cinema made between 1963 and the revolution in 1974 by directors
such as Fernando Lopes, Paulo Rocha or António da Cunha Telles, amongst others.
Like other new waves of the period, the influence of Italian Neo-Realism and the
burgeoning ideas of the Nouvelle Vague can be felt keenly.

During the following years appeared films like Belarmino (1964), Domingo à Tarde
(1965), Sete balas para Selma (1967) and O Cerco (1969).

The term Novo Cinema is now used to avoid confusion with the Brazilian movement
of the same name. This movement gains particular relevance after the Carnation
Revolution, pursuing certain experiences of the French New Wave, both in the field
of visual anthropology and of political cinema. The generation of the seventies, taking
advantage of the new liberties, explores realism and legend, politics and ethnography,
until the late eighties, in conjunction with some directors of the liberated colonies,
such as Flora Gomes. Portugal has a notable tradition in the field of docufiction and
ethnofiction since Leitão de Barros, a contemporary to Robert Flaherty.

[edit] 1970s

[edit] 1980s

[edit] 1990s

[edit] 2000s
In 2005, there were 13 Portuguese feature films released, one of them an animation
co-produced with Spain, Midsummer Dream. The most successful film this year was
O Crime do Padre Amaro, with more than 300 000 viewers, grossing more than 1.3
million euros. The following year, 22 feature films were released, five of them
documentaries. The most successful film this year was Filme da Treta, with more
than 270 000 viewers, grossing more than 1 million euros. In 2006 there were 19
feature films produced. In 2007, 15, in 2008, 21 and in 2009 23.[1]

[edit] 2010s

In 2010 Portugal produced 22 feature films.[2][1]

In 2011, there were a total of 19 feature films produced.[3][1] The most commercially
successful Portuguese film of the year was Blood of My Blood by João Canijo with
20,953 admissions and grossing €97,784.72.[4] The share of Portuguese cinema in the
Portuguese box office was 0.7%.[5] On the artistic side, one of the most successful
films was Joaquim Sapinho's This Side of Resurrection, premiered at the Visions
programme at the Toronto International Film Festival with a United States premiere at
the Harvard Film Archive.

As of 11 July 2012, the highest grossing Portuguese film of the year is Florbela with
€174,543.51.[6] The Lines of Wellington will be in competition for the Golden Lion at
the 69th Venice International Film Festival. [7]

[edit] Festivals
Caminhos do Cinema Português
Fantasporto
Festival Audiovisual Black & White

[edit] See also

List of Portuguese films
List of Portuguese film directors
List of Portuguese film actors
Cinema of the world
The School of Reis

[edit] References
1. ^ a b c "Top 50 countries ranked by number of feature films produced, 2005–2010".
Screen Australia. Screen Australia.
http://www.screenaustralia.gov.au/research/statistics/acompfilms.asp. Retrieved
2012-7-14.
2. ^ "OBRAS CINEMATOGRÁFICAS PRODUZIDAS - 2010" (in Portuguese).
Instituto do Cinema e do Audiovisual. Instituto do Cinema e do Audiovisual.
http://www.ica-ip.pt/Admin/Files/Documents/contentdoc1893.pdf. Retrieved 2012-7-
14.
3. ^ "OBRAS CINEMATOGRÁFICAS PRODUZIDAS - 2011" (in Portuguese).
Instituto do Cinema e do Audiovisual. Instituto do Cinema e do Audiovisual.
http://www.ica-ip.pt/Admin/Files/Documents/contentdoc2189.pdf. Retrieved 2012-7-
14.
4. ^ "Cinema Portugal 2011 - Dados Provisórios" (in Portuguese). ICA. http://www.ica-
ip.pt/Admin/Files/Documents/contentdoc2204.pdf. Retrieved 2012-02-05.
5. ^ Agência Lusa (2012-02-01). "Nova lei de cinema inclui modelo de financiamento
mais "dialogante"" (in Portuguese). i. http://www.ionline.pt/boa-vida/nova-lei-
cinema-inclui-modelo-financiamento-mais-dialogante. Retrieved 2012-02-05.
6. ^ "RANKING DOS FILMES NACIONAIS ESTREADOS - 2012" (in Portuguese).
Instituto do Cinema e do Audiovisual. Instituto do Cinema e do Audiovisual.
http://www.ica-ip.pt/Admin/Files/Documents/contentdoc2187.pdf. Retrieved 2012-7-
14.
7. ^ "Venezia 69". labiennale.org.
http://www.labiennale.org/en/cinema/festival/lineup/off-
sel/venezia69/venezia_69.html?nocache=true&currentpage=2. Retrieved 2012-7-28.

Ribeiro, Félix O Cinema Português antes do Sonoro, Esboço Históriconema

Português, Terra Livre, Lisbon, Portugal, 1978.
Ribeiro, Félix, Panorama do Cinema Português, Lisbon, Portugal.
Bandeira, José Gomes, Porto: 100 anos de cinema português, Câmara
Municipal do Porto, Porto, Portugal, 1996.
Antunes, João and Matos-Cruz, José de, Cinema Português 1896-1998,
Lusomundo, Lisbon, Portugal, 1997.
Duarte, Fernando, Primitivos do Cinema Português, ed. Cinecultura, Lisbon,
Portugal, 1960.
Faria de Almeida, M., Resumo da História do Cinema, RTP Centro de
Formação, Lisbon, Portugal, 1982.
Ferreira, António J., O Cinema Chegou a Portugal, - Palestra Baseada no
Livro A Fotografia Animada em Portugal 1894-1895-1896-1897 - 1896.
Ferreira, António J., A Fotografia Animada em Portugal, 1894-1896-1897, ed.
Cinemateca Portuguesa, Lisbon, Portugal, 1986.
Nobre, Roberto, Singularidades do Cinema Português, Portugália Editora,
Lisbon, Portugal.
Pina, Luís de, História do Cinema Português, Colecção Saber nº190,
Publicações Europa-América, Lisboa, 1986.
Pina, Luís de, Aventura do Cinema Português, ed. Vega, Lisbon, Portugal,
1977
Pina, Luís de, Documentarismo Português, Instituto Português de Cinema,
1977.
Pina, Luís de, Panorama do Cinema Português, Terra Livre, Lisbon, Portugal,
1978.
Silent film at Amor de Perdição.
Portuguese literature
From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia
Jump to: navigation, search

This is a survey of Portuguese literature.

The Portuguese language was developed gradually from the Vulgar language (i.e.
Vulgar Latin) spoken in the countries which formed part of the Roman Empire and,
both in morphology and syntax, it represents an organic transformation of Latin
without the direct intervention of any foreign tongue. The sounds, grammatical forms,
and syntactical types, with a few exceptions, are derived from Latin, but the
vocabulary has absorbed a number of Germanic and Arabic words, and a few have
Celtic origin. Before the close of the Middle Ages the language threatened to become
almost as abbreviated as French, but learned writers, in their passion for antiquity, re-
approximated the vocabulary to Latin. The Renaissance commenced a separation
between literary men and the people, between the written and spoken tongue, which
with some exceptions lasted until the beginning of the 19th century. Then the
Romanticists went back to tradition and drew on the poetry and every day speech of
the people, and, thanks to the writings of such men as Almeida Garrett and Camilo
Castelo Branco, the literary language became national once again.

Contents
[hide]

1 Birth of a literary language

o 1.1 Verse
o 1.2 Prose
2 Fifteenth century
o 2.1 Prose
o 2.2 Poetry
3 Early sixteenth century
o 3.1 Pastoral Poetry
o 3.2 Drama
4 First classical phase: The Renaissance
o 4.1 Lyric and epic poetry
o 4.2 The classical plays
o 4.3 Prose
5 Second Classical Phase: Baroque
o 5.1 Lyric Poetry
o 5.2 Prose
6 Third Classical Phase: NeoClassicism
o 6.1 The Academies
o 6.2 The Arcadians
o 6.3 Brazilian Poetry
o 6.4 Prose
o 6.5 Drama
 7 Romanticism and Realism
o 7.1 Poetry
o 7.2 Drama
o 7.3 The Novel
o 7.4 Other prose
8 Examples of Portuguese literature
o 8.1 Luís Vaz de Camões
o 8.2 Eça de Queiroz
o 8.3 Fernando Pessoa
o 8.4 Antero de Quental
o 8.5 Alexandre O'Neill
o 8.6 José Saramago
9 See also
10 External links

[edit] Birth of a literary language

The Pergaminho Sharrer ("Sharrer Parchment"), containing songs by King Dinis I.

[edit] Verse

Main articles: Trovadorismo and List of Galician-Portuguese troubadours

It has been argued (by great early scholars such as Henry Roseman Lang and Carolina
Michaëlis de Vasconcellos) that an indigenous popular poetry existed before the
beginning of the written record, although the first datable poems (a handful between
around 1200 and 1225) show influences from Provence. These poems were composed
in a language called Galician-Portuguese (or Galego-Portuguese), the common
ancestor of modern Galician and Portuguese. The first known venues of poetic
activity were aristocratic courts in Galicia and the North of Portugal (we know this
thanks to the recent work of the Portuguese historian Antonio Resende de Oliveira).
After that the center shifted to the court of Alfonso X (The Wise King), King of
Castile and León (etc.). Some of the same poets (and others) practiced their craft in
the court of King Alfonso III, who had been educated in France. The main manuscript
sources for Galician-Portuguese verse are the Cancioneiro da Ajuda probably a late
13th century manuscript, the Cancioneiro da Vaticana and the Cancioneiro da
Biblioteca Nacional (also called Cancioneiro Colocci-Brancuti). Both these latter
codices were copied in Rome at the behest of the Italian humanist Angelo Colocci,
probably around 1525.
There was a late flowering during the reign of King Dinis I (1261–1325), a very
learned man, whose output is the largest preserved (137 texts). The main genres
practiced were the male-voiced cantiga d'amor, the female-voiced cantiga d'amigo
(though all the poets were male) and the poetry of insult, called cantigas d'escarnio e
maldizer (songs of scorn and insult). This 13th-century Court poetry, which deals
mainly with love and personal insult (often wrongly called satire), by no means
derives entirely from Provençal models and conventions (as is often said). Most
scholars and critics favor the cantigas d'amigo, which probably were "rooted in local
folksong" (Henry Roseman Lang, 1894), and in any event are the largest surviving
body of female-voiced love lyric that has survived from ancient or medieval Europe.
The total corpus of medieval Galician-Portuguese lyric, excluding the Cantigas de
Santa Maria, consists of around 1,685 texts. In addition to the large manuscripts
named above, we also have a few songs with music in the Vindel Parchment, which
contains melodies for six cantigas d'amigo of Martin Codax, and the Pergaminho
Sharrer, a fragment of a folio with seven cantigas d'amor of King Dinis. In both these
manuscripts the poems are the same we find in the larger codices and moreover in the
same order.

Musicians in a miniature of the Cancioneiro da Ajuda.

By the middle of the 15th century troubadour verse was effectively dead, replaced by
a limper form of court poetry, represented in the Cancioneiro Geral compiled in the
16th century by poet and humanist Garcia de Resende. Meanwhile the people were
elaborating a ballad poetry of their own, the body of which is known as the
Romanceiro. It consists of lyrico-narrative poems treating of war, chivalry, adventure,
religious legends, and the sea, many of which have great beauty and contain traces of
the varied civilizations which have existed in the peninsula. When the Court poets had
exhausted the artifices of Provençal lyricism, they imitated the poetry of the people,
giving it a certain vogue which lasted until the Classical Renaissance. It was then
thrust into the background, and though cultivated by a few, it remained unknown to
men of letters until the nineteenth century, when Almeida-Garrett began his literary
revival and collected folk poems from the mouths of the peasantry.

[edit] Prose

Prose developed later than verse and first appeared in the 13th century in the shape of
short chronicles, lives of saints, and genealogical treatises called Livros de Linhagens.
In Portuguese chanson de geste has survived to this day, but there are medieval poems
of romantic adventure given prose form; for example, the Demanda do Santo Graal
(Quest for the Holy Grail) and "Amadis of Gaul". The first three books of the latter
probably received their present shape from João Lobeira, a troubadour of the end of
the 13th century, though this original has been lost and only a 16th-century Spanish
version remains. The Book of Aesop also belongs to this period. Though the cultivated
taste of the Renaissance affected to despise the medieval stories, it adopted them with
alterations as a homage to classical antiquity. Hence came the cycle of the
"Palmerins" and the Chronica do Emperador Clarimundo of João de Barros. The
medieval romance of chivalry gave place to the pastoral novel, the first example of
which is the Saudades of Bernardim Ribeiro, followed by the Diana of Jorge de
Montemayor, a Portuguese writer who wrote in Spanish. Later in the sixteenth century
Gonçalo Fernandes Trancoso, a fascinating storyteller, produced his Historias de
Proveito e Exemplo.

[edit] Fifteenth century

[edit] Prose

A new epoch in literature dates from the Revolution of 1383-1385. King John I wrote
a book of the chase, his sons, King Duarte and D. Pedro, composed moral treatises,
and an anonymous scribe told with charming naïveté the story of the heroic Nuno
Alvares Pereira in the Chronica do Condestavel. The line of the chroniclers which is
one of the boasts of Portuguese literature began with Fernão Lopes, who compiled the
chronicles of the reigns of Kings Pedro I, Fernando, and John I. He combined a
passion for accurate statement with a special talent for descriptive writing and
portraiture, and with him a new epoch dawns. Azurara, who succeeded him in the post
of official chronicler, and wrote the Chronicle of Guinea and chronicles of the African
wars, is an equally reliable historian, whose style is marred by pedantry and
moralizing. His successor, Ruy de Pina, avoids these defects and, though not an artist
like Lopes, gives a useful record of the reigns of Kings Duarte, Alfonso V, and John
II. His history of the latter monarch was appropriated by the poet Garcia de Resende,
who adorned it, adding many anecdotes he had learned during his intimacy with John,
and issued it under his own name.

[edit] Poetry

The introduction of Italian poetry, especially that of Petrarch, into the peninsula led to
a revival of Spanish verse, which dominated Portugal throughout the fifteenth
century. Constable Dom Pedro, friend of the Marquis of Santillana, wrote almost
entirely in Castilian and is the first representative of the Spanish influence which
imported from Italy the love of allegory and reverence for classical antiquity. The
court poetry of some three hundred knights and gentlemen of the time of Alfonso V
and John II is contained in the "Cancioneiro Geral", compiled by Resende and
inspired by Juan de Mena, Jorge Manrique, and other Spaniards. The subjects of these
mostly artificial verses are love and satire. Among the few that reveal special talent
and genuine poetical feeling are Resende's lines on the death of D. Ignez de Castro,
the "Fingimento de Amores" of Diogo Brandão, and the "Coplas" of D. Pedro. Three
names appear in the "Cancioneiro" which were destined to create a literary revolution,
those of Bernardim Ribeiro, Gil Vicente, and Sá de Miranda.
[edit] Early sixteenth century
[edit] Pastoral Poetry

Portuguese pastoral poetry is more natural and sincere than that of the other nations
because Ribeiro, the founder of the bucolic school, sought inspiration in the national
serranilhas, but his eclogues, despite their feeling and rhythmic harmony, are
surpassed by the "Crisfal" of Christovão Falcão. These and the eclogues and
sententious "Cartas" of Sá de Miranda are written in versos de arte mayor, and the
popular medida velha (as the national metre was afterwards called to distinguish it
from the Italian endecasyllable), continued to be used by Camoens in his so-called
minor works, by Bandarra for his prophecies, and by Gil Vicente.

[edit] Drama

Though Gil Vicente did not originate dramatic representations, he is the father of the
Portuguese stage. Of his forty-four pieces, fourteen are in Portuguese, eleven in
Castilian, the remainder bilingual, and they consist of autos, or devotional works,
tragicomedies, and farces. Beginning in 1502 with religious pieces, conspicuous
among them being "Auto da Alma" and the famous trilogy of the "Barcas", he soon
introduces the comic and satirical element by way of relief and for moral ends, and,
before the close of his career in 1536, has arrived at pure comedy, as in "Ignez
Pereira" and the "Floresta de Enganos", and developed the study of character. The
plots are simple, the dialogue spirited, the lyrics often of finished beauty, and while
Gil Vicente appeared too early to be a great dramatist, his plays mirror to perfection
the types, customs, language, and daily life of all classes. The playwrights who
followed him had neither superior talents nor court patronage and, attacked by the
classical school for their lack of culture and by the Inquisition for their grossness, they
were reduced to entertaining the lower class at country fairs and festivals.

[edit] First classical phase: The Renaissance

The Renaissance produced a pleiad of distinguished poets, historians, critics,
antiquaries, theologians, and moralists which made the sixteenth century a golden age.

[edit] Lyric and epic poetry

Sá de Miranda introduced Italian forms of verse and raised the tone of poetry. He was
followed by António Ferreira, a superior stylist, by Diogo Bernardes, and Andrade
Caminha, but the Quinhentistas tended to lose spontaneity in their imitation of
classical models, though the verse of Frei Agostinho da Cruz is an exception. The
genius of Luís de Camões, called "Camoens" in English, led him to fuse the best
elements of the Italian and popular muse, thus creating a new poetry. Imitators arose
in the following centuries, but most of their epics are little more than chronicles in
verse. They include three by Jerónimo Corte-Real, and one each by Pereira Brandão,
Francisco de Andrade, Rodriguez Lobo, Pereira de Castro, Sá de Menezes, and Garcia
de Mascarenhas.
[edit] The classical plays

Sá de Miranda endeavoured also to reform the drama and, shaping himself on Italian
models, wrote the "Estrangeiros". Jorge Ferreira de Vasconcellos had produced in
"Eufrosina" the first prose play, but the comedies of Sá and Antonio Ferreira are
artificial and stillborn productions, though the latter's tragedy, "Ignez de Castro", if
dramatically weak, has something of Sophocles in the spirit and form of the verse.

[edit] Prose

The best prose work of the sixteenth century is devoted to history and travel. João de
Barros in his "Decadas", continued by Diogo do Couto, described with mastery the
deeds achieved by the Portuguese in the discovery and conquest of the lands and seas
of the Orient. Damião de Gois, humanist and friend of Erasmus, wrote with rare
independence on the reign of King Manuel the Fortunate. Bishop Osorio treated of the
same subject in Latin, but his interesting "Cartas" are in the vulgar tongue. Among
others who dealt with the East are Castanheda, Antonio Galvão, Gaspar Correia, Bras
de Albuquerque, Frei Gaspar da Cruz, and Frei João dos Santos. The chronicles of the
kingdom were continued by Francisco de Andrade and Frei Bernardo da Cruz, and
Miguel Leitão de Andrade compiled an interesting volume of "Miscellanea". The
travel literature of the period is too large for detailed mention: Persia, Syria,
Abyssinia, Florida, and Brazil were visited and described and Father Lucena compiled
a classic life of St. Francis Xavier, but the "Peregrination" of Mendes Pinto, a typical
Conquistador, is worth all the story books put together for its extrãordinary
adventures told in a vigorous style, full of colour and life, while the "Historia Tragico-
Maritima", a record of notable shipwrecks between 1552 and 1604, has good
specimens of simple anonymous narrative. The dialogues of Samuel Usque, a Lisbon
Jew, also deserve mention. Religious subjects were usually treated in Latin, but
among moralists who used the vernacular were Frei Heitor Pinto, Bishop Arraez, and
Frei Thome de Jesus, whose "Trabalhos de Jesus" has appeared in many languages.

[edit] Second Classical Phase: Baroque

The general inferiority of seventeenth-century literature to that of the preceding age
has been blamed on the new royal absolutism, the Inquisition, the Index, and the
exaggerated humanism of the Jesuits who directed higher education; nevertheless, had
a man of genius appeared he would have overcome all obstacles. In fact letters shared
in the national decline. The taint of Gongorism and Marinism attacked all the
Seiscentistas, as may be seen in the "Fenix Renascida", and rhetoric conquered style.
The Revolution of 1640 liberated Portugal, but could not undo the effects of the sixty
years' union with Spain. The use of Spanish continued among the upper class and was
preferred by many authors who desired a larger audience. Spain had given birth to
great writers for whom the Portuguese forgot the earlier ones of their own land. The
foreign influence was strongest in the drama. The leading Portuguese playwrights
wrote in Spanish, and in the national tongue only poor religious pieces and a witty
comedy by D. Francisco Manuel de Mello, "Auto do Fidalgo Aprendiz", were
produced. The numerous Academies which arose with exotic names aimed at raising
the level of letters, but they spent themselves is discussing ridiculous theses and
determined the triumph of pedantry and bad taste. Yet though culteranismo and
conceptismo infected nearly everyone, the century did not lack its big names.

[edit] Lyric Poetry

Melodious verses relieve the dullness of the pastoral romances of Rodriguez Lobo,
while his "Corte na Aldea" is a book of varied interest in elegant prose. The versatile
D. Francisco Manuel de Mello, in addition to his sonnets on moral subjects, wrote
pleasing imitations of popular romances, but is at his best in a reasoned but vehement
"Memorial to John IV", in the witty "Apologos Dialogaes", and in the homely
philosophy of the "Carta de Guia de Casados, prose classics. Other poets of the period
are Soror Violante do Ceo, and Frei Jeronymo Vahia, convinced Gongorists, Frei
Bernardo de Brito with the "Sylvia de Lizardo", and the satirists, D. Thomas de
Noronha and Antonio Serrão de Castro.

[edit] Prose

The century had a richer output in prose than in verse, and history, biography,
sermons, and epistolary correspondence all flourished. Writers on historical subjects
were usually friars who worked in their cells and not, as in the sixteenth century,
travelled men and eye-witnesses of the events they describe. They occupied
themselves largely with questions of form and are better stylists than historians.
Among the five contributors to the ponderous "Monarchia Lusitana", only the
conscientious Frei Antonio Brandão fully realized the importance of documentary
evidence. Frei Bernardo de Brito begins his work with the creation and ends it where
he should have begun; he constantly mistakes legend for fact, but was a patient
investigator and vigorous narrator. Frei Luis de Sousa, the famous stylist, worked up
existing materials into the classical hagiography "Vida de D. Frei Bertholameu dos
Martyres" and "Annaes d'el Rei D. João III. Manoel de Faria y Sousa, historian and
arch-commentator of Camoens, by a strange irony of fate chose Spanish as his
vehicle, as did Mello for his classic account of the Catalonian War, while Jacintho
Freire de Andrade told in grandiloquent language the story of justice-loving viceroy,
D. João de Castro.

Ecclesiastical eloquence was at its best in the seventeenth century and the pulpit filled
the place of the press of to-day. The originality and imaginative power of his sermons
are said to have won for Father Antonio Vieira in Rome the title of "Prince of
Catholic Orators" and though they and his letters exhibit some of the prevailing faults
of taste, he is nonetheless great both in ideas and expression. The discourses and
devotional treatises of the Oratorian Manuel Bernardes, who was a recluse, have a
calm and sweetness that we miss in the writings of a man of action like Vieira and,
while equally rich, are purer models of classic Portuguese prose. He is at his best in
"Luz e Calor" and the "Nova Floresta". Letter writing is represented by such master
hands as D. Francisco Manuel de Mello in familiar epistles, Frei Antonio das Chagas
in spiritual, and by five short but eloquent documents of human affection, the "Cartas
de Marianna Alcoforada".

[edit] Third Classical Phase: NeoClassicism

Affectation continued to mark the literature of the first half of the eighteenth century,
but signs of a change gradually appeared and ended in that complete literary
reformation known as the Romantic Movement. Distinguished men who fled abroad
to escape the prevailing despotism did much for intellectual progress by
encouragement and example. Verney criticized the obsolete educational methods and
exposed the literary and scientific decadence in the "Verdadeiro Methodo de Estudar",
while the various Academies and Arcadias, wiser than their predecessors, worked for
purity of style and diction, and translated the best foreign classics.

[edit] The Academies

The Academy of History, established by John V in 1720 in imitation of the French

Academy, published fifteen volumes of learned "Memoirs" and laid the foundations
for a critical study of the annals of Portugal, among its members being Caetano de
Sousa, author of the volumious "Historia da Casa Real", and the bibliographer
Barbosa Machado. The Royal Academy of Sciences, founded in 1780, continued the
work and placed literary criticism on a sounder basis, but the principal exponents of
belles-lettres belonged to the Arcadias.

[edit] The Arcadians

Of these the most important was the Arcadia Ulisiponense established in 1756 by the
poet Cruz e Silva--"to form a school of good example in eloquence and poetry"--and
it included the most considered writers of the time. Garção composed the "Cantata de
Dido", a classic gem, and many excellent sonnets, odes, and epistles. The bucolic
verse of Quita has the tenderness and simplicity of that of Bernardin Ribeiro, while in
the mock-heroic poem, "Hyssope", Cruz e Silva satirizes ecclesiastical jealousies,
local types, and the prevailing gallomania with real humour. Intestine disputes led to
the dissolution of the Arcadia in 1774, but it had done good service by raising the
standards of taste and introducing new poetical forms. Unfortunately its adherents
were too apt to content themselves with imitating the ancient classics and the
Quinhentistas and they adopted a cold, reasoned style of expression, without emotion
or colouring. Their whole outlook was painfully academic. Many of the Arcadians
followed the example of a latter-day Maecenas, the Conde de Ericeira, and
endeavoured to nationalize the pseudo-classicism which obtained in France. In 1790
the "New Arcadia" came into being and had in Bocage a man who, under other
conditions, might have been a great poet. His talent led him to react against the
general mediocrity and though he achieved no sustained flights, his sonnets vie with
those of Camoens. He was a master of short improvised lyrics as of satire, which he
used to effect in the "Pena de Talião" against Agostinho de Macedo.

This turbulent priest constituted himself a literary dictator and in "Os Burros"
surpassed all other bards in invective, moreover he sought to supplant the Lusiads by
a tasteless epic, "Oriente". He, however, introduced the didactic poem, his odes reach
a high level, and his letters and political pamphlets display learning and versatility,
but his influence on letters was hurtful. The only other Arcadian worthy of mention is
Curvo Semedo, but the "Dissidents", a name given to those poets who remained
outside the Arcadias, include three men who show independence and a sense of
reality, José Anastacio da Cunha, Nicolão Tolentino, and Francisco Manoel de
Nascimento, better known as Filinto Elysio. The first versified in a philosophic and
tender strain, the second sketched the custom and follies of the time in quintilhas of
abundant wit and realism, the third spent a long life of exile in Paris in reviving the
cult of the sixteenth-century poets, purified the language of Gallicisms and enriched it
by numerous works, original and translated. Though lacking imagination, his contos,
or scenes of Portuguese life, strike a new note of reality, and his blank verse
translation of the "Martyrs" of Chateaubriand is a high performance. Shortly before
his death he became a convert to the Romantic Movement, for whose triumph in the
person of Almeida-Garrett he had prepared the way.

[edit] Brazilian Poetry

During the eighteenth century the colony of Brazil began to contribute to Portuguese
letters. Manuel da Costa wrote a number of Petrarchian sonnets, Manuel Inácio da
Silva Alvarenga showed himself an ardent lyricist and cultivator of form, Tomás
Antônio Gonzaga became famous by the harmonious verses of his love poem "Marília
de Dirceu", while the "Poesias sacras" of António Pereira Sousa Caldas have a certain
mystical charm though metrically hard. In epic poetry the chief name is that of Basílio
da Gama, whose "O Uraguai" deals with the struggle between the Portuguese and the
Paraguay Indians. It is written in blank verse and has some notable episodes. The
"Caramuru" of Santa Rita Durão begins with the discovery of Bahia and contains, in a
succession of pictures, the early history of Brazil. The passages descriptive of native
customs are well written and these poems are superior to anything of the kind
produced contemporaneously by the mother country.

[edit] Prose

The prose of the century is mainly dedicated to scientific subjects, but the letters of
Antonio da Costa, Antonio Ribeiro Sanches, and Alexandre de Gusmão have literary
value and those of the celebrated Carvalheiro d'Oliveira, if not so correct, are even
more informing.

[edit] Drama

Though a Court returned to Lisbon in 1640, it preferred, for one hundred and fifty
years, Italian opera and French plays to vernacular representations. Early in the
eighteenth century several authors sprung from the people vainly attempted to found a
national drama. Their pieces mostly belong to low comedy. The "Operas
Portuguezas" of Antonio José da Silva, produced between 1733 and 1741, have a real
comic strength and a certain originality, and, like those of Nicolau Luiz, exploit with
wit the faults and foibles of the age. The latter divided his attention between heroic
comedies and comedies de capa y espada and, though wanting in ideas and taste, they
enjoyed a long popularity. At the same time the Arcadia endeavoured to raise the
standard of the stage, drawing inspiration from the contemporary French drama, but
its members lacked dramatic talent and achieved little. Garção wrote two bright
comedies, Quita some stillborn tragedies, and Manuel de Figueredo compiled plays in
prose and verse on national subjects, which fill thirteen volumes, but he could not
create characters.

[edit] Romanticism and Realism

[edit] Poetry

The early nineteenth century witnessed a literary reformation which was begun by
Almeida Garrett who had become acquainted with the English and French
Romanticism in exile and based his work on the national traditions. In the narrative
poem "Camões" (1825) he broke with the established rules of composition and
followed it with "Flores sem Fructo" and a collection of ardent love poems "Folhas
Cahidas", while the clear elegant prose of this true artist is seen in a miscellany of
romance and criticism, "Viagens na minha terra".

The poetry of the austere Herculano has a religious or patriotic motive and is
reminiscent of Lamennais. The movement initiated by Garrett and Herculano became
ultra-Romantic with Castilho, a master of metre, who lacked ideas, and the verses of
João de Lemos and the melancholy Soares de Passos record a limited range of
personal emotions, while their imitators voice sentiments which they have not felt
deeply or at all. Thomas Ribeiro, author of the patriotic poem "D. Jayme", is sincere,
but belongs to the same school which thought too much of form and melody.

In 1865 some young poets led by Anthero de Quental, and future president Teófilo
Braga, rebelled against the domination over letters which Castilho had assumed, and,
under foreign influences, proclaimed the alliance of philosophy with poetry. A fierce
pamphlet war heralded the downfall of Castilho and poetry gained in breadth and
reality, though in many instances it became non-Christian and revolutionary.

Quental produced finely wrought, pessimistic sonnets inspired by neo-Buddhistic and

German agnostic ideas, while Braga, a Positivist, compiled an epic of humanity, the
"Visão dos Tempos".

Guerra Junqueiro is mainly ironic in the "Morte de D. João", in "Patria" he evokes and
scourges the Braganza kings in some powerful scenes, and in "Os Simples" interprets
nature and rural life by the light of a pantheistic imagination. Gomes Leal is merely
anti-Christian with touches of Baudelaire. João de Deus belonged to no school; an
idealist, he drew inspiration from religion and women, and the earlier verses of the
"Campo de Flores" are marked, now by tender feeling, now by sensuous mysticism,
all very Portuguese.

Other true poets are the sonneteer João Penha, the Parnassian Goncalves Crespo, and
the symbolist Eugenio de Castro. The reaction against the use of verse for the
propaganda of radicalism in religion and politics has succeeded and the most
considered poets of the early twentieth century, Correa de Oliveira, and Lopes Vieira,
were natural singers with no extraneous purpose to serve. They owe much to the "Só"
of Antonio Nobre, a book of true race poetry.

[edit] Drama

After producing some classical tragedies, the best of which is "Cato", Almeida Garrett
undertook the reform of the stage on independent lines, though he learnt something
from the Anglo-German school. Anxious to find a national drama, he chose subjects
from Portuguese history and, beginning with "An Auto of Gil Vicente", produced a
series of prose plays which culminated in "Brother Luiz de Sousa", a masterpiece. His
imitators, Mendes Leal and Pinheiro Chagas, fell victims to ultra-Romanticism, but
Fernando Caldeira and Gervasio Lobato wrote life-like and witty comedies and
recently the regional pieces of D. João da Camara have won success, even outside
Portugal. At the present time, with the historical and social plays of Lopes de
Mendonca, Julio Dantas, Marcellino Mesquita, and Eduardo Schwalbach, drama is
more flourishing than ever before and Garrett's work has fructified fifty years after his
death.

[edit] The Novel

The novel is really a creation of the nineteenth century and it began with historical
romances in the style of Walter Scott by Alexandre Herculano de Carvalho e Araujo,
to whom succeeded Rebello da Silva with A Mocidade de D. João V, Andrade Corvo,
and others. The romance of manners is due to the versatile Camillo Castello Branco, a
rich impressionist who describes to perfection the life of the early part of the century
in Amor de Perdição, Novellas do Minho, and other books. Gomes Coelho (Julio
Dinis), a romantic idealist and subjective writer, is known best by As Pupillas do Snr
Reitor, but the great creative artist was José Maria de Eça de Queiroz, founder of the
Naturalist School, and author of Primo Basilio, Correspondencia de Fradique
Mendes, A Cidade e as Serras. His characters live and many of his descriptive and
satiric passages have become classical. Among the lesser novelists are Pinheiro
Chagas, Arnaldo Gama Luiz de Magalhães, Teixeira de Queiroz, and Malheiro Dias.

[edit] Other prose

History became a science with Herculano whose Historia de Portugal is also valuable
for its sculptural style, and Joaquim Pedro de Oliveira Martins ranks as a painter of
scenes and characters in Os Filhos de D. João and Vida de Nun' Alvares. A strong gift
of humour distinguishes the As Farpas of Ramalho Ortigão, as well as the work of
Fialho d'Almeida and Julio Cesar Machado, and literary criticism had able exponents
in Luciano Cordeiro and Moniz Barreto. The Panorama under the editorship of
Herculano exercised a sound and wide influence over letters, but since that time the
press has become less and less literary and now treats of little save politics.

[edit] Examples of Portuguese literature

[edit] Luís Vaz de Camões

The poet Luís Vaz de Camões or Luís Vaz Camoens (1524 - June 10, 1580) was the
author of the epic poem The Lusiad. (In the Victorian era, he was both sufficiently
admired and sufficiently obscure for Elizabeth Barrett Browning to disguise her work
by entitling it Sonnets from the Portuguese, a reference to Camões).

The Portuguese national holiday, "Portugal's Day" or "Dia de Portugal, das

Comunidades Portuguesas e de Camões" (Portugal's, Portuguese Communities' and
Camoens' Day), is celebrated on June 10, the anniversary of Camões' death. It is a day
of national pride similar to the "Independence Day" celebrated in other countries.

[edit] Eça de Queiroz

Eça de Queiroz (1845–1900) is a Portuguese novelist. Born in Póvoa de Varzim, near
Oporto, he traveled throughout the world as a consul. He accepted an assignment to
the consulate of Paris in 1888 and remained there until his death on August 16, 1900.
The books he wrote in Paris are critical of Portuguese society. His most famous works
include Os Maias (The Maias) (1878), O Crime do Padre Amaro (The Crime of
Father Amaro) (1876) and O Primo Bazilio (Cousin Basílio) (1878). Nicknamed the
"Portuguese Zola," Eça was the founder of Portuguese Naturalism.

In 2002, the Mexican director Carlos Carrera made a motion picture, "El Crimen del
Padre Amaro" ("The Crime of Father Amaro"), adapted from Queirós' novel. One of
the most successful Mexican films in history, it was also controversial because of its
depiction of Catholic priesthood.

[edit] Fernando Pessoa

Fernando Pessoa (1888–1935) was a Portuguese poet. He used heteronyms, where he

wrote in different styles as if he were more than one poet. One of his most famous
works was an adaptation of the Lusiad called The Message (A Mensagem).

The Message discusses the Sebastianism and Portuguese prophecies, that were created
and prophesized during the time of Camoens. The Portuguese await the return of the
dead king on a foggy day - the return of National Me (Eu Nacional) that will take
Portugal, once more, to govern the Fifth Empire.

[edit] Antero de Quental

This article's tone or style may not reflect the encyclopedic tone used on
Wikipedia. See Wikipedia's guide to writing better articles for suggestions.
(December 2009)

Antero de Quental studied at the University of Coimbra, and soon distinguished

himself by unusual talent, as well as turbulence and eccentricity. He began to write
poetry at an early age, chiefly, though not entirely, devoting himself to the sonnet.
After the publication of one volume of verse, he entered with great warmth into the
revolt of the young men which dethroned António Feliciano de Castilho, the chief
living poet of the elder generation, from his place as dictator over modern Portuguese
literature. He then travelled, engaged on his return in political and socialistic
agitations, and found his way through a series of disappointments to the mild
pessimism, a kind of Western Buddhism, which animates his latest poetical
productions. His melancholy was increased by a spinal disease, which after several
years of retirement from the world, eventually drove him to suicide in his native
island.

Antero stands at the head of modern Portuguese poetry after João de Deus. His
principal defect is monotony: his own self is his solitary theme, and he seldom
attempts any other form of composition than the sonnet. On the other hand, few poets
who have chiefly devoted themselves to this form have produced so large a proportion
of really exquisite work. The comparatively few pieces in which be either forgets his
doubts and inward conflicts, or succeeds in giving them an objective form, are among
the most beautiful in any literature. The purely introspective sonnets are less
attractive, but equally finely wrought, interesting as psychological studies, and
impressive from their sincerity. His mental attitude is well described by himself as the
effect of Germanism on the unprepared mind of a Southerner. He had learned much,
and half-learned more, which he was unable to assimilate, and his mind became a
chaos of conflicting ideas, settling down into a condition of gloomy negation, save for
the one conviction of the vanity of existence, which ultimately destroyed him. A
healthy participation in public affairs might have saved him, but he seemed incapable
of entering upon any course that did not lead to delusion and disappointment. The
great popularity acquired, notwithstanding, by poetry so metaphysical and egotistic is
a testimony to the artistic instinct of the Portuguese.

As a prose writer Quental displayed high talents, though he wrote little. His most
important prose work is the Considerações sobre a philosophia da historia literaria
Portugueza, but he earned fame by his pamphlets on the Coimbra question, Bom
senso e bom gosto, a letter to Castilho, and A dignidade das lettras e litteraturas
officiaes.

His friend Oliveira Martins edited the Sonnets (Oporto, 1886), supplying an
introductory essay; and an interesting collection of studies on the poet by the leading
Portuguese writers appeared in a volume entitled Anthero de Quental. In Memoriam
(Oporto, 1896). The sonnets have been turned into most European languages; into
English by Edgar Prestage (Anthero de Quental, Sixty-four Sonnets, London, 1894),
together with a striking autobiographical letter addressed by Quental to his German
translator, Dr Storck.

[edit] Alexandre O'Neill

This article's tone or style may not reflect the encyclopedic tone used on
Wikipedia. See Wikipedia's guide to writing better articles for suggestions.
(December 2009)

Alexandre Manuel Vahía de Castro O‘Neill (December 19, 1924 - August 21, 1986)
was a Portuguese poet of Irish origin.

In 1948, O'Neill was among the founders of the Lisbon Surrealist Movement, along
with Mário Cesariny, José-Augusto França and others. His writings soon diverged
from surrealist to form an original style whose poetry reflects a love/hate relationship
with his country.

His most salient characteristics - a disrespect of conventions, both social and literary,
an attitude of permanent revolt, playfulness with language, and the use of parody and
black humor - are used to form a body of incisive depictions of what is to be
Portuguese and his relation with the country.

O‘Neill was in permanent conflict with Portugal. While other contemporaries wrote
poems that protested against national life under Salazar, O‘Neill‘s attack ran deeper.
Poems such as ‗Standing at Fearful Attention‘ and ‗Portugal‘ suggested that the
dictatorial regime was a symptom (the worst symptom) of graver ills – lack of
courage and smallness of vision – woven into the nation‘s psyche. Other poems, such
as ‗Lament of the Man Who Misses Being Blind‘, seemed to hold religion and
mysticism responsible for an obscurantism that made change difficult if not
impossible.

A publicist by profession, famed for inventing some of the most ingenious advertising
slogans of his time, O‘Neill was unusually adept at manipulating words and using
them in an efficacious manner, but he refused to put that talent at the service of a
lyrically lofty, feel-good sort of poetry (see ‗Simply Expressive‘). Stridently anti-
Romantic, concerned to keep humanity in its place as just one of earth‘s species, he
did not believe that an especially harmonious world was possible, and he abhorred all
attempts to escape the world, whether through mystical or poetical exaltations. His
one hope, or consolation, explicitly stated in ‗St. Francis‘s Empty Sandal‘, was in the
connection (never entirely peaceful) he felt with other members of the species.

Although most of his works are lost or out of sight in private collections he was also a
painter and a graphic composer of immense talent. Some of his work was shown, to
great surprise and admiration, in 2002 at an exhibit on the surrealist movement.

[edit] José Saramago

José Saramago (1922–2010) was a Portuguese novelist, who wrote such works as
"Memorial do Convento", and won the Nobel Prize in 1998.

See: Rogério Miguel Puga, Chronology of Portuguese Literature 1128-2000,

Cambridge Scholars Publishing, UK, 2011.

[edit] External links

Projecto Vercial A big Portuguese literature database.
Portuguese Literature By Joana Dalila in Accessible Portugal Online
Magazine

Luís de Camões
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"Camões" redirects here. For other uses, see Camoes (disambiguation).

This article needs additional citations for verification. Please help

improve this article by adding citations to reliable sources. Unsourced
material may be challenged and removed. (June 2008)

Luís de Camões
 A painting depicting Camões, made by François Gérard

Luís Vaz de Camões

Born 1524
Lisbon, Kingdom of Portugal

1580 (aged 55–56)

Died
Lisbon, Kingdom of Portugal

Occupation Poet

Nationality Portuguese

Alma mater University of Coimbra

Literary movement Classicism

Notable work(s) The Lusiads

Relative(s) Camões Family

Influences[show]

Influenced[show]
Luís Vaz de Camões (Portuguese pronunciation: [luˈiʒ ˈvaʒ dɨ kaˈmõjʃ]; sometimes
rendered in English as Camoens /ˈkæm oʊˌənz/; c. 1524 – 10 June 1580) is
considered Portugal's and the Portuguese language's greatest poet. His mastery of
verse has been compared to that of Shakespeare, Vondel, Homer, Virgil and Dante.
He wrote a considerable amount of lyrical poetry and drama but is best remembered
for his epic work Os Lusíadas (The Lusiads). His recollection of poetry The
Parnasum of Luís de Camões was lost in his lifetime. The influence of his
masterpiece Os Lusíadas in Portuguese is so profound that it is called the "language
of Camões".

Contents
[hide]

1 Life
2 Bibliography
3 In culture
4 See also
5 References
6 External links

[edit] Life
Many details concerning the life of Camões remain unknown, but he is thought to
have been born around 1524. Luís Vaz de Camões was the only child of Simão Vaz
de Camões and wife Ana de Sá de Macedo.[1] His birthplace is unknown. Lisbon,
Coimbra or Alenquer are frequently presented as his birthplace, although the latter is
based on a disputable interpretation of one of his poems. Constância is also
considered a possibility as his place of birth: a statue of him can be found in the town.

Camões belongs to a family originating from the northern Portuguese region of

Chaves near Galicia. At an early age, his father Simão Vaz left his family to discover
personal riches in India, only to die in Goa in the following years. His mother later re-
married.
Monument to Luís de Camões, Lisbon

Camões lived a semi-privileged life and was educated by Dominicans and Jesuits. For
a period, due to his familial relations he attended the University of Coimbra, although
records do not show him registered (he participated in courses in the Humanities). His
uncle, Bento de Camões, is credited with this education, owing to his position as Prior
at the Monastery of Santa Cruz and Chancellor at the University of Coimbra. He
frequently had access to exclusive literature, including classical Greek, Roman and
Latin works, read Latin, Italian and wrote in Spanish.

Camões, as his love of poetry can attest, was a romantic and idealist. It was rumored
that he fell in love with Catherine of Ataíde, lady-in-waiting to the Queen, and also
the Princess Maria, sister of John III of Portugal. It is also likely that an indiscreet
allusion to the king in his play El-Rei Seleuco, as well as these other incidents may
have played a part in his exile from Lisbon in 1548. He traveled to the Ribatejo where
he stayed in the company of friends who sheltered and fed him. He stayed in the
province for about six months.

He enlisted in the overseas militia, and traveled to Ceuta in the fall of 1549. During a
battle with the Moors, he lost the sight in his right eye. He eventually returned to
Lisbon in 1551, a changed man, living a bohemian lifestyle. In 1552, during the
religious festival of Corpus Christi, in the Largo do Rossio, he injured Gonçalo
Borges, a member of the Royal Stables. Camões was imprisoned. His mother pleaded
for his release, visiting royal ministers and the Borges family for a pardon. Released,
Camões was ordered to pay 4,000 réis and serve three-years in the militia in the
Orient.

He departed in 1553 for Goa on board the São Bento, commanded by Fernão Alves
Cabral. The ship arrived six months later. In Goa, Camões was imprisoned for debt.
He found Goa "a stepmother to all honest men" but he studied local customs and
mastered the local geography and history. On his first expedition, he joined a battle
along the Malabar Coast. The battle was followed by skirmishes along the trading
routes between Egypt and India. The fleet eventually returned to Goa by November
1554. During his time ashore, he continued his writing publicly, as well as writing
correspondence for the uneducated men of the fleet.

At the end of his obligatory service, he was given the position of chief warrant officer
in Macau. He was charged with managing the properties of missing and deceased
soldiers in the Orient. During this time he worked on his epic poem Os Lusíadas
("The Lusiads") in a grotto. He was later accused of misappropriations and traveled to
Goa to respond to the accusations of the tribunal. During his return journey, near the
Mekong River along the Cambodian coast, he was shipwrecked, saving his
manuscript but losing his Chinese lover. His shipwreck survival in the Mekong Delta
was enhanced by the legendary detail that he succeeded in swimming ashore while
holding aloft the manuscript of his still-unfinished epic.

In 1570 Camões finally made it back to Lisbon, where two years later he published Os
Lusíadas. In recompense for his poem or perhaps for services in the Far East, he was
granted a small royal pension by the young and ill-fated Sebastian of Portugal (ruled
1557–1578).

In 1578 he heard of the appalling defeat of the Battle of Ksar El Kebir, where King
Sebastian was killed and the Portuguese army destroyed. The Castilian troops were
approaching Lisbon[citation needed] when Camões wrote to the Captain General of
Lamego: "All will see that so dear to me was my country that I was content to die not
only in it but with it". Camões died in Lisbon in 1580, at the age of 56. The day of his
death, 10 June, is Portugal's national day. He is buried near Vasco da Gama in the
Jerónimos Monastery in the Belém district of Lisbon.

[edit] Bibliography
Works by Camões Camoens: His Life and his Lusiads:
A Commentary. Richard Francis
The Lusiads Burton. 2 vols. London: Quaritch,
The Parnasum of Luís Vaz (lost) 1881.[3]
Lyric Poems The Place of Camoens in
Auto dos Anfitriões Literature. Joaquim Nabuco.
Auto El-rei Seleuco Washington, D.C. [?], 1908.[4]
Auto do Filodemo Luis de Camões. Aubrey F.G. Bell.
Letters London: 1923.
Camoens, Central Figure of
English translations Portuguese Literature. Isaac
Goldberg. Girard: Haldeman-Julius,
The Lusiadas of Luiz de Camões. 1924.
Leonard Bacon. 1966. From Virgil to Milton. Cecil M.
Luis de Camões: Epic and Lyric. Bowra. 1945.
Keith Bosley. Carcanet, 1990. Camoens and the Epic of the
The Lusiads. Trans. Landeg Lusiads. Henry Hersch Hart. 1962.
White. Oxford: Oxford UP, 2002. The Presence of Camões: Influences
ISBN 0-19-280151-1. on the Literature of England,
America & Southern Africa. George
 Luis de Camoes, Selected Sonnets: Monteiro. Lexington: University of
A Bilingual Edition. Ed. and trans. Kentucky Press, 1996. ISBN 0-
William Baer. Chicago: U of 8131-1952-9.
Chicago P, 2005. ISBN 978-0- Ordering Empire: The Poetry of
226-09266-9. (Paperback publ. Camões, Pringle and Campbell.
2008, ISBN 978-0-226-09286-7) Nicholas Meihuizen. Bern: Peter
The Collected Lyric Poems of Luís Lang, 2007. ISBN 978-3-03911-
de Camões Trans. Landeg White. 023-0.
Princeton: Princeton UP, 2008.
ISBN [2] Biography and textual study in Spanish

Biography and textual study in English Camoens y Cervantes / Orico,

Osvaldo., 1948
Life of Camões. John Adamson. Camoens / Filgueira Valverde,
Longman, 1820. Jose., 1958
Homenaje a Camoens: Estudios y
Ensayos., 1980
Cuatro Lecciones Sobre Camoens /
Alonso Zamora Vicente., 1981

[edit] In culture
Camões is the subject of the first romantic painting from a Portuguese painter,
A Morte de Camões (1825), by Domingos Sequeira, now lost.
He is one of the characters in Gaetano Donizetti's grand opera Dom Sébastien,
Roi de Portugal.
Camões figures prominently in the book Het verboden rijk (The Forbidden
Empire) by the Dutch writer J. Slauerhoff, who himself made several voyages
to the Far East as a ship's doctor.
A museum dedicated to Camões can be found in Macau, the Museu Luís de
Camões.
In Goa, India the Archeological Museum at Old Goa (which used to be a
Franciscan monastery) houses a 3 meters high bronze statue of Luís de
Camões. The statue was originally installed in the garden in year 1960 but was
moved into the museum due to public protest after Goa's annexation to India.
Another Camoes monument in Goa, India – "Jardim de Garcia da Orta
Garden" (popularly known as Panaji Municipal Garden) has a 12 meter high
pillar in the center.

José Maria de Eça de Queiroz

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Jump to: navigation, search

José Maria de Eça de Queirós

 November 25, 1845
Born
Póvoa de Varzim, Portugal

August 16, 1900 (aged 54)

Died
Paris, France

Occupation Novelist/Consul

Nationality Portuguese

Literary movement Realism, Romanticism

José Maria de Eça de Queiroz or Eça de Queirós[1] (European Portuguese: [ʒuˈz

m ˈɾi dɨ ˈ s dɨ k iˈɾɔʃ]; November 25, 1845 – August 16, 1900) is generally
considered to be the greatest Portuguese writer in the realist style.[2] Zola considered
him to be far greater than Flaubert.[3] The London Observer critics rank him with
Dickens, Balzac and Tolstoy.[4] Eça never officially rejected Catholicism, and in many
of his private letters he even invokes Jesus and uses expressions typical of Catholics,
but was very critical of the Catholic Church of his time, and of Christianity in general
(also Protestant churches) as is evident in some of his novels.

During his lifetime, the spelling was "Eça de Queiroz" and this is the form that
appears on many editions of his works; the modern standard Portuguese spelling is
"Eça de Queirós".
Contents
[hide]

1 Biography
2 Works by Eça de Queirós
3 Periodicals to which Eça de Queirós contributed
4 Translations
5 Adaptations
6 References
o 6.1 Notes
o 6.2 Bibliography
7 External links

[edit] Biography
Eça de Queirós was born in Póvoa de Varzim, Portugal, in 1845. An illegitimate
child, he was officially recorded as the son of José Maria de Almeida Teixeira de
Queirós, a Brazilian judge and an unknown mother. Teixeira de Queirós soon
afterwards married Carolina Augusta Pereira d'Eça, and it has been suggested that in
reality the boy was her son by an unknown father, or even that he was instead both his
and her son, as most genealogists and relatives contend.

At age 16, he went to Coimbra to study law at the University of Coimbra; there he
met the poet Antero de Quental. Eça's first work was a series of prose poems,
published in the Gazeta de Portugal magazine, which eventually appeared in book
form in a posthumous collection edited by Batalha Reis entitled Prosas Bárbaras
("Barbarous texts"). He worked as a journalist at Évora, then returned to Lisbon and,
with his former school friend Ramalho Ortigão and others, created the
Correspondence of the fictional adventurer Fradique Mendes. This amusing work was
first published in 1900.

Statue of Eça in Póvoa de Varzim; a couple of metres from his birthplace.

In 1869 and 1870, Eça de Queirós travelled to Egypt and watched the opening of the
Suez Canal, which inspired several of his works, most notably O Mistério da Estrada
de Sintra ("The Mystery of the Sintra Road", 1870), written in collaboration with
Ramalho Ortigão, in which Fradique Mendes appears. A Relíquia ("The Relic") was
also written at this period but was published only in 1887. When he was later
dispatched to Leiria to work as a municipal administrator, Eça de Queirós wrote his
first realist novel, O Crime do Padre Amaro ("The Sin of Father Amaro"), which is
set in the city and first appeared in 1875.

Eça then worked in the Portuguese consular service and after two years' service at
Havana was stationed at 53 Grey Street, Newcastle upon Tyne, from late 1874 until
April 1879. His diplomatic duties involved the dispatch of detailed reports to the
Portuguese foreign office concerning the unrest in the Northumberland and Durham
coalfields - in which, as he points out, the miners earned twice as much as those in
South Wales, along with free housing and a weekly supply of coal. The Newcastle
years were among the most productive of his literary career. He published the second
version of O Crime de Padre Amaro in 1876 and another celebrated novel, O Primo
Basílio ("Cousin Bazilio") in 1878, as well as working on a number of other projects.
These included the first of his "Cartas de Londres" ("Letters from London") which
were printed in the Lisbon daily newspaper Diário de Notícias and afterwards
appeared in book form as Cartas de Inglaterra. As early as 1878 he had at least given
a name to his masterpiece Os Maias ("The Maias"), though this was largely written
during his later residence in Bristol and was published only in 1888. There is a plaque
to Eça in that city and another was unveiled in Grey Street, Newcastle, in 2001 by the
Portuguese ambassador.

Eça, a cosmopolite widely read in English literature, was not enamoured of English
society, but he was fascinated by its oddity. In Bristol he wrote: "Everything about
this society is disagreeable to me - from its limited way of thinking to its indecent
manner of cooking vegetables." As often happens when a writer is unhappy, the
weather is endlessly bad. Nevertheless, he was rarely bored and was content to stay in
England for some fifteen years. "I detest England, but this does not stop me from
declaring that as a thinking nation, she is probably the foremost." It may be said that
England acted as a constant stimulus and a corrective to Eça‘s traditionally
Portuguese Francophilia.

In 1888 he became Portuguese consul-general in Paris. He lived at Neuilly-sur-Seine

and continued to write journalism (Ecos de Paris, "Echos from Paris") as well as
literary criticism. He died in 1900 of either tuberculosis or, according to numerous
contemporary physicians, Crohn's disease.[5] His son António Eça de Queirós would
hold government office under António de Oliveira Salazar.
Bust of Eça de Queiroz in Neuilly-sur-Seine avenue Charles de Gaulle

[edit] Works by Eça de Queirós

Cover of the first edition of Os Maias

A Capital ("The Capital")

A Cidade e as Serras ("The City and the Mountains", 1901)
A Ilustre Casa de Ramires ("The Noble House of Ramires", 1900)
A Relíquia ("The Relic", 1887)
A Tragédia da Rua das Flores ("The Rua das Flores Tragedy")
 Alves & C.a ("Alves & Co.", published in English as "The Yellow Sofa",
1925)
As Minas de Salomão, a reworking of H. Rider Haggard's King Solomon's
Mines
Cartas de Inglaterra ("Letters from England")
Cartas Familiares e Bilhetes de Paris ("Family Letters and Notes from Paris")
Contos ("Stories")
Correspondência de Fradique Mendes ("Correspondence of Fradique
Mendes", 1900)
Ecos de Paris ("Echos from Paris")
Notas Contemporâneas ("Contemporary Notes")
O Conde d'Abranhos ("Count d'Abranhos")
O Crime do Padre Amaro ("The Sin of Father Amaro", 1875, revised 1876,
revised 1880)
O Egipto ("Egypt", 1926)
O Mandarim ("The Mandarin", 1880)
O Mistério da Estrada de Sintra ("The Mystery of the Sintra Road", 1870, in
collaboration with Ramalho Ortigão)
O Primo Basílio ("Cousin Bazilio", 1878)
Os Maias ("The Maias", 1888)
Prosas Bárbaras ("Barbarous Texts", 1903)
Últimas páginas ("Last Pages")
Uma Campanha Alegre ("A Cheerful Campaign")

[edit] Periodicals to which Eça de Queirós

contributed
Gazeta de Portugal
As Farpas ("Barbs")
Diário de Notícias

[edit] Translations
His works have been translated into about 20 languages, including English.

Since 2002 English versions of six of his novels and a volume of short stories,
translated by Margaret Jull Costa, have been published in the UK by Dedalus Books.

A capital (The Capital): translation by John Vetch, Carcanet Press (UK),

1995.
A Cidade e as serras (The City and the Mountains): translation by Roy
Campbell, Ohio University Press, 1968.
A Ilustre Casa de Ramires (The illustrious house of Ramires): translation by
Ann Stevens, Ohio University Press, 1968.
A Relíquia (The Relic): translation by Aubrey F. Bell, A. A. Knopf, 1925.
Also published as The Reliquary, Reinhardt, 1954.
A Relíquia (The Relic): translation by Margaret Jull Costa, Dedalus Books,
1994.
A tragédia da rua das Flores (The Tragedy of the Street of Flowers):
translation by Margaret Jull Costa, Dedalus Books, 2000.
Alves & Cia (Alves & Co.): translation by Robert M. Fedorchek, University
Press of America, 1988.
Cartas da Inglaterra (Letters from England): translation by Ann Stevens,
Bodley Head, 1970. Also published as Eça's English Letters, Carcanet Press,
2000.
O Crime do Padre Amaro (El crimen del Padre Amaro): Versión de Ramón
del Valle - Inclan, Editorial Maucci, 1911
O Crime do Padre Amaro (The Sin of Father Amaro): translation by Nan
Flanagan, St. Martins Press, 1963. Also published as The Crime of Father
Amaro, Carcanet Press, 2002.
O Crime do Padre Amaro (The Crime of Father Amaro): translation by
Margaret Jull Costa, Dedalus Books, 2002.
O Mandarim (The Mandarin in The Mandarin and Other Stories): translation
by Richard Frank Goldman, Ohio University Press, 1965. Also published by
Bodley Head, 1966; and Hippocrene Books, 1993.
Um Poeta Lírico (A Lyric Poet in The Mandarin and Other Stories):
translation by Richard Frank Goldman, Ohio University Press, 1965. Also
published by Bodley Head, 1966; and Hippocrene Books, 1993.
Singularidades de uma Rapariga Loura (Peculiarities of a Fair-haired Girl
in The Mandarin and Other Stories): translation by Richard Frank Goldman,
Ohio University Press, 1965. Also published by Bodley Head, 1966; and
Hippocrene Books, 1993.
José Mathias (José Mathias in The Mandarin and Other Stories): translation
by Richard Frank Goldman, Ohio University Press, 1965. Also published by
Bodley Head, 1966; and Hippocrene Books, 1993.
O Mandarim (The Mandarin in The Mandarin and Other Stories): translation
by Margaret Jull Costa, Hippocrene Books, 1983.
O Mandarim (The Mandarin in The Mandarin and Other Stories): translation
by Margaret Jull Costa, Dedalus Books, 2009.
José Mathias (José Mathias in The Mandarin and Other Stories): translation
by Margaret Jull Costa, Dedalus Books, 2009.
O Defunto (The Hanged Man in The Mandarin and Other Stories): translation
by Margaret Jull Costa, Dedalus Books, 2009.
Singularidades de uma Rapariga Loura (Idiosyncrasies of a young blonde
woman in The Mandarin and Other Stories): translation by Margaret Jull
Costa, Dedalus Books, 2009.
O Primo Basílio (Dragon's teeth): translation by Mary Jane Serrano, R. F.
Fenno & Co., 1896.
O Primo Basílio (Cousin Bazilio): translation by Roy Campbell, Noonday
Press, 1953.
O Primo Basílio (Cousin Bazilio): translation by Margaret Jull Costa, Dedalus
Books, 2003.
Suave milagre (The Sweet Miracle): translation by Edgar Prestage, David
Nutt, 1905. Also published as The Fisher of Men, T. B. Mosher, 1905; The
Sweetest Miracle, T. B. Mosher, 1906; The Sweet Miracle, B. H. Blakwell,
1914.
Os Maias (The Maias): translation by Ann Stevens and Patricia McGowan
Pinheiro, St. Martin's Press, 1965.
 Os Maias (The Maias): translation by Margaret Jull Costa, New Directions,
2007.
O Defunto (Our Lady of the Pillar): translation by Edgar Prestage, Archibald
Constable, 1906.
Pacheco (Pacheco): translation by Edgar Prestage, Basil Blackwell, 1922.
A Perfeição (Perfection): translation by Charles Marriott, Selwyn & Blovnt,
1923.
José Mathias (José Mathias in José Mathias and A Man of Talent):
translation by Luís Marques, George G. Harap & Co., 1947.
Pacheco (A man of talent in José Mathias and A Man of Talent): translation
by Luís Marques, George G. Harap & Co., 1947.
Alves & Cia (The Yellow Sofa in Yellow Sofa and Three Portraits): translation
by John Vetch, Carcanet Press, 1993. Also published by New Directions,
1996.
Um Poeta Lírico (Lyric Poet in Yellow Sofa and Three Portraits): translation
by John Vetch, Carcanet Press, 1993. Also published by New Directions,
1996.
José Mathias (José Mathias in Yellow Sofa and Three Portraits): translation
by Luís Marques, Carcanet Press, 1993. Also published by New Directions,
1996.
Pacheco (A man of talent in Yellow Sofa and Three Portraits): translation by
Luís Marques, Carcanet Press, 1993. Also published by New Directions, 1996.

[edit] Adaptations

Wikimedia Commons has media related to: Eça de Queirós

There have been two film versions of O Crime do Padre Amaro, a Mexican one in
2002 and a Portuguese version in 2005 which was edited out of a SIC television
series, released shortly after the film (the film was by then the most seen Portuguese
movie ever, though very badly received by critics, but the TV series, maybe due to
being a slightly longer version of the same thing seen by a big share of Portuguese
population, flopped and was rather ignored by audiences and critics).

Eça's works have been also adapted on Brazilian television. In 1988 Rede Globo
produced O Primo Basílio in 35 episodes. Later, in 2007, a movie adaptation of the
same novel was made by director Daniel Filho. In 2001 Rede Globo produced an
acclaimed adaptation of Os Maias as a television serial in 40 episodes.

A movie adaptation of O Mistério da Estrada de Sintra was produced in 2007.[6] The

director had shortly before directed a series inspired in a whodunit involving the
descendants of the original novel's characters (Nome de Código Sintra, Code Name
Sintra), and some of the historical flashback scenes (reporting to the book's events) of
the series were used in the new movie. The movie was more centered on Eça's and
Ramalho Ortigão's writing and publishing of the original serial and the controversy it
created and less around the book's plot itself.
[edit] References
[edit] Notes
1. ^ According with the new Portuguese Orthography; see
http://pt.wikipedia.org/wiki/E%C3%A7a_de_Queiroz#cite_note-0.
2. ^ Pick of the week - Consul yourself, Nicholas Lezard, The Guardian, 23 December
2000
3. ^ backcover of The crime of Father Amaro: scenes of the religious life
4. ^ The Maias, by Eca de Queiros, New Directions Publishing Corp
5. ^ [1]
6. ^ filmesfundo.com

[edit] Bibliography

Theatre Adaptations: 'Galleon Theatre Company', the resident producing

company at the 'Greenwich Playhouse' (London), has staged internationally
acclaimed theatre adaptations, by Alice de Sousa and directed by Bruce
Jamieson, of Eça de Queirós' novels. In 2001, the company presented 'Cousin
Basílio' and in 2002 'The Maias'. From the 8th March to the 3rd April 2011 the
company are reviving their greatly acclaimed production of 'The Maias' at the
'Greenwich Playhouse'.

Fernando Pessoa
From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia
Jump to: navigation, search
Not to be confused with Fernando Pessa.

Fernando Pessoa

Photo by Victoriano Braga (1914)

 Fernando António Nogueira de Seabra
Pessoa
Born
June 13, 1888
Lisbon, Portugal

November 30, 1935 (aged 47)

Died
Lisbon, Portugal

Alberto Caeiro, Álvaro de Campos, Ricardo

Pen name
Reis, Bernardo Soares, etc.

Occupation Poet, writer, and translator

Language Portuguese, English, and French

Nationality Portuguese

Period 1912–1935

Genres Poetry, essay, theatre, fiction

Notable
The Book of Disquiet, Message
work(s)

Notable Queen Victoria Prize (1903)

award(s) Antero de Quental Award (1934)

Influences[show]

Influenced[show]

Signature
Fernando Pessoa, born Fernando António Nogueira de Seabra Pessoa (Portuguese
pronunciation: [feɾˈn du ˈtɔnju nuˈg iɾ dɨ siˈabɾ pɨˈso ]) (June 13, 1888 – November
30, 1935), was a Portuguese poet, writer, literary critic and translator, described as
one of the most significant literary figures of the 20th century and one of the greatest
poets in the Portuguese language. He also wrote in and translated from English and
French.

Contents
[hide]

1 Early years in Durban

2 Adult life in Lisbon
3 Pessoa the flâneur
4 Literature and occultism
5 Writing a lifetime
6 Heteronyms
o 6.1 List of known heteronyms
o 6.2 Alberto Caeiro
o 6.3 Ricardo Reis
o 6.4 Álvaro de Campos
o 6.5 Fernando Pessoa-himself
7 Summaries of selected works
o 7.1 Message
o 7.2 Literary essays
o 7.3 Philosophical essays
8 Works
9 See also
10 References
11 Further reading
o 11.1 Books
o 11.2 Articles
12 External links

[edit] Early years in Durban

Nothing had ever obliged him to do anything. He had spent his
childhood alone. He never joined any group. He never pursued a course
of study. He never belonged to a crowd. The circumstances of his life
were marked by that strange but rather common phenomenon – perhaps,
in fact, it‘s true for all lives – of being tailored to the image and likeness
of his instincts, which tended towards inertia and withdrawal.
Fernando Pessoa, from the Preface of
The Book of Disquiet, tr. by Richard Zenith.
Pessoa's birthplace: a large flat at São Carlos Square, in Lisbon.

On 13 July 1893, when Pessoa was five, his father, Joaquim de Seabra Pessoa, died of
tuberculosis. The following year, on 2 January, his younger brother Jorge, aged only
one, also died. His mother, Maria Madalena Pinheiro Nogueira, married again in
December 1895. In the beginning of 1896, he moved with his mother to Durban,
capital of the former British Colony of Natal, where his stepfather João Miguel dos
Santos Rosa, a military officer, had been appointed Portuguese consul. The young
Pessoa received his early education at St. Joseph Convent School, a Catholic grammar
school run by Irish and French nuns. He moved to Durban High School in April,
1899, becoming fluent in English and developing an appreciation for English
literature. During the Matriculation Examination, held at the time by the then
University of the Cape of Good Hope, forerunner of the University of Cape Town, in
November 1903, he was awarded the recently-created Queen Victoria Memorial Prize
for best paper in English. While preparing to enter university, he also attended the
Durban Commercial School during one year, in the evening shift. Meanwhile, he
started writing short stories in English, some under the name of David Merrick, many
of which he left unfinished.[1]

Hillier did first usurp the realms of rhyme

To parody the bard of olden time:
Haggar then followed and, in shallow verse,
Proves that to every bad there is a worse.
Some nameless critic then in furious strain
Causes the reader cruel pain
While after metre pure he seems to thirst
But shows how every worse can have a worst.
Charles Robert Anon,
Natal Mercury, July 6, 1904.
Pessoa in Durban, 1898, aged 10.

At the age of sixteen, The Natal Mercury[2] (July 6, 1904 edition) published his poem
"Hillier did first usurp the realms of rhyme...", under the name of Charles Robert
Anon, along with a brief introductory text: "I read with great amusement...". In
December, The Durban High School Magazine published his essay "Macaulay".[3]
From February to June, 1905, in the section "The Man in the Moon," The Natal
Mercury also published at least four sonnets by Fernando Pessoa: "Joseph
Chamberlain", "To England I", "To England II" and "Liberty".[4] His poems often
carried humorous versions of Anon as the author's name. Pessoa started using pen
names quite young. The first one, still in his childhood, was Chevalier de Pas,
supposedly a French noble. In addition to David Merrick and Charles Robert Anon,
the young writer also signed up, among other pen names, as Horace James Faber and
Alexander Search, another meaningful pseudonym.

The young Pessoa as seen by a schoolfellow

Pessoa in 1901, aged 13.

« I cannot tell you exactly how long I knew him, but the period during which I
received most of my impressions of him was the whole of the year 1904 when we
were at school together. How old he was at this time I don‘t know, but judge him to
have 15 or 16.»

« He was pale and thin and appeared physically to be very imperfectly developed. He
had a narrow and contracted chest and was inclined to stoop. He had a peculiar walk
and some defect in his eyesight gave to his eyes also a peculiar appearance, the lids
seemed to drop over the eyes.»

« He was regarded as a brilliant clever boy as, in spite of the fact that he had not
spoken English in his early years, he had learned it so rapidly and so well that he had
a splendid style in that language. Although younger than his schoolfellows of the
same class he appeared to have no difficulty in keeping up with and surpassing them
in work. For one of his age, he thought much and deeply and in a letter to me once
complained of ―spiritual and material encumbrances of most especial adverseness‖.»

« He took no part in athletic sports of any kind and I think his spare time was spent on
reading. We generally considered that he worked far too much and that he would ruin
his health by so doing.»

— Clifford E. Geerdts, "Letter to Dr. Faustino Antunes", 04.10.1907.[5]

Ten years after his arrival, he sailed for Lisbon via the Suez Canal on board the
"Herzog", leaving Durban for good at the age of seventeen. This journey inspired the
poems "Opiário" (dedicated to his friend, the poet and writer Mário de Sá-Carneiro)
published in March, 1915, in Orpheu nr.1[6] and "Ode Marítima" (dedicated to the
futurist painter Santa Rita Pintor) published in June, 1915, in Orpheu nr.2[7] by his
heteronym Álvaro de Campos.

[edit] Adult life in Lisbon

Once again I see you – Lisbon, the Tagus, and all –
Useless passerby of you and of me,
Stranger in this place as in every other,
Accidental in life as in the soul,
Phantom wandering the halls of memory,
To the squealing of rats and the squeaking of boards,
In the doomed castle where life must be lived...
Fernando Pessoa, from "Lisbon Revisited" (1926),
ed. and tr. by Edwin Honig and Susan M. Brown.
« Empreza Ibis, typographica e editora ».

While his family remained in South Africa, Pessoa returned to Lisbon in 1905 to
study diplomacy. After a period of illness, and two years of poor results, a student
strike against the dictatorship of Prime Minister João Franco put an end to his studies.
Pessoa became a self student, a devoted reader who spent a lot of time at the library.
In August, 1907, he started working at R.G. Dun & Company, an American
mercantile information agency (currently D&B, Dun & Bradstreet). His grandmother
died in September and left him a small inheritance, which he spent on setting up his
own publishing house, the «Empreza Ibis». The venture was not a success and closed
down in 1910, but the name ibis,[8] the sacred bird of Ancient Egypt and inventor of
the alphabet in Greek mythology, would remain an important symbolic reference for
him.

Pessoa's last home, since 1920 till his death, in 1935, currently the Fernando Pessoa
Museum

Upon his return to Lisbon, Pessoa began to complement his British education with
Portuguese culture, as an autodidact. Pre-revolutionary atmosphere surrounding the
assassination of King Carlos I and Crown Prince Luis Filipe, in 1908, and patriotic
environment resulting from the successful republican revolution, in 1910, certainly
exerted a relevant influence in the formation of the writer. His stepuncle Henrique dos
Santos Rosa, a retired general and poet, introduced the young Pessoa to Portuguese
poetry, notably the romantics and symbolists of 19th century.[9] In 1912, Fernando
Pessoa entered the literary world with a critical essay, published in the cultural journal
A Águia, which triggered one of the most important literary debates in the Portuguese
intellectual world of 20th century: the polemic regarding a super-Camões. In 1915 a
group of artists and poets, including Fernando Pessoa, Mário de Sá-Carneiro and
Almada Negreiros, created the literary magazine Orpheu,[10] which introduced
modernist literature to Portugal. Only two issues were published (Jan-Feb-Mar and
Apr-May-Jun, 1915), the third failed to appear due to funding difficulties. Lost for
many years, this issue was finally recovered and published in 1984.[11] Among other
writers and poets, Orpheu published Pessoa, orthonym, and the modernist heteronym,
Álvaro de Campos.

Pessoa also founded the literary review Athena (1924–25), which published the
heteronym Ricardo Reis. Along with his activity as free-lance commercial translator,
Fernando Pessoa undertook intense activity as a writer and literary critic, contributing
to journals and magazines such as A Águia (1912-13), A Renascença (1914), Orpheu
(1915), Exílio (1916), Centauro (1916), Portugal Futurista (1917), Ressurreição
(1920), Contemporânea (1922–26), Athena (1924–25), Presença (1927–34) and
Sudoeste (1935). He also published as a political analyst and literary critic in journals
and newspapers such as Teatro (1913), O Jornal (1915), Centauro (1916), Acção
(1919–20), Diário de Lisboa (1924–35), Revista de Comércio e Contabilidade (1926)
and Fama (1932–33).

[edit] Pessoa the flâneur

Walking on these streets, until the night falls, my life feels to me like the
life they have. By day they‘re full of meaningless activity; by night,
they‘re full of meaningless lack of it. By day I am nothing, and by night
I am I. There is no difference between me and these streets, save they
being streets and I a soul, which perhaps is irrelevant when we consider
the essence of things.
Fernando Pessoa, from "A Factless Autobiography"
in The Book of Disquiet, tr. by Richard Zenith.

Pessoa, a flâneur in the streets of Lisbon.

If Franz Kafka is the writer of Prague, Fernando Pessoa is certainly the writer of
Lisbon. After his return to Portugal, when he was seventeen, Pessoa barely left his
beloved city, which inspired the poems "Lisbon Revisited" (1923 and 1926), by his
heteronym Álvaro de Campos. From 1905 to 1921, when his family returned from
Pretoria after the death of his stepfather, he lived in fifteen different places around the
city,[12] moving from a rented room to another according to his financial troubles and
the troubles of the young Portuguese Republic.

Coffee house "A Brasileira", established in 1905, the year Pessoa returned to Lisbon.

Pessoa had the flâneur's regard, namely through the eyes of Bernardo Soares, another
of his heteronyms.[13] This character was supposedly an accountant, working at an
office in Douradores Street, where Vasques was the boss. Bernardo Soares also
supposedly lived in the same downtown street, a world that Pessoa knew quite well
due to his long career as free lance correspondence translator. In fact, from 1907 until
his death, in 1935, Pessoa worked in twenty one firms located in Lisbon's downtown,
sometimes in two or three of them simultaneously.[14] In The Book of Disquiet,
Bernardo Soares describes some of those typical places and its "atmosphere".

Pessoa was a frequent customer at Martinho da Arcada, a centennial coffeehouse in

Comercio Square, surrounded by ministries, almost an "office" for his private
business and literary concerns, where he used to meet friends in the 1920s. He also
frequented other coffee shops, pubs and restaurants, a number of which no longer
exist. The statue of Fernando Pessoa (below) can be seen outside A Brasileira, one of
the preferred places of the young writers and artists of the group of orpheu during the
1910s. This coffeehouse, in the aristocratic district of Chiado, is quite close to
Pessoa's birthplace: 4, Largo de São Carlos (in front of the Opera House),[15] one of
the most elegant neighborhoods of Lisbon.[16]

In 1925, Pessoa wrote in English a guidebook to Lisbon but it remained unpublished

until 1992.[17][18]

[edit] Literature and occultism

Pessoa's mediumship:
Automatic writing sample.
The night my body makes of me were torn
Away from being, and my unbodied shape
Would, like a ship doubling the final cape,
Come to that sight of port and shiver of coming
That God allows to those whose bliss of roaming
Is no more than the wish to find His peace
And mingle with it as a scent with the breeze.
Fernando Pessoa, "To One Singing",
in The Mad Fiddler.

Pessoa translated into English some Portuguese books[19] and from English The
Scarlet Letter by Nathaniel Hawthorne[20] and the poems "The Raven", "Annabel Lee"
and "Ulalume"[21] by Edgar Allan Poe who, along with Walt Whitman, strongly
influenced him. He also translated into Portuguese a number of books by leading
theosophists such as C. W. Leadbeater and Annie Besant.[22]

In 1912-1914, while living with his aunt "Anica" and cousins,[23] Pessoa took part in
"semi-spiritualist sessions" that were carried out at home. But he was considered a
"delaying element" by the other members of the session. Pessoa's interest in
spiritualism was truly awakened in the second half of 1915, when he translated a
series of esoteric books. This was further deepened in the end of March 1916, when
he suddenly started having experiences where he became a medium. The experiences
were revealed through automatic writing. In June, 24, Pessoa wrote an impressive
letter to his aunt, then living in Switzerland with her daughter and son in law, in
which he describes this "mystery case" that surprised him.

Besides automatic writing, Pessoa also had "astral" or "etherial visions" and was able
to see "magnetic auras" similar to radiographic images. He felt "more curiosity than
scare", but was respectful towards this phenomenon and asked secrecy, because "there
is no advantage, but a lot of disadvantages" in speaking about this. Mediumship
exerted a strong influence in Pessoa writings, who felt "sometimes suddenly being
owned by something else" or having a "very curious sensation" in the right arm that
"was lifted into the air without my will". Looking in the mirror, Pessoa saw several
times the heteronyms, his "face fading out" and being replaced by the one of "a
bearded man", or another one, four men in total.[24]

Astral chart of the heteronym

Ricardo Reis by Fernando Pessoa.

Pessoa also developed a strong interest in astrology, becoming a competent

astrologist. He elaborated more than 1,500 astrological charts, of well-known people
like William Shakespeare, Lord Byron, Oscar Wilde, Chopin, Maximilien
Robespierre, Napoleon I, Wilhelm II, Leopold II of Belgium, Victor Emmanuel III,
Benito Mussolini, Alfonso XIII, or the Kings Sebastian and Carlos of Portugal and
Salazar. In 1915, Pessoa created the heteronym Raphael Baldaya, who was an
astrologist, and planned to write in his name "System of Astrology" and "Introduction
to the Study of Occultism". Pessoa established the pricing of his astrological services
from 500 to 5,000 réis and made horoscopes of costumers, friends and also himself
and, astonishingly, of the heteronyms.

Born on June, 13, Pessoa was native of Gemini and had scorpio as rising sign. The
characters of the main heteronyms were inspired by the four astral elements: air, fire,
water and earth. It means that Pessoa and his heteronyms altogether comprised the full
principles of ancient knowledge. All those heteronyms were designed according to
their horoscopes, all include Mercury, the planet of literature. Astrology was part of
his everyday life and Pessoa kept that interest until his death, which he was able to
predict with a certain degree of accuracy.[25]

As a mysticist, Pessoa was an enthusiast of esotericism, occultism, hermetism and

alchemy. Along with spiritualism and astrology, he also paid attention to
rosicrucianism, neopaganism and freemasonry, which strongly influenced his work.
His interest in occultism led Pessoa to correspond with Aleister Crowley. Later he
helped Crowley plan an elaborate fake suicide when he visited Portugal in 1930.[26]
Pessoa translated Crowley's poem "Hymn To Pan"[27] into Portuguese, and the
catalogue of Pessoa's library shows that he possessed Crowley's books Magick in
Theory and Practice and Confessions. Pessoa also wrote on Crowley's doctrine of
Thelema in several fragments, including Moral.[28]

[edit] Writing a lifetime

Pessoa in 1928, drinking a glass of red wine in Lisbon's downtown.
He looked about thirty, thin, rather above average height, exaggeratedly bent over
when seated but less so when he stood up, dressed with a certain negligence, which
was not entirely negligence. On his pale, uninteresting face an air of suffering did not
stir interest, although it was difficult to define what kind of suffering that air — it
seemed to suggest several kinds: privation, anguish, and a suffering born from the
indifference of having suffered a great deal.
Fernando Pessoa, from the Introduction to
The Book of Disquiet, tr. by Alfred Mac Adam.

In his early years, Pessoa was influenced by major English classic poets as
Shakespeare, Milton or Spenser and romantics like Wordsworth, Coleridge, Byron,
Shelley and Keats. Later, when he returned to Lisbon for good, he was influenced by
French symbolists Charles Baudelaire, Maurice Rollinat, Stéphane Mallarmé; mainly
by Portuguese poets as Antero de Quental, Gomes Leal, Cesário Verde, António
Nobre, Camilo Pessanha or Teixeira de Pascoaes. Later on, he was also influenced by
modernists as Yeats, Ezra Pound and T. S. Eliot, among many other writers.[1]

During World War I, Pessoa wrote to a number of British publishers in order to print
his collection of English verse The Mad Fiddler (unpublished during his lifetime), but
it was refused. However, in 1920, the prestigious literary journal Athenaeum included
one of those poems.[29] Since the British publication failed, in 1918 Pessoa published
in Lisbon two slim volumes of English verse: Antinous[30] and 35 Sonnets,[31] received
by the British literary press without enthusiasm.[32] Along with some friends, he
founded another publishing house, Olisipo, which published in 1921 a further two
English poetry volumes: English Poems I–II and English Poems III by Fernando
Pessoa.

Politically, Pessoa considered himself a "mystical nationalist" and, despite his

monarchist sympathies, he didn't favour the restoration of the monarchy. He described
himself as conservative within the British tradition. He was an outspoken elitist and
aligned himself against communism, socialism, fascism and Catholicism.[33] He
supported the military coups of 1917 and 1926, and wrote a pamphlet in 1928
supportive of the Military Dictatorship but after the establishment of the New State, in
1933, Pessoa become disenchanted with the regime and wrote critically of Salazar and
fascism in general. In the beginning of 1935, Pessoa was banned by the Salazar
regimen, after he wrote in defense of Freemasonry.[34][35]

Pessoa's tomb in Lisbon, at the cloister of the Hieronymites Monastery since 1988.
EPITAPH
Here lies who thought himself the best
Of poets in the world's extent;
In life he had not joy nor rest.
Alexander Search, 1907.

Pessoa died of cirrhosis in 1935, at the age of forty-seven, with only one book
published in Portuguese: "Mensagem" (Message). However, he left a lifetime of
unpublished and unfinished work (over 25,000 pages manuscript and typed that have
been housed in the Portuguese National Library since 1988). The heavy burden of
editing this huge work is still in progress. In 1988 (the centenary of his birth), Pessoa's
remains were moved to the Hieronymites Monastery, in Lisbon, where Vasco da
Gama, Luís de Camões, and Alexandre Herculano are also buried. Pessoa's portrait
was on the 100-escudo banknote.

[edit] Heteronyms
Pessoa's statue outside Lisbon's famous coffeehouse «A Brasileira».

Pessoa's earliest heteronym, at the age of six, was Chevalier de Pas. Other childhood
heteronyms included Dr. Pancrácio and David Merrick, followed by Charles
Robert Anon, an English young man that became Pessoa's alter ego. In 1906/7, when
Pessoa was a student at Lisbon's University, Alexander Search took the place of
Anon. The main reason for this was that, although Search is English, he was born in
Lisbon as his author. But Search represents a transition heteronym that Pessoa used
while searching to adapt to the Portuguese cultural reality. After the republican
revolution, in 1910, and consequent patriotic atmosphera, Pessoa created another alter
ego, Álvaro de Campos, supposedly a Portuguese naval engineer graduated in
Glasgow. Translator Richard Zenith notes that Pessoa eventually established at least
seventy-two heteronyms.[36] According to Pessoa himself, there were three main
heteronyms: Alberto Caeiro, Álvaro de Campos and Ricardo Reis. The heteronyms
possess distinct biographies, temperaments, philosophies, appearances and writing
styles.[37]

Fernando Pessoa on the heteronyms

« How do I write in the name of these three? Caeiro, through sheer and unexpected
inspiration, without knowing or even suspecting that I‘m going to write in his name.
Ricardo Reis, after an abstract meditation, which suddenly takes concrete shape in an
ode. Campos, when I feel a sudden impulse to write and don‘t know what. (My semi-
heteronym Bernardo Soares, who in many ways resembles Álvaro de Campos, always
appears when I'm sleepy or drowsy, so that my qualities of inhibition and rational
thought are suspended; his prose is an endless reverie. He‘s a semi-heteronym
because his personality, although not my own, doesn‘t differ from my own but is a
mere mutilation of it. He‘s me without my rationalism and emotions. His prose is the
same as mine, except for certain formal restraint that reason imposes on my own
writing, and his Portuguese is exactly the same – whereas Caeiro writes bad
Portuguese, Campos writes it reasonably well but with mistakes such as "me myself"
instead of "I myself", etc.., and Reis writes better than I, but with a purism I find
excessive...). »

— Fernando Pessoa, "Letter to Adolfo Casais Monteiro", 13.01.1935, translated by

Richard Zenith.[38]

[edit] List of known heteronyms

No. Name Type Notes

Fernando
Antonio
1 Himself Commercial correspondent in Lisbon
Nogueira
Pessoa
Fernando
2 Orthonym Poet and prose writer
Pessoa
Fernando
3 Autonym Poet and prose writer
Pessoa
 Fernando
4 Heteronym Poet; a pupil of Alberto Caeiro
Pessoa
Poet; author of O guardador de Rebanhos, O
Pastor Amoroso and Poemas inconjuntos;
5 Alberto Caeiro Heteronym master of heteronyms Fernando Pessoa,
Álvaro de Campos, Ricardo Reis and António
Mora
Poet and prose writer, author of Odes and
6 Ricardo Reis Heteronym
texts on the work of Alberto Caeiro
Heteronym / Essayist; brother of Ricardo Reis, upon whom
7 Federico Reis
Para-heteronym he writes
Álvaro de Poet and prose writer; a pupil of Alberto
8 Heteronym
Campos Caeiro
Philosopher and sociologist; theorist of
9 António Mora Heteronym
Neopaganism; a pupil of Alberto Caeiro
Heteronym / French translator of Cadernos de reconstrução
10 Claude Pasteur
Semi-heteronym pagã conducted by António Mora
Bernardo Heteronym / Poet and prose writer; author of The Book of
11
Soares Semi-heteronym Disquiet
Heteronym / Translator, poet; director of Ibis Press; author
12 Vicente Guedes
Semi-heteronym of a paper
Gervasio Heteronym / Author of the text "A Coroação de Jorge
13
Guedes Para-heteronym Quinto"
Alexander
14 Heteronym Poet and short story writer
Search
Charles James Heteronym / Translator and essayist; brother of Alexander
15
Search Para-heteronym Search
Jean-Méluret of Heteronym /
16 French poet and essayist
Seoul Proto-heteronym
Astrologer; author of Tratado da Negação and
17 Rafael Baldaya Heteronym
Princípios de Metaphysica Esotérica
Prose writer; author of Educação do Stoica
18 Barão de Teive Heteronym
and Daphnis e Chloe
Charles Robert Heteronym /
19 Poet, philosopher and story writer
Anon Semi-heteronym
Pseudonym /
20 A. A. Crosse Author and puzzle-solver
Proto-heteronym
Heteronym / English epic character/occultist, popularized
21 Thomas Crosse
Proto-heteronym in Portuguese culture
Heteronym /
22 I. I. Crosse
Para-heteronym
Heteronym /
23 David Merrick Poet, storyteller and playwright
Semi-heteronym
 Heteronym / Short story writer; perhaps brother David
24 Lucas Merrick
Para-heteronym Merrick
Heteronym /
25 Pêro Botelho Short story writer and author of letters
Pseudonym
Heteronym /
Abilio Character inspired by Pêro Botelho and author
26 Character /
Quaresma of short detective stories
Meta-heteronym
Character /
Inspector Character inspired by Pêro Botelho and author
27 Meta-
Guedes of short detective stories
heteronym?
Pseudonym / Character inspired by Pêro Botelho and author
28 Uncle Pork
Character of short detective stories
Frederick Alias /
29 English poet and prose writer
Wyatt Heteronym
Rev. Walter
30 Character Possibly brother of Frederick Wyatt
Wyatt
Another brother of Frederick Wyatt and
31 Alfred Wyatt Character
resident of Paris
Heteronym / Wrote and signed "A Carta da Corcunda para
32 Maria José
Proto-heteronym o Serralheiro"
Chevalier de Pseudonym /
33 Author of poems and letters
Pas Proto-heteronym
Heteronym /
34 Efbeedee Pasha Author of humoristic stories
Proto-heteronym
Faustino
Heteronym / Psychologist and author of Ensaio sobre a
35 Antunes / A.
Pseudonym Intuição
Moreira
Heteronym /
36 Carlos Otto Poet and author of Tratado de Lucta Livre
Proto-heteronym
Probably brother of Carlos Otto who was
Pseudonym /
37 Michael Otto entrusted with the translation into English of
Para-heteronym
Tratado de Lucta Livre
Sebastian Proto-heteronym
38
Knight / Alias
Horace James Heteronym /
39 English short story writer and essayist
Faber Semi-heteronym
Heteronym /
40 Navas Translated Horace James Faber in Portuguese
Para-heteronym
Heteronym /
41 Pantaleão Poet and prose writer
Proto-heteronym
Torquato
Fonseca Heteronym / Deceased author of a text Pantaleão decided to
42
Mendes da Meta-heteronym publish
Cunha Rey
 Proto-heteronym
Joaquim Moura Satirical poet; Republican activist; member of
43 / Semi-
Costa O Phosphoro
heteronym
Proto-heteronym Compiler and author of the preface of a
44 Sher Henay
/ Pseudonym sensationalist anthology in English
Anthony Semi-heteronym Philosopher; author of "Historia Cómica do
45
Gomes / Character Affonso Çapateiro"
Professor Proto-heteronym Author of an essay with humorous advice for
46
Trochee / Pseudonym young poets
Willyam Links Signed a letter written in English on April 13,
47 Character
Esk 1905
António de Pseudonym /
48 Literary critic
Seabra Proto-heteronym
Pseudonym /
49 João Craveiro Journalist; follower of Sidonio Pereira
Proto-heteronym
Collaborator in Natal Mercury (Durban, South
50 Tagus Pseudonym
Africa)
51 Pipa Gomes Draft heteronym Collaborator in O Phosphoro
Character from Pessoa's childhood
Character /
52 Ibis accompanying him until the end of his life;
Pseudonym
also signed poems
Dr. Gaudencio Proto-heteronym English-Portuguese journalist and humorist;
53
Turnips / Pseudonym director of O Palrador
Proto-heteronym Poet and author of humorous anecdotes;
54 Pip
/ Pseudonym predecessor of Dr. Pancrácio
Proto-heteronym
55 Dr. Pancrácio Storyteller, poet and creator of charades
/ Pseudonym
Luís António Proto-heteronym Collaborator in O Palrador; columnist and
56
Congo / Pseudonym presenter of Eduardo Lança
Proto-heteronym
57 Eduardo Lança Luso-Brazilian poet
/ Pseudonym
A. Francisco de Proto-heteronym Collaborator in O Palrador; author of "Textos
58
Paula Angard / Pseudonym scientificos"
Pedro da Silva Proto-heteronym Author and director of the section of
59
Salles / Zé Pad / Alias anecdotes at O Palrador
José Rodrigues
Proto-heteronym Collaborator in O Palrador; author of
60 do Valle /
/ Alias charades; literary manager
Scicio
Proto-heteronym Collaborator in O Palrador; reporter and
61 Dr. Caloiro
/ Pseudonym author of A pesca das pérolas
Adolph Proto-heteronym Collaborator in O Palrador; novelist and
62
Moscow / Pseudonym author of Os Rapazes de Barrowby
63 Marvell Kisch Proto-heteronym Author of a novel announced in O Palrador,
 / Pseudonym called A Riqueza de um Doido
Proto-heteronym Author of a novel announced in O Palrador,
64 Gabriel Keene
/ Pseudonym called Em Dias de Perigo
Proto-heteronym Author of a novel announced in O Palrador,
65 Sableton-Kay
/ Pseudonym called A Lucta Aérea
Morris & Collaborator in O Palrador; author of
66 Pseudonym
Theodor charades
Collaborator in O Palrador; author of
67 Diabo Azul Pseudonym
charades
Collaborator in O Palrador; author of
68 Parry Pseudonym
charades
Gallião Collaborator in O Palrador; author of
69 Pseudonym
Pequeno charades
Collaborator in O Palrador; author of
70 Urban Accursio Alias
charades
Collaborator in O Palrador; author of
71 Cecília Pseudonym
charades
Proto-heteronym Collaborator in O Palrador; author of
72 José Rasteiro
/ Pseudonym proverbs and riddles
Collaborator in O Palrador; author of
73 Nympha Negra Pseudonym
charades
Pseudonym / Author of the poem "Loucura"; collaborator in
74 Diniz da Silva
Proto-heteronym Europe
Translator of El estudiante de Salamanca by
75 Herr Prosit Pseudonym
José Espronceda
76 Henry More Proto-heteronym Author and prose writer
77 Wardour Character? Poet
78 J. M. Hyslop Character? Poet
79 Vadooisf ? Character? Poet
80 Nuno Reis Pseudonym Son of Ricardo Reis
81 João Caeiro Character? Son of Alberto Caeiro and Ana Taveira

[edit] Alberto Caeiro

Não tenho ambições nem desejos

Ser poeta não é uma ambição minha
É a minha maneira de estar sozinho.
______________________________________
I have no ambitions nor desires.
To be a poet is not my ambition,
It's simply my way of being alone.
Alberto Caeiro, "The Keeper of Herds"
(O Guardador de Rebanhos), tr. Richard Zenith.
Alberto Caeiro was Pessoa's first great heteronym; summarized by Pessoa, writing:
He sees things with the eyes only, not with the mind. He does not let any thoughts
arise when he looks at a flower... the only thing a stone tells him is that it has nothing
at all to tell him... this way of looking at a stone may be described as the totally
unpoetic way of looking at it. The stupendous fact about Caeiro is that out of this
sentiment, or rather, absence of sentiment, he makes poetry.[citation needed]

What this means, and what makes Caeiro such an original poet is the way he
apprehends existence. He does not question anything whatsoever; he calmly accepts
the world as it is. The recurrent themes to be found in nearly all of Caeiro's poems are
wide-eyed child-like wonder at the infinite variety of nature, as noted by a critic. He is
free of metaphysical entanglements. Central to his world-view is the idea that in the
world around us, all is surface: things are precisely what they seem, there is no hidden
meaning anywhere.

He manages thus to free himself from the anxieties that batter his peers; for Caeiro,
things simply exist and we have no right to credit them with more than that. Our
unhappiness, he tells us, springs from our unwillingness to limit our horizons. As
such, Caeiro attains happiness by not questioning, and by thus avoiding doubts and
uncertainties. He apprehends reality solely through his eyes, through his senses. What
he teaches us is that if we want to be happy we ought to do the same. Octavio Paz
called him the innocent poet. Paz made a shrewd remark on the heteronyms: In each
are particles of negation or unreality. Reis believes in form, Campos in sensation,
Pessoa in symbols. Caeiro doesn't believe in anything. He exists.[39]

Poetry before Caeiro was essentially interpretative; what poets did was to offer an
interpretation of their perceived surroundings; Caeiro does not do this. Instead, he
attempts to communicate his senses, and his feelings, without any interpretation
whatsoever.

Caeiro attempts to approach Nature from a qualitatively different mode of

apprehension; that of simply perceiving (an approach akin to phenomenological
approaches to philosophy). Poets before him would make use of intricate metaphors
to describe what was before them; not so Caeiro: his self-appointed task is to bring
these objects to the reader's attention, as directly and simply as possible. Caeiro
sought a direct experience of the objects before him.

As such it is not surprising to find that Caeiro has been called an anti-intellectual,
anti-Romantic, anti-subjectivist, anti-metaphysical...an anti-poet, by critics; Caeiro
simply—is. He is in this sense very unlike his creator Fernando Pessoa: Pessoa was
besieged by metaphysical uncertainties; these were, to a large extent, the cause of his
unhappiness; not so Caeiro: his attitude is anti-metaphysical; he avoided uncertainties
by adamantly clinging to a certainty: his belief that there is no meaning behind things.
Things, for him, simply—are.

Caeiro represents a primal vision of reality, of things. He is the pagan incarnate.

Indeed Caeiro was not simply a pagan but paganism itself.[40]

The critic Jane M. Sheets sees the insurgence of Caeiro—who was Pessoa's first
major heteronym—as essential in founding the later poetic personas: By means of this
artless yet affirmative anti-poet, Caeiro, a short-lived but vital member of his coterie,
Pessoa acquired the base of an experienced and universal poetic vision. After Caeiro's
tenets had been established, the avowedly poetic voices of Campos, Reis and Pessoa
himself spoke with greater assurance.[41]

[edit] Ricardo Reis

This section does not cite any references or sources. (September 2009)

Desde que sinta a brisa fresca no meu cabelo

E ver o sol brilhar forte nas folhas
Não irei pedir por mais.
Que melhor coisa podia o destino dar-me?
Que a passagem sensual da vida em momentos
De ignorância como este?
___________________________________________________
As long as I feel the fresh breeze in my hair
And see the sun shining strong on the leaves,
I will not ask for more.
What better thing could destiny grant me?
Other than the sensual passing of life in moments
Of ignorance such as this one?
Ricardo Reis

Reis sums up his philosophy of life in his own words, admonishing: 'See life from a
distance. Never question it. There's nothing it can tell you.' Like Caeiro, whom he
admires, Reis defers from questioning life. He is a modern pagan who urges one to
seize the day and accept fate with tranquility. 'Wise is the one who does not seek', he
says; and continues: 'the seeker will find in all things the abyss, and doubt in
himself.'[citation needed] In this sense Reis shares essential affinities with Caeiro.

Believing in the Greek gods, yet living in a Christian Europe, Reis feels that his
spiritual life is limited, and true happiness cannot be attained. This, added to his belief
in Fate as a driving force for all that exists, as such disregarding freedom, leads to his
epicureanist philosophy, which entails the avoidance of pain, defending that man
should seek tranquility and calm above all else, avoiding emotional extremes.

Where Caeiro wrote freely and spontaneously, with joviality, of his basic,
meaningless connection to the world, Reis writes in an austere, cerebral manner, with
premeditated rhythm and structure and a particular attention to the correct use of the
language, when approaching his subjects of, as characterized by Richard Zenith, 'the
brevity of life, the vanity of wealth and struggle, the joy of simple pleasures, patience
in time of trouble, and avoidance of extremes'.

In his detached, intellectual approach, he is closer to Fernando Pessoa's constant

rationalization, as such representing the ortonym's wish for measure and sobriety and
a world free of troubles and respite, in stark contrast to Caeiro's spirit and style. As
such, where Caeiro's predominant attitude is that of joviality, his sadness being
accepted as natural ('My sadness,' Caeiro says, 'is a comfort for it is natural and
right.'), Reis is marked by melancholy, saddened by the impermanence of all things.

Ricardo Reis is the main character of José Saramago's 1986 novel The Year of the
Death of Ricardo Reis.

[edit] Álvaro de Campos

Main article: Álvaro de Campos

Não sou nada.
Nunca serei nada.
Não posso querer ser nada.
À parte isso, tenho em mim todos os sonhos do mundo.
_____________________________________________________
I am nothing.
I will never be anything.
I cannot wish to be anything.
Bar that, I have in me all the dreams of the world.
Álvaro de Campos, "The Tobacco Shop"
(Tabacaria), tr. Miguel Peres dos Santos.

Álvaro de Campos manifests, in a way, as an hyperbolic version of Pessoa himself. Of

the three heteronyms he is the one who feels most strongly, his motto being 'to feel
everything in every way.' 'The best way to travel,' he wrote, 'is to feel.' As such, his
poetry is the most emotionally intense and varied, constantly juggling two
fundamental impulses: on the one hand a feverish desire to be and feel everything and
everyone, declaring that 'in every corner of my soul stands an altar to a different god'
(alluding to Walt Whitman's desire to 'contain multitudes'), on the other, a wish for a
state of isolation and a sense of nothingness.

As a result, his mood and principles varied between violent, dynamic exultation, as he
fervently wishes to experience the entirety of the universe in himself, in all manners
possible (a particularly distinctive trait in this state being his futuristic leanings,
including the expression of great enthusiasm as to the meaning of city life and its
components) and a state of nostalgic melancholy, where life is viewed as, essentially,
empty.

One of the poet's constant preoccupations, as part of his dichotomous character, is that
of identity: he does not know who he is, or rather, fails at achieving an ideal identity.
Wanting to be everything, and inevitably failing, he despairs. Unlike Caeiro, who asks
nothing of life, he asks too much. In his poetic meditation 'Tobacco Shop' he asks:

How should I know what I'll be, I who don't know what I am?
Be what I think? But I think of being so many things!

[edit] Fernando Pessoa-himself

 This section does not cite any references or sources. (September 2009)

O poeta é um fingidor
Finge tão completamente
Que chega a fingir que é dor
A dor que deveras sente
_____________________________
The poet is a faker
Who's so good at his act
He even fakes the pain
Of pain he feels in fact.
Fernando Pessoa-himself, "Autopsychography"
(Autopsicografia), tr. Richard Zenith.

'Fernando Pessoa-himself' is not the 'real' Fernando Pessoa. Like Caeiro, Reis and
Campos—Pessoa 'himself' embodies only aspects of the poet Fernando Pessoa's
personality is not stamped in any given voice; his personality is diffused through the
heteronyms. For this reason 'Fernando Pessoa-himself' stands apart from the poet
proper.

'Pessoa' shares many essential affinities with his peers, Caeiro and Campos in
particular. Lines crop up in his poems that may as well be ascribed to Campos or
Caeiro. It is useful to keep this in mind as we read this exposition.

The critic Leland Guyer sums up 'Pessoa': "the poetry of the orthonymic Fernando
Pessoa normally possesses a measured, regular form and appreciation of the
musicality of verse. It takes on intellectual issues, and it is marked by concern with
dreams, the imagination and mystery."[citation needed]

Richard Zenith calls 'Pessoa' '[Pessoa's] most intellectual and analytic poetic
persona.'[citation needed] Like Álvaro de Campos, Pessoa-himself was afflicted with an
acute identity crisis. Pessoa-himself has been described as indecisive and doubt
plagued, as restless. Like Campos he can be melancholic, weary, resigned. The
strength of Pessoa-himself's poetry rests in his ability to suggest a sense of loss; of
sorrow for what can never be.

A constant theme in Pessoa's poetry is Tédio, or Tedium. The dictionary defines this
word simply as 'a condition of being tedious; tediousness or boredom.' This definition
does not sufficiently encompass the peculiar brand of tedium experienced by Pessoa-
himself. His is more than simple boredom: it is from a world of weariness and disgust
with life; a sense of the finality of failure; of the impossibility of having anything to
want.

[edit] Summaries of selected works

[edit] Message
Mensagem, 1st. edition, 1934.

Mensagem in Portuguese (from the Latin "MENS AGitat molEM", which means,
"The Mind moves/commands the Matter), is a very unusual twentieth century book: it
is a symbolist epic made up of 44 short poems organized in three parts or Cycles:[42]

The first, called "Brasão" (Coat-of-Arms), relates Portuguese historical protagonists

to each of the fields and charges in the Portuguese coat-of-arms. The first two poems
("The castles" and "The escutcheons") draw inspiration from the material and spiritual
natures of Portugal. Each of the remaining poems associates to each charge a
historical personality. Ultimately they all lead to the Golden Age of Discovery.

The second Part, called "Mar Português" (Portuguese Sea), references the country's
Age of Portuguese Exploration and to its seaborne Empire that ended with the death
of King Sebastian at Ksar-el-Kebir (in 1578). Pessoa brings the reader to the present
as if he had woken up from a dream of the past, to fall in a dream of the future: he
sees King Sebastian returning and still bent on accomplishing a Universal Empire,
like King Arthur heading for Avalon to come back in England's hour of need.

The third Cycle, called "O Encoberto" ("The Hidden One"), is the most disturbing. It
refers to Pessoa's vision of a future world of peace and the Fifth Empire. After the
Age of Force, (Vis), and Taedium (Otium) will come Science (understanding) through
a reawakening of "The Hidden One", or "King Sebastian". The Hidden One represents
the fulfillment of the destiny of mankind, designed by God since before Time, and the
accomplishment of Portugal.

One of the most famous quotes from Mensagem is the first line from O Infante
(belonging to the second Part), which is Deus quer, o homem sonha, a obra nasce
(which translates roughly to "God wishes it, man dreams it, the work is born"). That
means 'Only by God's will man does', a full comprehension of man's subjection to
God's wealth. Another well-known quote from Mensagem is the first line from
Ulysses, "O mito é o nada que é tudo" (a possible translation is "The myth is the
nothing that is all"). This poem refers Ulysses, king of Ithaca, as Lisbon's founder
(recalling an ancient Greek myth).[43]

[edit] Literary essays

A Águia, journal of the Portuguese Renaissance, nr. 4, April 1912.

In 1912, Fernando Pessoa wrote a set of essays (later collected as The New
Portuguese Poetry) for the cultural journal A Águia (The Eagle), founded in Oporto,
in December 1910, and run by the republican association Renascença Portuguesa.[44]
In the first years of the Portuguese Republic, this cultural association was started by
republican intellectuals led by the writer and poet Teixeira de Pascoaes, philosopher
Leonardo Coimbra and historian Jaime Cortesão, aiming for the renewal of
Portuguese culture through the aesthetic movement called Saudosismo.[45] Pessoa
contributed to the journal A Águia with a series of papers: 'The new Portuguese Poetry
Sociologically Considered' (nr. 4), 'Relapsing...' (nr. 5) and 'The Psychological Aspect
of the new Portuguese Poetry' (nrs. 9,11 and 12). These writings were strongly
encomiastic to saudosist literature, namely the poetry of Teixeira de Pascoaes and
Mário Beirão. The articles disclose Pessoa as a connoisseur of modern European
literature and an expert of recent literary trends. On the other hand, he does not care
much for a methodology of analysis or problems in the history of ideas. He states his
confidence that Portugal would soon produce a great poet - a super-Camões – pledged
to make an important contribution for European culture, and indeed, for humanity.[46]

[edit] Philosophical essays

The philosophical notes of young Fernando Pessoa, mostly written between 1905 and
1912, illustrate his debt to the history of Philosophy more through commentators than
through a first-hand protracted reading of the Classics, ancient or modern.[citation needed]
The issues he engages with pertain to every philosophical discipline and concern a
large profusion of concepts, creating a vast semantic spectrum in texts whose length
oscillates between half a dozen lines and half a dozen pages and whose density of
analysis is extremely variable; simple paraphrasis, expression of assumptions and
original speculation.

Pessoa sorted the philosophical systems thus:

A passage from his famous poem "Mar Português" from "Message", in the city of
Lagos, Portugal.

1. Relative Spiritualism and relative Materialism privilege "Spirit" or "Matter" as

the main pole that organizes data around Experience.
2. Absolute Spiritualist and Absolute Materialist "deny all objective reality to
one of the elements of Experience".
3. The materialistic Pantheism of Spinoza and the spiritualizing Pantheism of
Malebranche, "admit that experience is a double manifestation of any thing
that in its essence has no matter neither spirit".
4. Considering both elements as an illusory manifestation", of a transcendent and
true and alone realities, there is Transcendentalism, inclined into matter with
Schopenhauer, or into spirit, a position where Bergson could be emplaced.
5. A terminal system "the limited and summit of metaphysics" would not
radicalize - as poles of experience one of the singled categories - matter,
relative, absolute, real, illusory, spirit. Instead, matching all categories, it takes
contradiction as "the essence of the universe" and defends that "an affirmation
is so more true insofar the more contradiction involves". The transcendent
must be conceived beyond categories. There is one only and eternal example
of it. It is that cathedral of thought -the philosophy of Hegel.

Such pantheist transcendentalism is used by Pessoa to define the project that

"encompasses and exceeds all systems"; to characterize the new poetry of
Saudosismo where the "typical contradiction of this system" occurs; to inquire of the
particular social and political results of its adoption as the leading cultural paradigm;
and, at last, he hints that metaphysics and religiosity strive "to find in everything a
beyond".

[edit] Works
Collected Poems of Álvaro de Campos, 2, Chris Daniels, transl, Exeter, UK:
Shearsman Books, 2009 [1928–35], ISBN 978-1-905700-25-7,
http://www.shearsman.com/pages/books/catalog/2009/pessoa_campos.html
Lisbon: What the Tourist Should See, Exeter, UK: Shearsman Books, 2008,
ISBN [[Special:BookSources/978190570752|978190570752]],
http://www.shearsman.com/pages/books/catalog/2008/pessoa_lisbon.html
The Collected Poems of Alberto Caeiro, Chris Daniels, transl, Exeter, UK:
Shearsman Books, 2007, ISBN 978-1-905700-24-0,
http://www.shearsman.com/pages/books/catalog/2007/pessoa_caeiro.html
Selected English Poems, Exeter, UK: Shearsman Books, 2007, ISBN 978-1-
905700-26-4,
http://www.shearsman.com/pages/books/catalog/2007/pessoa_engl.html
Message, Jonathan Griffin, transl, Exeter, UK: Shearsman Books, 2007, ISBN
978-1-905700-27-1,
http://www.shearsman.com/pages/books/catalog/2007/pessoa_msg.html
Selected English Poems , ed. Tony Frazer, Exeter (UK): Shearsman Books,
2007. ISBN 1-905700-26-1
A Centenary Pessoa, tr. Keith Bosley & L. C. Taylor, foreword by Octavio
Paz, Carcanet Press, 2006. ISBN 1-85754-724-1
A Little Larger Than the Entire Universe: Selected Poems, tr. Richard Zenith,
Penguin Classics, 2006. ISBN 0-14-303955-5
The Education of the Stoic, tr. Richard Zenith, afterword by Antonio
Tabucchi, Exact Change, 2004. ISBN 1-878972-40-5
The Book of Disquiet, tr. Richard Zenith, Penguin classics, 2003. ISBN 978-0-
14-118304-6
The Selected Prose of Fernando Pessoa, tr. Richard Zenith, Grove Press,
2002. ISBN 0-8021-3914-0
Sheep's Vigil by a Fervent Person: A Transelation of Alberto
Caeiro/Fernando Pessoa, tr. Eirin Moure, House of Anansi, 2001. ISBN 0-
88784-660-2
The Selected Prose of Fernando Pessoa, Richard Zenith, transl, New York,
USA: Grove Press, 2001, ISBN 978-0-8021-3914-6,
http://books.google.pt/books?id=yrp9Fu168uYC&printsec=frontcover&source
=gbs_ge_summary_r&cad=0#v=onepage&q&f=false
Selected Poems: with New Supplement tr. Jonathan Griffin, Penguin Classics;
2nd edition, 2000. ISBN 0-14-118433-7
Fernando Pessoa & Co: Selected Poems, tr. Richard Zenith, Grove Press,
1999. ISBN 0-8021-3627-3
Poems of Fernando Pessoa, Edwin Honig & Susan Brown, transl, San
Francisco, USA: City Lights Books, 1998, ISBN 978-0-87286-342-2,
http://books.google.pt/books?id=klT3KN2V2JgC&printsec=frontcover&sourc
e=gbs_ge_summary_r&cad=0#v=onepage&q&f=false
The Keeper of Sheep, bilingual edition, tr. Edwin Honig & Susan M. Brown,
Sheep Meadow, 1997. ISBN 1-878818-45-7
Message, tr. Jonathan Griffin, introduction by Helder Macedo, Menard Press,
1992. ISBN 1-905700-27-X
The Book of Disquietude, tr. Richard Zenith, Carcanet Press, 1991. ISBN 0-
14-118304-7
The Book of Disquiet, tr. Iain Watson, Quartet Books, 1991. ISBN 0-7043-
0153-9
 The Book of Disquiet, tr. Alfred Mac Adam, New York NY: Pantheon Books,
1991. ISBN 0-679-40234-9
The Book of Disquiet, tr. Margaret Jull Costa, London, New York NY:
Serpent's Tail, 1991, ISBN 1-85242-204-1
Fernando Pessoa: Self-Analysis and Thirty Other Poems, tr. George Monteiro,
Gavea-Brown Publications, 1989. ISBN 0-943722-14-4
Always Astonished, tr. Edwin Honig, San Francisco CA: City Lights Books,
1988. ISBN 978-0-87286-228-9
Always Astonished: selected prose, Edwin Honig, transl, San Francisco, USA:
City Lights Books, 1988, ISBN 978-0-87286-228-9,
http://books.google.pt/books?id=XZYYXErWaB0C&printsec=frontcover&so
urce=gbs_ge_summary_r&cad=0#v=onepage&q&f=false
Selected Poems, tr. Edwin Honig, Swallow Press, 1971. ISBN B000XU4FE4
English Poems, 2 vol. (vol. 1 part I – Antinous, part II – Inscriptions; vol. 2
part III – Epithalamium), Lisbon: Olisipo, 1921 (vol. 1, 20 pp.; vol. 2, 16 pp.,
24 cm). Portugal: PURL.
35 Sonnets, Lisbon: Monteiro & Co., 1918 (20 pp., 20 cm). Portugal: PURL.
Antinous: a poem, Lisbon: Monteiro & Co., 1918 (16 p., 20 cm). Portugal:
PURL.
The anarchist banker and other Portuguese stories Carcanet Press, 1996

[edit] See also

Orpheu
heteronym
Portuguese Poetry
Andrés Fischer Muñoz
The Book Of Disquietude
The Year of the Death of Ricardo Reis

[edit] References
1. ^ a b Zenith, Richard (2008), Fotobiografias Século XX: Fernando Pessoa, Lisboa:
Círculo de Leitores.
2. ^ The Natal Mercury
3. ^ Monteiro, Maria da Encarnação (1961), Incidências Inglesas na Poesia de
Fernando Pessoa, Coimbra: author ed.
4. ^ Jennings, H. D. (1984), Os Dois Exilios, Porto: Centro de Estudos Pessoanos
5. ^ Pessoa, Fernando. Escritos Autobiográficos, Automáticos e de Reflexão Pessoal,
ed. Richard Zenith. Lisboa: Assírio & Alvim, 2003, pp. 394–398.
6. ^ Orpheu nr.1
7. ^ Orpheu, Project Gutenberg, http://www.gutenberg.org/etext/23621.
8. ^ This name has a very long literary tradition: the elegiac poem Ibis by Ovid was
inspired in the lost poem of the same title by Callimachus.
9. ^ Zenith, Richard (2008) (in Portuguese), Fernando Pessoa, Fotobiografias do
Século XX, Lisboa: Círculo de Leitores, p. 78.
10. ^ Orpheu, Portuguese National Library, Jan–Mar 1915, http://purl.pt/12089/2/.
11. ^ Saraiva, Arnaldo, ed. (in Portuguese), Orpheu, Lisboa: Edições Ática.
12. ^ Zenith, Richard (2008), Fotobiografias do Século XX: Fernando Pessoa. Lisboa:
Círculo de Leitores, pp. 194-195.
13. ^ Guerreiro, Ricardina (2004), De Luto por Existir: a melancolia de Bernardo Soares
à luz de Walter Benjamin. Lisboa: Assírio & Alvim, p. 159.
14. ^ Sousa, João Rui de (2010), Fernando Pessoa Empregado de Escritório, 2nd ed.
Lisboa: Assírio & Alvim.
15. ^ Teatro Nacional de São Carlos, Lisbon's Opera House.
16. ^ Dias, Marina Tavares (2002), Lisboa nos Passos de Pessoa: uma cidade revisitada
através da vida e da obra do poeta [Lisbon in Pessoa's footsteps: a Lisbon tour
through the life and poetry of Fernando Pessoa], Lisboa: Quimera.
17. ^ Pessoa, Fernando (2006) [1992] (in Portuguese/English), Lisboa: o que o turista
deve ver (3rd ed.), Lisboa: Livros Horizonte,
http://www.livroshorizonte.pt/catalogo_detalhe.php?idLivro=895
18. ^ Pessoa, Fernando (2008), Lisbon: what the tourist should see, Exeter, UK:
Shearsman Books,
http://www.shearsman.com/pages/books/catalog/2008/pessoa_lisbon.html.
19. ^ Botto, António (2010), The Songs of António Botto translated by Fernando Pessoa.
Edited and with an introduction By Josiah Blackmore. Minneapolis: University of
Minnesota Press, ISBN 978-0-8166-7101-4.
20. ^ Published in a serial in the Portuguese Journal Ilustração, from January 1, 1926,
without a reference to the translator, as usual.
21. ^ Athena nrs. 1 (October, 1924) and 4 (January, 1925).
22. ^ A Voz do Silêncio (The Voice of Silence) at the Portuguese National Library.
Besant, Annie (1915), Os Ideaes da Theosophia, tr. Fernando Pessoa. Lisboa:
Clássica Editora
Leadbeater, C. W. (1915), Compêndio de Theosophia, tr. Fernando Pessoa. Lisboa:
Clássica Editora.
Leadbeater, C. W. (1916) Auxiliares Invisíveis, tr. Fernando Pessoa. Lisboa: Clássica
Editora.
Leadbeater, C. W. (1916), A Clarividência, tr. Fernando Pessoa. Lisboa: Clássica
Editora.
(1916), A Voz do Silêncio: e outros fragmentos selectos do Livro dos Preceitos
Aureos, tr. ingleza e anot. por H. P. B., versão portuguesa de Fernando Pessoa.
Lisboa: Clássica Editora.
(1916), Luz Sobre o Caminho e o Karma, transcriptos por M. C., com notas,
commentarios, traducção de Fernando Pessoa. Lisboa: Clássica Editora.
23. ^ Ana Luísa Pinheiro Nogueira, his mother's sister was also his godmother, a widow
with two children, Maria and Mário, less younger than Pessoa. She traveled to
Switzerland in November 1914, with her daughter, recently married, and son-in-law.
24. ^ Pessoa, Fernando (1999), Correspondência 1905-1922, Lisbon: Assírio & Alvim,
ISBN 978-85-7164-916-3.
25. ^ Cardoso, Paulo (2011), Fernando Pessoa, cartas astrológicas, Lisbon: Bertrand
editora, ISBN 978-972-25-2261-8.
26. ^ The magical world of Fernando Pessoa, Nthposition,
http://www.nthposition.com/themagicalworldof.php.
27. ^ Presença nr. 33 (July–October, 1931).
28. ^ PASI, Marco (2002), "The Influence of Aleister Crowley on Fernando Pessoa's
Esoteric Writings", The Magical Link 9 (5): 4–11.
29. ^ Terlinden, Anne (1990), Fernando Pessoa, the bilingual Portuguese poet: A
Critical Study of "The Mad Fidler", Bruxels: Facultés Universitaires Saint-Louis,
ISBN 978-2-8028-0075-0,
http://books.google.com/?id=pofTVSteuaIC&printsec=frontcover#v=onepage&q&f=
false.
30. ^ Antinous, at the Portuguese National Library, http://purl.pt/13961/2/f.
31. ^ 35 Sonnets at the Portuguese National Library.
32. ^ The Times Literary Supplement, September 19, 1918. Athenaeum, January, 1919.
 33. ^ {{citation | last = Serrão (int. and org.) | first = Joel | year = 1980 | title = Fernando
Pessoa, Ultimatum e Páginas de Sociologia Política | place = Lisboa | publisher =
Ática.
34. ^ Darlene Joy Sadlier An introduction to Fernando Pessoa: modernism and the
paradoxes of authorship, University Press of Florida, 1998, pp. 44–7.
35. ^ Maconaria.net
36. ^ The Book of Disquiet, tr. Richard Zenith, Penguin classics, 2003.
37. ^ Letter to Adolfo Casais Monteiro, 13 January 1935.
38. ^ Pessoa, Fernando (2003), The Book of Disquiet, tr. Richard Zenith. London:
Penguin classics, p. 474.
39. ^ PAZ, Octavio (1983), El Desconocido de Si Mismo: Fernando Pessoa in Los Signos
en Rotacion y Otros Ensayos, Madrid: Alianza Editorial.
40. ^ Pessoa, Fernando, Notas Para Recordação do Meu Mestre Caeiro in Presença nr.
30, Jan.-Feb. 1930, Coimbra.
41. ^ Sheets, Jane M., Fernando Pessoa as Anti-Poet: Alberto Caeiro, in Bulletin of
Hispanic Studies, Vol. XLVI, Nr. 1, January 1969, pp. 39–47.
42. ^ Message, Tr. by Jonathan Griffin, Exeter: Shearsman Books, 2007.
43. ^ Mensagem 1st. edition, 1934, at the Portuguese National Library.
44. ^ Martins, Fernando Cabral (coord.) (2008). Dicionário de Fernando Pessoa e do
Modernismo Português. Alfragide: Editorial Caminho.
45. ^ The Portuguese Republic was founded by the revolution of October 5, 1910, giving
freedom of association and publishing.
46. ^ Pessoa, Fernando (1993). Textos de Crítica e de Intervenção. Lisboa: Edições
Ática.

[edit] Further reading

[edit] Books

Adverse Genres in Fernando Pessoa Jackson, Kenneth David, 2010.

Embodying Pessoa: corporeality, gender, sexuality / Klobucka, Anna and
Mark Sabine, eds. 2007 (Portuguese edition 2010).
Portuguese Writers (Dictionary of Literary Biography) / Rector, Mónica. 2004
Atlantic Poets: Fernando Pessoa's turn in Anglo-American Modernism Santos,
Maria Irene Ramalho Sousa 2003
Genius: A Mosaic of One Hundred Exemplary Creative Minds / Bloom,
Harold. 2002
Spanish and Portuguese literatures and their times: The Iberian peninsula /
Moss, Joyce. 2002
Stevens, Dana Shawn, "A local habitation and a name heteronymy and
nationalism in Fernando Pessoa", PhD Dissertation, University of California,
Berkeley. 2001
Modernism's Gambit: Poetry Problems and Chess Stratagemes in Fernando
Pessoa and Jorge Luis Borges / Peña, Karen Patricia. 2000
Fernando Pessoa and nineteenth-century Anglo-American literature Monteiro,
George 2000
Pessoa's Alberto Caeiro / (Issue of Portuguese Literary and Cultural Studies,
University of Massachusetts Dartmouth). 2000
Dreams of dreams: and, The last three days of Fernando Pessoa / Tabucchi,
Antonio. 1999
 The presence of Pessoa: English, American, and Southern African literary
responses Monteiro, George 1998
An Introduction to Fernando Pessoa: Modernism and the Paradoxes of
Authorship Sadlier, Darlene 1998
Modern art in Portugal: 1910-1940 : the artist contemporaries of Fernando
Pessoa / Serra, Joao. 1998
A Centenary Pessoa / Pessoa, Fernando. 1997
Fernando Pessoa: photographic documentation and caption / Lancastre, Maria
Jose de. 1997
Fernando Pessoa: Voices of a Nomadic Soul / Kotowicz, Zbigniew. 1996
The Western Canon / Bloom, Harold. 1994
The Continuing Presence of Walt Whitman: the Life after the Life / Martin,
Robert. 1992
Fernando Pessoa: the Bilingual Portuguese Poet Terlinden-Villepin, Anne
1990
Three Persons on One: A Centenary Tribute to Fernando Pessoa / McGuirk,
Bernard. 1988
Modern Spanish and Portuguese literatures / Marshall J Schneider. 1988
Fernando Pessoa, a Galaxy of Poets / Carvalho, Maria Helena Rodrigues de.
1985
Fernando Pessoa's The Mad Fiddler: A Critical Study / Terlinden-Villepin,
Anne. 1984
The Man Who Never Was: Essays on Fernando Pessoa / Monteiro, George.
1982
Fernando Pessoa: the genesis of the heteronyms / Green, J. C. R. 1982
Spatial Imagery of Enclosure in the Poetry of Fernando Pessoa / Guyer,
Leland Robert. 1979
The Role of the Other in the Poetry of Fernando Pessoa / Jones, Marilyn
Scarantino. 1974
Selected Poems of Fernando Pessoa / Rickard, Peter. 1972
Studies in modern Portuguese literature / Faria, Almeida. 1971
Three Twentieth-Century Portuguese Poets / Parker M., John. 1960

[edit] Articles

Riccardi, Mattia, "Dionysus or Apollo? The heteronym Antonio Mora as

moment of Nietzsche's reception by Pessoa" in Portuguese Studies 23 (1), 109,
2007.
Suarez, Jose, "Fernando Pessoa's acknowledged involvement with the occult"
in Hispania 90 (2): 245-252, May 2007.
De Castro, Mariana, "Oscar Wilde, Fernando Pessoa, and the art of lying" in
Portuguese Studies 22 (2): 219-+ 2006
Beyer, Bethany, "Borges and Pessoa: Authorial voices and esoteric
reflections", M.A. Dissertation, Brigham Young University., 2006
Ribeiro, A. S., "A tradition of empire: Fernando Pessoa and Germany" in

Portuguese Studies 21: 201-209 2005 begin_of_the_skype_highlighting

ΔΩΡΕΑΝ 201-209 2005 end_of_the_skype_highlighting
Hale, Michelle, "Ironic multiplicity: Fernando's "pessoas" suspended in
Kierkegaardian irony", M. A. Dissertation, Brigham Young University., 2004
McNeill, Pods, "The aesthetic of fragmentation and the use of personae in the
poetry of Fernando Pessoa and W.B. Yeats" in Portuguese Studies 19: 110-
121 2003
Muldoon P., "In the hall of mirrors: 'Autopsychography' by Fernando Pessoa"
in New England Review 23 (4), Fal 2002, pp. 38–52
Bloom, Harold, "Fernando Pessoa", in Genius: a mosaic of one hundred
exemplary creative minds: Pub. New York: Warner Books., 2002
Steiner, George, "A man of many parts" in The Observer, Sunday, 3 June
2001.
Wallace, James, "Camões, Pessoa, Bloom and the poetry of heteronomy as
solution for the anxiety of influence", M.A. Dissertation, Brigham Young
University, 2000.
Bamforth, I., "An Introduction to Fernando Pessoa: Modernism and the
paradoxes of authorship" in Parnassus 24 (1), 1999, pp. 286–303.
Bamforth, I., "The presence of Pessoa: English, American and Southern
African literary responses" Parnassus 24 (1), 1999, pp. 286–303.
Hicks, J., "The Fascist imaginary in Pessoa and Pirandello" in Centennial
Review 42 (2): 309-332 SPR 1998
Mahr, G., "Pessoa, life narrative, and the dissociative process" in Biography
21 (1) Winter 1998, pp. 25–35.
Haberly, David T., "Fernando Pessoa: Overview" in Reference Guide to
World Literature, second ed., edited by Lesley Henderson, St. James Press,
1995.
Lopes J. M., "Cubism and intersectionism in Fernando Pessoa's 'Chuva
Obliqua" in Texte(15-16),1994, pp. 63–95.
Zenith, Richard, "Pessoa, Fernando and the Theater of his Self" in Performing
Arts Journal(44), May 1993, pp. 47–49.
Anderson, R. N., "The Static Drama of Pessoa, Fernando" in Hispanofila
(104): 89-97 January 1992
Severino, Alexandrino E., "Was Pessoa Ever in South Africa?" in Hispania,
Volume 74, Number 3, September 1991
Brown, S.M., "The Whitman Pessoa Connection" in Walt Whitman Quarterly
Review 9 (1): 1-14 SUM 1991.
Eberstadt, Fernanda, "Proud of His Obscurity", in The New York Times Book
Review, Vol 96, September 1, 1991, p. 26.
Dyer, Geoff, "Heteronyms" in The New Statesman, Vol. 4, December 6, 1991,
p. 46.
Monteiro, George, "The Song of the Reaper-Pessoa and Wordsworth" in
Portuguese Studies 5, 1989, pp. 71–80.
Cruz, Anne J., "Masked Rhetoric: Contextuality in Fernando Pessoa's Poems",
in Romance Notes, Vol. XXIX, No. 1, Fall, 1988, pp. 55–60.
Hollander, John, "Quadrophenia", in New Republic, September 7, 1987, pp.
33–6.
Rosenthal, David H., "Unpredictable Passions", in The New York Times Book
Review, December 13, 1987, p. 32.
Guyer, Leland, "Fernando Pessoa and the Cubist Perspective", in Hispania,
Vol. 70, No. 1, March 1987, pp. 73–78.
Bunyan, D, "The South-African Pessoa: Fernando 20th Century Portuguese
Poet", in English in Africa 14 (1), May 1987, pp. 67–105.
 Seabra, J.A., "Pessoa, Fernando Portuguese Modernist Poet", in Europe 62
(660): 41-53 1984
Severino, Alexandrino E., "Pessoa, Fernando - A Modern Lusiad", in Hispania
67 (1): 52-60 1984
Howes, R. W., "Pessoa, Fernando, Poet, Publisher, and Translator", in British
Library Journal 9 (2): 161-170 1983
Sousa, Ronald W., "The Structure of Pessoa's Mensagem", in Bulletin of
Hispanic Studies, Vol. LIX, No. 1, January 1982, pp. 58–66.
Severino, Alexandrino E., "Fernando Pessoa's Legacy: The Presença and
After", in World Literature Today, Vol. 53, No. 1, Winter, 1979, pp. 5–9.
Jennings, Hubert D., "In Search of Fernando Pessoa" in Contrast 47 - South
African Quarterly, Volume 12 No. 3, June 1979.
Wood, Michael, "Mod and Great" in The New York Review of Books, Vol.
XIX, No. 4, September 21, 1972, pp. 19–22.
Sheets, Jane M., "Fernando Pessoa as Anti-Poet: Alberto Caeiro", in Bulletin
of Hispanic Studies, Vol. XLVI, No. 1, January 1969, pp. 39–47.

José Saramago
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José Saramago

José de Sousa Saramago

Born 16 November 1922
Azinhaga, Santarém, Portugal

18 June 2010 (aged 87)

Died
Tías, Lanzarote Island, Spain

Novelist
Occupation
Playwright
 Nationality Portuguese

Period 1947–2010

Notable Death with Interruptions; The Gospel

work(s) According to Jesus Christ; Blindness; Cain

Prémio Camões
Notable 1995
award(s) Nobel Prize in Literature
1998

Spouse(s) Pilar del Rio (1952-2010)

Influences

Jorge Luis Borges,[1] Miguel de Cervantes,[1] Machado de

Assis, Michel de Montaigne,[1] Eça de Queiroz, Nikolai
Gogol,[1] Franz Kafka,[1] Karl Marx, Fernando Pessoa,
Marcel Proust, Ludwig Wittgenstein

Signature

www.josesaramago.org/saramago/

José de Sousa Saramago, GColSE (Portuguese: [ʒuˈz dɨ ˈsoz s ɾ ˈmaɣu]; 16

November 1922 – 18 June 2010) was a Portuguese novelist, poet, playwright,
journalist and recipient of the 1998 Nobel Prize in Literature. His works, some of
which can be seen as allegories, commonly present subversive perspectives on
historic events, emphasizing the human factor. Harold Bloom has described Saramago
as "a permanent part of the Western canon".[2]

Awarded the 1998 Nobel Prize in Literature,[3] more than two million copies of
Saramago's books have been sold in Portugal alone and his work has been translated
into 25 languages.[4][5] He founded the National Front for the Defence of Culture
(Lisbon, 1992) with Freitas-Magalhães and others. A proponent of libertarian
communism,[6] Saramago came into conflict with some groups, such as the Catholic
Church. Saramago was an atheist who defended love as an instrument to improve the
human condition.

In 1992, the Portuguese government, under Prime Minister Aníbal Cavaco Silva,
ordered the removal of The Gospel According to Jesus Christ from the European
Literary Prize's shortlist, claiming the work was religiously offensive. Disheartened
by this political censorship of his work,[7] Saramago went into exile on the Spanish
island of Lanzarote, upon which he resided until his death in 2010.[8][9]

At the time of his death, Saramago was married to Spanish journalist Pilar del Rio,
and had a daughter from a previous marriage.[9] The European Writers‘ Parliament
came about as a result of a joint proposal by Saramago and Orhan Pamuk; Saramago
was expected to speak as the guest of honour at the EWP however he died before its
opening ceremony in 2010.[10]

Contents
1 Biography
o 1.1 Early and middle life
o 1.2 Later life and international acclaim
o 1.3 Nobel Prize
2 Style and themes
3 Politics
4 Atheism
o 4.1 Death and funeral
5 Lost novel
6 Bibliography
7 See also
8 References
o 8.1 Bibliography
9 External links

[edit] Biography
[edit] Early and middle life

Saramago was born in 1922 into a family of landless peasants in Azinhaga, Portugal,
a small village in Ribatejo Province some hundred kilometers northeast of Lisbon.[8]
His parents were José de Sousa and Maria de Piedade. "Saramago", a wild herbaceous
plant known in English as the wild radish, was his father's family's nickname, and was
accidentally incorporated into his name upon registration of his birth.[8] In 1924,
Saramago's family moved to Lisbon, where his father started working as a policeman.
A few months after the family moved to the capital, his brother Francisco, older by
two years, died. He spent vacations with his grandparents in Azinhaga. When his
grandfather suffered a stroke and was to be taken to Lisbon for treatment, Saramago
recalled, "He went into the yard of his house, where there were a few trees, fig trees,
olive trees. And he went one by one, embracing the trees and crying, saying good-bye
to them because he knew he would not return. To see this, to live this, if that doesn't
mark you for the rest of your life," Saramago said, "you have no feeling."[11] Although
Saramago was a good pupil, his parents were unable to afford to keep him in grammar
school, and instead moved him to a technical school at age 12. After graduating, he
worked as a car mechanic for two years. Later he worked as a translator, then as a
journalist. He was assistant editor of the newspaper Diário de Notícias, a position he
had to leave after the democratic revolution in 1974.[8]

After a period of working as a translator he was able to support himself as a writer.

Saramago married Ilda Reis in 1944. Their only child, Violante, was born in 1947.[8]
From 1952 until his death in June 2010 Saramago was married to the Spanish
journalist Pilar del Río, who is the official translator of his books into Spanish.[8]

[edit] Later life and international acclaim

Saramago did not achieve widespread recognition and acclaim until he was sixty, with
the publication of his fourth novel, Memorial do Convento (literally, Memoir of the
Convent). A baroque tale set during the Inquisition in 18th-century Lisbon, it tells of
the love between a maimed soldier and a young clairvoyant, and of a renegade priest's
heretical dream of flight. The novel's translation in 1988 as Baltasar and Blimunda, by
Giovanni Pontiero, brought Saramago to the attention of an international
readership.[8][12] This novel won the Portuguese PEN Club Award.

He became a member of the Portuguese Communist Party in 1969 and remained so

until the end of his life.[13] Saramago was also an atheist[14] and self-described
pessimist.[15] His views have aroused considerable controversy in Portugal, especially
after the publication of The Gospel According to Jesus Christ.[16] Members of the
country's Catholic community were outraged by Saramago's representation of Jesus
and particularly God as fallible, even cruel human beings. Portugal's conservative
government, then led by prime minister Cavaco Silva, would not allow Saramago's
work to compete for the European Literary Prize,[8] arguing that it offended the
Catholic community. As a result, Saramago and his wife moved to Lanzarote, an
island in the Spanish Canaries.[17]

[edit] Nobel Prize

Saramago was awarded the Nobel Prize for Literature in 1998. The announcement
came when he was about to fly to Germany ahead of the Frankfurt Book Fair, and
caught both him and his editor by surprise.[8] The Nobel committee praised his
"parables sustained by imagination, compassion and irony", and his "modern
skepticism" about official truths.[12]

[edit] Style and themes

Saramago at Teatro Jorge Eliécer Gaitán in Bogotá in 2007.

Saramago's experimental style often features long sentences, at times more than a
page long. He uses periods sparingly, choosing instead a loose flow of clauses joined
by commas.[8] Many of his paragraphs extend for pages without pausing for dialogue,
(which Saramago chooses not to delimit by quotation marks); when the speaker
changes, Saramago capitalizes the first letter of the new speaker's clause. His works
often refer to his other works.[8] In his novel Blindness, Saramago completely
abandons the use of proper nouns, instead referring to characters simply by some
unique characteristic, an example of his style reflecting the recurring themes of
identity and meaning found throughout his work.

Saramago's novels often deal with fantastic scenarios, such as that in his 1986 novel
The Stone Raft, in which the Iberian Peninsula breaks off from the rest of Europe and
sails around the Atlantic Ocean. In his 1995 novel Blindness, an entire unnamed
country is stricken with a mysterious plague of "white blindness". In his 1984 novel
The Year of the Death of Ricardo Reis (which won the PEN Award and the
Independent Foreign Fiction Award), Fernando Pessoa's heteronym survives for a
year after the poet himself dies. Additionally, his novel Death with Interruptions (also
translated as Death at Intervals) takes place in a country in which, suddenly, nobody
dies, and concerns, in part, the spiritual and political implications of the event,
although the book ultimately moves from a synoptic to a more personal perspective.

Using such imaginative themes, Saramago addresses the most serious of subject
matters with empathy for the human condition and for the isolation of contemporary
urban life. His characters struggle with their need to connect with one another, form
relations and bond as a community, and also with their need for individuality, and to
find meaning and dignity outside of political and economic structures.

When asked to describe his daily writing routine in 2009, Saramago responded, "I
write two pages. And then I read and read and read."[18]

[edit] Politics
Saramago by Portuguese painter Carlos Botelho.

Saramago was a proponent of anarcho-communism,[6] and a member of the

Communist Party of Portugal.[9] As a member of his PCP he stood for the 1989
Lisbon Local election in the list of the Coalition "For Lisbon" and was elected
Alderman and presiding officer of the Municipal Assembly of Lisbon.[19] Saramago
was also a candidate of the Democratic Unity Coalition to the European Parliament in
all the elections from 1989 to 2009, usually in positions with no possibility of being
elected.[19] Saramago was a critic of the European Union and the International
Monetary Fund.[8]

In his novel Blindness, the communist principle of from each according to his ability,
to each according to his need is stated in a positive light.[20] In a 2008 press
conference for the filming of Blindness he stated, in reference to the global financial
crisis, that "Marx was never so right as now"[21]

Although many of his novels are acknowledged political satire of a subtle kind, it is in
The Notebook that Saramago makes his political convictions most clear. The book,
written from a Marxist perspective, is a collection of his blog articles for the year
September 2008 to August 2009. According to The Independent, "Saramago aims to
cut through the web of 'organized lies' surrounding humanity, and to convince readers
by delivering his opinions in a relentless series of unadorned, knock-down prose
blows."[22] His political engagement has led to comparisons with George Orwell:
"Orwell's hostility to the British Empire runs parallel to Saramago's latter-day crusade
against empire in the shape of globalisation."[23] When speaking to The Observer in
2006 he said "The painter paints, the musician makes music, the novelist writes
novels. But I believe that we all have some influence, not because of the fact that one
is an artist, but because we are citizens. As citizens, we all have an obligation to
intervene and become involved, it's the citizen who changes things. I can't imagine
myself outside any kind of social or political involvement."[24]

During a visit to Ramallah in March 2002 during the second intifada, Saramago
compared the Palestinian city, which was blockaded at the time by the Israeli army, to
concentration camps. Some critics claimed Saramago's statement was
antisemitic.[9][25][26][27][28][29]

During the 2006 Lebanon War, Saramago joined Tariq Ali, John Berger, Noam
Chomsky, and others in condemning what they characterized as "a long-term military,
economic and geographic practice whose political aim is nothing less than the
liquidation of the Palestinian nation".[30]
He was also a supporter of Iberian Federalism.

[edit] Atheism
Saramago was an outspoken atheist and a prominent critic of religion. Due to some of
his novels, mainly The Gospel According to Jesus Christ and Cain, where he uses
satire and bible quotes to describe the figure of God as being of the highest cruelty, he
came several times into conflict with the Catholic Church. The Portuguese
government lambasted his 1991 novel O Evangelho Segundo Jesus Cristo (The
Gospel according to Jesus Christ) and struck the writer's name from nominees for the
European Literature Prize, saying the atheist work offended Portuguese Catholic
convictions. The book portrays a Christ who, subject to human desires, lives with
Mary Magdalene and tries to back out of the crucifixion.[31]

[edit] Death and funeral

"Thank you José Saramago", Lisbon, october 2010.

Saramago suffered from leukemia. He died on 18 June 2010, aged 87, having spent
the last few years of his life in Lanzarote, Spain.[32] His family said that he had
breakfast and chatted with his wife and translator Pilar del Rio on Friday morning,
after which he started feeling unwell and passed away.[33] The Guardian described
him as "the finest Portuguese writer of his generation",[32] while Fernanda Eberstadt
of The New York Times said he was "known almost as much for his unfaltering
Communism as for his fiction".[4] Saramago's translator, Margaret Jull Costa, paid
tribute to him, describing his "wonderful imagination" and calling him "the greatest
contemporary Portuguese writer".[32] Saramago had continued his writing until his
death. His most recent publication, Cain, was published in 2009, with an English
translation made available in August 2010. Saramago had suffered from pneumonia a
year before his death. Having been thought to have made a full recovery, he had been
scheduled to attend the Edinburgh International Book Festival in August 2010.[32]

Portugal declared two days of mourning.[6][7] There were verbal tributes from senior
international politicians: Luiz Inácio Lula da Silva (Brazil), Bernard Kouchner
(France) and José Luis Rodríguez Zapatero (Spain), while Cuba's Raúl and Fidel
Castro sent floral tributes.[6]

Saramago's funeral was held in Lisbon on 20 June 2010, in the presence of more than
20,000 people, many of whom had travelled hundreds of kilometres, but also notably
in the absence of right-wing President of Portugal Aníbal Cavaco Silva who holidayed
in Azores as the ceremony took place.[34] Silva, the Prime Minister when Saramago's
name was removed from the shortlist of the European Literary Prize, said he did not
attend Saramago's funeral because he "had never had the privilege to know him".[7]
Mourners, who questioned Silva's absence in the presence of reporters,[7] held copies
of the red carnation, symbolic of Portugal's democratic revolution.[34] Saramago's
cremation took place in Lisbon,[34] with his ashes being scattered in his birthplace of
Azinhaga and in Tias in Lanzarote, his home until his death.[6]

[edit] Lost novel

The Jose Saramago Foundation announced in October 2011 the publication of a so
called "lost novel" published as The Clairvoyant (A Claraboia in Portuguese). It was
written in the 50's and remained buried in the archive of a publisher that the
manuscript was sent to. Saramago remained silent about the work up to his death. The
book has been translated to other languages though not yet to English.[35]

[edit] Bibliography
Title Year English title Year ISBN

ISBN 972-
Terra do Pecado 1947 Land of Sin
21-1145-0

Os Poemas Possíveis 1966 Possible Poems

Provavelmente
1970 Probably Joy
Alegria
Deste Mundo e do This World and the
1971
Outro Other
A Bagagem do The Traveller's
1973
Viajante Baggage
As Opiniões que o DL
1974 Opinions that DL had
teve
O Ano de 1993 1975 The Year of 1993
Os Apontamentos 1976 The Notes
Manual de Pintura e Manual of Painting ISBN 1-
1977 1993
Caligrafia and Calligraphy 85754-043-3
Objecto Quase 1978 Quasi Object
Raised from the
Levantado do Chão 1980 2011
Ground
ISBN 0-15-
Viagem a Portugal 1981 Journey to Portugal 2000
100587-7
Memorial do Baltasar and ISBN 0-15-
1982 1987
Convento Blimunda 110555-3
O Ano da Morte de 1986 The Year of the Death 1991 ISBN 0-15-
Ricardo Reis of Ricardo Reis 199735-7
ISBN 0-15-
A Jangada de Pedra 1986 The Stone Raft 1994
185198-0
História do Cerco de The History of the ISBN 0-15-
1989 1996
Lisboa Siege of Lisbon 100238-X

O Evangelho Segundo The Gospel According ISBN 0-15-

1991 1993
Jesus Cristo to Jesus Christ 136700-0

Ensaio sobre a ISBN 0-15-

1995 Blindness 1997
Cegueira 100251-7
ISBN 0-15-
Todos os Nomes 1997 All the Names 1999
100421-8
O Conto da Ilha The Tale of the ISBN 0-15-
1997 1999
Desconhecida Unknown Island 100595-8
ISBN 0-15-
A Caverna 2000 The Cave 2002
100414-5
A Maior Flor do Children's Picture
2001
Mundo Book
ISBN 0-15-
O Homem Duplicado 2003 The Double 2004
101040-4
Ensaio sobre a ISBN 0-15-
2004 Seeing 2006
Lucidez 101238-5
Don Giovanni ou O Don Giovanni, or,
2005
Dissoluto Absolvido Dissolute Acquitted
As Intermitências da Death with ISBN 1-
2005 2008
Morte Interruptions 84655-020-3
As Pequenas ISBN 978-0-
2006 Small Memories 2010
Memórias 15-101508-5
ISBN 978-
The Elephant's
A Viagem do Elefante 2008 2010 972-21-
Journey
2017-3
ISBN 978-
Caim 2009 Cain 2011 607-11-
0316-1
The clairvoyant (not
Claraboia 1953 yet translated to 2011
English)

[edit] See also

Magical realism
[edit] References

Wikimedia Commons has media related to: José Saramago

1. ^ a b c d e FT.com "Small Talk: José Saramago". "Everything I‘ve read has influenced me in
some way. Having said that, Kafka, Borges, Gogol, Montaigne, Cervantes are constant
companions."
2. ^ "Fond Farewells". TIME. Harold Bloom. 15 December 2010.
3. ^ "José Saramago - Autobiography". Nobelprize.org.
http://nobelprize.org/nobel_prizes/literature/laureates/1998/saramago-autobio.html. Retrieved
2010-07-27.
4. ^ a b Eberstadt, Fernanda (18 June 2010). "José Saramago, Nobel Prize-Winning Writer, Dies".
The New York Times (The New York Times Company).
http://www.nytimes.com/2010/06/19/books/19saramago.html?src=mv. Retrieved 18 June
2010.
5. ^ "Nobel Writer, A Communist, Defends Work". The New York Times. 12 October 1998.
http://www.nytimes.com/1998/10/12/world/nobel-writer-a-communist-defends-work.html.
Retrieved 18 June 2010.
6. ^ a b c d e "Portugal mourns as Nobel laureate's body returned". The China Post. 21 June 2010.
http://www.chinapost.com.tw/art/celebrity-news/2010/06/21/261516/Portugal-mourns.htm.
Retrieved 21 June 2010.
7. ^ a b c d "President defends Jose Saramago funeral no-show". BBC News (BBC). 21 June 2010.
http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/entertainment_and_arts/10364807.stm. Retrieved 21 June 2010.
8. ^ a b c d e f g h i j k l Quoted in: Eberstadt, Fernanda (August 26, 2007). "The Unexpected
Fantasist". The New York Times. http://www.nytimes.com/2007/08/26/magazine/26saramago-
t.html?_r=2&oref=slogin. Retrieved August 14, 2009.
9. ^ a b c d Nobel-winning Portuguese novelist Saramago dies, Associated Press 18-06-2010
10. ^ Wall, William (1 December 2010). "The Complexity of Others: The Istanbul Declaration of
The European Writers‘ Conference". Irish Left Review.
http://www.irishleftreview.org/2010/12/01/complexity-istanbul-declaration-european-writers-
conference/. Retrieved 1 December 2010.
11. ^ [1][dead link]
12. ^ a b Jaggi, Maya (22 November 2008). "New ways of seeing". The Guardian (London).
http://www.guardian.co.uk/books/2008/nov/22/jose-saramago-blindness-nobel.
13. ^ "Nobel Prize citation, 1998". Nobelprize.org.
http://nobelprize.org/nobel_prizes/literature/laureates/1998/bio-bibl.html. Retrieved 2010-06-
20.
14. ^ The God Factor[dead link]
15. ^ "Langer, Adam. "José Saramago: Prophet of Doom." ''Book Magazine''
November/December 2002". Web.archive.org. 2002-10-31. Archived from the original on
2002-10-31.
http://web.archive.org/web/20021031062736/http://www.bookmagazine.com/issue25/saramag
o.shtml. Retrieved 2010-06-20.
16. ^ "Austin, Paige. "Shadows on the Wall." ''The Yale Review of Books'' Spring 2004".
Yalereviewofbooks.com.
http://www.yalereviewofbooks.com/archive/winter03/review12.shtml.htm. Retrieved 2010-
06-20.
17. ^ "José Saramago: Autobiography". Nobelprize.org. 1998.
http://nobelprize.org/nobel_prizes/literature/laureates/1998/saramago-autobio.html. Retrieved
2010-06-20.
18. ^ Maloney, Evan (4 March 2010). "The best advice for writers? Read". The Guardian
(London: Guardian Media Group).
http://www.guardian.co.uk/books/booksblog/2010/mar/02/best-advice-writers-
read?INTCMP=ILCNETTXT3487. Retrieved 4 March 2010.
19. ^ a b "Communist Party of Portugal: Short Biographical note on Jose Saramago". Pcp.pt.
http://www.pcp.pt/node/244347. Retrieved 2012-06-15.
 20. ^ Blindness, Harvest Book Series, José Saramago, translated by Giovanni Pontiero, Houghton
Mifflin Harcourt, 1999
21. ^ "Karl Marx was never so right, says Nobel laureate Saramago — MercoPress".
En.mercopress.com. 2008-10-28. http://en.mercopress.com/2008/10/28/karl-marx-was-never-
so-right-says-nobel-laureate-saramago. Retrieved 2012-06-15.
22. ^ The Notebook by José Saramago, London Independent
23. ^ Saramago and Orwell), Rollason, C.
24. ^ Stephanie Meritt, "Interview: Still a street-fighting man," Observer (30 April 2006).
25. ^ Portuguese Nobel Laureate's Remarks on Jews and the Holocaust Are "Incendiary and
Offensive", Anti-Defamation League (ADL) - Press release, October 15, 2003.
26. ^ ADL Outraged by Nobel Laureate Comparison of Ramallah to Auschwitz, Anti-Defamation
League (ADL) - Press release, March 26, 2002.
27. ^ De las piedras de David a los tanques de Goliat by José Saramago, El Pais 21/Abril/2002 (in
Spanish).
28. ^ Bigotry in Print. Crowds Chant Murder. Something's Changed by Paul Berman, The
Forward (available online here) May 24, 2002.
29. ^ David Frum: Death of a Jew-hater by David Frum, National Post, June 19, 2010.
30. ^ "Israel, Lebanon, and Palestine" statement, July 19, 2006
31. ^ Nash, Elizabeth (9 October 1998). "Saramago the atheist, an outsider in his own land". The
Independent (London). http://www.independent.co.uk/news/saramago-the-atheist-an-outsider-
in-his-own-land-1177040.html.
32. ^ a b c d Lea, Richard (18 June 2010). "Nobel laureate José Saramago dies, aged 87". The
Guardian (London: Guardian Media Group).
http://www.guardian.co.uk/books/2010/jun/18/jose-saramago-writer-nobel-dies. Retrieved 18
June 2010.
33. ^ "Nobel-wiining(sic) novelist Saramago dies aged 87". The Hindu (Chennai, India). 18 June
2010. http://beta.thehindu.com/news/international/article472336.ece. Retrieved 18 June 2010.
34. ^ a b c "Portuguese Nobel laureate Saramago's funeral held". Xinhua News Agency. 21 June
2010. http://news.xinhuanet.com/english2010/culture/2010-06/21/c_13359797.htm. Retrieved
21 June 2010.
35. ^ "Claraboya, novela inédita de Saramago, verá la luz". elpais.com. October 3, 2011.
http://www.elpais.com/articulo/cultura/Claraboya/novela/inedita/Saramago/vera/luz/elpepucul
/20111003elpepucul_4/Tes. Retrieved October 14, 2011.

[edit] Bibliography

Baptista Bastos, José Saramago: Aproximação a um retrato, Dom Quixote,

1996
T.C. Cerdeira da Silva, Entre a história e aficção: Uma saga de portugueses,
Dom Quixote, 1989
Maria da Conceição Madruga, A paixão segundo José Saramago: a paixão do
verbo e o verbo da paixão, Campos das Letras, Porto, 1998
Horácio Costa, José Saramago: O Período Formativo, Ed. Caminho, 1998
Helena I. Kaufman, Ficção histórica portuguesa da pós-revolução, Madison,
1991
O. Lopes, Os sinais e os sentidos: Literatura portuguesa do século XX,
Lisboa, 1986
B. Losada, Eine iberische Stimme, Liber, 2, 1, 1990, 3
Carlos Reis, Diálogos com José Saramago, Ed. Caminho, Lisboa, 1998
M. Maria Seixo, O essential sobre José Saramago, Imprensa Nacional, 1987
"Saramago, José (1922–2010)." Encyclopedia of World Biography. Ed. Tracie
Ratiner. Vol. 25. 2nd ed. Detroit: Thomson Gale, 2005. Discovering
Collection. Thomson Gale. University of Guelph. 25 Sep. 2007.
Music of Portugal
From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia
Jump to: navigation, search

Portugal is internationally known in the music scene for its traditions of fado, but the
country has seen a recent expansion in musical styles, with modern acts from rock to
hip hop becoming popular. If Amália is still the most recognizable Portuguese name
in music, today the biggest exportations are bands like Moonspell (metal), Madredeus
(fado and folk inspired), Buraka Som Sistema (electro/kuduro/breakbeat), Da Weasel,
Sandro G (hip hop), Blasted Mechanism (experimental electro-rock) or Wraygunn
(rock, blues), and artists like Mariza (fado). The musicality of the Portuguese
language has also inspired non-native speakers to use it in their recordings, for
example Mil i Maria. Regional folk music remains popular too, having been updated
and modernized in many cases, especially the northeastern region of Trás-os-Montes.
Dance, Rock, pop, kuduro, zouk, kizomba, Heavy metal, house and Hip Hop are
among the most popular musical styles in Portugal; however, the recent arrival of
revivalist folk bands, such as Deolinda, led to a newfound interest in this type of
music.

Contents
[hide]

1 History
2 Classical music
3 Folk music
o 3.1 Fado
o 3.2 Traditional music
3.2.1 Regional folk music
3.2.2 Azorean folk music
3.2.3 Trás-os-Montes
4 Popular music
o 4.1 Pimba music
o 4.2 Political music (Música de Intervenção)
o 4.3 Romantic
o 4.4 Latin
5 Modern acts
o 5.1 African
o 5.2 Jazz
o 5.3 Reggae and Ska
o 5.4 Zouk
o 5.5 Rock and other
o 5.6 Portuguese hip hop
o 5.7 Heavy metal
o 5.8 Electronic music
o 5.9 Experimental and Avantgarde
o 5.10 Popular and Rock
 o 5.11 Independent music
6 Eurovision participations
7 Singers of Portuguese-descent
8 See also
9 References
10 External links

[edit] History
Main article: Music history of Portugal

Portuguese music was influenced by music from Ancient Rome's musical tradition
brought into the Iberian Peninsula by the Romans and the rich artistic Europen
tradition. Its genres range from classical to popular music. Portugal's music history
includes musical history from the medieval Gregorian chants through Carlos Seixas'
symphonies era to the composers of the modern era. Musical history of Portugal can
be divided in different ways. Portuguese music encompasses musical production of
the Middle Ages, Renaissance, Baroque, Classical, Romantic and Modern eras.

[edit] Classical music

Portuguese music reflects its rich history and privileged geographical location. These
are evidenced in the music history of Portugal, which despite its firm European roots,
nevertheless reflects the intercontinental cultural interactions begun in the Portuguese
discoveries.

A short list of past and present Portuguese musicians with important contributions
must necessarily include the names of composers Pedro de Escobar, Manuel Cardoso,
Duarte Lobo, Filipe de Magalhães, Carlos Seixas, Diogo Dias Melgás, João
Domingos Bomtempo, Marcos Portugal, José Vianna da Motta, Luís de Freitas
Branco, Joly Braga Santos, Fernando Lopes-Graça, António Fragoso and Emmanuel
Nunes; organists such as António Carreira or Manuel Rodrigues Coelho; singers such
as Luísa Todi, Elisabete Matos or José Carlos Xavier; pianists such as Maria João
Pires or Sequeira Costa; cellists such as Guilhermina Suggia;

[edit] Folk music

[edit] Fado
Mariza, a Portuguese fado singer
Main article: Fado

Fado (fate in Portuguese) arose in Lisbon as the music of the urban poor. Fado songs
are typically lyrically harsh, with the singer resigned to sadness, poverty and
loneliness, but remaining dignified and firmly controlled.

Many[who?] claim that fado origins are much older, back to the 15th century, when
women cried with longing for their husbands that went to the never sailed seas; others
also claim that Arabic inprint in Fado is visible, especially in instruments. Arabs left
Portugal in the 13th century, but their influence in crafts and music prevailed. Fado is
often sung with a Portuguese guitar.

Fado group Verdes Anos (Coimbra Fado)

Late in the 19th century, the city of Coimbra developed a distinctive scene. Coimbra,
a literary capital for the country, is now known for being more refined and majestic.
The sound has been described as "the song of those who retain and cherish their
illusions, not of those who have irretrievably lost them" by Rodney Gallop in 1936. A
related form are the guitarradas of the 1920s and 30s, best known for Dr. Antonio
Menano and a group of virtuoso musicians he formed, including Artur Paredes and
José Joaquim Cavalheiro. Student fado, performed by students at Coimbra University,
have maintained a tradition since it was pioneered in the 1890s by Augusto Hilário.

Starting in 1939 with the career of Amália Rodrigues, fado was an internationally
popular genre. A singer and film actress, Rodrigues made numerous stylistic
innovations that have made her probably the most influential fadista of all time.

A new generation of young musicians have contributed to the social and political
revival of fado music, adapting and blending it with new trends. Contemporary fado
musicians like Mariza, Mísia and Camané have introduced the music to a new public.
The sensuality of Misia and other female fadistas (fado singers) like Maria Ana
Bobone, Cuca Roseta, Cristina Branco, Ana Moura, Katia Guerreiro, and Mariza has
walked the fine line between carrying on the tradition of Amália Rodrigues and trying
to bring in a new audience. Mísia and Carlos do Carmo are also well known fado
singers.Ricardo Ribeiro and Miguel Capucho are one of the best male fado singers of
the new generation.

[edit] Traditional music

[edit] Regional folk music

Recent events have helped keep Portuguese regional folk (rancho folclórico)
traditions alive, most especially including the worldwide roots revival of the 1960s
and 70s.

[edit] Azorean folk music

The people of the Azores islands maintain some distinct musical traditions, such as
the traditionally fiddle-driven chamarrita dance.

[edit] Trás-os-Montes

Trás-os-Montes' musical heritage is closely related to the music of Galicia, Cantabria

and Asturias. Traditional bagpipes (gaita-de-fole transmontana), a cappella vocals
and a unique musical scale with equal semitones have kept alive a vital tradition.
(Miranda de I Douro), some artists such as Galamdum Galundaina sing in Mirandese
language. Also the Pauliteiros folk dance is popular. Some residents sing in both
Portuguese and Mirandese.

Dazkarieh
Fausto
Notas e Voltas
Roberto Leal
Ronda dos Quatro Caminhos
Tonicha
Oioai*Janita Salomé
Uxukalhus
Frei Fado D'el Rei
Gaiteiros de Lisboa
Roncos do Diabo
Dâna
Dulce Pontes
Tereza Salgueiro
Vitorino
Xaile

[edit] Popular music

Famous artists and bands included in the past Tonicha, Paco Bandeira, Paulo de
Carvalho, José Cid, Linda de Suza, Duo Ouro Negro, Roberto Leal and Ornatos
Violeta. Nowadays some of the most popular acts are Aurea, Amor Electro, The
Legendary Tigerman, Madredeus, GNR, Xutos & Pontapés, The Gift, David Fonseca,
Buraka Som Sistema, Mil i Maria and Boss AC.

[edit] Pimba music

Main article: Pimba

Pimba music is the Portuguese version of the euro Schlager or the Balkan Turbo-Folk.
Its name cames from a 90s hit Pimba Pimba. Some of its biggest names are Emanuel,
Ágata, Ruth Marlene and Quim Barreiros. This genre mixes traditional sounds with
accordion, Latin beats and funny or religious (mainly kitch) lyrics.

[edit] Political music (Música de Intervenção)

During the reign of the fascist regime music was widely used by the left-wing
resistance as a way to say what could not be said, singing about freedom, equality and
democracy, mainly through metaphors and symbols. Many composers and singers
became famous and persecuted by the political police, some of them being arrested or
exiled, such as Zeca Afonso, Paulo de Carvalho, José Mário Branco, Sérgio Godinho,
Adriano Correia de Oliveira, Manuel Freire, Fausto, Vitorino, Júlio Pereira and some
others.

José Afonso began performing in the 1950s; he was a popular roots-based musician
that led the Portuguese roots revival. With artists like Sérgio Godinho and Luís Cília,
Afonso helped form nova canção music, which, after the 1974 revolution, gained
socially-aware lyrics and became canto livre. The biggest name in canto livre was
Brigada Víctor Jara, a group that seriously studied and were influenced by Portuguese
regional music.

After the Carnation Revolution, that same music was used to support left-wing
parties. Political ideas and causes, like the agrarian reform, socialism, equality,
democratic elections, free education and many other were a constant presence in these
songs lyrics, often written by well-known poets like José Barata-Moura, Manuel
Alegre or Ary dos Santos.

[edit] Romantic

The highest exponents of this kind of music in Portugal are Tony Carreira and Marco
Paulo (both, and even other performers, have a certain level of overlap with the Pimba
genre, even partial or just in certain songs). The poet-singer-songwriter Fausto
Bordolo Dias, a significant contributor to the modern romantic genre, can be
compared to Leonard Cohen.

[edit] Latin

This is a relatively new sound in Portugal. Despite being an Iberian country, Portugal
never had clear influences from the Caribbean beats. This style came to the country in
the 90s, following a Spanish and world trend. Examples of Latin music singers in
Portuguese are Ana Malhoa and Mil i Maria.

[edit] Modern acts

[edit] African

With immigration from the former colonies, Portugal received many African
communities with their different traditional sounds. Some singers were born in Lisbon
but still, were singing African influenced music. Two examples are Lura and Sara
Tavares, who sing a mixture that includes sounds from Cape Verde.

[edit] Jazz

People such as Mário Barreiros (drums), Mário Laginha and António Pinho Vargas
(piano) and the singer Maria João have long and noteworthy careers in the field,
despite experimenting, sometimes with notable success, other genres of music, and a
more recent generation is following their footsteps, notable the pianist Bernardo
Sassetti, Carlos Bica, João Paulo and the singers Jacinta and Vânia Fernandes.

[edit] Reggae and Ska

More underground but very prominent are Portuguese reggae and ska. Some of the
more famous bands of these types include Primitive Reason, Three and a Quarter and
Purocracy. This music is popular among young people, with its main roots based in
Lisbon and the surrounding areas. In 2004/2005, it was a born a wave of Portuguese
bands doing noise rock and psych improvisation music, like Fish & Sheep,
Kussondulola, Frango, One Love Family, CAVEIRA, Tropa Macaca, Lobster, Dance
Damage and DOPO.

[edit] Zouk

Zouk is a style of rhythmic music originating from the Caribbean islands of

Guadeloupe and Martinique. Zouk means 'party' in the local creole of French with
English and African influences, all three of which contribute the sound. In Europe, it
is particularly popular in France, while on the African countries of Cape Verde and
Angola they have developed their own type of Zouk. Zouk was introduced to Portugal
by Portuguese speaking immigrants from Angola and Cape Verde. Related styles
include, kizomba and kuduro.

[edit] Rock and other

Main article: Portuguese rock

The rock in Portugal was born in the 80s of the 20th century. Its beginners were Rui
Veloso and Jorge Palma, among others. An example of a popular Portuguese rock
band, having a long history, is Xutos & Pontapés who've been playing for over 30
years and are known widely throughout Portugal, as well as Mão Morta, a unique and
controversial group with 25 years of existence. Well known solo singers include Rui
Veloso, Jorge Palma, and Pedro Abrunhosa. Clã (pop rock), Blasted Mechanism
(experimental electro-rock), RAMP (metal), Re:aktor (metal) ThanatoSchizO (metal),
Alkateya (metal) Faithfull (soft rock), Suspiria Franklyn (punk-rock/new wave),
Riding Pânico (post rock), Linda Martini (post/noise rock), peixe : aviao (post-rock),
Ornatos Violeta (indie rock), Stereo Parks (Indie Rock), A Book in the Shelf (grunge
rock), Mazgani (alternative) or Green Echo (experimental dub), are other important
acts.

[edit] Portuguese hip hop

Main article: Hip hop Tuga

The beginning of the 21st century was the origin of a new wave of Portuguese Hip
Hop singers, who adapted foreign sounds to the Portuguese reality and who sing in
Portuguese. Some of the best examples are Da Weasel, Boss AC and Sam the Kid.

[edit] Heavy metal

The biggest exponent of heavy metal music in Portugal are the bands Moonspell and
Corpus Christii, originally from Lisboa and who have achieved some international
recognition, mainly in Finland, Germany ,the Netherlands, Italy and Turkey.[citation
needed]
Others bands like Holocausto Canibal, Heavenwood, Sirius, Decayed, Fili
Nigratium Infernallium,Morte Incandescente, Gwydion, Tarantula also achieved some
international recognition.

[edit] Electronic music

In electronica, Underground Sound of Lisbon was a musical project that brought

international attention to the Portuguese DJs, namely Rui da Silva – the only
Portuguese musician to reach #1 on the UK charts – and DJ Vibe, Pete tha Zouk.
Some other important names of this kind of music are Buraka Som Sistema and Micro
Audio Waves. In Porto, the hometown to numerous talents such as Nuno Forte, Drum
n' Bass styles are immensely popular, and the city has hosted various important
international names in the genre such as Noisia, The Panacea and Black Sun Empire.
Also, in the Psychedelic Trance genre there are a worldwide famous project:
Paranormal Attack.

[edit] Experimental and Avantgarde

Portuguese music has a striving experimental underground musical scene since the
80's, with some exponents attaining international attention. Notable groups and
musicians in this genre are Osso Exótico, Ocaso Épico, Telectu, Carlos Zíngaro and
Pedro INF.

[edit] Popular and Rock

Other popular music include bands born out of Portuguese 'telenovelas' or 'soap-
operas'. The first wave of such bands included 4Taste and DZRT who went on to gain
national popularity.

[edit] Independent music

Main article: Finished With My Ex

The indie and alternative rock movements are also popular in Portugal. For example,
Finished With My Ex is a Portuguese independent music duo, whose genres variate
from Alternative rock, garage rock to electronic rock, acoustic, industrial rock,
formed in 2012 in Braga. The group consists of singer-songwriter Bruce Buckley
(vocals, multi-instrumentalism) and guitarist Chris (guitar, multi-instrumentalism).
The band is influenced by bands such as Marilyn Manson, The White Stripes, etc, of
which the two members try to capture some "sounds" while remaining faithful to the
bands "originality and visual image." The band also makes use of red and black colors
in their visuals.[1][2][3]

[edit] Eurovision participations

Main article: Portugal in the Eurovision Song Contest

Portugal has been participating at the Eurovision Song Contest since 1964, its best
result being the 6th place achieved by Lucia Moniz's folk inspired song "O meu
coração não tem cor" in 1996, penned by Pedro Vaz Osorio. Since then Portugal
never had a Top 10 place.

[edit] Singers of Portuguese-descent

Musicians such as Nelly Furtado, Katy Perry, Kenny Rogers and Nuno Bettencourt
(the latter actually Portugal-born) are popular in North America, though only Nelly
Furtado reflected some of her Portuguese origin, especially in lesser-known songs in
her first albums (songs like "Scared" sung by Furtado in English and Portuguese,
"Nas Horas do Dia" and "Força"). Luso-francofonic artists (also of Portuguese origin)
include Linda de Suza (Portuguese born and later an immigrant in France) and Marie
Myriam. Steve Perry, former lead singer of rock group Journey is American of
Portuguese ancestry. The lead singer from Jamiroquai, Jay Kay is descendent from
Portugal through his father. Ana da Silva founding member of the cult post-punk band
The Raincoats is of Portuguese origin.

[edit] See also

Music history of Portugal
Rock em Portugal
Category:Portuguese musical instruments

[edit] References
1. ^ "Finished With My Ex's biography". Finished With My Ex. finishedwithmyex.com.
http://finishedwithmyex.wix.com/finishedwithmyex#!__page-0/bio. Retrieved 27-07-
2012.
2. ^ "Finished With My Ex". phpbbserver.com. Vimaranes Metallvm.
http://www.phpbbserver.com/nehebkau/viewtopic.php?t=3535&mforum=nehebkau&
fb_source=message. Retrieved 27-07-2012.
3. ^ Melo, Rui. ""Os motores já aquecem para mais um submarino"". Submarino.
Submarino. http://blogdosubmarino.blogspot.pt/2012/07/os-motores-ja-aquecem-
para-mais-um.html. Retrieved 27-07-2012.

Cronshaw, Andrew and Paul Vernon. "Traditional Riches, Fate and

Revolution". 2000. In Broughton, Simon and Ellingham, Mark with
McConnachie, James and Duane, Orla (Ed.), World Music, Vol. 1: Africa,
 Europe and the Middle East, pp 225–236. Rough Guides Ltd, Penguin Books.
ISBN 1-85828-636-0

Fado
From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia
Jump to: navigation, search
This article is about the Portuguese music genre. For the computer documentation
system, see FADO.

This article needs additional citations for verification. Please help

improve this article by adding citations to reliable sources. Unsourced
material may be challenged and removed. (May 2008)

Fado

Stylistic origins Portuguese music

Early 19th century Lisbon,

Cultural origins
Portugal

Typical instruments Portuguese guitar

Mainstream
Worldwide; mainly Portugal
popularity

Derivative forms Coimbra Fado - Kroncong

Fado (Portuguese pronunciation: [ˈfaðu], "destiny, fate") is a music genre which can be
traced to the 1820s in Portugal, but probably with much earlier origins. Fado historian
and scholar, Rui Vieira Nery, states that "the only reliable information on the history
of Fado was orally transmitted and goes back to the 1820s and 1830s at best. But even
that information was frequently modified within the generational transmission process
that made it reach us today."[1] In popular belief, fado is a form of music characterized
by mournful tunes and lyrics, often about the sea or the life of the poor, and infused
with a characteristic sentiment of resignation, fatefulness and melancholia (loosely
captured by the word "saudade", or longing). However, although the origins are
difficult to trace, today fado is by many regarded as a simply a form of song which
can be about anything, but must follow a certain structure. The music is usually linked
to the Portuguese word saudade which symbolizes the feeling of loss (a permanent,
irreparable loss and its consequent life lasting damage). Amália Rodrigues, Carlos do
Carmo, Mariza, Mafalda Arnauth, and Cristina Branco are amongst the most famous
individuals associated with the genre.
On November 27, 2011, Fado was inscribed in the UNESCO Intangible Cultural
Heritage Lists.[2]

Contents
[hide]

1 Etymology
2 History
3 Varieties of fado
o 3.1 Lisbon Fado
o 3.2 Coimbra fado
o 3.3 Fado in North America
4 See also
5 References
6 External links

[edit] Etymology
The word Fado comes from the Latin word fatum,[3] from which the English word
fate also originates.[4] The word is linked to the music genre itself and, although both
meanings are approximately the same in the two languages, Portuguese speakers
seldom utilize the word fado referring to destiny or fate.

[edit] History

Fado, painting by José Malhoa (1910)

Amália Rodrigues "Queen of Fado"

Fado only appeared after 1830 in Lisbon. It was introduced in the port districts like
Alfama, Mouraria and Bairro Alto. There are many theories about the origin of Fado.
Some trace its origins or influences to "cantigas de amigo" (friends songs) from the
Middle Ages, or Moorish songs, or also to African-Brazilian rhythms. Since there was
very much contact between Portugal and its colonies, particularly Brazil (between
1804 and 1822 the Portuguese court resided in Rio de Janeiro since the king had fled
from Portugal after Napoleon's invasion), it is not strange that Portuguese fado has
some roots in Afro-Brazilian slave dances[citation needed] and also Spanish and
Portuguese songs; like Fandango, Semba, Lundu and Modinha and on the other
(notice that these roots are similar to those of the Samba). As a consequence, fado was
initially very rhythmical and danceable[citation needed]. Fado performers in the middle of
the 19th century were mainly from urban working class and sailors, who not only
sang, but also danced and beat the fado. During the second half of the 19th century,
the African rhythms would become less important, and the performers became merely
singers. Fado was thus generally sung by one person called a fadista, and normally
accompanied by the portuguese guitar and the classical guitar. The 19th century's
most renowned fadista was Maria Severa. More recently Amália Rodrigues, known as
the "Rainha do Fado" ("Queen of Fado") was most influential in popularizing fado
worldwide.[5] Fado performances today may be accompanied by a string quartet or a
full orchestra.

[edit] Varieties of fado

There are two main varieties of fado, namely those of the cities of Lisbon and
Coimbra. The Lisbon style is the more popular, while Coimbra's is the more classic
style. Modern fado is popular in Portugal, and has produced many renowned
musicians. According to tradition, to applaud fado in Lisbon you clap your hands,
while in Coimbra one coughs as if clearing one's throat.

[edit] Lisbon Fado

Born in the popular contexts of the 1800s Lisbon, Fado was present in convivial and
leisure moments. Happening spontaneously, its execution took place indoors or
outdoors, in gardens, bullfights, retreats, streets and alley, taverns, cafés de camareiras
and casas de meia-porta. Evoking urban emergence themes, singing the daily
narratives, Fado is profoundly related to social contexts ruled by marginality and
transgression in a first phase, taking place in locations visited by prostitutes, faias,
sailors, coachmen and marialvas. Often surprised in prison, its actors - the singers -
are described in the faia figure, a fado singer guy, a bully of a rough and hoarse voice
with tattoos and skilled with a flick knife who spoke using slang. As we will see,
fado‘s association to society‘s most marginal spheres would definitely make the
Portuguese intellectuals reject it profoundly.

Stating the communion of ludic spaces between the bohemian aristocracy and the
most disfavoured fringes of Lisbon‘s population, the history of fado crystallized into
myth the episode of the amorous relationship between the Count Vimioso and Maria
Severa Onofriana (1820–1846), a prostitute consecrated by her singing talents, who
would soon transform into one of greatest myths of the History of Fado. In successive
image and sound reprises, the allusion to the involvement between a bohemian
aristocrat with the fado singing prostitute would cross several sung poems and even
the cinema and the theatre or the visual arts - beginning with the novel A Severa, by
Júlio Dantas, published in 1901 and transported to the silver screen in 1931 - the first
Portuguese sound film, directed by Leitão de Barros.

Fado would also conquer ground in festive events connected to the city's popular
calendar, beneficence parties or cegadas - amateur and popular theatrical
presentations generally performed by men on the street, in night feats, and popular
associations. Although this sort of presentation was a famous entertaining form of
Lisbon‘s Carnival, enjoying popular support and often with strong intervening
characters, the censorship regulation in 1927 would strongly but irreversibly
contribute to the extinction of this type of show.

The Teatro de Revista [a sort of vaudeville theatre], a typical theatre genre from
Lisbon born in 1851, would soon discover fado‘s potential. In 1870, fado began to
appear in its music scenes and from there projects itself to a broader audience.
Lisbon‘s social e cultural context, with its typical neighbourhoods, and bohemia,
assumed an absolute protagonism in Teatro de Revista. Ascending to the theatre
stages, fado would animate the Revista, developing new themes and melodies. Teatro
de Revista was orchestrated and filled with refrains. Fado would be sung by famous
actresses, and renowned fado singers, singing their repertoires. Two different
approaches to fado would become recorded in history: the danced fado stylized by
Francis and the spoken fado of João Villaret. A central figure in the history of Fado,
Hermínia Silva conquered fame on the theatre stages in the 1930s and 1940s, adding
her unmistakable singing gifts to those of a comical actress and revisteira.

Fado‘s appropriation field broadened in the last quarter of the 19th century. This was
the time of the formal stabilization of the poetic form of the ―ten-verse stanza‖, a
quatrain made of four stanzas of ten verses each, on which fado would get its structure
and later develop into other variants. This is also the period of the definition of the
Portuguese guitar - progressively diffused from the urban centres to the country‘s
rural areas - in its specific component as fado companion.
In the first decades of the 20th century, fado began to be gradually divulged and
gained popular consecration through the publication of periodicals on the subject and
the consolidation of new performing venues in a broad network that began
incorporating Fado in its agenda with a commercial perspective, fixating private casts
which would often form embassies or artistic groups for tours. In parallel the
relationship of Fado with the theatre stages was consolidated and the performances by
fado singers at Revistas musical scenes and operettas multiplied.

In fact, the appearance of fado singing professional companies in the 1930s allowed
promoting shows with great casts and their circulation in theatres north and south of
the country, and even in international tours. That was the case of ―Grupo Artístico de
Fados‖, with Berta Cardoso (1911–1997), Madalena de Melo (1903–1970), Armando
Augusto Freire, (1891–1946) Martinho d‘Assunção (1914–1992) and João da Mata,
and ―Grupo Artístico Propaganda do Fado‖, with Deonilde Gouveia (1900–1946),
Júlio Proença (1901–1970) and Joaquim Campos (1899–1978), or ―Troupe Guitarra
de Portugal‖, with Ercília Costa (1902–1985) and Alfredo Marceneiro (1891–1982)
among others.

Although the first discographic records produced in Portugal date from the beginning
of the 20th century, at this stage the national market was still very incipient since it
was quite expensive to buy gramophones and records. Effectively, the fundamental
conditions for recording sound appeared after the invention of the electric microphone
in 1925. At the same time, gramophones started being made at more competitive
prices. And thus were created more favourable conditions to this market among the
middle class.

In the context of the mediatization instruments of Fado, TSF - wireless telegraphy -

had a central importance in the first decades of the 20th century. Among the intense
activity of radio broadcasting stations between 1925 and 1935, we highlight CT1AA,
Rádio Clube Português, Rádio Graça and Rádio Luso - this last one quickly becoming
popular for favouring fado. The broadcasts of the first Portuguese radio station,
CT1AA, began in 1925. Investing on technical and logistic infrastructures which
guaranteed it the expansion of its broadcast range and the broadcasts regularity,
CT1AA of Abílio Nunes incorporated fado in its broadcasts, conquering a large group
of listeners, including in the Portuguese emigration diaspora. With live feeds from the
Theatres and musical live presentations at the studios, CT1AA also promoted the
broadcast of an experimental fado show directed by the Spanish guitar player Amadeu
Ramin.

With the military coup of the 28 May 1926 and the implementation of previous
censorship on public shows, the press and other publications, the urban song would
suffer profound changes. In fact, in the following year the Decree Law Number 13
564 of 6 May 1927 globally regulated the show activities through extensive clauses;
defending a ―superior supervision of all the houses and show venues or public
entertaining (...) by the General Inspection of Theatres and its delegates in behalf of
the Public Instruction Ministry‖ on its 200 articles. Fado suffered unavoidable
changes. The legal instrument regulated on the attribution of licenses to the
companies which promoted shows at the most diversified venues, authorship rights,
mandatory previous viewing of shows and sung repertoires, specific regulation for
attributing the professional card, contracts, and tour travelling, among many other
subjects. Significant mutations were so imposed on the performing venues, on the
way interpreters presented themselves, and on the sung repertoires - striped of any
improvised character - cementing a professionalization process of several interpreters,
instrument players, song writers and composers, who were then performing at several
venues before an increasing audience.

The hearing of fados would gradually become ritualized at fado houses, places which
concentrated in the city‘s historic neighbourhoods, mainly in Bairro Alto, especially
since the 1930s. These transformations in the fado production would necessarily drift
it apart from improvise, losing some of its original performing contexts diversity and
imposing the specialization of interpreters, authors and musicians. In parallel, the
discographic and radio recordings proposed a triage of voices and performing
practices that were imposed as models, thus limiting improvise.

The next decade, the revivalism trends of the so called typical features would
definitely prevail, leading to a replication of the most genuine and picturesque in
fado‘s performing venues.

Fado was present in the theatre and the radio since their first moments and the same
would happen in the Seventh Art. In fact, the appearance of sound films was marked
by the musical genre and the Portuguese cinema gave special attention to fado.
Proving it, the theme of the first Portuguese sound film, directed by Leitão de Barros
in 1931, was the misfortunes of the mythical Severa. As a central theme or a mere
side note, fado accompanied cinema production until the 1970s. In fact, the
Portuguese cinema showed particular interest in the fado universe in 1947 with O
Fado, História de uma Cantadeira, starred by Amália Rodrigues or in 1963, with O
Miúdo da Bica, starred by Fernando Farinha. Despite the protagonism of Amália
Rodrigues, the participations of artists like Fernando Farinha, Hermínia Silva, Berta
Cardoso, Deolinda Rodrigues, Raul Nery and Jaime Santos in the Seventh Art are also
noteworthy.

And if radio broadcasting allowed to go beyond geographical barriers, taking the

voices of fado to thousands of people, when Rádio Televisão Portuguesa was
inaugurated in 1957 – and specially when the broadcast became national in the mid-
1970s - the faces of the artists would become known by the general public. Recreating
environments connected to fado themes inside the study, television broadcasted
regularly, between 1959 and 1974, with live feeds of fado shows which would
undoubtedly contribute to its mediatization.

Enjoying the diffusion on the Teatro de Revista stages since the last quart of the 19th
century, and the promotion on the specialized press since the first decades of the 20th
century, Fado became progressively mediatized by the radio, cinema, and television.
It gained great strength between the 1940s and 1960, often called the golden years..
The annual contest Grande Noite do Fado began in 1953, lasting until our days.
Gathering hundreds of candidates from several organizations and associations of the
city, this contest is traditionally held at Coliseu dos Recreios and is still today an
important event to the fado tradition of Lisbon and the promotion of young amateurs
who try to rise to the professional status.
The exponents of the national song were at the time attached to a network of typical
houses with regular casts. But now they had a broader working market with many
possibilities of discographic recording, tours, performances at radio and television. In
parallel, there were performances by fado singers at ―Serões para Trabalhadores‖,
cultural events broadcast by the radio and promoted by FNAT since 1942. Fado
programmes were also promoted by the Secretariado Nacional de Informação, Cultura
e Turismo which became responsible for the Censhorship, Emissora Nacional, and
Inspecção Geral dos Espectáculos in 1944. In the 1950s, the regime‘s approach to the
international success of Amália Rodrigues strengthened the collage of the regime to
fado, after changing it deeply.

The simplicity of Fado‘s melodic structure values the voice interpretation, and also
sublimes the sung repertoires. With a strong evocative inclination, fado‘s poetry
appeals to the communion between the interpreter, the musicians and the listeners. In
quatrains or improvised quatrains, five-verse stanzas, six-verse stanzas, decasyllables
and alexandrine verses, this popular poetry evokes themes related to love, luck,
individual fate, and the city‘s daily narrative. Sensitive to social injustice, Fado gained
interventionist contours on many occasions.

And although the first Fado lyrics were mostly anonymous, successively transmitted
by oral tradition, this would definitely be reverted in the mid-1920s, when several
popular poets emerged, such as Henrique Rego, João da Mata, Gabriel de Oliveira,
Frederico de Brito, Carlos Conde and João Linhares Barbosa, who gave special
attention to fado. In the 1950s, fado would definitely cross the path of erudite poetry
in the voice of Amália Rodrigues. After the decisive contribution of the composer
Alain Oulman, fado began singing texts of poets with academic education and
published literary works, such as David Mourão-Ferreira, Pedro Homem de Mello,
José Régio, Luiz de Macedo, and later Alexandre O.Neill, Sidónio Muralha, Leonel
Neves and Vasco de Lima Couto, among many others.

The international divulgation of Fado had begun in the mid-1930s. Fado spread
towards the African continent and Brazil, preferred performing destinations of some
artists such as Ercília Costa, Berta Cardoso, Madalena de Melo, Armando Augusto
Freire, Martinho d‘Assunção and João da Mata, among others. However, the
internationalization of fado would only consolidate in the 1950s, especially thanks to
Amália Rodrigues.

Surpassing the cultural and language barriers, Fado would definitely become a
national culture icon with Amália. For decades and until her death, in 1999, Amália
Rodrigues was its national and international star.

The April 1974 Revolution instituted a democratic State in Portugal, founded on the
assumption of the integration of public liberties, respect and guaranty of individual
rights with the inherent opening of a more active civic, political and social
participation to citizens. As a result of the global society, the mass culture influences
would be felt progressively over the following decades. This context modified fado‘s
relation with the Portuguese market, centred on popular music with an intervening
character while simultaneously absorbing many of the musical forms created abroad.
In the years immediately after the revolution, the two years interruption of the contest
Grande Noite do Fado and the radical decrease of fado‘s presence at radio or
television broadcasts testify the hostility towards fado.

In fact, only when the democratic regime became stable, in 1976, would fado regain
its own space. The following year the album Um Homem na Cidade was released by
one of the biggest names of Lisbon‘s urban song, a central figure of fado‘s
internationalization. As no other, the owner of a solid 45 years career has articulated
the most legitimate fado tradition to an unending ability to recreate it.

As the ideological debate around fado gradually comes to an end, it was mostly since
the 1980s that fado consenso is recognized its central position in the scene of the
Portuguese musical patrimony. The market showed a renewed interest for Lisbon‘s
urban song, as testified by the increasing attention given by the discographic industry
through the re-edition of recorded registries, fado‘s gradual interpretation in the
popular festivities circuits at a regional scale, the progressive appearance of a new
generation of interpreters, and even the approach of singers from other areas to fado
such as José Mário Branco, Sérgio Godinho, António Variações and Paulo de
Carvalho.

Internationally there is also a renewed interest in local musical cultures. Amália

Rodrigues and Carlos do Carmo are notorious among fado most famous names in the
record industry, the media and live shows.

In the 1990s, fado would definitely cement its position in the international World
Music circuits with Mísia and Cristina Branco, in the French and the Dutch circuits,
respectively. Another emerging name in Fado.s panorama is Camané. In the 1990s
and the turn of the century a new generation of talented interpreters appears: Mafalda
Arnauth, Katia Guerreiro, Maria Ana Bobone, Joana Amendoeira, Ana Moura, Ana
Sofia Varela, Pedro Moutinho, Helder Moutinho, Gonçalo Salgueiro, António
Zambujo, Miguel Capucho, Rodrigo Costa Félix, Patrícia Rodrigues, and Raquel
Tavares. In the international circuit, however, it is Mariza who conquers an absolute
protagonism, drawing a fulgurant pathway during which she has won successive
prizes in the World Music category.

Excertos do texto: Pereira, Sara (2008), ―Circuito Museológico‖, in Museu do Fado,

Lisboa: EGEAC/Museu do Fado.

[edit] Coimbra fado

Main article: Coimbra fado

Fado group Verdes Anos (from Coimbra)

This fado is closely linked to the academic traditions of the University of Coimbra
and is exclusively sung by men; both the singers and musicians wear the academic
outfit (traje académico): dark robe, cape and leggings. It is sung at night, almost in the
dark, in city squares or streets. The most typical venues are the stair steps of the Santa
Cruz Monastery and the Old Cathedral of Coimbra. It is also customary to organize
serenades where songs are performed before the window of the woman to be courted.

The most sung themes include: student love, love for the city and bohemian life, and
the ironic and critical reference to the discipline and conservative nature of the
professors and their courses. Noted singers of this style are Augusto Hilário, António
Menano, and Edmundo Bettencourt.

The Coimbra fado is accompanied by either a Portuguese guitar or by a classical

guitar. The tuning and sound coloring of the Portuguese guitar in Coimbra are quite
different from that of Lisbon. Regarding the Portuguese guitar, Artur Paredes
revolutionized the tuning and the accompaniment style to the Coimbra fado, adding
his name to the most progressive and innovative singers. Artur Paredes was the father
of Carlos Paredes, who followed and expanded on his work, making the Portuguese
guitar an instrument known around the world.

In the 1950s, a new movement led the singers of Coimbra to adopt the ballad and
folklore. They began interpreting lines of the great poets, both classical and
contemporary, as a form of resistance to the Salazar dictatorship. In this movement
names such as Adriano Correia de Oliveira and José Afonso (Zeca Afonso) had a
leading role in the revolution taking place in popular Portuguese music.

Some of the most famous fados of Coimbra include: Fado Hilário, Saudades de
Coimbra (―Do Choupal até à Lapa‖), Balada da Despedida (―Coimbra tem mais
encanto, na hora da despedida‖ - the first phrases are often more recognizable than the
song titles), O meu menino é d’oiro, and Samaritana. The "judge-singer" Fernando
Machado Soares is an important figure, being the author of some of those famous
fados.

Curiously, it is not a Coimbra fado but a popular song which is the most known title
referring to this city: Coimbra é uma lição, which had success with titles such as April
in Portugal.

[edit] Fado in North America

Several singers of the traditional Portuguese fado have appeared in Canada and the
United States.

One of these, Ramana Vieira, regularly performs in the San Francisco Bay Area
without a traditional fado ensemble. Ramana received her formal voice training at San
Francisco's American Conservatory Theater and considers herself to be "The New
Voice of Portuguese World Music."[6]

[edit] See also

Fados - a 2007 movie about fado by Spanish director Carlos Saura
Kroncong - a similar music style found in Indonesia, brought by Portuguese
traders
A list of Fado musicians

[edit] References
1. ^ http://www.fnac.pt/Para-uma-Historia-do-Fado-Rui-Vieira-Nery/a306961
2. ^ "Fado, urban popular song of Portugal". UNESCO Culture Sector.
http://www.unesco.org/culture/ich/index.php?lg=en&pg=00011&RL=00563.
Retrieved 2011-11-27.
3. ^ Online Etymology Dictionary: fado
4. ^ Online Etymology Dictionary: fate
5. ^ Rohter, Larry (March 25, 2011). "Carving Out a Bold Destiny for Fado". The New
York Times. http://www.nytimes.com/2011/03/27/arts/music/ana-moura-is-among-
singers-reinvigorating-fado.html?_r=1&hp.
6. ^ Ramana Vieira website
Portuguese language
From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia
Jump to: navigation, search

Portuguese

português

[puɾtuˈɣeʃ] (EP)
Pronunciation
[portuˈɡe(j)s][1] (BP)
[poɾtuˈɣes]1 (G)

Spoken natively in See geographic distribution of

Portuguese

Native speakers 203 million

Total: 252 million (2011)[2]

Language family Indo-European

Italic
o Romance
Western Romance
Gallo-Iberian
Ibero-Romance
West-Iberian
Galician-Portuguese
Portuguese

Writing system Latin (Portuguese alphabet)

Official status

Official language in 9 countries[show]

1 dependency[show]
Numerous international organisations

Regulated by International Portuguese Language

Institute
Academia Brasileira de Letras (Brazil)
Academia das Ciências de Lisboa,
Classe de Letras (Portugal)
CPLP

Language codes
 ISO 639-1 pt

ISO 639-2 por

ISO 639-3 por

Linguasphere 51-AAA-a

Native language
Official and administrative language
Cultural or secondary language
Portuguese speaking minorities
Portuguese-based creole languages

This page contains IPA phonetic symbols in Unicode.

Without proper rendering support, you may see question
marks, boxes, or other symbols instead of Unicode
characters.

Portuguese ( português (help·info) or língua portuguesa) is a Romance language. It

is the official language of Portugal, Brazil, Mozambique, Angola, Cape Verde,
Guinea-Bissau, and São Tomé and Príncipe.[3] Portuguese has co-official status
(alongside the indigenous language) in Macau, East Timor in South East Asia and in
Equatorial Guinea in Central Africa; Portuguese speakers are also found in Goa,
Daman and Diu in India.[4]

With a total of 236 million speakers, Portuguese is the 6th most spoken language in
the world, the 3rd most spoken language in the western hemisphere, and the most
spoken language in the southern hemisphere.

Spanish author Miguel de Cervantes once called Portuguese "the sweet language" and
Spanish playwright Lope de Vega referred to it as "sweet", while the Brazilian writer
Olavo Bilac poetically described it as a última flor do Lácio, inculta e bela (the last
flower of Latium, wild and beautiful). Portuguese is also termed "the language of
Camões", after one of Portugal's greatest literary figures, Luís Vaz de Camões.[5][6][7]

In March 2006, the Museum of the Portuguese Language, an interactive museum

about the Portuguese language, was founded in São Paulo, Brazil, the city with the
greatest number of Portuguese-language speakers in the world.[8]

Contents
[hide]

1 History
2 Geographic distribution
o 2.1 Official status
o 2.2 Population of countries and jurisdictions of Portuguese official or
co-official language
o 2.3 Portuguese as a foreign language
o 2.4 Future
3 Dialects
o 3.1 Angola
o 3.2 Brazil
o 3.3 Portugal
o 3.4 Other countries
o 3.5 Characterization
4 Vocabulary
5 Classification and related languages
o 5.1 Galician and the Fala
o 5.2 Influence on other languages
o 5.3 Derived languages
6 Phonology
o 6.1 Vowels
o 6.2 Consonants
7 Examples of different pronunciation
8 Grammar
9 Writing system
o 9.1 Spelling reforms
o 9.2 Usual statements and numbers
10 See also
11 Notes
12 References
o 12.1 Literature
o 12.2 Phonology, orthography and grammar
o 12.3 Reference dictionaries
o 12.4 Linguistic studies
13 External links

[edit] History
Main article: History of the Portuguese language

When Romans arrived in the Iberian Peninsula in 216 BC, they brought the Latin
language, from which all Romance languages descend. The language was spread by
arriving Roman soldiers, settlers, and merchants, who built Roman cities mostly near
the settlements of previous civilizations.

Between AD 409 and 711, as the Roman Empire collapsed in Western Europe, the
Iberian Peninsula was conquered by Germanic peoples (Migration Period). The
occupiers, mainly Suebi and Visigoths, quickly adopted late Roman culture and the
Vulgar Latin dialects of the peninsula. After the Moorish invasion of 711, Arabic
became the administrative language in the conquered regions, but most of the
population continued to speak a form of Romance commonly known as Mozarabic.
The influence exerted by Arabic on the Romance dialects spoken in the Christian
kingdoms was mainly restricted to affecting their lexicon.

Medieval
Portuguese poetry

Das que vejo

nom desejo

outra senhor se vós nom,

e desejo

tam sobejo,

mataria um leon,
 senhor do meu coraçom:

fim roseta,

bela sobre toda fror,

fim roseta,

nom me meta

em tal coita voss'amor!

João Lobeira
(c. 1270–1330)

Portuguese evolved from the medieval language, known today by linguists as

Galician-Portuguese or Old Portuguese or Old Galician, of the north-western
medieval Kingdom of Galicia. It is in Latin administrative documents of the 9th
century that written Galician-Portuguese words and phrases are first recorded. This
phase is known as Proto-Portuguese, which lasted from the 9th century until the 12th-
century independence of the County of Portugal from the Kingdom of Galicia, then a
subkingdom of León. In the first part of Galician-Portuguese period (from the 12th to
the 14th century), the language was increasingly used for documents and other written
forms. For some time, it was the language of preference for lyric poetry in Christian
Hispania, much as Occitan was the language of the poetry of the troubadours in
France. Portugal became an independent kingdom in 1139, under King Afonso I of
Portugal. In 1290, King Denis of Portugal created the first Portuguese university in
Lisbon (the Estudos Gerais, later moved to Coimbra) and decreed that Portuguese,
then simply called the "common language", be known as the Portuguese language and
used officially.

In the second period of Old Portuguese, in the 15th and 16th centuries, with the
Portuguese discoveries, the language was taken to many regions of Africa, Asia and
the Americas. Nowadays, the great majority of Portuguese speakers live in Brazil, in
South America, Portugal's biggest former colony. By the mid 16th century Portuguese
had become a lingua franca in Asia and Africa, used not only for colonial
administration and trade but also for communication between local officials and
Europeans of all nationalities. Its spread was helped by mixed marriages between
Portuguese and local people, and by its association with Roman Catholic missionary
efforts, which led to the formation of a creole language called Kristang in many parts
of Asia (from the word cristão, "Christian"). The language continued to be popular in
parts of Asia until the 19th century. Some Portuguese-speaking Christian
communities in India, Sri Lanka, Malaysia, and Indonesia preserved their language
even after they were isolated from Portugal.

The end of the Old Portuguese period was marked by the publication of the
Cancioneiro Geral by Garcia de Resende, in 1516. The early times of Modern
Portuguese, which spans a period from the 16th century to the present day, were
characterized by an increase in the number of learned words borrowed from Classical
Latin and Classical Greek since the Renaissance, which greatly enriched the lexicon.

[edit] Geographic distribution

Main article: Geographic distribution of Portuguese

Portuguese is the language of majority of people in Angola (80%),[9] Brazil,[10]

Portugal,[11] and São Tomé and Príncipe (95%).[12] Although only just over 10% of the
population are native speakers of Portuguese in Mozambique, the language is spoken
by about 50.4% there according to the 2007 census.[13] It is also spoken by 11.5% of
the population in Guinea-Bissau.[14] No data is available for Cape Verde, but almost
all the population is bilingual, and the monolingual population speaks Cape Verdean
Creole.

There are also significant Portuguese-speaking immigrant communities in many

countries including Andorra (15.4%),[15] Australia,[16] Bermuda,[17] Canada (0.72% or
219,275 persons in the 2006 census[18] but between 400,000 and 500,000 according to
Nancy Gomes),[19] Curaçao, France,[20] Japan,[21] Jersey,[22] Luxembourg (9%),[11]
Namibia (about 4-5% of the population, mainly refugees from Angola in the North of
the country)[23] Paraguay (10.7% or 636,000 persons),[24] Macau (0.6% or 12,000
persons),[25] South Africa,[26] Switzerland (196,000 nationals in 2008),[27] Venezuela
(1 to 2% or 254,000 to 480,000),[28] and the USA (0.24% of the population or 687,126
speakers according to the 2007 American Community Survey),[29] mainly in
Connecticut,[30] Florida,[31] Massachusetts (where it is the second most spoken
language in the state),[32] New Jersey,[33] New York[34] and Rhode Island.[35]
In some parts of the former Portuguese India, i.e. Goa,[36] Daman and Diu,[37] the
language is still spoken.

[edit] Official status

Main article: List of countries where Portuguese is an official language

Countries and regions where Portuguese has official status

The Community of Portuguese Language Countries[3] (with the Portuguese acronym

CPLP) consists of the eight independent countries that have Portuguese as an official
language: Angola, Brazil, Cape Verde, East Timor, Guinea-Bissau, Mozambique,
Portugal and São Tomé and Príncipe.[3]

Equatorial Guinea made a formal application for full membership to the CPLP in June
2010 and should add Portuguese as its third official language (alongside Spanish and
French) since this is one of the conditions. The President of Equatorial Guinea,
Obiang Nguema Mbasog, and Prime-Minister Cheaf of State, Ignacio Milam Tang,
have approved on 20 July 2011 the new Constitutional bill that intends to add
Portuguese as an official language of the country. The bill is now waiting for
ratification by the People's Representative Chamber and it shall come into force 20
days after its publication at the official state's gazette.[38][39][40]

Portuguese is also one of the official languages of the Chinese special administrative
region of Macau (alongside Chinese) and of several international organizations,
including the Mercosur,[41] the Organization of Ibero-American States,[42] the Union
of South American Nations,[43] the Organization of American States,[44] the African
Union[45] and the European Union.[46]

[edit] Population of countries and jurisdictions of Portuguese official or

co-official language

According to statistical and credible data from each government and their statistical
national bureaus the population of each of the nine jurisdictions is as follows (by
descending order):

Brazil: 190,755,799 (definite results of the 2010 Census);[47]

Mozambique: 20,366,795 (definite results of the 2007 Census);[48][49]
Angola: 15,116,000 (government's estimate. Angola hasn't had a census
counting for a few decades, the next one is scheduled for 2013);[50]
Portugal: 10,555,853 (preliminary results of the 2011 Census);[51][52]
Guinea-Bissau: 1,520,830 (definite results of the 2009 Census);[53]
 Timor-Leste: 1,066,582 (preliminary results of the 2010 Census);[54]
Macau: 558,100 (estimate of the DSEC of SAR Macau. The countings of the
2011 Census are now being made.[55][56][57]
Cape Verde: 491,575 (preliminary results of the 2010 Census);[58]
São Tomé and Principe: 137,599 (results of the 2001 Census published in
2003)[59]

This means that the population living in the lusophone official area is of 240,569,133
inhabitants.

To this number there is yet to add the big diaspora of lusophone nations spread
throughout the world, estimated in little less than 10 million people (4.5 million
Portuguese, 3 million Brazilians, half a million Cape Verdeans, etc.) although it is
hard to obtain official accurate numbers — including the percentage of this diaspora
that can actually speak Portuguese, because a significative portion of these citizens
are Portuguese or non-Portuguese citizens born outside of lusophone territory,
descendants of immigrants, and who do not speak the language. It is also important to
refer that a big part of these national diasporas is a part of the already counted
population of the Portuguese-speaking countries and territories, like the high number
of Brazilian and PALOP's emigrant citizens in Portugal, or the high number of
Portuguese emigrant citizens in the PALOP's and Brazil.

So being, the Portuguese language serves daily little more than 240 million people,
who have direct or indirect legal, juridic and social contact with it, varying from the
only language used in any contact, to only education, contact with local or
international administration, commerce and services or the simple sight of road signs,
public information and advertising in Portuguese.

It's also noticeable the growing numbers of these countries and jurisdictions'
population to raw numbers easily identified: Continental Portugal with 10 million
speakers and Azores and Madeira counting already half a million together; Brazil
reaches 190 million, Mozambique 20 million, Angola 15 million, Guinea-Bissau an
accurate 1 and a half million, Cape Verde and São Tomé and Príncipe count for half a
million together as well, Macau reaches half a million and Timor reaches finally the
group of countries with one million inhabitants leaving the list of thousands. These
are recent and real numbers that individually and all together strengthen the lusophone
identities and the Portuguese language on an international basis.

[edit] Portuguese as a foreign language

The mandatory offering of Portuguese in school curricula is observed in Uruguay[60]

and Argentina.[61] Other countries where Portuguese is taught at schools or is being
introduced now include Venezuela,[62] Zambia,[63] Congo,[64] Senegal,[64] Namibia,[23]
Swaziland,[64] Ivory Coast,[64] and South Africa.[64]

[edit] Future

According to estimates by UNESCO, Portuguese and Spanish are the fastest-growing

European languages after English and the language has, according to newspaper The
Portugal Press, the highest potential for growth as an international language in
southern Africa and South America.[65] The Portuguese-speaking African countries
are expected to have a combined population of 83 million by 2050. In total, the
Portuguese-speaking countries will have 335 million people by the same year.[65]

Since 1991, when Brazil signed into the economic community of Mercosul with other
South American nations, such as Argentina, Uruguay, and Paraguay, there has been
an increase in interest in the study of Portuguese in those South American countries.
The demographic weight of Brazil in the continent will continue to strengthen the
presence of the language in the region.

Although early in the 21st century, after Macau was ceded to China, the use of
Portuguese was in decline in Asia, it is once again becoming a language of
opportunity there; mostly because of increased Chinese diplomatic and financial ties
with Portuguese-speaking countries.[66]

[edit] Dialects
Main article: Portuguese dialects

Modern Standard Portuguese (português padrão) is based on the Portuguese spoken

in the area including and surrounding the city of Coimbra, in Central Portugal.
Standard Portuguese is also the preferred standard by the Portuguese-speaking
African countries, as such and despite the fact that its speakers are dispersed around
the world, Portuguese has only two dialects used for learning: the European and the
Brazilian. Some aspects and sounds found in dialects in Brazil are exclusive to South
America, and cannot be found in Europe. However, the Santomean Portuguese in
Africa may be confused with a Brazilian accent. Some aspects link some Brazilian
accents with the ones spoken in Africa, such as the pronunciation of "menino", which
is pronounced as [mininu] compared to [meninu] in Standard Portuguese. Dialects
from inland Northern Portugal have significant similarities with Galician.

Audio samples of some dialects and accents of Portuguese are available below.[67]
There are some differences between the areas but these are the best approximations
possible. IPA transcriptions refer to the names in local pronounce.

[edit] Angola

Portuguese dialects of Angola.

 1. Benguelense—Benguela province.
2. Luandense—Luanda province.
3. Sulista—South of Angola.
4. Huambense—Huambo province.

[edit] Brazil

Baiano (3) —Bahia and Sergipe range of accents.

Nordestino (2) —[nɔhd ʃˈtinu], more markedly in the Sertão (7) and less
distinctive in the cities, includes all the dialectal variations found in
Northeastern Brazil from Alagoas to Maranhão.[68]

Nortista (8) —[nɔhˈtʃiʃt ], most of Amazon Basin states i.e. Northern Brazil.

Sertanejo (10) —Center-Western states, and also much of Tocantins and

Rondônia. It is closer to mineiro, caipira, nordestino or nortista depending on
the location.

Mineiro (6) — Minas Gerais (not prevalent in the Triângulo Mineiro).

Southern, Southeastern and Northern areas of the state have fairly distinctive
accents as well, approximanting to caipira, fluminense (popularly called, often
pejoratively, carioca do brejo, "marsh carioca") and baiano respectively there.
Areas adjacent to Belo Horizonte also have a peculiar accent.

Variants and sociolects of Brazilian Portuguese.

Caipira (1) —Both [k jˈpiɾ ] and [kajˈpiɾ ], in the states of São Paulo (most
markedly on the countryside and rural areas); southern Minas Gerais, northern
Paraná, southeastern Mato Grosso do Sul. Depending on the vision of what
constitutes caipira, Triângulo Mineiro, Southern Goiás, the remaining parts of
Mato Grosso do Sul, and the frontier of caipira in Minas Gerais is expanded
some further northerly, sufficiently to include localities in the "Zona da Mata
Mineira", nevertheless does not reach Belo Horizonte expanded metropolitan
area.
It is often said that caipira appeared by decreolization of São Paulo's[citation
needed]
língua brasílica and its related língua geral paulista, a former lingua
franca in most of the contemporary Centro-Sul of Brazil before the 18th
 century, spoken by most of the bandeirantes, interior pioneers of Colonial
Brazil, closely related to its Northern counterpart Nheengatu, and that is why
the dialect shows many general differences from other variants of the
language.[69]
Nevertheless, its most marked difference from fluminense and many other
Brazilian dialects, the postalveolar "r" instead of the usual guttural "r", is often
said do derivate from the transmutation of the traditional paulista feature
alveolar flap in combination with the presence of American immigrants. In
Greater Campinas, which happens to be the center of American immigration in
Brazil, caipira accent is particularly distinctive.

Cafundó (Cupópia) —[kafũˈdɔ], a 'secret' variant with a large number of

Bantu words, called by some linguists an anti-creole, spoken in the quilombo
of Cafundó, in the rural area of Salto de Pirapora, 121 km west of São Paulo
city (9). Cafundó is in itself a Vernacular Brazilian Portuguese placeholder
name for a very distant, isolated or hardly accessible place.

Share of Portuguese speakers among different countries.

Paulistano (9)—Variants spoken around Greater São Paulo in its maximum

definition and some eastern areas of São Paulo state, and most cultivated
speakers from anywhere in the state of São Paulo. Inside the paulistano area,
there is a continuum from the variants which most closely resemble standard
forms of Brazilian Portuguese (most famously the one closer to the early and
mid-20th century standard, which is called quatrocentão, "the big 400", in
reference to the elite said to have roots in São Paulo as old as the foundation of
the city itself) to the ones most closer to the caipira variant. Caipira is the
inland sociolect of much of the Central-Southern half of Brazil, stronger in the
rural areas, and it has historically low prestige in cities as Rio de Janeiro,
Curitiba, Belo Horizonte, and until some years ago, in São Paulo itself.
Sociolinguistics, or what by times is described as 'linguistic prejudice', often
correlated with classism,[70][71][72] is a polemic topic in the entirety of the
country since the times of Adoniran Barbosa.

Sulista (11) —The variants spoken in the areas between the northern regions
of Rio Grande do Sul and southern regions of São Paulo state, encompassing
most of Southern Brazil. The city of Curitiba do have a fairly distinct accent as
well, and a minority of speakers in Florianópolis speak the variant (most of
them make part of a continuum which ends in manezinho da ilha, related to
the European Portuguese dialects spoken in Azores and Madeira).
 Gaúcho (5) —[gaˈuʃʊ], in Rio Grande do Sul. There are many distinct accents
in Rio Grande do Sul, mainly due to the heavy influx of European immigrants
of diverse origins, who have settled in colonies throughout the state and to the
proximity to Spanish-speaking nations. The gaúcho word in itself is a Spanish
loanword into Portuguese of obscure Indigenous Amerindian origins.

Capixaba (4) [upward]—[kap(i)ˈʃab ], the variants spoken throughout Espírito

Santo. Continuum between the most typically rural accents, in its extreme in
the Southern region close to Rio de Janeiro state but to some extent also
distancing a little from the coast which approximate to mineiro and to some
extent caipira (which nevertheless weakened in cities as Cachoeiro do
Itapemirim), and the more cultivated speech which slightly resembles standard
Brazilian Portuguese spoken in Minas Gerais while being more European
Portuguese-like, nevertheless by far not as intense as it is in Rio de Janeiro,
typical of many speakers in Greater Vitória and mid to big municipalities.

Dialects of European Portuguese, the Galician language plus the Fala, excluding those
spoken outside the continental area (Azores and Madeira).

Florianopolitano—Variants heavily influenced by European Portuguese

spoken in Florianópolis city (due to a heavy immigration movement from
Portugal, mainly its autonomous regions) and much of its metropolitan area,
Grande Florianópolis, said to be a continuum between those whose speech
most resemble sulista dialects and those whose speech most resemble
fluminense and EP ones, called, often pejoratively, manezinho da ilha.
 Fluminense (4) [downward] and brasiliense—Variants spoken in the state of
Rio de Janeiro, and the related variant spoken in the Federal District. It
appeared after locals came in contact with the Portuguese aristocracy amidst
the Portuguese royal family fled in early 19th century. Some sources do not
include the city of Rio de Janeiro and its adjacent metropolitan area, which
have their own accents, collectively called carioca.

Carioca—Sociolect of the fluminense variant spoken in an area roughly

corresponding to Greater Rio de Janeiro. There is actually a continuum
between countryside accents, the carioca sociolect, generally used
colloquially, and the educated speech (the norma culta) which most closely
resembles other Brazilian Portuguese standards but with markedly European
Portuguese-like features, the nearer ones among the country's dialects along
manezinho da ilha sociolect of florianopolitano.

[edit] Portugal

Dialects of Portuguese in Portugal.

1. Micaelense (Açores) (São Miguel)—Azores.

2. Alentejano—Alentejo (Alentejan Portuguese)
3. Algarvio—Algarve (there is a particular dialect in a small part of western
Algarve).
4. Alto-Minhoto—North of Braga (hinterland).
5. Baixo-Beirão; Alto-Alentejano—Central Portugal (hinterland).
6. Beirão— Central Portugal.
7. Estremenho—Regions of Coimbra, Leiria and Lisbon (this is a disputed
denomination, as Coimbra is not part of "Estremadura", and the Lisbon dialect
has some peculiar features that not only are not shared with the one of
Coimbra, as make it significantly distinct and recognizable to most native
speakers from elsewhere in Portugal).
8. Madeirense (Madeiran)—Madeira.
9. Nortenho—Regions of the districts of Braga, Porto and parts of Aveiro.
10. Transmontano—Trás-os-Montes e Alto Douro.

[edit] Other countries

 Cape Verde— Português cabo-verdiano (Cape Verdean Portuguese)
Daman and Diu, India—Damaense (Damanese Portuguese)
Goa, India—Goês (Goan Portuguese)
Guinea-Bissau— Guineense (Guinean Portuguese)
Macau, China— Macaense (Macanese Portuguese)
Mozambique— Moçambicano (Mozambican Portuguese)
São Tomé and Príncipe— Santomense (São Tomean Portuguese)
Spain—Oliventian Portuguese, and controversially other varieties
sometimes deemed as separate languages.
Uruguay—Dialectos Portugueses del Uruguay (DPU)
Timor-Leste— Timorense (East Timorese Portuguese)

Differences between dialects are mostly of accent and vocabulary, but between the
Brazilian dialects and other dialects, especially in their most colloquial forms, there
can also be some grammatical differences. The Portuguese-based creoles spoken in
various parts of Africa, Asia, and the Americas are independent languages.

[edit] Characterization

Portuguese, like Catalan and Sardinian, preserved the stressed vowels of Vulgar Latin,
which became diphthongs in most other Romance languages; cf. Port., Cat., Sard.
pedra ; Fr. pierre, Sp. piedra, It. pietra, Ro. piatră, from Lat. petram ("stone"); or
Port. fogo, Cat. foc, Sard. fogu; Sp. fuego, It. fuoco, Fr. feu, Ro. foc, from Lat. focus
("fire"). Another characteristic of early Portuguese was the loss of intervocalic l and
n, sometimes followed by the merger of the two surrounding vowels, or by the
insertion of an epenthetic vowel between them: cf. Lat. salire ("to leave"), tenere ("to
have"), catenam ("chain"), Sp. salir, tener, cadena, Port. sair, ter, cadeia.

When the elided consonant was n, it often nasalized the preceding vowel: cf. Lat.
manum ("hand"), ranam ("frog"), bonum ("good"), Port. mão, rãa, bõo (now mão, rã,
bom). This process was the source of most of the language's distinctive nasal
diphthongs. In particular, the Latin endings -anem, -anum and -onem became -ão in
most cases, cf. Lat. canem ("dog"), germanum ("brother"), rationem ("reason") with
Modern Port. cão, irmão, razão, and their plurals -anes, -anos, -ones normally
became -ães, -ãos, -ões, cf. cães, irmãos, razões.

[edit] Vocabulary
Main article: Portuguese vocabulary
Library of the Mafra National Palace, Portugal.

Baroque Library of the Coimbra University, Portugal.

Most of the lexicon of Portuguese is derived from Latin. Nevertheless, because of the
Moorish occupation of the Iberian Peninsula during the Middle Ages, and the
participation of Portugal in the Age of Discovery, it has adopted loanwords from all
over the world.

Very few Portuguese words can be traced to the pre-Roman inhabitants of Portugal,
which included the Gallaeci, Lusitanians, Celtici and Cynetes. The Phoenicians and
Carthaginians, briefly present, also left some scarce traces. Some notable examples
are abóbora "pumpkin" and bezerro "year-old calf", from the nearby Celtiberian
language (probably through the Celtici); cerveja "beer", from Celtic; through Latin
"cervisia."

In the 5th century, the Iberian Peninsula (the Roman Hispania) was conquered by the
Germanic Suebi and Visigoths. As they adopted the Roman civilization and language,
however, these people contributed only a few words to the lexicon, mostly related to
warfare—such as espora "spur", estaca "stake", and guerra "war", from Gothic
*spaúra, *stakka, and *wirro, respectively. The influence also exists in toponymic
and patronymic surnames borne by Visigoth sovereigns and their descendants, and it
dwells on placenames such has Ermesinde, Esposende and Resende where sinde and
sende are derived from the Germanic "sinths" (military expedition) and in the case of
Resende, the prefix re comes from Germanic "reths" (council).

Between the 9th and 13th centuries, Portuguese acquired about 800 words from
Arabic by influence of Moorish Iberia. They are often recognizable by the initial
Arabic article a(l)-, and include many common words such as aldeia "village" from
‫ال ض ي عة‬alḍai`a, alface "lettuce" from ‫ سخلا‬alkhass, armazém "warehouse" from
‫ال مخزن‬almakhzan, and azeite "olive oil" from ‫ تيزلا‬azzait. From Arabic came also
the grammatically peculiar word oxalá nacibmazoM ehT ."yllufepoh" ‫إن شاء هللا‬
currency name metical was derived from the word ‫ لاقتم‬mitqāl, a unit of weight. The
word Mozambique itself is from the Arabic name of sultan Muça Alebique (Musa
Alibiki).

Starting in the 15th century, the Portuguese maritime explorations led to the
introduction of many loanwords from Asian languages. For instance, catana "cutlass"
from Japanese katana and chá "tea" from Chinese chá.

From South America came batata "potato", from Taino; ananás and abacaxi, from
Tupi–Guarani naná and Tupi ibá cati, respectively (two species of pineapple), and
tucano "toucan" from Guarani tucan.

From the 16th to the 19th centuries, because of the role of Portugal as intermediary in
the Atlantic slave trade, and the establishment of large Portuguese colonies in Angola,
Mozambique, and Brazil, Portuguese got several words of African and Amerind
origin, especially names for most of the animals and plants found in those territories.
While those terms are mostly used in the former colonies, many became current in
European Portuguese as well. From Kimbundu, for example, came kifumate → cafuné
"head caress", kusula → caçula "youngest child", marimbondo "tropical wasp", and
kubungula → bungular "to dance like a wizard".

Finally, it has received a steady influx of loanwords from other European languages.
For example, melena "hair lock", fiambre "wet-cured ham" (in contrast with presunto
"dry-cured ham" from Latin prae-exsuctus "dehydrated"), and castelhano "Castilian",
from Spanish; colchete/crochê "bracket"/"crochet", paletó "jacket", batom "lipstick",
and filé/filete "steak"/"slice", rua "street" respectively, from French crochet, paletot,
bâton, filet; macarrão "pasta", piloto "pilot", carroça "carriage", and barraca
"barrack", from Italian maccherone, pilota, carrozza, baracca; and bife "steak",
futebol, revólver, estoque, folclore, from English beef, football, revolver, stock,
folklore.

[edit] Classification and related languages

Map showing the historical retreat and expansion of Portuguese (Galician-Portuguese)
within the context of its linguistic neighbours between the year 1000 and 2000
Main articles: Iberian Romance languages, Galician-Portuguese, and Differences
between Spanish and Portuguese

Portuguese belongs to the West Iberian branch of the Romance languages, and it has
special ties with the following members of this group:

Galician and Fala, its closest relatives.

Mirandese, Leonese and Asturian (Astur-Leonese linguistic group). Mirandese
is the only recognised regional language spoken in Portugal (beside
Portuguese, the only official language in Portugal).
Spanish.

Despite the obvious lexical and grammatical similarities between Portuguese and
other Romance languages, it is not mutually intelligible with them. Apart from
Galician and Spanish, Portuguese speakers will usually need some formal study of
basic grammar and vocabulary before attaining a reasonable level of comprehension
in the other Romance languages, and vice versa.

[edit] Galician and the Fala

The closest language to Portuguese is Galician, spoken in the autonomous community

of Galicia (northwestern Spain). The two were at one time a single language, known
today as Galician-Portuguese, but since the political separation of Portugal from
Galicia they have diverged, especially in pronunciation and vocabulary. Nevertheless,
the core vocabulary and grammar of Galician are still noticeably closer to Portuguese
than to those of Spanish. In particular, like Portuguese, it uses the future subjunctive,
the personal infinitive, and the synthetic pluperfect. Mutual intelligibility (estimated at
85% by R. A. Hall, Jr., 1989)[73] is very good between Galicians and northern
Portuguese, but poorer between Galicians and speakers from central Portugal.
Nevertheless, many renowned linguists still consider Galician to be a dialect of the
Portuguese language.

The Fala language is another descendant of Galician-Portuguese, spoken by a small

number of people in the Spanish towns of Valverde del Fresno, Eljas and San Martín
de Trevejo (autonomous community of Extremadura, near the border with Portugal).

[edit] Influence on other languages

See also: List of English words of Portuguese origin, Loan words in Indonesian,
Japanese words of Portuguese origin, List of Malay loanwords, Portuguese
loanwords in Sinhala, Loan words in Sri Lankan Tamil#Portuguese, and Sri Lanka
Indo-Portuguese language

Portuguese has provided loanwords to many languages, such as Indonesian, Manado

Malay, Sri Lankan Tamil and Sinhalese, Malay, Bengali, English, Hindi, Swahili,
Afrikaans, Konkani, Marathi, Tetum, Xitsonga, Papiamentu, Japanese, Lanc-Patuá
(spoken in northern Brazil), Esan and Sranan Tongo (spoken in Suriname). It left a
strong influence on the língua brasílica, a Tupi–Guarani language, which was the
most widely spoken in Brazil until the 18th century, and on the language spoken
around Sikka in Flores Island, Indonesia. In nearby Larantuka, Portuguese is used for
prayers in Holy Week rituals. The Japanese–Portuguese dictionary Nippo Jisho
(1603) was the first dictionary of Japanese in a European language, a product of Jesuit
missionary activity in Japan. Building on the work of earlier Portuguese missionaries,
the Dictionarium Anamiticum, Lusitanum et Latinum (Annamite–Portuguese–Latin
dictionary) of Alexandre de Rhodes (1651) introduced the modern orthography of
Vietnamese, which is based on the orthography of 17th-century Portuguese. The
Romanization of Chinese was also influenced by the Portuguese language (among
others), particularly regarding Chinese surnames; one example is Mei. During 1583–
88 Italian Jesuits Michele Ruggieri and Matteo Ricci created a Portuguese–Chinese
dictionary—the first ever European–Chinese dictionary.[74][75]

[edit] Derived languages

Main article: Portuguese-based creole languages

Beginning in the 16th century, the extensive contacts between Portuguese travelers
and settlers, African and Asian slaves, and local populations led to the appearance of
many pidgins with varying amounts of Portuguese influence. As each of these pidgins
became the mother tongue of succeeding generations, they evolved into fully fledged
creole languages, which remained in use in many parts of Asia, Africa and South
America until the 18th century. Some Portuguese-based or Portuguese-influenced
creoles are still spoken today, by over 3 million people worldwide, especially people
of partial Portuguese ancestry.

[edit] Phonology
Main article: Portuguese phonology
There is a maximum of 9 oral vowels and 19 consonants, though some varieties of the
language have fewer phonemes (Brazilian Portuguese is usually analyzed as having 8
oral vowels). There are also five nasal vowels, which some linguists regard as
allophones of the oral vowels, ten oral diphthongs, and five nasal diphthongs. In total,
Brazilian Portuguese has 13 vowel phonemes.[76][77]

[edit] Vowels

To the seven vowels of Vulgar Latin, European Portuguese has added two near central
vowels, one of which tends to be elided in rapid speech, like the e caduc of French
(/ /, but commonly represented as [ɨ]). The functional load of these two additional
vowels is very low. The high vowels /e o/ and the low vowels / ɔ/ are four distinct
phonemes, and they alternate in various forms of apophony. Like Catalan, Portuguese
uses vowel quality to contrast stressed syllables with unstressed syllables: isolated
vowels tend to be raised, and in some cases centralized, when unstressed. Nasal
diphthongs occur mostly at the ends of words.

[edit] Consonants

Consonant phonemes of Portuguese[78][79]

Labio- Dental/ Post- Uvular/
Bilabial Palatal Velar
dental Alveolar alveolar Glottal
Nasal m n ɲ
Plosive p b t d k ɡ
Fricative f v s z ʃ ʒ ʁ
Lateral l ʎ
Flap ɾ

The consonant inventory of Portuguese is fairly conservative. The medieval affricates

/ts/, /dz/, /tʃ/, /dʒ/ merged with the fricatives /s/, /z/, /ʃ/, /ʒ/, respectively, but not with
each other, and there have been no other significant changes to the consonant
phonemes since then. However, some notable dialectal variants and allophones have
appeared, among which:

In most regions of Brazil and some rural Portuguese accents, /t/ and /d/ have
the affricate allophones [tʃ] and [dʒ], respectively, before /i/ and /ĩ/.
 At the end of a syllable, the phoneme /l/ is velarized to [ɫ] in European
Portuguese and vocalized to [w] in Brazilian Portuguese.
In all of Brazil and parts of Angola, /ɲ/ is pronounced as a nasal palatal
approximant [ ], which nasalizes the preceding vowel, so that, for instance,
ninho /ˈniɲu/ (nest) is pronounced [ˈnĩ u].
In parts of Brazil, the alveolar sibilants /s/ and /z/ occur in complementary
distribution at the ends of syllables, depending on whether the consonant that
follows is voiceless or voiced, as in English. But in European, African and
Asian Portuguese, and some parts of Brazil (always in nearly all sociolects of
florianopolitano and fluminense, and nearly always in some sociolects of
nortista, nordestino, mineiro, brasiliense and capixaba), sibilants are
postalveolar at the ends of syllables, /ʃ/ before voiceless consonants, and /ʒ/
before voiced consonants (in Judeo-Spanish, /s/ is often replaced with /ʃ/ at the
ends of syllables, too).
In rural caipira speech, /ʎ/ is nearly always replaced with /j/, as such mulher
(woman) becomes "muié", os olhos (the eyes) becomes "os oio" (but not óleos,
oils, which is homophone with olhos in most of Brazil, and always
pronounced with a lateral) and there goes, but it is also present in the
colloquial speech of a number of sociolects, including carioca. Some Galician
speakers also present this feature as an influence from yeísmo, a phenomenon
of the Spanish language in which /ʎ/ merges with /ʝ/ (the latter phoneme is
absent in all Portuguese and Galician dialects), although it is discouraged by
the Real Academia Galega.
Although there are two rhotic phonemes, they contrast only between vowels.
Word-initially and after /n l s/ only /ʁ/ occurs; after other consonants only /ɾ/
occurs. No contrast occurs at the end of a syllable, but the actual sound in this
position varies greatly depending on the dialect, especially in Brazil. There is
also considerable dialectal variation in the actual pronunciation of the rhotic
phoneme /ʁ/. The actual pronunciation of [ʁ ~ χ], [ʀ] is common in Portugal,
although the older trill [r] is also heard. In Brazil, an unvoiced fricative (e.g. [χ
x h]) is most commonly heard (although a few sociolects preserved European
[ʁ] or more commonly present a variation). In many Brazilian dialects, the
same unvoiced fricative occurs before a consonant, although in other dialects
the sound of [ɾ], [ɹ] or even [r] occurs. Word-finally in Brazil, the rhotic is
often dropped entirely when speaking colloquially; when preserved, the same
variation occurs as before a consonant.
In Portugal, the voiced stops [b d ɡ] are pronounced as the corresponding
voiced fricatives [β ð ɣ] between vowels. Voiced fricatives are a much more
common feature in Lisbon and surrounding areas than among rural and older
speakers of Southern and Insular Portugal at the other end.

[edit] Examples of different pronunciation

Excerpt from the Portuguese national epic Os Lusíadas, by author Luís de Camões (I,
33)
IPA (São IPA (Santiago
Original IPA (Lisbon) Translation
Paulo) de Compostela)
Sustentava suʃtẽˈtav ˈkõtɾ sustẽˈtav ˈkõtɾ sustenˈtaβa Held against
contra ele ˈelɨ ˈv nuʒ ˈβ l ˈeɫi ˈvẽnuz ˈb l ˈkontɾa ˈel him the
Vénus bela, ˈβ nuz ˈβ la beautiful Venus
Afeiçoada à Fondly to the
f jsuˈaðaː ˈʒẽtɨ fe sʊˈadaː afejθoˈaðaː
gente Lusitanian
luziˈt n ˈʒẽtʃ luziˈt n ˈʃente lusiˈtana
Lusitana, people,
Por quantas puɾ ˈkw t ʃ pʊɾ ˈkw t s poɾ ˈkantas For many
qualidades via kw ɫiˈðaðɨʒ ˈvi kw ɫiˈdadʒ z kwaliˈðaðez ˈβia qualities she saw
nela ˈn l ˈvi ˈn l ˈn la in her
Da antiga tão d ˈtiɣ ˈt w dãːˈtʃiɡ ˈt w danˈtiɣa ˈtaŋ
From his old
amada sua ˈmað ˈsu ˈmad ˈsu aˈmaða ˈsua
beloved Roman;
Romana; ʁuˈm n hoˈm n roˈmana
Nos fortes
nuʃ ˈfɔɾtɨʃ nʊs ˈfɔɾtʃ s nos ˈfɔɾtes In the stout
corações,
kuɾ ˈsõ ʃ koɾ ˈsõ s koɾaˈθons hearts, in the big
na grande
n ˈɣɾ dɨʃˈtɾel n ˈɡɾ dʒ sˈtɾel na ˈɣɾandesˈtɾela star
estrela,
Que
k mʊsˈtɾaɾ w That showed in
mostraram na kɨ muʃˈtɾaɾ w n ke mosˈtɾaraŋ na
n ˈt h the Tingitana
terra ˈt ʁ tĩʒiˈt n ˈt ra tinʃiˈtana
tʃĩʒiˈt n land,
Tingitana,
E na língua, And in the
i n ˈɫĩɡw n n ˈɫĩɡw n e na ˈliŋɡwa na
na qual language, which
ˈkwaɫ ˈkwaw ˈkw dʊ ˈkal ˈkando
quando when it is
ˈkw dim ˈʒin im ˈʒin jmaˈʃina
imagina, imagined
Com pouca kʊ ˈpoːk With little
kõ ˈpok kom ˈpowka
corrupção crê kohup(i)ˈs w corruption,
kuʁupˈs w ˈkɾe korupˈθoŋ ˈkɾe
que é a ˈkɾe ˈkj believes that it is
kiˈ l ˈtin ˈke ˈ a laˈtina
Latina. l ˈtʃin Latin.[80]

[edit] Grammar
Main article: Portuguese grammar

A notable aspect of the grammar of Portuguese is the verb. Morphologically, more

verbal inflections from classical Latin have been preserved by Portuguese than by any
other major Romance language. It has also some innovations not found in other
Romance languages (except Galician and the Fala):

The present perfect has an iterative sense unique to the Galician-Portuguese

language group. It denotes an action or a series of actions that began in the
past and are expected to keep repeating in the future. For instance, the
sentence Tenho tentado falar com ela would be translated to "I have been
trying to talk to her", not "I have tried to talk to her". On the other hand, the
correct translation of the question "Have you heard the latest news?" is not
*Tem ouvido a última notícia?, but Ouviu a última notícia?, since no
repetition is implied.[81]
Vernacular Portuguese still uses the future subjunctive mood, which
developed from medieval West Iberian Romance and in present-day Spanish
and Galician has almost entirely fallen into disuse. The future subjunctive
appears in dependent clauses that denote a condition that must be fulfilled in
 the future so that the independent clause will occur. English normally employs
the present tense under the same circumstances:

Se eu for eleito presidente, mudarei a lei.

If I am elected president, I will change the law.
Quando fores mais velho, vais entender.
When you grow older, you will understand.

The personal infinitive: infinitives can inflect according to their subject in

person and number, often showing who is expected to perform a certain
action; cf. É melhor voltares "It is better [for you] to go back", É melhor
voltarmos "It is better [for us] to go back." Perhaps for this reason, infinitive
clauses replace subjunctive clauses more often in Portuguese than in other
Romance languages.

[edit] Writing system

Written varieties

Portugal
Brazil and
and non-
1990
1990 translation
Agreement
Agreement
countries
countries

direcção direção direction

best,
óptimo ótimo excellent,
optimal

Main articles: Portuguese alphabet and Portuguese orthography

Portuguese is written with 26 letters of the Latin script, making use of five diacritics
to denote stress, vowel height, contraction, nasalization, and other sound changes
(acute accent, grave accent, circumflex accent, tilde, and cedilla). Accented characters
and digraphs are not counted as separate letters for collation purposes.
Museum of the Portuguese Language in São Paulo, Brazil.

[edit] Spelling reforms

Main article: Reforms of Portuguese orthography

[edit] Usual statements and numbers

The IPA transcriptions below reflect the Portuguese language's de facto standard
dialects, Coimbra's in Portugal and Rio de Janeiro's in Brazil, also chosen for the sake
of simplicity as they differ perceptibly less in phonology than the variants spoken in
Lisboa and São Paulo, and these variants are both clearly understood throughout the
Lusophone world.

Also for the sake of simplicity, affrication of Brazilian [ti], [di] and
gutturalization/aspiration/deletion of coda /ɾ/ in Brazil (that thus shifts to be
represented by /ʁ/) will be ignored and lenition of [b], [d], [g] to [β], [ð], [ɣ] will be
omnipresent in the transcriptions below, albeit a trait non-existent in Southern dialects
of European Portuguese, and all dialects of Brazilian Portuguese (except for eventual
rural betacisms), while unstressed final /e/ will be transcribed as [i], the pronunciation
in Rio de Janeiro (and nearly all Portuguese speakers outside Portugal), albeit it is a
rare sound closer to [ ] in Coimbra, hard for beginner English-speaking foreign
reproduction.

Greetings

Hi/Hello: Oi [ˈoj], Olá [oˈla]

How are you?: Como você está? [ˈkomu vuˈse ʃˈta ~ ˈkõmu voˈseːʃˈta],
Como vai? [ˈkomu ˈvaj], Tudo bem? [ˈtuðu ˈβẽj]
[I am] fine/Not very well: Estou bem [ʃˈtow ˈβẽj], Não estou muito bem
[n w ʃˈtow ˈmũjtu ˈβẽj]
Bye: Tchau [ˈtʃaw], Adeus [ ˈðewʃ]
See you soon: Até mais [ ˈt ˈmajʃ], Até logo [ ˈt ˈlɔɣu]
See you tomorrow: Até amanhã [ ˈt ˈm ɲ ]
What's your name?: Como se chama? [ˈkomu si ˈʃ m ], Qual é o seu nome?
[ˈkwaɫ w ˈsew ˈnomi]
My name is ... : (Eu) Me chamo... [ˈew mi ˈʃ mu], Meu nome é... [ˈmew
ˈnomj ]
Please call me...: Pode me chamar de... [ˈpɔdi mi ʃ ˈmaɾ di]
 How are the things going?: Como estão as coisas? [ˈkomu ʃˈt w ʃ ˈkojz ʃ]
Please: Por favor [puɾ f ˈvoɾ]
Thank you: Obrigado (male) [uβɾiˈɣaðu ~ obɾiˈgadu], Obrigada (female)
[uβɾiˈɣað ~ obɾiˈgad ]
You're welcome: De nada [ˈdʒi ˈnad ], Não há de quê [ˈn w a di ˈke]
Sir: Senhor [siˈɲoɾ]
Lady, Madam: Senhora/Madame [siˈɲɔɾ ] - [m ˈð m ~ maˈd mi], Dona
[ˈdõn ]
Miss: Senhorita [siɲoˈɾit ]
Good morning, sir: Bom dia, senhor [ˈbõː ˈdi. siˈɲoɾ]
Good afternoon: Boa tarde [ˈbw ˈtaɾd ~ ˈbow. ˈtaʁdʒi]
Good evening, Good night: Boa noite [ˈbw ˈnojt ~ ˈbow. ˈnojtʃi]
What about you, where are you from?: E você, de onde é? [i voˈse ˈdjõdj ]
I'm American: (Eu) sou estadunidense [ˈew ˈsow iʃtaduniˈdẽːsi], norte-
americano [ˈnɔɾtj meɾiˈk nu], cidadão americano [sid ˈð w meɾiˈk nu]
I'm Canadian: (Eu) sou canadense [ˈew ˈsow k n ˈdẽːsi], canadiano
[k n ˈdj nu]
I'm English/Canadian/Australian/Newzealander/Scottish/Welsh: (Eu) sou
inglês/australiano/neozelandês/escocês/irlandês/galês [ˈew ˈsow ĩˈgleʃ],
[awʃtɾ ˈɫj nu], [n ozel ˈdeʃ], [iʃkoˈseʃ], [iɾl ˈdeʃ], [g ˈleʃ ~ ˈew sow ɣ ˈleʃ]

Note: *The pronoun ―Eu‖(I) can be omitted or not

Days of the Week

Sunday: Domingo [duˈmĩgu]

Monday: Segunda-feira [siˈgũd ˈfejɾ ]
Tuesday: Terça-feira [ˈteɾs ˈfejɾ ]
Wednesday: Quarta-feira [ˈkwaɾt ˈfejɾ ]
Thursday: Quinta-feira [ˈkĩt ˈfejɾ ]
Friday: Sexta-feira [ˈseʃt ˈfejɾ ]
Saturday: Sábado [ˈsaβ ðu]
Week: Semana [siˈm n ]
Weekend: Final de semana [fiˈnaw di siˈm n ]
Today: Hoje [ˈoʒi]
Tomorrow: Amanhã [ ˈm ɲ ]
Yesterday: Ontem [õːˈtẽj]
The day before yesterday: Anteontem [ tjõːˈtẽj]
The day after tomorrow: Depois de amanhã [diˈpojʒ dj ˈm ɲ ]

Numbers

1 um, uma (feminine) [ˈũ ~ ˈum ]

2 dois, duas (fem) [ˈdojʃ ~ ˈdu. ʃ]
3 três [ˈtɾeʃ]
4 quatro [ˈkwatɾu]
5 cinco [ˈsĩku]
6 seis [ˈsejʃ]
7 sete [ˈs ti]
8 oito [ˈojtu]
 9 nove [ˈnɔvi]
10 dez [ˈd ʃ]
11 onze [ˈõzi]
12 doze [ˈdozi]
13 treze [ˈtɾezi]
14 quatorze/catorze [k(w) ˈtoɾzi]
15 quinze [ˈkĩzi]
16 dezesseis [dizeˈsejʃ]
17 dezessete [dizeˈs ti]
18 dezoito [diˈzojtu]
19 dezenove [dizeˈnɔvi]
20 vinte [ˈvĩti]
21 vinte e um [ˈvĩˈtjũ]
30 trinta [ˈtɾĩt ]
40 quarenta [kw ˈɾẽːt ]
50 cinquenta [sĩˈkwẽt ]
60 sessenta [s ˈsẽt ~ seˈsẽt ]
70 setenta [seˈtẽt ]
80 oitenta [ojˈtẽt ]
90 noventa [nuˈvẽt ~ noˈvẽt ]
100 cem [ˈsẽj]
101 cento e um [ˈsẽtwi ˈũ]
102 cento e dois [ˈsẽtwi ˈdojʃ]
200 duzentos [duˈzẽtuʃ]
201 duzentos e um [duˈzẽtuzi ˈũ]
300 trezentos [tɾiˈzẽtuʃ]
400 quatrocentos [kw tɾuˈsẽtuʃ]
500 quinhentos [kiˈɲẽːtuʃ]
600 seiscentos [se(j)ˈsẽtuʃ]
700 setecentos [s tiˈsẽtuʃ]
800 oitocentos [ojtuˈsẽtuʃ]
900 novecentos [nɔviˈsẽtuʃ]
1,000 mil [ˈmiɫ ~ ˈmiw]
1,001 mil e um [ˈmiɫ i ˈũ]
2,000 dois mil [ˈdojʒ ˈmiɫ]
1,000,000 um milhão [ũ miˈʎ w]
2,000,000 dois milhões [ˈdojʒ miˈʎõjʃ]
3,000,000 três milhões [ˈtɾeʒ miˈʎõjʃ]
1,000,000,000 um bilhão [ũ biˈʎ w]
[82]

[edit] See also

Angola portal
Brazil portal
Cape Verde portal
East Timor portal
 Galicia portal

Goa portal

Guinea-Bissau portal
Macau portal
Malacca portal
Mozambique portal
Portugal portal
São Tomé and Príncipe portal
Language portal

Portuguese literature
Portuguese poetry
List of Portuguese language poets
List of international organisations which have Portuguese as an official
language
Brazilian literature
List of Brazilian poets
Lusophone
Anglophone pronunciation of foreign languages (Portuguese section)
Community of Portuguese Language Countries (CPLP)
Instituto Camões
International Portuguese Language Institute
Museum of the Portuguese Language
Portuñol
Portuguese in the United States

[edit] Notes
1.^ also pronounced [poɾtuˈħes] by speakers featuring gheada

[edit] References
1. ^ Regional pronunciation in Brazil:
[puɦtuˈge(j)ʃ] (BP-carioca, colloquial),
[poχtuˈɡeʃ ~ puhtuˈɡeʃ] (BP-florianopolitano), (BP-fluminense),
[poɾtuˈɡes] (BP-paulistano), (BP-curitibano), (BP-catarinense),
[poɹtuˈɡejs] (BP-caipira), (BP-sulista, colloquial), (BP-sertanejo),
[poχtuˈɡes ~ pohtuˈɡes] (BP-capixaba), (BP-mineiro), (BP-brasiliense),
[pɔhtuˈɡejs] (BP-nordestino), (BP-baiano), (BP-nortista), [poɾtuˈɡes] (BP-gaúcho),
[portuˈɡes] (BP-gaúcho da pampa), (riverense portuñol).
In this discussion of a female politician from Alagoas state it is possible to notice that the "r"
in this position is an [h] sound http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=oKoGPP0ntz0
2. ^ "The 100 most spoken languages on the world | World's Observatory".
Frankherles.wordpress.com. 2009-06-28. http://frankherles.wordpress.com/2009/06/28/the-
100-most-spoken-languages-on-the-world/. Retrieved 2012-07-23.
3. ^ a b c "Estados-membros da CPLP" (in Portuguese). 28 February 2011.
http://www.cplp.org/id-22.aspx.
4. ^ Michael Swan, Bernard Smith (2001). "Portuguese Speakers". Learner English: a Teacher's
Guide to Interference and Other Problems. Cambridge University Press.
5. ^ Henry Edward Watts. Miguel de Cervantes: His Life & Works.
6. ^ Joseph T. Shipley (1946). Encyclopedia of Literature. Philosophical Library. p. 1188.
7. ^ Prem Poddar, Rajeev S. Patke, Lars Jensen (2008). "Introduction: The Myths and Realities
of Portuguese (Post) Colonial Society". A historical companion to postcolonial literatures:
continental Europe and its empires. Edinburgh University Press. p. 431.
http://books.google.com/books?id=Ghah5S3usnsC&pg=PA431&lpg=PA431&dq=%22langua
ge+of+Cam%C3%B5es%22#v=onepage&q=%22language%20of%20Cam%C3%B5es%22&f
=false.
8. ^ NOVAimagem.co.pt / Portugal em LInha (2006-03-08). "Museu da Língua Portuguesa
aberto ao público no dia 20". Noticiaslusofonas.com.
http://www.noticiaslusofonas.com/view.php?load=arcview&article=13562&catogory=CPLP.
Retrieved 2012-07-23.
9. ^ Medeiros, Adelardo Portuguese in Africa – Angola
10. ^ "Portuguese language in Brazil". Countrystudies.us. http://countrystudies.us/brazil/39.htm.
Retrieved 2012-07-23.
11. ^ a b "Special Eurobarometer 243 "Europeans and their Languages"". European Commission.
2006. p. 6. http://ec.europa.eu/public_opinion/archives/ebs/ebs_243_en.pdf. Retrieved 11 May
2011.
12. ^ 99.8% declared speaking Portuguese in the 1991 census
13. ^ Medeiros, Adelardo Portuguese in Africa – Moçambique
14. ^ Medeiros, Adelardo Portuguese in Africa – Guiné-Bissau
15. ^ 13,100 Portuguese nationals in 2010 according to Population par nationalité on the site of
the "Département des Statistiques d'Andorre"
16. ^ 0.13% or 25,779 persons speak it at home in the 2006 census, see Spoken at Home (full
classification list) by Sex&producttype=Census Tables&method=Place of Usual
Residence&areacode=0 "Language Spoken at Home from the 2006 census". Australian
Bureau of Statistics.
http://www.censusdata.abs.gov.au/ABSNavigation/download?format=xls&collection=Census
&period=2006&productlabel=Language Spoken at Home (full classification list) by
Sex&producttype=Census Tables&method=Place of Usual Residence&areacode=0.
17. ^ "Bermuda". World InfoZone.
http://www.worldinfozone.com/country.php?country=Bermuda. Retrieved 21 April 2010.
18. ^ "Population by mother tongue, by province and territory (2006 Census)". Statistics Canada.
http://www40.statcan.ca/l01/cst01/demo11a-eng.htm.
19. ^ Gomes, Nancy (2001), "Os portugueses nas Américas: Venezuela, Canadá e EUA",
Actualidade das migrações, Janus, http://janusonline.pt/2001/2001_3_2_5.html, retrieved 13
May 2011
20. ^ 580,000 estimated to use it as their mother tongue in the 1999 census and 490,444 nationals
in the 2007 census, see Répartition des étrangers par nationalité
21. ^ "Japão: imigrantes brasileiros popularizam língua portuguesa" (in pt). 2008.
http://www.correiodoestado.com.br/noticias/japao-imigrantes-brasileiros-popularizam-lingua-
portuguesa_43355/.
22. ^ "4.6% according to the 2001 census, see". Cia.gov.
https://www.cia.gov/library/publications/the-world-factbook/geos/je.html. Retrieved 2012-07-
23.
23. ^ a b "www.namibian.com.na". www.namibian.com.na. 2011-08-15.
http://www.namibian.com.na/index.php?id=28&tx_ttnews%5Btt_news%5D=85817&no_cach
e=1. Retrieved 2012-07-23.
24. ^ "Languages of Paraguay". http://www.ethnologue.com/show_country.asp?name=Paraguay.
25. ^ "Languages of Macau". http://www.pagef30.com/2008/10/how-much-portuguese-is-spoken-
in-macau.html.
26. ^ Between 300,000 and 600,000 according to Pina, António (2001), "Portugueses na África
do Sul", Actualidade das migrações, Janus,
http://www.janusonline.pt/2001/2001_3_2_11.html, retrieved 13 May 2011
27. ^ Fibbi, Rosita (2010), Les Portugais en Suisse, Office fédéral des migrations,
http://www.bfm.admin.ch/content/dam/data/migration/publikationen/diasporastudie-portugal-
f.pdf, retrieved 13 May 2011
28. ^ See "Languages of Venezuela".
http://www.ethnologue.com/show_country.asp?name=VE.and Gomes, Nancy (2001), "Os
 portugueses nas Américas: Venezuela, Canadá e EUA", Actualidade das migrações, Janus,
http://janusonline.pt/2001/2001_3_2_5.html, retrieved 13 May 2011
29. ^ Carvalho, Ana Maria (2010), "Portuguese in the USA", in Potowski, Kim, Language
Diversity in the USA, Cambridge University Press, p. 346, ISBN 978-0-521-74533-8
30. ^ "''The Portuguese Foundation, Inc.''". Pfict.org. 2011-05-01. http://www.pfict.org. Retrieved
2012-07-23.
31. ^ "''Jornal Brasileiras & Brasileiros''". Jornalbb.com.
http://www.jornalbb.com/quem_somos.html. Retrieved 2012-07-23.
32. ^ An immigration phenomenon: Why Portuguese is the second language of Massachusetts
from www.boston.com Fall 2007
33. ^ Hispanic Reading Room of the U.S. Library of Congress Web site, Twentieth-Century
Arrivals from Portugal Settle in Newark, New Jersey,
34. ^ "Brazucas (Brazilians living in New York)". Nyu.edu.
http://www.nyu.edu/classes/blake.map2001/brazil.html. Retrieved 21 April 2010.
35. ^ Hispanic Reading Room of the U.S. Library of Congress Web site, Whaling, Fishing, and
Industrial Employment in Southeastern New England
36. ^ "Portuguese Language in Goa". Colaco.net. http://www.colaco.net/1/port.htm. Retrieved 21
April 2010.
37. ^ "The Portuguese Experience: The Case of Goa, Daman and Diu". Rjmacau.com.
http://www.rjmacau.com/english/rjm1996n3/ac-mary/portuguese.html. Retrieved 21 April
2010.
38. ^ Factoria Audiovisual S.R.L. (2010-07-20). "El portugués será el tercer idioma oficial de la
República de Guinea Ecuatorial - Página Oficial del Gobierno de la República de Guinea
Ecuatorial". Guineaecuatorialpress.com.
http://www.guineaecuatorialpress.com/noticia.php?id=703. Retrieved 2012-07-23.
39. ^ "Decreto sobre el portugues como idioma oficial - Página Oficial del Gobierno de la
República de Guinea Ecuatorial" (PDF).
http://www.guineaecuatorialpress.com/imgdb/2010/20-7-
2010Decretosobreelportuguescomoidiomaoficial.pdf. Retrieved 2012-07-23.
40. ^ Factoria Audiovisual S.R.L. (2010-07-25). "El Presidente Obiang asiste a la Cumbre de la
CPLP - Página Oficial del Gobierno de la República de Guinea Ecuatorial".
Guineaecuatorialpress.com. http://www.guineaecuatorialpress.com/noticia.php?id=712.
Retrieved 2012-07-23.
41. ^ "Official languages of Mercosul as agreed in the ''Protocol of Ouro Preto''".
Actrav.itcilo.org. http://actrav.itcilo.org/actrav-
english/telearn/global/ilo/blokit/mercopro.htm#Chapter%20VIII. Retrieved 2012-07-23.
42. ^ "Official statute of the organization". Oei.es. http://www.oei.es/estatutos.htm. Retrieved
2012-07-23.
43. ^ Artículo 23 for the official languages[dead link]
44. ^ General Assembly of the OAS, Amendments to the Rules of Procedure of the General
Assembly, 5 June 2000
45. ^ Article 11, Protocol on Amendments to the Constitutive Act of the African Union [1]
46. ^ "Languages in Europe – Official EU Languages". EUROPA web portal.
http://ec.europa.eu/education/languages/languages-of-europe/doc135_en.htm. Retrieved 12
October 2009.
47. ^ "Instituto Brasileiro de Geografia e Estatística". Ibge.gov.br.
http://www.ibge.gov.br/home/presidencia/noticias/noticia_visualiza.php?id_noticia=1866&id
_pagina=1. Retrieved 2012-07-23.
48. ^ "Informação geral sobre Moçambique - Portal do Governo de Moçambique" (in
(Portuguese)). Portaldogoverno.gov.mz. http://www.portaldogoverno.gov.mz/Mozambique.
Retrieved 2012-07-23.
49. ^ 3° recenseamento geral da população e habitação - Instituto Nacional de Estatística[dead link]
50. ^ Governo da República de Angola[dead link]
51. ^ "Aplicação interativa do Instituo Nacional de Estatística sobre os resultados preliminares do
Censos 2011". Ine.pt. http://www.ine.pt/scripts/flex_v10/Main.html. Retrieved 2012-07-23.
52. ^ ITDS, Rui Campos, Pedro Senos. "Instituo Nacional de Estatística". Ine.pt.
http://www.ine.pt/xportal/xmain?xpid=INE&xpgid=ine_indicadores&indOcorrCod=0005889
&selTab=tab0. Retrieved 2012-07-23.
53. ^ Apresentação dos resultados definitivos do Censos 2009 do Instituto Nacional de
Estatística[dead link]
54. ^ "Resultados do Censos 2010 - Governo de Timor Leste". Timor-leste.gov.tl. http://timor-
leste.gov.tl/?p=4144&n=1. Retrieved 2012-07-23.
55. ^ "Estimativas da população de Macau - Direção dos Serviços de Estatística e Censos do
Governo da RAE de Macau". Dsec.gov.mo.
http://www.dsec.gov.mo/TimeSeriesDatabase.aspx?KeyIndicatorID=12. Retrieved 2012-07-
23.
56. ^ "Direção dos Serviços de Estatística e Censos do Governo da RAE de Macau".
Dsec.gov.mo. http://www.dsec.gov.mo/default.aspx?lang=pt-PT. Retrieved 2012-07-23.
57. ^ "Censos 2011 de Macau - Direção dos Serviços de Estatística e Censos do Governo da RAE
de Macau". Censos.dsec.gov.mo. http://censos.dsec.gov.mo/default.aspx?lang=pt-PT.
Retrieved 2012-07-23.
58. ^ Apresentação de dados preliminares do IV° RGPH 2010 - Instituto Nacional de Estatística,
Cabo Verde[dead link]
59. ^ RGPH 2001 Estado e estrutura da população de São Tomé e Príncipe - Instituto Nacional de
Estatística, São Tomé e Príncipe - 2003[dead link]
60. ^ "Uruguayan government makes Portuguese mandatory." (in Portuguese). 5 November 2007.
http://noticias.uol.com.br/ultnot/lusa/2007/11/05/ult611u75523.jhtm. Retrieved 13 July 2010.
61. ^ "Portuguese will be mandatory in high school." (in Spanish). 21 January 2009.
http://portal.educ.ar/noticias/educacion-y-sociedad/el-portugues-sera-materia-obli.php.
Retrieved 13 July 2010.
62. ^ "Portuguese language will be option in the official Venezuelan teachings." (in Portuguese).
24 May 2009.
http://www.letras.etc.br/joomla/index.php?option=com_content&view=article&id=93:lingua-
portuguesa-sera-opcao-no-ensino-oficial-venezuelano&catid=6:noticia&Itemid=13/.
Retrieved 13 July 2010.
63. ^ "Zambia will adopt the Portuguese language in their Basic school." (in Portuguese). 26 May
2009. http://movv.org/2009/05/26/a-zambia-vai-adotar-a-lingua-portuguesa-no-seu-ensino-
basico/. Retrieved 13 July 2010.
64. ^ a b c d e "Congo will start to teach Portuguese in schools." (in Portuguese). 4 June 2010.
http://www.estadao.com.br/noticias/arteelazer,congo-passara-a-ensinar-portugues-nas-
escolas,561666,0.htm/. Retrieved 13 July 2010.
65. ^ a b "Portuguese language gaining popularity". Anglopress Edicões e Publicidade Lda. 5 May
2007. http://www.theportugalnews.com/cgi-bin/article.pl?id=906-9. Retrieved 18 May 2011.
66. ^ Leach, Michael (2007), "talking Portuguese; China and East Timor", Arena Magazine,
http://findarticles.com/p/articles/mi_hb6469/is_92/ai_n29406744/, retrieved 18 May 2011
67. ^ From Audio samples of the dialects of Portuguese at the Instituto Camões website.
68. ^ Note: the speaker of this sound file is from Rio de Janeiro, and he is talking about his
experience with Nordestino and Nortista accents.
69. ^ "Nheengatu and caipira dialect". Sosaci.org. http://www.sosaci.org/balaio2.htm. Retrieved
2012-07-23.
70. ^ por Caipira Zé Do Mér dia 17 de maio de 2011, 6 Comentários. "O MEC, o "português
errado" e a linguistica… | ImprenÇa". Imprenca.com.
http://www.imprenca.com/2011/05/mec-portugues-errado-e-linguistica.html. Retrieved 2012-
07-23.
71. ^ "Cartilha Do Mec Ensina Erro De Português". Saindo da Matrix.
http://www.saindodamatrix.com.br/archives/2011/05/cartilha_do_mec.html. Retrieved 2012-
07-23.
72. ^ None (2011-05-26). "Livro do MEC ensina o português errado ou apenas valoriza as formas
linguísticas? - Jornal de Beltrão" (in (Portuguese)). Jornaldebeltrao.com.br.
http://www.jornaldebeltrao.com.br/educacao/livro-do-mec-ensina-o-portugues-errado-ou-
apenas-valoriza-as-formas-linguisticas-63414/. Retrieved 2012-07-23.
73. ^ "Ethnologue". Ethnologue. http://www.ethnologue.com/show_language.asp?code=glg.
Retrieved 21 April 2010.
74. ^ Yves Camus, "Jesuits' Journeys in Chinese Studies"
75. ^ "Dicionário Português–Chinês : Pu Han ci dian: Portuguese–Chinese dictionary", by
Michele Ruggieri, Matteo Ricci; edited by John W. Witek. Published 2001, Biblioteca
Nacional. ISBN 972-565-298-3. Partial preview available on Google Books
76. ^ http://pt.wikipedia.org/wiki/Portugu%C3%AAs_brasileiro
77. ^ Handbook of the International Phonetic Association pg. 126–130; the reference applies to
the entire section
 78. ^ Cruz-Ferreira (1995:91)
79. ^ Barbosa & Albano (2004:228–229)
80. ^ White, Landeg. (1997). The Lusiads—English translation. Oxford World's Classics. Oxford
University Press. ISBN 0-19-280151-1
81. ^ Squartini, Mario (1998) Verbal Periphrases in Romance—Aspect, Actionality, and
Grammaticalization ISBN 3-11-016160-5
82. ^ http://www.easyportuguese.com/Portuguese-Phrasebook/Greetings/Greetings.htm
http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=zVwvxnnClKs
http://www.languageguide.org/portuguese/vocabulary/

História da Lingua Portuguesa Instituto Camões

A Língua Portuguesa in Universidade Federal do Rio Grande do Norte, Brazil
(...)

[edit] Literature

Poesia e Prosa Medievais, by Maria Ema Tarracha Ferreira, Ulisseia 1998,

3rd ed., ISBN 978-972-568-124-4.
Bases Temáticas—Língua Portuguesa in Instituto Camões
Portuguese Literature in The Catholic Encyclopedia

[edit] Phonology, orthography and grammar

Barbosa, Plínio A.; Albano, Eleonora C. (2004), "Brazilian Portuguese",

Journal of the International Phonetic Association 34 (2): 227–232,
doi:10.1017/S0025100304001756
Cruz-Ferreira, Madalena (1995), "European Portuguese", Journal of the
International Phonetic Association 25 (2): 90–94,
doi:10.1017/S0025100300005223
Mateus, Maria Helena & d'Andrade, Ernesto (2000) The Phonology of
Portuguese ISBN 0-19-823581-X (Excerpt available at Google Books)
Bergström, Magnus & Reis, Neves Prontuário Ortográfico Editorial Notícias,
2004.
A pronúncia do português europeu—European Portuguese Pronunciation
Dialects of Portuguese at the Instituto Camões
Audio samples of the dialects of Portugal
Audio samples of the dialects from outside Europe
Portuguese Grammar

[edit] Reference dictionaries

Antônio Houaiss (2000), Dicionário Houaiss da Língua Portuguesa (228,500

entries).
Aurélio Buarque de Holanda Ferreira, Novo Dicionário da Língua Portuguesa
(1809pp)
English–Portuguese–Chinese Dictionary (Freeware for Windows/Linux/Mac)

[edit] Linguistic studies

Cook, Manuela. Uma Teoria de Interpretação das Formas de Tratamento na

Língua Portuguesa, Hispania, vol 80, nr 3, AATSP, 1997
Cook, Manuela. On the Portuguese Forms of Address: From "Vossa Mercê" to
"Você", Portuguese Studies Review 3.2, Durham: University of New
Hampshire, 1995
Lindley Cintra, Luís F. Nova Proposta de Classificação dos Dialectos
Galego-Portugueses (PDF) Boletim de Filologia, Lisboa, Centro de Estudos
Filológicos, 1971.
Lisbon
From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia
Jump to: navigation, search
For other uses, see Lisbon (disambiguation).
Coordinates: 38°42′49.72″N 9°8′21.79″W38.7138111°N 9.1393861°W

Lisbon (Lisboa)

Capital

From top to right: Praça do Comércio; Teatro

Nacional D. Maria II; Belém Palace; Parque
das Nações

Flag Symbol

Official name: Concelho de Lisboa

Name origin: Lisboa, Portuguese derivative of

the Phoenician Allis Ubbo for safe harbour;
Latin Ulyssippo after Ulysses; and/or Roman
 Olissipona, for the name of the Tagus

Nickname: A Cidade das Sete Colinas (The City

of Seven Hills), Rainha do Mar (Queen of the
Sea)

Country Portugal

Region Lisboa

Subregion Greater Lisbon

District Lisbon

Municipality Lisbon

Civil Parishes (see text)

River Tagus River

Location Lisbon

- elevation 2 m (7 ft)

38°42′49.72″N
- coordinates 9°8′21.79″W38.7138111°N
9.1393861°W

Highest point 227 m

Serra de Monsanto,
- location
Benfica, Lisbon

- elevation 199 m (653 ft)

38°43′42.97″N
- coordinates 9°11′4.80″W38.7286028°N
9.184667°W

Lowest point Sea level

- location Atlantic Ocean

- elevation 0 m (0 ft)

Area 84.8 km2 (33 sq mi)

- urban 958 km2 (370 sq mi)

- metro 2,957 km2 (1,142 sq mi)

Population 547,631 (2011)

- urban 3,051,000

- metro 3,035,000

6,458 / km2 (16,726 / sq

Density
mi)

Settlement fl. 719

- City c. 1256

Concelho/Câmara
LAU
Municipal

Praça do Município,
- location
Lisbon, Grande Lisboa

- elevation 33 m (108 ft)

38°42′29″N
- coordinates 9°8′18″W38.70806°N
9.13833°W

President António Costa (PS)

Maria Simonetta Bianchi

Municipal Chair Aires de Carvalho Luz
Afonso (PS)
 Timezone WET (UTC0)

- summer (DST) WEST (UTC+1)

ISO 3166-2 code PT-

Postal Zone 1149-014 Lisboa

Area Code & Prefix (+351) 21 XXX-XXXX

Demonym Lisboeta and Alfacinha

Patron Saint São Vicente

Praça do Município, 1
Municipal Address
1149-014 Lisboa

Location of the municipality of Lisbon in

Portugal

Wikimedia Commons: Lisbon

Website: http://www.cm-lisboa.pt/
Lisbon (/ˈl zbən/; Portuguese: Lisboa, IPA: [ɫiʒˈbo ][1]) is the capital city and largest
city of Portugal with a population of 547,631 within its administrative limits[2] on a
land area of 84.8 km2 (33 sq mi). The urban area of Lisbon extends beyond the
administrative city limits with a population of over 3 million[3] on an area of 958 km2
(370 sq mi),[3] making it the 9th most populous urban area in the European Union.
About 2,831,000[4][5] people live in the Lisbon Metropolitan Area (which represents
approximately 27% of the population of the country). Lisbon is the westernmost large
city located in Europe, as well as its westernmost capital city and the only one along
the Atlantic coast. It lies in the western Iberian Peninsula on the Atlantic Ocean and
the Tagus River.

Lisbon is recognised as a global city because of its importance in finance, commerce,

media, entertainment, arts, international trade, education, and tourism.[6][7] It is one of
the major economic centres on the continent, with a growing financial sector and the
largest/second largest container port on Europe's Atlantic coast.[8] Lisbon Portela
Airport serves about 13 million passengers per year; the motorway network and the
high-speed rail system of (Alfa Pendular) link the main cities of Portugal.[9] Lisbon is
the 25th most livable city in the World according to lifestyle magazine Monocle.[10]
The city is the seventh-most-visited city in Southern Europe, after Istanbul, Rome,
Barcelona, Madrid, Athens, and Milan, with 1,740,000 tourists in 2009.[11] The Lisbon
region is the wealthiest region in Portugal, GDP PPP per capita is 26,100 euros (4.7%
higher than the average European Union's GDP PPP per capita). It is the tenth richest
metropolitan area by GDP on the continent amounting to 98 billion euros and thus
€34,850 per capita, [12] 40% higher than the average European Union's GDP per
capita. The city occupies 32nd place of highest gross earnings in the world.[13] Most of
the headquarters of multinationals in the country are located in the Lisbon area and it
is the ninth city in the world in terms of quantity of international conferences.[14] It is
also the political centre of the country, as seat of Government and residence of the
Head of State. The seat of the district of Lisbon and the centre of the Lisbon region.

Lisbon is one of the oldest cities in the world, predating other modern European
capitals such as London, Paris and Rome by hundreds of years. Julius Caesar made it
a municipium called Felicitas Julia, adding to the name Olissipo. Ruled by a series of
Germanic tribes from the fifth century, it was captured by the Moors in the eighth
century. In 1147, the Crusaders under Afonso Henriques reconquered the city and
since then it has been a major political, economic, and cultural centre of Portugal.
Unlike most capital cities, Lisbon's status as the capital of Portugal has never been
granted or confirmed officially – by statute or in written form. Its position as the
capital has formed through constitutional convention, making its position as de facto
capital a part of the Constitution of Portugal.

Lisbon hosts two agencies of the European Union: the European Monitoring Centre
for Drugs and Drug Addiction (EMCDDA) and the European Maritime Safety
Agency (EMSA). Called the "Capital of the Lusophone world", the Community of
Portuguese Language Countries has its headquarters in the city, in the Palace of the
Counts of Penafiel.

Lisbon has two sites listed by UNESCO as a World Heritage Site: Belém Tower and
Jerónimos Monastery. Furthermore, in 1994, Lisbon was the European Capital of
Culture and in 1998 organised an Expo '98 (1998 Lisbon World Exposition).
Lisbon enjoys a Mediterranean climate. Among all the metropolises in Europe, it has
the warmest winters, with average temperatures 15 °C (59 °F) during the day and 8 °C
(46 °F) at night from December to February. The typical summer's season lasts about
six months, from May to October, although also in November, March and April
temperatures sometimes reach around 20 °C (68.0 °F).

Contents
[hide]

1 History
o 1.1 Pre-Roman
o 1.2 Roman era
o 1.3 Middle Ages
o 1.4 Early Modern
o 1.5 Late modern and contemporary
2 Geography
o 2.1 Physical geography
o 2.2 Climate
o 2.3 Civil parishes
o 2.4 Districts
2.4.1 Alcântara
2.4.2 Alfama
2.4.3 Bairro Alto
2.4.4 Baixa
2.4.5 Belém
2.4.6 Chiado
2.4.7 Estrela
2.4.8 Parque das Nações
3 Demographics
o 3.1 Historical population
o 3.2 Metropolitan area
4 Economy
5 Transport
o 5.1 Trams
o 5.2 Trains
o 5.3 Automobiles
o 5.4 Bridges
o 5.5 Ferries
o 5.6 Air travel
6 Education
o 6.1 Higher education
7 Culture
8 Sports
o 8.1 Association football
o 8.2 Varied sports
o 8.3 Facilities
9 Twin cities
10 See also
 11 References
12 External links

[edit] History
Main article: History of Lisbon

Phoenician archaeological dig in the Lisbon Cathedral cloisters.

[edit] Pre-Roman

During the Neolithic period, the region was inhabited by Pre-Celtic tribes, who built
religious and funerary monuments, megaliths, dolmens and menhirs, which still
survive in areas on the periphery of Lisbon[citation needed]. The Indo-European Celts
invaded in the first millennium BC, mixing with the Pre-Indo-European population,
thus giving rise to Celtic-speaking local tribes such as the Cempsi.

Archaeological findings suggest there were Phoenician influences dating back to 1200
BC, leading some historians to believe that a Phoenician trading post might have
occupied the centre of the present city (on the southern slope of the Castle hill). The
sheltered harbour in the Tagus River estuary was an ideal spot for a settlement and
provided a secure port for provisioning of Phoenician ships travelling to the Islands of
Tin (modern Isles of Scilly) and Cornwall. The new city might have been named Allis
Ubbo, Phoenician for "safe harbour", according to one of several theories on the
origin of Lisbon's toponymy.[15] Another theory suggests that the settlement took the
name of the pre-Roman word for the Tagus (Lisso or Lucio). The Tagus settlement
was also an important centre of commercial trade with inland tribes, providing an
outlet for the valuable metals, salt, and salted-fish they collected, and for the sale of
the Lusitanian horses renowned in antiquity. Although Phoenician remains from the
8th century BC were found beneath the Mediaeval Sé Cathedral, modern historians
believe,[16] however, that Lisbon was an ancient autochthonous settlement (Roman
oppidum) and that, at most, it maintained commercial relations with the Phoenicians
(accounting Phoenician pottery and artefacts).

Lisbon's name was written Ulyssippo in Latin by the geographer Pomponius Mela, a
native of Hispania. It was later referenced as "Olisippo" by Pliny the Elder, and to the
Greeks as Olissipo (Ολισσιπών) and Olissipona (Ολισσιπόνα).[17] According to
legend, the location was named for Ulysses, who founded the settlement after he left
Troy to escape the Greek coalition.[18][19] Later, the Greek name appeared in Vulgar
Latin in the form Olissipona.

[edit] Roman era

Part of the ancient Roman walls.

Following the defeat of Hannibal during the Punic wars, the Romans determined to
deprive Carthage of its most valuable possession: Hispania (the Iberian Peninsula).
The defeat of Carthaginian forces by Scipio Africanus in Eastern Hispania allowed
the pacification of the west, led by Consul Decimus Junius Brutus Callaicus. Decimus
obtained the alliance of Olissipo (which sent men to fight alongside the Roman
Legions against the northwestern Celtic tribes) by integrating it into the Empire, as the
Municipium Cives Romanorum Felicitas Julia. Local authorities were granted self-
rule over a territory that extended 50 kilometres (31 mi); exempt from taxes, its
citizens were given the privileges of Roman citizenship, and it was then integrated
with the Roman province of Lusitania (whose capital was Emerita Augusta).

Lusitanian raids and rebellions during Roman occupation necessitated the

construction of a wall around the settlement. During Augustus' reign, the Romans also
built a great theatre; the Cassian Baths (underneath Rua da Prata); temples to Jupiter,
Diana, Cybele, Tethys, and Idea Phrygiae (an uncommon cult from Asia Minor), in
addition to temples to the Emperor; a large necropolis under Praça da Figueira; a
large forum and other buildings such as insulae (multi-storied apartment buildings) in
the area between the Castle Hill and the historic city core.[20]

The city prospered as piracy was eliminated, technological advances were introduced
and as Felicitas Julia became a centre of trade with the Roman provinces of Britannia
(particularly Cornwall) and the Rhine. Economically strong, Olissipo was known for
its garum (a fish sauce highly prized by the elites of the Empire and exported in
amphorae to Rome), wine, salt and horse-breeding, while Roman culture permeated
the hinterland. The city was connected by a broad road to Western Hispania's two
other large cities, Bracara Augusta in the province of Tarraconensis (Portuguese
Braga), and Emerita Augusta, the capital of Lusitania (Mérida, Spain). The city was
ruled by an oligarchical council dominated by two families, the Julii and the Cassiae,
although regional authority was administered by the Roman Governor of Emerita or
directly by Emperor Tiberius. Among the majority of Latin speakers lived a large
minority of Greek traders and slaves.
Around 80 BCE, the Roman Quintus Sertorius led a rebellion against the dictator
Sulla. During this period, he organized the tribes of Lusitania and Hispania and was
on the verge of forming an independent province in the Sertorian War when he died.

Olissipo, like most great cities in the Western Empire, was a centre for the
dissemination of Christianity. Its first attested Bishop was Potamius (c. 356), and
there were several martyrs during the period of persecution of the Christians:
Maxima, Verissimus and Eulalia of Mérida are the most significant examples. By the
time of the Fall of Rome, Olissipo had become a notable Christian centre.

The Moorish fortifications at the Castle of São Jorge, in the Alfama.

Following the disintegration of the Roman empire there were barbarian invasions;
between 409 and 429 the city was occupied successively by Sarmatians, Alans, and
Vandals. The Germanic Suebi, who established a kingdom in Gallaecia (modern
Galicia and northern Portugal), with its capital in Bracara Augusta, also controlled the
region of Lisbon until 585. In 585, the Suebi Kingdom was integrated into the
Germanic Visigothic Kingdom of Toledo, which comprised all of the Iberian
Peninsula: Lisbon was then called Ulishbona.

[edit] Middle Ages

On 6 August 711, Lisbon was taken by Muslim forces. These conquerors, who were
mostly Berbers and Arabs from North Africa and the Middle East, built many
mosques and houses, rebuilt the city wall (known as the Cerca Moura) and
established administrative control, while permitting the diverse population (Muladi,
Christians, Berbers, Arabs, Jews, and Saqalibas) to maintain their socio-cultural
lifestyles. Mozarabic was the mother language spoken by most of the Christian
population. Islam was the official religion practised by the Arabs and Muladi
(muwallad); the Christians were allowed to keep their religion under the status as
Dhimmi subjects, and were allowed rights of residence in return for jizyah taxes. In
return for paying this surtax, Christians and Jews were excluded from specific duties
assigned to Muslims like joining the Islamic army, and their security was guaranteed
by the Islamic state, but otherwise, the Christians and Jews were equal to Muslims
under the laws of property, contract and obligation.

The Muslim influence is still present in the Alfama, an old quarter of Lisbon that
survived the 1755 Lisbon earthquake: many place-names are derived from Arabic and
the Alfama (the oldest existing district of Lisbon) was derived from the Arabic "al-
hamma".
For a brief time, Lisbon was the central town in the Regulo Eslavo of the Taifa of
Badajoz, and then as an independent Taifa, as the Taifa of Lisbon.

The Moorish surrender to Afonso Henriques at the Siege of Lisbon of 1147.

In 1108 the city was conquered by Norwegian crusaders led by Sigurd I on their way
to the Holy Land as part of the Norwegian Crusade, but was reconquered by Moorish
Almoravids in 1111.

In 1147, as part of the Reconquista, crusader knights led by Afonso I of Portugal

besieged and reconquered Lisbon. The city, with around 154,000 residents at the time,
was returned to Christian rule. The reconquest of Portugal and re-establishment of
Christianity is one of the most significant events in Lisbon's history, described in the
chronicle Expugnatione Lyxbonensi, telling that the local bishop was killed by the
crusaders and that its residents were praying to the Virgin Mary. As spoken Arabic
lost its place in the everyday life of the city, many of the remaining Muslim residents
were converted to Roman Catholicism by force, or were expelled, and the mosques
were either destroyed or converted into churches.

Although Lisbon received its first charter (foral) in 1179, periodically Muslim raiders
from Al-Andalus challenged the control of the Iberian Christian kingdoms, capturing
slaves and seizing local treasures. In a raid against Lisbon in 1189, the Almohad
caliph Yaqub al-Mansur took 3,000 female and child captives.[21] Due to its central
location, Lisbon became the capital city of the new Portuguese territory in 1255. The
first Portuguese university was founded in Lisbon in 1290 by King Denis I; for many
years the Studium Generale (General Study) was transferred intermittently to
Coimbra, where it was installed permanently in the 16th century as the University of
Coimbra.

During the last centuries of the Middle Ages, the city expanded substantially and
became an important trading post with both northern European and Mediterranean
cities.

[edit] Early Modern

The oldest known image of Lisbon (1500–1510) from the Crónica de Dom Afonso
Henriques by Duarte Galvão

Most of the Portuguese expeditions of the Age of Discovery left from Lisbon during
the 15th to 17th centuries, including Vasco da Gama's expedition to India in 1497. In
1506, 3000 Jews were massacred in Lisbon.[22] The 16th century was Lisbon's golden
era: the city was the European hub of commerce between Africa, India, the Far East
and, later, Brazil, and acquired great riches by exploiting the trade in spices, slaves,
sugar, textiles, and other goods. This period saw the rise of the exuberant Manueline
style in architecture, which left its mark in many 16th century monuments (including
Lisbon's Belém Tower and Jerónimos Monastery, which were declared UNESCO
World Heritage Sites). A description of Lisbon in the 16th century was written by
Damião de Góis and published in 1554.[23]

Portugal lost its independence to Spain after the succession crisis of 1580; the
Portuguese Restoration War, which began with a coup d'état organized by the nobility
and bourgeoisie in Lisbon and executed on 1 December 1640, restored Portuguese
independence. The revolution of 1640 ended the sixty-year period of dual monarchy
in Portugal and Spain under the Spanish Habsburgs,[24][25] although the period from
1640 to 1668 was marked by periodic skirmishes between Portugal and Spain, as well
as short episodes of more serious warfare, until the Treaty of Lisbon was signed in
1688.

In the early 18th century, gold from Brazil allowed King John V to sponsor the
building of several Baroque churches and theatres in the city.

The Ribeira Royal Palace in the 18th-century, prior to its destruction.

Prior to the 18th century, Lisbon had experienced several significant earthquakes –
eight in the 14th century, five in the 16th century (including the 1531 earthquake that
destroyed 1,500 houses, and the 1597 earthquake in which three streets vanished), and
three in the 17th century. On 1 November 1755, the city was destroyed by another
devastating earthquake, which killed an estimated 30,000 to 40,000 Lisbon
residents[26] of a population estimated at between 200,000 and 275,000,[27][28] and
destroyed 85 percent of the city's structures.[29] Among several important buildings of
the city, the Ribeira Palace and the Hospital Real de Todos os Santos were lost. In
coastal areas, such as Peniche, situated about 80 km (50 mi) north of Lisbon, many
people were killed by the following tsunami. In Setúbal, 30 km (19 mi) south of
Lisbon, the water reached the first floor (second floor, in U.S. terms) of buildings.
The destruction was also great in the Algarve of southern Portugal, where the tsunami
dismantled some coastal fortresses and, in the lower parts, leveled many houses. In
some places the waves crested at more than 30 m (98.43 ft). Almost all the coastal
towns and villages of the Algarve were heavily damaged, except Faro, which was
protected by sandy banks. In Lagos, the waves reached the top of the city walls. For
many Portuguese coastal regions, the destructive effects of the tsunami were more
disastrous than those of the earthquake proper.

The Marquis of Pombal's enlightened plans for rebuilding Lisbon.

By 1755, Lisbon was one of the largest cities in Europe; the catastrophic event
shocked the whole of Europe and left a deep impression on its collective psyche. In
southwestern Spain, the tsunami caused damage to Cadiz and Huelva, and the waves
penetrated the Guadalquivir River, reaching Seville. In Gibraltar, the sea rose
suddenly by about two metres. In Ceuta the tsunami was strong, but in the
Mediterranean Sea, it decreased rapidly. On the other hand, it caused great damage
and casualties to the western coast of Morocco, from Tangier, where the waves
reached the walled fortifications of the town, to Agadir, where the waters passed over
the walls, killing many. The tsunami also reached Cornwall, in the present United
Kingdom, at a height of three metres. Along the coast of Cornwall, the sea rose
rapidly in vast waves, and then ebbed equally rapidly. A two metre tsunami also hit
Galway in Ireland, and did some considerable damage to the Spanish Arch section of
the city wall. Voltaire wrote a long poem, Poême sur le désastre de Lisbonne, shortly
after the quake, and mentioned it in his 1759 novel Candide (indeed, many argue that
this critique of optimism was inspired by that earthquake). Oliver Wendell Holmes,
Sr. also mentions it in his 1857 poem, The Deacon's Masterpiece, or The Wonderful
One-Hoss Shay. In the town of Cascais, some 30 km (19 mi) west of Lisbon, the
waves wrecked several boats and when the water withdrew, large stretches of sea
bottom were left uncovered.

After the 1755 earthquake, the city was rebuilt largely according to the plans of Prime
Minister Sebastião José de Carvalho e Melo, the 1st Marquess of Pombal; the lower
town began to be known as the Baixa Pombalina (Pombaline Downtown). Instead of
rebuilding the medieval town, Pombal decided to demolish what remained after the
earthquake and rebuild the downtown in accordance with principles of modern urban
design. It was reconstructed in an open rectangular plan with two great squares: the
Praça do Rossio and the Praça do Comércio. The first, the central commercial
district, is the traditional gathering place of the city and the location of the older cafés,
theatres and restaurants; the second became the city's main access to the Tagus River
and point of departure and arrival for sea-going vessels, adorned by a triumphal arch
(1873) and monument to King Joseph I.

[edit] Late modern and contemporary

The construction of the Rossio Train Station, at Rossio Square, in 1886.

In the first years of the 19th century, Portugal was invaded by the troops of Napoléon
Bonaparte, forcing Queen Maria I and Prince-Regent John (future John VI) to flee
temporarily to Brazil. By the time the new King returned to Lisbon, many of the
buildings and properties were pillaged, sacked or destroyed by the invaders.

During the 19th century, the Liberal movement introduced new changes into the
urban landscape. The principal areas were in the Baixa and along the Chiado district,
where shops, tobacconists shops, cafés, bookstores, clubs and theatres proliferated.
The development of industry and commerce determined the growth of the city,
extending north along the Avenida da Liberdade (1879), distancing itself from the
Tagus River.

Lisbon was the site of the regicide of Carlos I of Portugal in 1908, an event which
culminated two years later in the First Republic.

The city refounded its university in 1911 after centuries of inactivity in Lisbon,
incorporating reformed former colleges and other non-university higher education
schools of the city (such as the Escola Politécnica – now Faculdade de Ciências).
Today there are 3 public universities in the city (University of Lisbon, Technical
University of Lisbon and New University of Lisbon), a public university institute
(ISCTE - Lisbon University Institute) and a polytechnic institute (IPL – Instituto
Politécnico de Lisboa).
The Proclamation of the Portuguese Republic in Lisbon's Municipal Square.

During World War II Lisbon was one of the very few neutral, open European Atlantic
ports, a major gateway for refugees to the U.S. and a haven for spies. More than
100,000 refugees were able to flee Nazi Germany via Lisbon.[30]

During the Estado Novo regime (1926–1974), Lisbon was expanded at the cost of
other districts within the country, resulting in nationalist and monumental projects.
New residential and public developments were constructed; the zone of Belém was
modified for the 1940 Portuguese Exhibition, while along the periphery new
neighborhoods appeared to house the growing population. The inauguration of the
bridge over the Tagus allowed rapid connection between the two sides of the river.

Lisbon was the site of three revolutions in the 20th-century. The first, the 5 October
1910 revolution, brought an end to the Portuguese monarchy and established the
highly unstable and corrupt Portuguese First Republic. The 6 June 1926 revolution
would see the end of that first republic and firmly establish the Estado Novo, or the
Portuguese Second Republic, as the ruling regime. The final revolution, the Carnation
Revolution, would take place on 25 April 1974 and would end the right-wing Estado
Novo and reform the country as the current Portuguese Third Republic.

The Treaty of Lisbon was signed at the Jerónimos Monastery in 2007.

In the 1990s, many of the neighborhoods were renovated and projects in the historic
quarters were established to modernize those areas; architectural and patrimonial
buildings were recuperated; the northern margin of the Tagus was re-purposed for
leisure and residential use; the Vasco da Gama bridge was constructed; and the
eastern part of the municipality was re-purposed for Expo '98, to commemorate the
500th anniversary of Vasco da Gama's sea voyage to India, a voyage that would bring
immense riches to Lisbon and cause many of Lisbon's landmarks to be built.

In 1988, a fire in the historical district of Chiado saw the destruction of many 18th-
century Pombaline style buildings. A series of restoration works has brought the area
back to its former self and made it a high-scale shopping district.
The Lisbon Agenda was a European Union agreement on measures to revitalize the
EU economy, signed in Lisbon in March 2000. In October 2007 Lisbon hosted the
2007 EU Summit, where agreement was reached regarding a new EU governance
model. The resulting Treaty of Lisbon was signed on 13 December 2007 and came
into force on 1 December 2009.

Lisbon has been the site for many international events and programs. In 1994, Lisbon
was the European Capital of Culture. On 3 November 2005, Lisbon hosted the MTV
European Music Awards. On 7 July 2007, Lisbon held the ceremony of the "New 7
Wonders Of The World"[31] election, in Luz stadium, with live transmission for
millions of people all over the world. Lisbon alternates with Rio de Janeiro, Brazil,
hosting the Rock in Rio music festival, the largest in the world.

Lisbon hosted the NATO summit (19–20 November 2010), a summit meeting that is
regarded as a periodic opportunity for Heads of State and Heads of Government of
NATO member states to evaluate and provide strategic direction for Alliance
activities.[32]

[edit] Geography

A orthophotograph of Lisbon's Metropolitan area, from a SPOT Satellite.

[edit] Physical geography

Lisbon is located at

38°42′49.75″N 9°8′21.79″W38.7138194°N 9.1393861°W, situated at the mouth of

the Tagus River and is the westernmost capital of a mainland European country.

The westernmost part of Lisbon is occupied by the Parque Florestal de Monsanto

(English: Monsanto Forest Park), an 10 km2 (4 sq mi) urban park, one the largest in
Europe, and occupying ten per cent of the municipality.

The city occupies an area of 84.94 km2 (33 sq mi), and its city boundaries, unlike
those of most major cities, are narrowly defined by its historical centre.[33] The rest of
the urbanized area of the Lisbon Metropolitan Area, known generically as Greater
Lisbon (Portuguese: Grande Lisboa), is actually several administratively defined
cities and municipalities, such as Amadora, Queluz, Agualva-Cacém, Odivelas,
Loures, Sacavém, Almada, Barreiro, Seixal and Oeiras

[edit] Climate

Lisbon has a Subtropical-Mediterranean climate (Köppen climate classification:

Csa)[34] with mild winters and warm to hot summers. The average annual temperature
is 21.5 °C (70.7 °F) during the day and 13.5 °C (56.3 °F) at night. Average annual
temperature of the sea is 17.5 °C (63.5 °F). In the coldest month – January – the high
temperature during the day typically ranges from 11 to 19 °C (52 to 66 °F), the low
teperature at night ranges from 3 to 13 °C (37 to 55 °F) and the average sea
temperature is 15 °C (59 °F).[35] In the warmest month – August – the high
temperature during the day typically ranges from 26 to 34 °C (79 to 93 °F), the low
temperature at night ranges from 16 to 21 °C (61 to 70 °F) and the average sea
temperature is 20 °C (68 °F).[35] Generally, a summer season lasts about 6 months,
from May to October. Three months – March, April and November – are transitional,
sometimes the temperature exceeds 20 °C (68 °F), with an average temperature in
these three months of 18.9 °C (66 °F) during the day and 12.0 °C (53.6 °F) at night.
December, January and February are the coldest months, with an average temperature
of 15.5 °C (59.9 °F) during the day and 8.9 °C (48.0 °F) at night. Among all
metropolises (together with Valencia) and capitals (together with Malta) in Europe,
Lisbon has the warmest winters, and the mildest nighttime temperatures in Europe:
among the warmest in the winter – from an average of 8.3 °C (46.9 °F) in the coldest
month, and comfortable 18.6 °C (65.5 °F) in the warmest month. Rain occurs mainly
in winter, the summers being generally dry. Sunshine hours are about 2,800 per year,
from an average of 4.6 hours of sunshine duration at day in December to an average
of 11.4 hours of sunshine duration at day in July.

[hide]Climate data for Lisbon

Month Jan Feb Mar Apr May Jun Jul Aug Sep Oct Nov Dec Year
Record 34.8 41.5 40.6 41.8 41.8
22.6 24.8 29.4 32.2 37.3 32.6 25.3 23.2
high °C (94.6 (106.7 (105.1 (107.2 (107.2
(72.7) (76.6) (84.9) (90.0) (99.1) (90.7) (77.5) (73.8)
(°F) ) ) ) ) )
Averag 22.1
14.8 16.2 18.8 19.8 25.7 27.9 28.3 26.5 22.5 18.2 15.3 21.5
e high (71.8
(58.6) (61.2) (65.8) (67.6) (78.3) (82.2) (82.9) (79.7) (72.5) (64.8) (59.5) (70.7)
°C (°F) )
Daily 18.0
11.6 12.7 14.9 15.9 21.2 23.1 23.5 22.1 18.8 15.0 12.4 17.5
mean (64.4
(52.9) (54.9) (58.8) (60.6) (70.2) (73.6) (74.3) (71.8) (65.8) (59.0) (54.3) (63.5)
°C (°F) )
Averag 13.9
8.3 9.1 11.0 11.9 16.6 18.2 18.6 17.6 15.1 11.8 9.4 13.5
e low (57.0
(46.9) (48.4) (51.8) (53.4) (61.9) (64.8) (65.5) (63.7) (59.2) (53.2) (48.9) (56.3)
°C (°F) )
Record 6.8
1.0 1.2 0.2 5.5 10.4 14.1 14.7 12.1 9.2 4.3 2.1 0.2
low °C (44.2
(33.8) (34.2) (32.4) (41.9) (50.7) (57.4) (58.5) (53.8) (48.6) (39.7) (35.8) (32.4)
(°F) )
Rainfal 99.9 84.9 53.2 68.1 53.6 15.9 4.2 6.2 32.9 100.8 127.6 126.7 774
l mm (3.933 (3.343 (2.094 (2.681 (2.11 (0.626 (0.165 (0.244 (1.295 (3.969 (5.024 (4.988 (30.47
(inches) ) ) ) ) ) ) ) ) ) ) ) ) )
 Avg.
rainy
15.0 15.0 13.0 12.0 8.0 5.0 2.0 2.0 6.0 11.0 14.0 14.0 117.0
days (≥
0.1 mm)
Mean
monthly 2,806.
142.6 156.6 207.7 234.0 291.4 303.0 353.4 344.1 261.0 213.9 156.0 142.6
sunshin 3
e hours
Source: Instituto de Meteorologia[36], Hong Kong Observatory[37] for data of avg. precipitation days & sunshine hours

[edit] Civil parishes

Location of the civil parishes (Portuguese: freguesias) of Lisbon

The municipality of Lisbon includes 53 freguesias (civil parishes):

Ajuda Encarnação Santa São João

Alcântara Graça Engrácia de Deus
Alto do Pina Lapa Santa Isabel São Jorge
Alvalade Lumiar Santa Justa de Arroios
Ameixoeira Madalena Santa Maria São José
Anjos Mártires de Belém São
Beato Marvila Santa Maria Mamede
Benfica Mercês dos Olivais São
Campo Grande Nossa Senhora Santiago Miguel
Campolide de Fátima Santo São
Carnide Pena Condestáve Nicolau
Castelo Penha de l São Paulo
Charneca França Santo São
Coração de Prazeres Estevão Sebastião
Jesus Sacramento Santos-o- da Pedreira
Santa Catarina Velho São
São Vicente de
Cristóvão e Fora
 São Sé
Lourenço Socorro
São
Domingos
de Benfica
São
Francisco
Xavier
São João
São João de
Brito

[edit] Districts

The Alcântara docks, an up and coming trendy hangout.

Locally, Lisbon inhabitants may more commonly refer the spaces of Lisbon in terms
of historic bairros (neighborhoods). These communities have no clearly defined
boundaries and represent special quarters with a common historical culture,
identifiable architectural landmarks, livings standards and/or local personality, such as
Bairro Alto, Alfama, Chiado, and so forth.

[edit] Alcântara

Main article: Alcântara

Although today it is quite central, it was once a mere suburb of Lisbon, comprising
mostly farms and palaces. In the 16th century, there was a brook there which the
nobles used to promenade in their boats. Through the late 19th century, Alcântara
became a popular industrial area, with lots of small factories and warehouses.
Through the centuries, this area has lost all of its charm and old buildings, as well as
its brook (where the women of the village would do their laundry).

In the early 1990s, Alcântara began to attract youth because of the number of pubs
and discothèques. This was mainly due its outer area of mostly commercial buildings,
which acted as barriers to the noise-generating nightlife (which acted as a buffer to the
residential communities surrounding it). In the meantime, some of these areas began
to become gentrified, attracting loft developments and new apartments, which have
profited from its river views and central location.
A tram in Alfama's Portas do Sol.

[edit] Alfama

Main article: Alfama

The oldest district of Lisbon, it spreads down the southern slope from the Castle of
São Jorge to the Tagus river. Its name, derived from the Arabic Al-hamma, means
fountains or baths. During the Islamic invasion of Iberia, the Alfama constituted the
largest part of the city, extending west to the Baixa neighbourhood. Increasingly, the
Alfama became inhabited by fishermen and the poor: its fame as a poor
neighbourhood continues to this day. While the 1755 Lisbon Earthquake caused
considerable damage throughout the capital, the Alfama survived with little damage,
due to its compact labyrinth of narrow streets and small squares. It is a historical
quarter of mixed-use buildings of homes with small shops, Fado bars and restaurants.
Modernizing trends have invigorated the district: old houses have been re-purposed or
remodelled, while new buildings have been constructed. Fado, the typically
Portuguese-style of melancholy music, is common (but not obligatory) in the
restaurants of the district.

[edit] Bairro Alto

Main article: Bairro Alto

Bairro Alto (literally the upper quarter in Portuguese) is an area of central Lisbon. It
functions as a residential, shopping and entertainment district: it is the heart of the
Portuguese capital's nightlife, attracting its youth. Lisbon's Punk, Gay, Metal, Goth,
Hip Hop and Reggae scenes, all count the Bairro as their home, due to the
specialization of its clubs and bars. Although fado, Portugal's national music still
survives in the new nightlife, the crowds in the Bairro Alto area are a multicultural
mix of cultures and entertainment.
The Baixa's Rua Augusta, which leads to Lisbon's famous Terreiro do Paço.

[edit] Baixa

Main article: Baixa Pombalina

The heart of the city is the Baixa (Downtown) or city centre; the Pombaline Baixa is
an elegant district, primarily constructed after the 1755 Lisbon earthquake, taking its
name from its benefactor, 1st Marquess of Pombal, Sebastião José de Carvalho e
Melo, who was the minister of Joseph I of Portugal (1750–1777) and a key figure
during the Portuguese Enlightenment. Following the 1755 disaster, Pombal took the
lead in rebuilding Lisbon, imposing strict conditions and guidelines on the
construction of the city, and transforming the organic street plan that characterised the
district before the earthquake into its current grid pattern. As a result, the Pombaline
Baixa is one of the first examples of earthquake-resistant construction. Architectural
models were tested by having troops march around them to simulate an earthquake.
Notable features of Pombaline structures include the Pombaline cage, a symmetrical
wood-lattice framework aimed at distributing earthquake forces, and inter-terrace
walls that were built higher than roof timbers to inhibit the spread of fires.

[edit] Belém

The Jerónimos Monastery, a Belém landmark and one of the most visited buildings in
all of Portugal.
Main article: Belém

Belém is famous as the place from which many of the great Portuguese explorers set
off on their voyages of discovery. In particular, it is the place from which Vasco da
Gama departed for India in 1497. It is also a former royal residence and features the
17th–18th century Belém Palace, former royal residence and now occupied by the
President of Portugal, and the Ajuda Palace, begun in 1802 but never completed.

Perhaps Belém's most famous feature is its tower, Torre de Belém, whose image is
much used by Lisbon's tourist board. The tower was built as a fortified lighthouse late
in the reign of Dom Manuel (1515–1520) to guard the entrance to the port. It stood on
a little island in right side of the Tagus, surrounded by water. Belém's other major
historical building is the Mosteiro dos Jerónimos (Jerónimos Monastery), which the
Torre de Belém was built partly to defend. Belém's most notable modern feature is the
Padrão dos Descobrimentos (Monument to the Discoveries).In the heart of Belém is
the Praça do Império: gardens centred upon a large fountain, laid out during World
War II. To the west of the gardens lies the Centro Cultural de Belém. Belém is one of
the most visited Lisbonite districts.

Luís de Camões Square, the center of activity in the Chiado district.

[edit] Chiado

Main article: Chiado

The Chiado is a traditional shopping area that mixes old and modern commercial
establishments, concentrated specially in the Carmo's and Garrett's streets. Locals as
well as tourists visit the Chiado to buy books, garments, and pottery as well as to have
a cup of coffee. The most famous café of Chiado is A Brasileira, famous for having
had poet Fernando Pessoa among its customers. The Chiado is also an important
cultural area, with several museums and theatres. Several buildings of the Chiado
were destroyed in a fire in 1988, an event that deeply shocked the country. Thanks to
a renovation project that lasted more than 10 years, coordinated by celebrated
architect Siza Vieira, the affected area is now recovered.

[edit] Estrela

The Baroque-Neoclassical Estrela Basilica is the main attraction of this district. The
huge church has a giant dome, and is located on a hill in what was at the time the
western part of Lisbon and can be viewed from great distances. The style is similar to
that of the Mafra National Palace, in late baroque and neoclassical. The façade has
two twin bell towers and includes statues of saints and some allegoric figures. Sao
Bento Palace, the seat of Portuguese parliament and the official residences of the
Prime Minister of Portugal and the President of the Assembly of the Republic of
Portugal, is in this district.

A view of the Parque das Nações.

[edit] Parque das Nações

Main article: Parque das Nações

Parque das Nações is the newest district in Lisbon, having emerged from an urban
renewal programme leading to the World Exhibition of Lisbon 1998, also known as
Expo'98. The area suffered massive changes giving Parque das Nações a futuristic
look. A long lasting legacy of the same, the area has become another commercial and
higher end residential area for the city. Central to this is the Gare do Oriente (Orient
Station), one of the main transportation hubs of Lisbon for trains, buses, taxis, and the
metro. Its glass and steel columns are inspired by Gothic Architecture, lending the
whole structure a visual fascination (especially in sunlight or when illuminated at
night). It was designed by the architect Santiago Calatrava from Valencia, Spain.
Across the street, through Vasco da Gama Mall, is Parque das Nações (Park of the
Nations), site of the 1998 World Expo.

The area is pedestrian-friendly with new buildings, restaurants, gardens, the Lisbon
Casino, the FIL building (International Exhibition and Fair), the Camões Theatre, as
well as the Oceanário de Lisboa (Lisbon Oceanarium), the second largest in the
world. The district's Pavilhão Atlântico has become Lisbon's "jack-of-all-trades"
performance arena. Seating 20,000, it has staged events from concerts to basketball
tournaments.

[edit] Demographics
The population of the city proper is, as of 2011, 547,631 and the metropolitan area
(Lisbon Metropolitan Area) more than 2,800,000 according to the Instituto Nacional
de Estatística[5] (National Institute of Statistics). The Lisbon Metropolitan Area
incorporates two NUTS II (European statistical subdivisions): Grande Lisboa
(Greater Lisbon), along the northern bank of the Tagus River, and Península de
Setúbal (Setúbal Peninsula), along the southern bank (which represents the
Portuguese sub-regions of Região Lisboa (Lisbon Region). The population density of
the city itself is 6,458 inhabitants per square kilometre (16,730 /sq mi).

[edit] Historical population

Demographic evolution of Lisbon

155 159 172 175 175 180 184 190 193 196 198 199 200 201
43 900
2 8 0 5 6 1 9 0 0 0 1 1 1 1
30, 100, 200, 150, 185, 180, 165, 203, 174, 350, 591, 801, 807, 663, 564, 545,
000 000 000 000 000 000 000 999 668 919 939 155 937 394 657 245

[edit] Metropolitan area

Like most metropolitan cities, Lisbon is surrounded by many satellite cities or

suburbs, and it is estimated that more than one million people enter Lisbon every day
for business or employment from these communities. Cascais and Estoril are among
the most vibrant neighbouring towns for night life. Beautiful palaces, landscapes and
historical sites can be found in Sintra and Mafra. Other major municipalities around
Lisbon include Amadora, Oeiras, Odivelas, Loures, Vila Franca de Xira and, in the
south bank of the Tagus river estuary, Almada, Barreiro and Seixal.

[edit] Economy

Lisbon's port, one of the largest and most important in Europe.

The Lisbon region is the wealthiest region in Portugal and it is well above the
European Union's GDP per capita average – it produces 45% of the Portuguese GDP.
Lisbon's economy is based primarily on the tertiary sector. Most of the headquarters
of multinationals operating in Portugal are concentrated in the Grande Lisboa
Subregion, specially in the Oeiras municipality. The Lisbon Metropolitan Area is
heavily industrialized, especially the south bank of the Tagus river (Rio Tejo).

The Lisbon region is rapidly growing, each year are higher Gross Domestic Product
(GDP) PPP per capita: € 22,745 (2004)[38] – € 23,816 (2005)[39] – € 25,200 (2006)[40] –
€ 26,100 (2007).[41]

The Caixa Geral de Depósitos, Portugal's largest bank, is based in Lisbon.

The country's chief seaport, featuring one of the largest and most sophisticated
regional markets on the Iberian Peninsula, Lisbon and its heavily populated
surroundings are also developing as an important financial centre and a dynamic
technological hub.

Lisbon has the largest and most developed mass media sector of Portugal, and is
home to several related companies ranging from leading television networks and radio
stations to major newspapers.
The Euronext Lisbon stock exchange, part of the pan-European Euronext system
together with the stock exchanges of Amsterdam, Brussels and Paris, is tied with the
New York Stock Exchange since 2007, forming the multinational NYSE Euronext
group of stock exchanges.

Lisbonite industry has very large sectores in oil, as refineries are found just across the
Tagus, textile mills, shipyards and fishing.

Before Portugal's sovereign debt crisis and a EU-IMF rescue plan, for the decade of
2010 Lisbon was expecting to receive many state funded investments, including
building a new airport, a new bridge, an expansion of 30 km (18.64 mi) underground,
the construction of a mega-hospital (or central hospital), the creation of two lines of a
TGV to join Madrid, Porto, Vigo and the rest of Europe, the restoration of the main
part of the town (between the Marquês de Pombal roundabout and Terreiro do Paço),
the creation of a large number of bike lanes, as well as modernization and renovation
of various facilities.[42]

[edit] Transport

A Lisbon electric tram in the Chiado.

Lisbon's public transport network is extremely far-reaching and reliable. The Lisbon
Metro as its main artery, connecting the city centre with the upper and eastern
districts, and now reaching the suburbs. Ambitious expansion projects will increase
the network by almost one third, connecting the airport, and the northern and western
districts. Bus, funicular and tram services have been supplied by the Companhia de
Carris de Ferro de Lisboa (Carris), for over a century.

[edit] Trams

A traditional form of public transport in Lisbon is the tram. Introduced in the 19th
century, the trams were originally imported from the USA, rarely called the
americanos. The earliest trams can still be seen in the Museu da Carris (the Public
Transport Museum) (Carris). Other than on the modern Line 15, the Lisbon tramway
system still employs small (four wheel) vehicles of a design dating from the early part
of the twentieth century. These distinctive yellow trams are one of the tourist icons of
modern Lisbon, and their size is well suited to the steep hills and narrow streets of the
central city.[43][44]

Lisbon's Rossio Train Station, a hub.

[edit] Trains

There are four commuter train lines departing from Lisbon: the Cascais, Sintra and
Azambuja lines (operated by CP – Comboios de Portugal), as well as a fourth line to
Setúbal (operated by Fertagus) crossing the Tagus river, over the 25 de Abril Bridge.
The major railway stations are Santa Apolónia, Rossio, Gare do Oriente,
Entrecampos, and Cais do Sodré. The city does not offer a light rail service (tram line
15, although running with new and faster trams does not fall onto this category), but
there are plans to build light rail lines to provide service along the city's periphery.

[edit] Automobiles

There are other commuter bus services from the city: Vimeca,[45] Rodoviaria de
Lisboa,[46] Transportes Sul do Tejo,[47] Boa Viagem,[48] Barraqueiro[49] are the main
ones, operating from different terminals in the city.

Lisbon is connected to its suburbs as well as throughout Portugal by an extensive

motorway network. There are three circular motorways around the city; the 2ª
Circular, the CRIL, and the CREL.

[edit] Bridges

The city is connected to the far side of the Tagus by two important bridges:
Lisbon's 25 de Abril Bridge, the first bridge built across the Tagus at Lisbon.

The 25 de Abril Bridge, inaugurated (as Ponte Salazar) on 6 August 1966, and
later renamed after the date of the Carnation Revolution, was the longest
suspension bridge in Europe.
The Vasco da Gama Bridge, inaugurated on May 1998 is, at 17.2 km (10.7
mi), the longest bridge in Europe.

The foundations for a third bridge across the Tagus have already been laid, but the
overall project has been postponed as per the economic crisis in Portugal and all of
Europe.

[edit] Ferries

Another way of crossing the river is by taking the ferry. The company is Transtejo-
Soflusa,[50] which operates from different points in the city to Cacilhas, Seixal,
Montijo, Porto Brandão and Trafaria under the brand Transtejo and to Barreiro under
the brand Soflusa.

[edit] Air travel

Lisbon's Portela Airport is located within the city limits. It is the headquarters and hub
for TAP Portugal as well as a hub for SATA International, Luzair, EuroAtlantic
Airways, Portugália, White Airways, and High Fly airlines. It has been proposed that
a New Lisbon Airport should be built. The project has been put on hold due to the
Portuguese, and overall European, economic crisis and also because of the long
discussion on whether there is a need for a new airport at all.

[edit] Education
The rectory and main campus of the New University of Lisbon.

The city has several private and public secondary schools, primary schools as well as
Kindergärten. In Greater Lisbon area there are also international schools such as Saint
Julian's School, the Carlucci American International School of Lisbon, Saint
Dominic's International School, Deutsche Schule Lissabon, Instituto Español de
Lisboa, and Lycée Français Charles Lepierre.

[edit] Higher education

There are three major public universities in Lisbon: the University of Lisbon (Lisbon's
oldest university in operation, founded in 1911, also called the Classic University of
Lisbon), the Technical University of Lisbon (founded in 1930) and the New
University of Lisbon (founded in 1973), providing degrees in all academic disciplines.
There is also one state-run university institute – the ISCTE - Lisbon University
Institute, and a polytechnic institute – the Polytechnical Institute of Lisbon.

Major private institutions of higher education include the Portuguese Catholic

University, as well as the Lusíada University, the Universidade Lusófona, and the
Universidade Autónoma de Lisboa, among others.

The total number of enrolled students in higher education in Lisbon was, for the
2007–2008 school year, of 125,867 students, of whom 81,507 in the Lisbon's public
institutions.[51]

[edit] Culture

The monument to the Great War on the Avenida da Liberdade.

The city of Lisbon is rich in architecture; Romanesque, Gothic, Manueline, Baroque,

Modern and Postmodern constructions can be found all over Lisbon. The city is also
crossed by historical boulevards and monuments along the main thoroughfares,
particularly in the upper districts; notable among these are the Avenida da Liberdade
(Avenue of Liberty), Avenida Fontes Pereira de Melo, Avenida Almirante Reis and
Avenida da República (Avenue of the Republic).

There are several substantial museums one can visit in the city. The most famous ones
are the Museu Nacional de Arte Antiga (National Museum of Ancient Art), the
National Azulejo Museum, the Museu Calouste Gulbenkian (Calouste Gulbenkian
Museum), containing varied collections of ancient and modern art, the Museu
Nacional do Traje e da Moda (National Museum of Costume and Fashion), the
Berardo Collection Museum (Modern Art) at the Belém Cultural Center, the Museu
da Electricidade (Electricity Museum), the Museu Nacional dos Coches (National
Coach Museum, containing the largest collection of royal coaches in the world), the
Museum of Pharmacy, Museum of the Orient, the Museu do Teatro Romano (The
Roman Theatre Museum), and the Lisbon City Museum.

Lisbon's Opera House, the Teatro Nacional de São Carlos, hosts a relatively active
cultural agenda, mainly in autumn and winter. Other important theatres and musical
houses are the Centro Cultural de Belém, the Teatro Nacional D. Maria II, the
Gulbenkian Foundation, and the Teatro Camões.

Lisbon's Teatro Nacional de São Carlos in the upscale Chiado district.

The monument to Christ the King (Cristo-Rei) stands on the southern bank of the
Tagus River, in Almada. With open arms, overlooking the whole city, it resembles the
Corcovado monument in Rio de Janeiro, and was built after World War II, as a
memorial of thanksgiving for Portugal's being spared the horrors and destruction of
the war.

13 June is Lisbon´s holiday in honour of the city´s saint Anthony of Lisbon

(Portuguese: Santo António). Saint Anthony, also known as Saint Anthony of Padua,
was a wealthy Portuguese bohemian who was canonised and made Doctor of the
Church after a life preaching to the poor. Ironically, although Lisbon‘s patron saint is
Saint Vincent of Saragossa, whose remains are housed in the Sé Cathedral, there are
no festivities associated with this saint.

Eduardo VII Park, the second largest park in the city following the Parque Florestal
de Monsanto (Monsanto Forest Park), extends down the main avenue (Avenida da
Liberdade), with many flowering plants and greenspaces, that includes the permanent
collection of subtropical and tropical plants in the winter garden (Portuguese: Estufa
Fria). Originally named Parque da Liberdade, it was renamed in honour of Edward
VII of England who visited Lisbon in 1903.
The Pavilhão Atlântico, Lisbon's largest and a popular entertainment venue.

Lisbon is home every year to the Lisbon Gay & Lesbian Film Festival,[52] the
Lisboarte, the DocLisboa – Lisbon International Documentary Film Festival,[53] the
Arte Lisboa – Contemporary Art Fair,[54] the Festival of the Oceans,[55] the
International Organ Festival of Lisbon,[56] the MOTELx – Lisbon International Horror
Film Festival,[57] the Lisbon Village Festival,[58] the Festival Internacional de
Máscaras e Comediantes, the Lisboa Mágica – Street Magic World Festival, the
Monstra – Animated Film Festival, the Lisbon Book Fair,[59] the Peixe em Lisboa –
Lisbon Fish and Flavours,[60] the Lisbon International Handicraft Exhibition,[61] the
Lisbon Photo Marathon, the IndieLisboa – International Independent Film Festival,[62]
the Alkantara Festival,[63] the Temps d´Images Festival[64] and the Jazz in August
festival.[65]

Lisbon has been home five times (in 2004, 2006, 2008, 2010 and 2012) to Rock in
Rio, one of the world's largest pop-rock festivals. Annual popular music events within
the metropolitan area include the Optimus Alive! and Super Bock Super Rock
festivals.

Lisbon is also home to the Lisbon Architecture Triennial,[66] the Moda Lisboa
(Fashion Lisbon),[67] ExperimentaDesign – Biennial of Design[68] and LuzBoa –
Biennial of Light.[69]

In addition, the mosaic Portuguese pavement (Calçada Portuguesa) was born in

Lisbon, in the mid-1800s. The art has since spread to the rest of the Portuguese
Speaking world. The city remains one of the most expansive examples of the
technique, nearly all walkways and even many streets being created and maintained in
this style.

In terms of Portuguese cities, Lisbon was considered the most livable in a survey of
living conditions published yearly by Expresso.[70]

[edit] Sports
Sport Lisboa e Benfica's Estadio da Luz, Lisbon's largest stadium.

Lisbon has a long sporting tradition. It was one of the Portuguese cities that hosted the
UEFA Euro 2004 Championship. The city also played host to the final of the 2001
IAAF World Indoor Championships and 1983, 1992 European Fencing
Championships, 2003 World Men's Handball Championship, 2008 European Judo
Championships. From 2006 to 2008, Lisbon hosted the starting point for the Dakar
Rally.

[edit] Association football

Sport Lisboa e Benfica (commonly known as "Benfica") is a sports club best known
worldwide for its football team, one of the major clubs in Portugal, one of the Big
Three, two-times winner and five-times runners-up of the European Cup, one-time
runners-up of the UEFA Cup and one-time runners-up of the Intercontinental Cup.
Sporting Clube de Portugal (commonly known as "Sporting") is one of the major
clubs in Portugal, one of the Big Three, having won the UEFA Cup Winners' Cup
(1964) and was runners-up of the UEFA Cup (2005). The third most important club is
C.F. Os Belenenses (commonly "Belenenses" also "Belenenses Lisbon").

[edit] Varied sports

Other sports, such as indoor football, handball, basketball and roller hockey are also
popular. There are many other sport facilities in Lisbon, ranging from athletics to
sailing to golf to mountain-biking. Every March the city hosts the Lisbon Half
Marathon, while in September – Portugal Half Marathon.

[edit] Facilities

Lisbon has two UEFA category four stadiums; the Estádio da Luz (Stadium of Light),
with a capacity of over 65,000 and the Estádio José Alvalade, with a capacity of over
50,000. There is also – Estádio do Restelo, with a capacity of over 30,000. In the
neighborhood exist Estádio Nacional, with a capacity of over 37,000 (in Oeiras) and
Estádio do Bonfim, with a capacity of nearly 20,000 (in Setúbal).

[edit] Twin cities

Lisbon is twinned, sistered, or partnered with the following:
 La Paz, Buenos Rio de
Bethlehem, Plurinational Aires, Janeiro,
Palestinian State of Argentine Federative
National Bolivia Republic Republic of
Authority San Beijing, Brazil
[71]
Diego, People's Fairfield,
California, Republic of California,
Budapest, United China [76] United States
Hungary States of Macau, of America
[72]
America Macau Special Salvador,
Luanda, Administrative Federative
Damascus,
Republic of Region Republic of
Syrian
Angola Praia, Brazil
Arab
Paris, Republic of Zagreb,
Republic
French Cabo Verde Republic of
Madrid, Republic Tunis, Croatia [77]
Kingdom Maputo, Republic of Mexico
of Spain Republic of Tunisia City, United
[73] Mozambique Waterbury, Mexican
Bissau, São Connecticut, States
Republic Paulo, United States
Federative of America Pontelandolfo
of Guinea-
Republic of Ruse, , Italian
Bissau
Brazil [74][75] Republic of Republic
Cacheu, Brasília, Bulgaria
Republic Federative
of Guinea- Republic of
Bissau Brazil

Malacca,
Malaysia

[edit] See also

Portugal portal

List of people from Lisbon

List of tallest buildings in Lisbon
History of Lisbon

[edit] References
1. ^ Wells, John C.. "Portuguese". http://phonetic-blog.blogspot.com/2010/07/portuguese.html.
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2. ^ Censos 2011 – Resultados Preliminares
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4. ^ United Nations Department of Economic and Social Affairs, World Urbanization Prospects
(2009 revision), (United Nations, 2010), Table A.12. Data for 2007.
5. ^ a b ITDS, Rui Campos, Pedro Senos (2009-06-30). "Statistics Portugal". Ine.pt.
http://www.ine.pt/. Retrieved 2009-07-08.
6. ^ "The World According to GaWC 2010". Globalization and World Cities Study Group and
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7. ^ "Inventory of World Cities". Globalization and World Cities (GaWC) Study Group and
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Comunidad Autónoma del País Vasco" – Eusko Jaurlaritza – Gobierno Vasco
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http://www.monocle.com/sections/affairs/Magazine-Articles/The-Worlds-top-25-most-
liveable-cities/. Retrieved 2010-06-26.
11. ^ Bremner, Caroline (10 January 2011). "Euromonitor International's Top City Destination
Ranking". Euromonitor International. http://www.euromonitor.com/euromonitor-
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13. ^ "Ranking: The richest cities in the world" – City Mayors.com
14. ^ "Lisboa é 9ª cidade que mais recebe congressos internacionais" – Agência LUSA
15. ^ Japan Aerospace Exploration Agency (5 November 2008). "Lisbon, Portugal – Where the
Land Ends and the Sea Begins".
http://www.eorc.jaxa.jp/en/imgdata/topics/2008/tp081105.html. Retrieved 7 December 09.
16. ^ José Mattoso, ed. (1992) (in Portuguese), História de Portugal. Primeiro Volume: Antes de
Portugal, 1, Círculo de Leitores
17. ^ Smith, William (1854), Dictionary of Greek and Roman Geography, illustrated by
numerous engravings on wood, London, England: Walton and Maberly
18. ^ Cailleux, Théophile (1879) (in French), Pays atlantiques décrits par Homère, Ibérie, Gaule,
Bretagne, Archipels, Amériques: Théorie nouvelle, Paris, France: Maisonneuve et cie
19. ^ If all of Odysseus' travels were in the Atlantic as Cailleux argued, then this could mean that
Odysseus founded the city coming from the north, before trying to round Cape Malea, (which
Cailleux located at Cabo de São Vicente), in a southeasterly direction, to reach his homeland
of Ithaca, supposedly present Cadiz.
20. ^ Many of these ruins were first unearthed during the middle 18th century (when the recent
discovery of Pompeii made Roman archaeology fashionable among Europe's upper classes).
21. ^ Brodman, James William. "Ransoming Captives in Crusader Spain: The Order of Merced
on the Christian-Islamic Frontier". Libro.uca.edu. http://libro.uca.edu/rc/rc1.htm. Retrieved 21
November 2010.
22. ^ Rabbi Jules Harlow (2011), "A 500-Year-Old Memory – Another tragic date in Jewish
history" (in Portuguese), Jewish Week, Lisbon, Portugal: Comunidade Judaica Masorti –
Lisboa
23. ^ Jeffrey S. Ruth, ed. (1996) [1554], "Urbis Olisiponis descriptio", Lisbon in the Renaissance,
New York, New York
24. ^ EncyclopædiaBritannica. "John IV (king of Portugal)".
http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topic/304794/John-IV. "king of Portugal from 1640 as
a result of the national revolution, or restoration, which ended 60 years of Spanish rule."
25. ^ Geoffrey Parker The army of Flanders and the Spanish road, London, 1972 ISBN 0-521-
08462-8, p. 35
26. ^ Pereira, A.S. (March 2006). "The Opportunity of a Disaster: The Economic Impact of the
Lisbon 1755 Earthquake" (PDF). Centre for Historical Economics and Related Research at
York, York University. http://www.york.ac.uk/res/cherry/docs/Alvaro3.pdf. Retrieved 2010-
11-21.
27. ^ "The Economic Impact of the Lisbon 1755 Earthquake – p. 8, estimates a population of
200,000" (PDF). March 2006. http://www.york.ac.uk/res/cherry/docs/Alvaro3.pdf. Retrieved
2010-11-21.
28. ^ "Historical Depictions of the 1755 Lisbon Earthquake, citing an unreferenced estimate of
275,000". Nisee.berkeley.edu. 1998-11-12. http://nisee.berkeley.edu/lisbon/index.html.
Retrieved 2010-11-21.
29. ^ "Historical Depictions of the 1755 Lisbon Earthquake". Nisee.berkeley.edu. 1998-11-12.
http://nisee.berkeley.edu/lisbon/index.html. Retrieved 2010-11-21.
30. ^ "Portugal". The Virtual Jewish History Tour.
31. ^ "Welcome to the official global voting platform of". New7Wonders.
http://www.new7wonders.com/index.php?id=315&L=0. Retrieved 2009-07-08.
32. ^ NATO, NATO Summit Meetings, 4 December 2006
33. ^ IGP, ed. (2011) (in Portuguese), Carta Administrativa Oficial de Portugal, Lisbon,
Portugal: Instituto Geográfico Português
34. ^ "World Map of Köppen−Geiger Climate Classification". http://koeppen-geiger.vu-
wien.ac.at/.
35. ^ a b "Weather2Travel.com: Lisbon Climate Guide". http://www.weather2travel.com/climate-
guides/portugal/lisbon.php.
36. ^ "Monthly Averages for Lisbon, Portugal (1981-2010)". Instituto de Meteorologia.
http://www.meteo.pt/pt/oclima/normais.clima/1981-2010/012/. Retrieved 2012-08-10.
37. ^ "Climatological Information for Lisbon, Portugal" (1961-1990) - Hong Kong Observatory
38. ^ "GDP per inhabitant in 2004". Eurostat.
http://epp.eurostat.ec.europa.eu/pls/portal/docs/PAGE/PGP_PRD_CAT_PREREL/PGE_CAT
_PREREL_YEAR_2007/PGE_CAT_PREREL_YEAR_2007_MONTH_02/1-19022007-EN-
AP.PDF.
39. ^ "GDP per inhabitant in 2005". Eurostat.
http://epp.eurostat.ec.europa.eu/pls/portal/docs/PAGE/PGP_PRD_CAT_PREREL/PGE_CAT
_PREREL_YEAR_2008/PGE_CAT_PREREL_YEAR_2008_MONTH_02/1-12022008-EN-
AP.PDF.
40. ^ "GDP per inhabitant in 2006". Eurostat.
http://epp.eurostat.ec.europa.eu/pls/portal/docs/PAGE/PGP_PRD_CAT_PREREL/PGE_CAT
_PREREL_YEAR_2009/PGE_CAT_PREREL_YEAR_2009_MONTH_02/1-19022009-EN-
AP.PDF.
41. ^ "GDP per inhabitant in 2007". Eurostat.
http://epp.eurostat.ec.europa.eu/cache/ITY_PUBLIC/1-18022010-AP/EN/1-18022010-AP-
EN.PDF.
42. ^ "Pequeno Resumo Histórico de Lisboa" – Câmara Municipal de Lisboa
43. ^ [1] Information from Carris, Lisbon transportation company.
44. ^ [2] Details of Lisbon's trams, from Luso Pages
45. ^ "vimeca". Vimeca.pt. http://www.vimeca.pt. Retrieved 2009-07-08.
46. ^ "Bem vindo ao site da Rodoviária de Lisboa". Rodoviariadelisboa.pt.
http://www.rodoviariadelisboa.pt. Retrieved 2009-07-08.
47. ^ "TST – Transportes Sul do Tejo". Tsuldotejo.pt. http://www.tsuldotejo.pt. Retrieved 2009-
07-08.
48. ^ "Boa Viagem". Boa-viagem.pt. http://www.boa-viagem.pt. Retrieved 2009-07-08.
49. ^ "Barraqueiro Transportes". Barraqueirotransportes.pt. http://www.barraqueirotransportes.pt.
Retrieved 2009-07-08.
50. ^ "Transtejo e Soflusa". Transtejo.pt. http://www.transtejo.pt. Retrieved 2009-07-08.
51. ^ [3] Statistics on enrollment from GPEARI/Ministry of Science, Technology and Higher
Education (MCES) (Excel spreadsheet, 2007/08 school year)
52. ^ "Official web-site.". Lisbon Gay and Lesbian Film Festival. http://www.lisbonfilmfest.org/.
Retrieved 2006-11-06.
53. ^ "::: doclisboa 2009 :::". Doclisboa.org. http://www.doclisboa.org/. Retrieved 2009-07-08.
54. ^ "ARTE LISBOA 2009 – Feira de Arte Contemporânea". Artelisboa.fil.pt.
http://www.artelisboa.fil.pt/. Retrieved 2010-04-30.
55. ^ Webcomum. "Festival Dos Oceanos". Festival Dos Oceanos.
http://www.festivaldosoceanos.com/. Retrieved 2009-07-08.
56. ^ "Juventude Musical Portuguesa". Jmp.pt. http://www.jmp.pt. Retrieved 2009-07-08.
57. ^ two. "MOTELx – Festival Internacional de Cinema de Terror de Lisboa = {LISBON
INTERNATIONAL HORROR FILM FESTIVAL}". Motelx.org. http://www.motelx.org.
Retrieved 2009-07-08.
58. ^ "lisbon village festival". lisbon village festival. http://lisbon.villagefestival.net/. Retrieved
2009-07-08.
59. ^ "Feira do Livro de Lisboa". Feiradolivrodelisboa.pt. http://www.feiradolivrodelisboa.pt.
Retrieved 2010-04-30.
60. ^ "Peixe em Lisboa". Peixemlisboa.com. http://www.peixemlisboa.com. Retrieved 2009-07-
08.
61. ^ "Feira Internacional do Artesanato". Artesanato.fil.pt. http://www.artesanato.fil.pt/.
Retrieved 2010-04-30.
62. ^ "Festival IndieLisboa". Indielisboa.com. http://www.indielisboa.com. Retrieved 2009-07-
08.
63. ^ "alkantara". Alkantara.pt. http://www.alkantara.pt. Retrieved 2009-07-08.
64. ^ "Festival Temps d'Images Portugal". Tempsdimages-portugal.com.
http://www.tempsdimages-portugal.com/. Retrieved 2009-07-08.
65. ^ "Calouste Gulbenkian Foundation / Music Department". Musica.gulbenkian.pt.
http://www.musica.gulbenkian.pt/. Retrieved 2009-07-08.
66. ^ "Trienal de Arquitectura de Lisboa". trienaldelisboa.com. http://www.trienaldelisboa.com.
Retrieved 2009-07-08.
67. ^ "ModaLisboa – LisboaFashionWeek – Semana oficial da moda portuguesa". Modalisboa.pt.
http://www.modalisboa.pt/. Retrieved 2009-07-08.
68. ^ "Experimentadesign". Experimentadesign.pt. http://www.experimentadesign.pt/. Retrieved
2009-07-08.
69. ^ "Luzboa 2008". Luzboa.com. http://www.luzboa.com. Retrieved 2009-07-08.
70. ^ Classificação Expresso das melhores cidades portuguesas para viver em 2007, Expresso
71. ^ "::Bethlehem Municipality::". bethlehem-city.org. http://www.bethlehem-
city.org/Twining.php. Retrieved 2009-10-10.
72. ^ "Sister cities of Budapest" (in Hungarian). Official Website of Budapest.
http://www.budapest.hu/engine.aspx?page=20030224-cikk-testvervarosok. Retrieved 2009-
07-01.[dead link]
73. ^ city council webpage "Mapa Mundi de las ciudades hermanadas". Ayuntamiento de Madrid.
http://www.munimadrid.es/portal/site/munimadrid/menuitem.dbd5147a4ba1b0aa7d245f019fc
08a0c/?vgnextoid=4e84399a03003110VgnVCM2000000c205a0aRCRD&vgnextchannel=4e9
8823d3a37a010VgnVCM100000d90ca8c0RCRD&vgnextfmt=especial1&idContenido=1da69
a4192b5b010VgnVCM100000d90ca8c0RCRDMadrid city council webpage.
74. ^ Prefeitura.Sp – Descentralized Cooperation[dead link]
75. ^ "International Relations – São Paulo City Hall – Official Sister Cities". Prefeitura.sp.gov.br.
http://www.prefeitura.sp.gov.br/cidade/secretarias/relacoes_internacionais/cidadesirmas/index
.php?p=1066. Retrieved 2010-11-21.
76. ^ "Sister cities of Beijing". Official Website of Beijing.
http://www.ebeijing.gov.cn/Sister_Cities/Sister_City/. Retrieved 2009-07-11.
77. ^ "Intercity and International Cooperation of the City of Zagreb". 2006–2009 City of Zagreb.
http://www1.zagreb.hr/mms/en/index.html. Retrieved 2009-06-23
Saudade
From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia
Jump to: navigation, search

Saudade (1899), by Almeida Júnior.

Saudade (European Portuguese: [s wˈðaðɨ], Brazilian Portuguese: [sawˈdadi] or [sawˈdadʒi],

[1]
Galician: [sawˈðaðe]; plural saudades) is a unique Galician-Portuguese word that has
no immediate translation in English. Saudade describes a deep emotional state of
nostalgic longing for an absent something or someone that one loves. It often carries a
repressed knowledge that the object of longing might never return. It's related to the
feelings of longing, yearning.

Saudade has been described as a "...vague and constant desire for something that does
not and probably cannot exist ... a turning towards the past or towards the future."[2] A
stronger form of saudade may be felt towards people and things whose whereabouts
are unknown, such as a lost lover, or a family member who has gone missing.

Saudade was once described as "the love that remains" after someone is gone.
Saudade is the recollection of feelings, experiences, places or events that once brought
excitement, pleasure, well-being, which now triggers the senses and makes one live
again. It can be described as an emptiness, like someone (e.g., one's children, parents,
sibling, grandparents, friends, pets) or something (e.g., places, things one used to do
in childhood, or other activities performed in the past) should be there in a particular
moment is missing, and the individual feels this absence. In Portuguese, 'tenho
saudades tuas', translates as 'I have saudades of you' meaning 'I miss you', but carries
a much stronger tone. In fact, one can have 'saudades' of someone whom one is with,
but have some feeling of loss towards the past or the future.

In Brazil, the day of saudade is officially celebrated on January 30.[3][4]

Contents
[hide]

1 History
o 1.1 Origins
2 Definition
3 Elements
o 3.1 In music
4 Variations
5 Similar words in other languages
6 See also
7 References
8 External links

[edit] History
[edit] Origins

The word saudade was used in the Cancioneiro da Ajuda (13th-century), Cancioneiro
da Vaticana and by poets of the time of by King Denis of Portugal.[5] Some specialists
say the word may have originated during the Great Portuguese Discoveries, giving
meaning to the sadness felt about those who departed on journeys to unknown seas
and disappeared in shipwrecks, died in battle, or simply never returned. Those who
stayed behind—mostly women and children—suffered deeply in their absence;
However, the Portuguese discoveries only started in 1415 and since the word has been
found earlier this does not constitute a very good explanation. The Reconquista is also
a plausible explanation.

The state of mind has subsequently become a "Portuguese way of life": a constant
feeling of absence, the sadness of something that's missing, wishful longing for
completeness or wholeness and the yearning for the return of that now gone, a desire
for presence as opposed to absence—as it is said in Portuguese, a strong desire to
matar as saudades (lit. to kill the saudades).

In the latter half of the 20th century, saudade became associated with the feeling of
longing for one's homeland, as hundreds of thousands of Portuguese-speaking people
left in search of better futures in South America, North America and Western Europe.
Besides the implications derived from an emigratory trend from the motherland,
historically speaking saudade is the term associated with the decline of Portugal's role
in world politics and trade. During the so-called 'Golden Age', synonymous with the
era of discoveries, Portugal undeniably rose to the status of a world power, and its
monarchy was one of the richest in Europe at the time. But with the rise of
competition from other European nations, the country went both colonially and
economically into a prolonged period of decay. This period of decline and resignation
from the world's cultural stage marked the rise of saudade, aptly described by a
sentence of its national anthem—'Levantai hoje de novo o esplendor de Portugal' (Let
us once again lift up the splendour of Portugal).

[edit] Definition
The "Dicionário Houaiss da língua portuguesa" defines saudade (or saudades) as "A
somewhat melancholic feeling of incompleteness. It is related to thinking back on
situations of privation due to the absence of someone or something, to move away
from a place or thing, or to the absence of a set of particular and desirable experiences
and pleasures once lived."[6]

The Dictionary from the Royal Galician Academy, on the other hand, defines saudade
as an "intimate feeling and mood caused by the longing for something absent that is
being missed. This can take different aspects, from concrete realities (a loved one, a
friend, the motherland, the homeland...) to the mysterious and transcendant. It's quite
prevalent and characteristic of the galician-portuguese world, but it can also be found
in other cultures."

[edit] Elements

Saudades de Nápoles (Missing Naples), 1895 by Bertha Worms.

Saudade is similar to nostalgia, a word that also exists in Portuguese.

In the book In Portugal of 1912, A. F. G. Bell writes:

The famous saudade of the Portuguese is a vague and constant desire for something
that does not and probably cannot exist, for something other than the present, a
turning towards the past or towards the future; not an active discontent or poignant
sadness but an indolent dreaming wistfulness.[2]

A stronger form of saudade may be felt towards people and things whose whereabouts
are unknown, such as old ways and sayings; a lost lover who is sadly missed; a
faraway place where one was raised; loved ones who have died; feelings and stimuli
one used to have; and the faded, yet golden memories of youth. Although it relates to
feelings of melancholy and fond memories of things/people/days gone by, it can be a
rush of sadness coupled with a paradoxical joy derived from acceptance of fate and
the hope of recovering or substituting what is lost by something that will either fill in
the void or provide consolation.

Although the word is Portuguese in origin, saudade is a universal feeling related to

love. It occurs when two people are in love or like each other, but apart from each
other. Saudade occurs when we think of a person who we love and we are happy
about having that feeling while we are thinking of that person, but he/she is out of
reach, making us sad and crushing our hearts. The pain and these mixed feelings are
saudade. It also refers to the feeling of being far from people one does love, e.g., one's
sister, father, grandparents, friends; it can be applied to places or pets one misses,
things one used to do in childhood, or other activities performed in the past. What sets
saudade apart is that it can be directed to anything that is personal and moving. It can
also be felt for unrequited love in that the person misses something he or she never
really had, but for which might hope, regardless of the possible futility of said hope.

[edit] In music

As with all emotions, saudade has been an inspiration for many songs and
compositions. "Sodade" ("saudade" in Cape Verdean Creole) is the title of the Cape
Verde singer Cesária Évora's most famous song; French singer Étienne Daho also
produced a song of the same name. The Good Son, a 1990 album by Nick Cave and
the Bad Seeds, was heavily informed by Cave's mental state at the time, which he has
described as saudade. He told journalist Chris Bohn that, "When I explained to
someone that what I wanted to write about was the memory of things that I thought
were lost for me, I was told that the Portuguese word for this feeling was saudade. It's
not nostalgia but something sadder."

The usage of saudade as a theme in Portuguese music goes back to the 16th century,
the golden age of Portugal. Saudade, as well as love suffering, is a common theme in
many villancicos and cantigas composed by Portuguese authors; for example:
"Lágrimas de Saudade" (tears of saudade), which is an anonymous work from the
Cancioneiro de Paris. Fado is a Portuguese music style, generally sung by a single
person (the fadista) along with a Portuguese guitar. The most popular themes of fado
are saudade, nostalgia, jealousy, and short stories of the typical city quarters. Fado,
and Saudade are two key and intertwined ideas in Portuguese culture. The word fado
comes from Latin fatum meaning fate or destiny. Fado is a musical cultural expression
and recognition of this unassailable determinism which compels the resigned yearning
of saudade, a bittersweet, existential yearning and hopefulness towards something
over which one has no control.
Spanish singer Julio Iglesias, whose father is a Galician, speaks of saudade in his
song Un Canto a Galicia (which roughly translates as a song/chant for Galicia). In
the song, he passionately uses the phrase to describe a deep and sad longing for his
motherland, Galicia. He also performs a song called Morriñas, which the describes
the Galicians as having a deeply strong saudade.

The Paraguayan guitarist Agustin Barrios wrote several pieces invoking the feeling of
saudade including Choro de Saudade and Preludio Saudade. The term is prominent in
Brazilian popular music, including the first bossa nova song, "Chega de Saudade" (No
more saudade, sometimes translated as "No More Blues"), written by Tom Jobim.
Due to the difficulties of translating the word saudade, the song is often translated to
English as No more Blues. In 1919, on returning from two years in Brazil, the French
composer Darius Milhaud composed a suite, Saudades do Brasil, which exemplified
the concept of saudade. "Saudade (Part II)" is also the title of a flute solo by the band
Shpongle. The singer Amália Rodrigues typified themes of saudade in some of her
songs. J-Rock band Porno Graffitti has a song titled "サウダージ‖, "Saudaaji"
transliterated ("Saudade"). The alternative rock band Love And Rockets has a song
named "Saudade" on their album Seventh Dream of Teenage Heaven.

The Dutch jazz/rock guitarist Jan Akkerman recorded a composition called

"Saudade", the centerpiece of his 1996 album Focus In Time. The jazz fusion group
Trio Beyond, consisting of John Scofield, Jack DeJohnette, and Larry Goldings
released in 2006 an album dedicated to drummer Tony Williams (1945–1997), called
Saudades. Dance music artist Peter Corvaia released a progressive house track
entitled "Saudade" on HeadRush Music, a sub-label of Toes in the Sand Recordings.
New York City post-rock band Mice Parade released an album entitled Obrigado
Saudade in 2004. Chris Rea also recorded a song entitled "Saudade" as a tribute to
Ayrton Senna the Brazilian three-times Formula One world champion killed on the
track. There is an ambient/noise/shoegazing band from Portland, OR named Saudade.
The rock band Extreme has a Portuguese guitarist Nuno Bettencourt; the influence of
his heritage can be seen in the band's album titled Saudades de Rock. During
recording, the mission statement was to bring back musicality to the medium. Nancy
Spain, a song by Barney Rush, made famous by an adaptation by Christy Moore, is
another example of the use of saudade in contemporary Irish music, the chorus of
which is:

"No matter where I wander I'm still haunted by your name

The portrait of your beauty stays the same
Standing by the ocean wondering where you've gone
If you'll return again
Where is the ring I gave to Nancy Spain?"

There was also a multi-artist compilation of music in the late 1990s, released in the
US as an introduction to Brazilian music, entitled Saudade.

There is a Spanish pop-rock group called Saudade.[7]

[edit] Variations
Saudade is also associated with Galicia, where it is used similarly to the word morriña
(longingness). Yet, morriña often implies a deeper stage of saudade, a "saudade so
strong it can even kill," as the Galician saying goes. Morriña was a term often used by
emigrant Galicians when talking about the Galician motherland they left behind.
Although saudade is also a Galician word, the meaning of longing for something that
might return is generally associated with morriña. A literary example showing the
understanding of the difference and the use of both words is the song Un canto a
Galicia by Julio Iglesias. The word used by Galicians speaking Spanish has spread
and become common in all Spain and even accepted by the Academia.[8]

In northern Portugal, morrinha is a regional word to describe sprinkles, while

morrinhar means "to sprinkle." (The most common Portuguese equivalents are
chuvisco and chuviscar, respectively.) Morrinha is also used in this region for
referring to sick animals, for example of sheep dropsy,[8] and occasionally to sick or
sad people, often with irony. It is also used in some Brazilian regional dialects for the
smell of wet or sick animals. In Goa, India, which was a Portuguese colony until
1961, some Portuguese influences are still retained. A suburb of Margão, Goa's
largest city, has a street named "Rua de Saudades." It was aptly named because that
very street has the Christian cemetery, the Hindu smarshant (cremation ground) and
the Muslim quabrastan (cemetery). Most people living in the city of Margão who
pass by this street would agree that the name of the street could not be any other, as
they often think fond memories of a friend, loved one, or relative whose remains went
past that road. The word 'saudade' takes on a slightly different form in Portuguese-
speaking Goan families for whom it implies the once-cherished but never-to-return
days of glory of Goa as a prized possession of Portugal, a notion since then made
redundant by the irrevocable cultural changes that occurred with the end of the
Portuguese regime in these parts. In Cape Verdean Creole there is the word sodadi
(also spelled sodade), originated in the Portuguese "saudade" and exactly with the
same meaning.

There is also a tune Saudade de Brasil recorded numerous times by Bill Evans and his
trio. It is far better known than any of the previous mentions.

[edit] Similar words in other languages

There are other words in other languages with similar meaning. Depending on the
context, saudade can relate to the feeling of nostalgia or melancholy (melancolia in
Portuguese), in which one feels an interior satisfaction because it is impossible to find
something, but one never stops thinking that one is searching for it. It is an
incompleteness that one unconsciously wants to never completely resolve. Saudade
relates to the French regret, in which one feels a hard sentiment, but in a nostalgic
sense. Saudade relates to the Spanish extrañar, in which one feels a missing part of
oneself, which can never be completely filled by the thing you cannot have or get
back. The word can also translate into the Spanish expression echar de menos, or
extrañar—roughly equivalent to the Portuguese ter saudades: missing something or
someone. The Greek word closest to saudade is νοσταλγία (nostalgia). Nostalgia also
appears in the Portuguese language as in the many other languages with a Indo-
European origin, bearing the same meaning of the Greek word "νοσταλγία". There is
yet another word that, like 'saudade', has no immediate translation in English:
λαχτάρα (lakhtara). This word encompasses sadness, longing and hope, as does the
term saudade.

La Mélancolie (detail), by Lucas Cranach the Elder, 1532

In Albanian, a direct translation of saudade is the word mall, which encompasses

feelings of passionate longing, sadness, and at the same time an undefined laughter
from the same source. Other variations which give different nuances to this word are:
pëmallim, përmallje, etc.

In the Torlak dialect of Bulgarian, spoken today in the easternmost part of Serbia and
the remote southern mountains of Kosovo, there is an expression which corresponds
more closely to the Japanese and Greek examples below, but can be compared to
saudade in the broader sense of longing for the past. It is жал за младос(т) / žal za
mlados(t) i.e., "yearning for one's youth." (Since the dialect has not been standardised
as a written language it has various forms.) The term and the concept have been
popularised in standard Serbian through short prose and plays by Vranje born fin-de-
siècle writer Borisav Stanković.

Bosnian language has a term for the same type of feeling, sevdah, which comes from
the Turkish term sevda, which in Turkish means "black bile." In Bosnian language,
the term sevdah represents pain and longing for a loved one. Sevdah is also a genre of
traditional music originating from Bosnia and Herzegovina. Sevdah songs are very
elaborate, emotionally charged and are traditionally sung with passion and fervor. The
combination of Sephardic, European and Turkish elements make this type of music
different from all other types of traditional folk music from the Balkans.

One translation of "saudade" into German is Wehmut (in Dutch weemoed); a fuzzy
form of nostalgia. Or Weltschmerz, which is the general pain caused by an imperfect
state of being or state of the world. The German word Sehnsucht, generally translated
as "yearning" or "craving" deals with a deep, bittersweet sense of something lost,
missing, or unattainable. Sehnsucht can also have a more positive, goal oriented
connotation; an "aspirational saudade" that may drive one to reclaim, pursue or define
the absent something.

In the Romanian language, the word dor bears a close meaning to "saudade". It can
also stand for love or "desire" having a derivation in the noun dorinţă and the verb
dori, both of them being translated usually by wish and to wish.

Saudade is said to be the only exact equivalent of the Welsh hiraeth and the Cornish
hireth.[9] It connotes homesickness tinged with grief or sadness over the lost or
departed. Esperanto borrows the word directly, changing the spelling to accommodate
Esperanto grammar, as saŭdado.[10]

In English, the verb "to pine": To pine for somebody, something or some place that
you miss deeply, to wish you could be there or have it again. A nostalgic yearning for
something that may no longer exist, melancholic, fatalist overtone that the object of
longing may never return.

The Slovenian language has a large number of words expressing the feeling of
'longing' hrepeneti, koprneti, pogrešati (literally to miss someone), nostalgija,
melanholija. The verb koprneti and thereof derived noun koprnenje are the closest
translations to embrace the fatalistic undertones of saudade.

The Finnish language has a word whose meaning corresponds very closely with
saudade: kaiho. Kaiho means a state of involuntary solitude in which the subject feels
incompleteness and yearns for something unattainable or extremely difficult and
tedious to attain. Ironically, the sentiment of kaiho is central to the Finnish tango, in
stark contrast to the Argentine tango, which is predominantly sensuous. Kaiho has
religious connotations in Finland as well, since the large Lutheran sect called the
Awakening (Finnish herännäiset, or körttiläiset more familiarly) consider central to
their faith a certain kaiho towards Zion, as expressed in their central book Siionin
Virret (Hymns of Zion). However, saudade does not involve tediousness. Rather, the
feeling of saudade accentuates itself: the more one thinks about the loved person or
object, the more one feels saudade. The feeling can even be creative, as one strives to
fill in what is missing with something else or to recover it altogether.

In Korean, keurium (그리움) is probably closest to saudade. It reflects a yearning for

anything that has left a deep impression in the heart—a memory, a place, a person,
etc.

In Japan, saudade expresses a concept similar to the Japanese word natsukashii.

Although commonly translated as "dear, beloved, or sweet," in modern conversational
Japanese natsukashii can be used to express a longing for the past. It connotes both
happiness for the fondness of that memory and goodness of that time, as well as
sadness that it is no longer. It is an adjective for which there is no quite fitting English
translation. It can also mean "sentimental," and is a wistful emotion. The character
used to write natsukashii can also be read as futokoro 懐 [ふところ] and means
"bosom," referring to the depth and intensity of this emotion that can even be
experienced as a physical feeling or pang in one's chest—a broken heart, or a heart
feeling moved.

In Armenian, "Saudade" is represented by "կարոտ" (karot) that describes the deep

feeling of missing of something or somebody.

In Arabic, the word ‫( وجد‬Wajd) means a state of transparent sadness caused by the
memory of a loved one who is not near, it's widely used in ancient Arabic poetry to
describe the state of the lover's heart as he or she remembers the long gone love. It's a
mixed emotion of sadness for the loss, and happiness for having loved that person. In
Turkish, the feeling of saudade is somewhat similar to hüzün. Its position in Turkey is
similar to saudade in Portugal in that it's a melancholic feeling popular in art and
culture following the fall of a great empire. However hüzün is closer to melancholy
and depression in that it's associated with a sense of failure in life and lack of
initiative.

The closest word to "saudade" in Indonesian is the "galau", which is a feeling or

mood in which the person who has it feels sad and usually misses someone. It is often
used by the Indonesian youth today and, although the word itself may be caused by
various things (such as failing a exam), the most common causes are love-related,
such as missing someone. Often, the person who is feeling it is nostalgic as well. It
can last for hours, but it is almost always temporary.

In Hebrew, "Saudade" can be translated to "Ergah" ‫ הגרע‬which means

yearning/longing/desire coupled with deep sadness.

[edit] See also

Grief
List of autostereotypes by nation
Mono no aware
Nostalgia
Sehnsucht

[edit] References
(Portuguese) Lourcenço, Eduardo. (1999) Mitologia da saudade (Seguido de
Portugal como destino). São Paulo: Companhia das Letras . ISBN 85-7164-
922-7
(Portuguese) Ribeiro, Bernardim (Torrao, ~1482 - Lisboa, ~1552). Livro das
Saudades.

1. ^ Dicionário Priberam da Língua Portuguesa

2. ^ a b Bell, A.F. (1912) In Portugal. London and New York: The Bodley Head. Quoted
in Emmons, Shirlee and Wilbur Watkins Lewis (2006) Researching the Song: A
Lexicon. Oxford and New York: Oxford University Press, p. 402.
3. ^ Portoalegre.rs.gov.br
4. ^ Brasilescola.com
5. ^ Saudade em português e galego. Basto, Cláudio. Revista Lusitana, Vol
XVII,Livraria Clássica Editora, Lisboa 1914
6. ^ Dicionário Houaiss da língua portuguese (Brazilian Portuguese Dictionary)
7. ^ Saudade.es
8. ^ a b morriña in the Spanish-language Diccionario de la Real Academia.
9. ^ Williams, Robert. Lexicon Cornu-britannicum. p. .217
10. ^ (Portuguese) Aprenda algumas palavras e frases em esperanto - Veja.com
Sebastianism
From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia
(Redirected from Sebastianismo)
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This article does not cite any references or sources. Please help improve
this article by adding citations to reliable sources. Unsourced material may
be challenged and removed. (March 2008)

Sebastianism, one aspect of the sleeping king folk-motif, is part of the Portuguese
and Brazilian mythology and culture. It means waiting for a hero that will save
Portugal and lead it to the Fifth Empire, and known as Eu nacional (national Self). In
Brazil the most important presence of Sebastianism happened in context of
Proclamation of Republic, to lead movements such as the War of Canudos that
defended the divine rights of D. Pedro II to rule Brazilian Empire.

Fernando Pessoa also wrote about this hero-to-come in his epic Mensagem (The
Message) supporting his ideas on predictions and myths.

Contents
[hide]

1 Sebastian, the Child King

2 The birth of a hero and a myth
3 Late Sebastianism
o 3.1 Late Sebastianism in Brazil
4 See also

[edit] Sebastian, the Child King

The mythical Portuguese king, with whose death the house of Aviz lost its throne.
Sebastianists hold that he will return to rule Portugal's Fifth Empire.

The name 'Sebastianism' derives from King Sebastian of Portugal (January 20, 1554 -
August 4, 1578), grandson of John III, who became heir to the throne due to the death
of his father, João, Crown Prince of Portugal in 1554 two weeks before his birth, and
who succeeded to the throne three years later. This period saw continued Portuguese
colonial expansion in Africa, Asia and Brazil. Luís de Camões wrote the Lusiads in
his honour. The young King grew up under the guidance of the Jesuits. He also
convinced himself that he was to be Christ's captain in a crusade against Muslims in
Africa.

[edit] The birth of a hero and a myth

Almost immediately upon coming of age, Sebastian began plans for a great crusade
against the Moroccans of Fez. The Portuguese crusaders crossed into Morocco in
1578 and, against the advice of his commanders, Sebastian marched deep inland. At
Ksar El Kebir (Field of the Three Kings) the Portuguese were routed by Ahmed
Mohammed of Fez, and Sebastian was almost certainly killed in battle or
subsequently executed. But for the Portuguese people, he had just disappeared and
would return home one day, to such an extent that, in 1640, King John IV of Portugal
had to swear to yield his throne to Sebastian, in case Sebastian (who would have been
86 years old) were to return.

After his death (or disappearance), Portuguese nobility saw its independence gone
(1580). In the time of Habsburg rule (1580-1640), impostors claimed to be King
Sebastian in 1584, 1585, 1595 and 1598. Because of these events, Sebastian passed
into legend as a great Portuguese patriot and hero - the "sleeping King" who would
return to help Portugal in its darkest hour, on a misty day.

[edit] Late Sebastianism

In the present day, Sebastianism is used by some intellectuals and politicians in
Portugal to criticize the Portuguese society in general and in particular fields such as
the economy, saying it is Sebastianist, that is, they are assuming Sebastian will return
and solve all their problems so they can ignore them.

[edit] Late Sebastianism in Brazil

With the Proclamation of Republic in 1889 the Brazilian state became a Secular state,
contrasting with Brazilian Empire, where Catholicism was the official religion. In
imperial administration, the church had very important roles: functioning as registrar
for births, deaths, weddings, and even the recording of property (the control of this in
the Portuguese Empire, which was based in a donation system, became, until recently,
a huge problem in the Brazilian economy and Brazilian politics).

The coup d'état of emperor Pedro II and his republican reforms brought few changes
in most people's lifestyle - for example, universal enfranchisement was not enacted -,
the greatest change for Brazilians really was the "godless" government. Catholicism
and the monarchy had been closely tied and strongly effected Brazilian people. Most
of the opposition movements to republic in 1890's, 1900's and earlier 1910's had
religious motivations. The character of D. Sebastião returned to people's imagination:
he would come back to defend the divine right of the Brazilian Monarchy, who were
directly descended from the Portuguese monarchs, to rule in Brazil and defend
Catholicism, which had been removed from government by the Republic.

The most famous presence of Sebastianism appears in the War of Canudos. This
revolt was led by Antonio Conselheiro and happened in the Brazilian Northeast. This
region was in an economic depression since the discovery of large gold mines in
Minas Gerais, formerly part of Capitania de São Paulo, that dislocated the economic
center to southestern Portuguese America in the 18th century. The only subterfuge for
the poverty in the region, overflowed with the abolition of slavery that produced a
huge mass of unemployeds, was the religion. Antonio Conselheiro prechament was
against the Antichrist republic and conquered a lot of followers, founding a city
named Canudos, where was practiced a cooperative system and in the summit the
population of town was near 25.000 inhabitants in 1897.

Another great movement where Sebastians were found is the Contestado War, in
Santa Catarina and Paraná states. The building of São Paulo-Rio Grande do Sul
Railway by Percival Farqhuar needed the dispossess of several small proprietys that
was considered by Republican Government as "terra devolutas" (useless lands), in this
way, there were not any ressarchiments or payments for the railway building. Then
the population of the area risen against the Hermes da Fonseca presidence, and, for
some of the same reasons that were in Canudos, the war became a "guerra santa"
(jihad, Religious war) and got a lot of messianic symbols, like the flag of the
movement, inspired by Knights Templar, or the miracles done by José Maria de Santo
Agostinho, and also the presence of D. Sebastião.
Symbols of Portugal
From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia
Jump to: navigation, search
This article does not cite any references or sources. Please help improve
this article by adding citations to reliable sources. Unsourced material may
be challenged and removed. (August 2012)

The symbols of Portugal are oficial and unoficial flags, incons or cultural
expressions that are emblematic, representative or otherwise characteristic of Portugal
and of its culture.

Contents
[hide]

1 Flags
2 Heraldry
3 Anthem
4 Cultural
5 Flora and fauna
6 Food and drink
7 People
8 References

[edit] Flags
Main article: List of Portuguese flags
The present national flag of Portugal, was oficially introduced in
1911, after the introduction of the republican regime in the 5 October
, 1910. It is the last model of a serie of flags since the 12th century.
Since, at least, the 15th century, the flags of Portugal had been known
as "Bandeira das Quinas" (Flag of the Quinas), the quina beeing each
one of the five escutcheons of the Portuguese Coat of Arms that are
the central motif of the flag.

[edit] Heraldry
Main article: Portuguese heraldry
 The Portuguese shield is the result of centuries of modifications and
alterations. Starting with Henry of Burgundy blue on a silver cross,
successive elements were added or taken, culminating with the
complex heraldic design that was officially adopted in 1481 and kept
until today. The shield consist of the five quinas (blue escutcheons
with five besants) over a argent field and a red burdure cherged with
gold castles (fixed in nine since the end of 16th century). The
complete achievement of arms, adopted in 1911, include the
Portuguese shield over the armillary sphere, surrounded by two
branches of olive leaves that are tied by two stripes. The two stripes
bear the colours of the Portuguese flag: red and green.
The armillary sphere was initialy the personal badge of the future
king Manuel I of Portugal, still when he was duke of Beja and great
master of the Order of Christ. It became a national symbol when
Manuel I become king of Portugal, beeing associated with the
Portuguese Discoveries and specially used to represent the
Portuguese Empire. The coat of arms of Portugal adopted in 1911
have the armillary sphere as one of its main elements.
The cross of the Order of Christ has been a national emblem since the
reign of Manuel I, former great master of the Order. The cross of the
Order of Christ was used in the sails of the ships of the Portuguese
Discoveries and is still used today in the sails of the Portuguese
Navy's school ship NRP Sagres and in the Portuguese Air Force's
aircraft.

[edit] Anthem
Main article: A Portuguesa
A Portuguesa (The Portuguese) is the national anthem of Portugal. It
was composed by Alfredo Keil and written by Henrique Lopes de
Mendonça during the resurgent nationalist movement ignited by the
1890 British ultimatum to Portugal concerning its African colonies.
Used as the marching song of the failed republican rebellion of
January 1891, in Porto, it was adopted as the national anthem of the
newborn Portuguese Republic in 1911, replacing O Hino da Carta
(The Charter Anthem), the anthem of the deposed constitutional
monarchy.

[edit] Cultural
Main article: Culture of Portugal
 Belém Tower is a fortified tower located in the civil parish of Belém
in Lisbon. The tower was built in the early 16th century and is a
prominent example of the Portuguese Manueline style. By its
characteristics, is one of the most distinctive monuments of the world
and thus considered an icon of Portugal.

Os Lusíadas is an epic poem writen by Camões in the 16th century. It

is often regarded as Portugal's national epic.

Fado (destiny, fate) is a mainly melancolic music genre which can be

traced to the 1820s in Portugal, but probably with much earlier
origins. There are two main varieties: the Lisbon fado and the
Coimbra fado. It is considered the national music genre of Portugal,
with Amalia Rodrigues (1920-1999) its "queen".

The Calçada portuguesa (Portuguese pavement) is a traditional style

pavement used for many pedestrian areas in Portugal, while it can
also be found throughout former Portuguese colonies such as Brazil
and Macau.

[edit] Flora and fauna

Main articles: Fauna of Portugal and Flora of Portugal
The quercus suber, commonly called the cork oak, is a medium-
sized, evergreen oak tree in the section Quercus sect. Cerris. It is the
primary source of cork for wine bottle stoppers and other uses, such
as cork flooring. The quercus suber holds great importance in the
economy of Portugal, especially the southern regions, the country
being the largest producer of cork. In December 2011, after a petition
signed by thousands of persons, the quercus sober was declared
national tree by the Portuguese Parliament.
The Galo de Barcelos (Rooster of Barcelos) is one of the most
common emblems of Portugal. These pieces of craftsmanship, made
in painted clay in the city of Barcelos celebrate an old legend that
tells the story of a dead rooster's miraculous intervention in proving
the innocence of a man who had been falsely accused and sentenced
to death.
 The dragon was used as the crest of the Royal Arms of Portugal since
the 15th century. Later, two dragons were also used as supports of the
Arms of Portugal.

[edit] Food and drink

Main article: Portuguese cuisine

A pastel de nata is a Portuguese egg tart pastry, very popular in

Portugal, the Lusosphere countries and regions.

The bacalhau (cod fish) is one of Portugal's most recognisable and

traditional foods. There are said to be over 1000 recipes of bacalhau
in Portugal.

Port wine is a Portuguese fortified wine produced exclusively in the

Douro Valley in the northern provinces of Portugal. It is typically a
sweet, red wine, often served as a dessert wine though it also comes
in dry, semi-dry, and white varieties.

People
See also: List of Portuguese people

Luís de Camões is considered Portugal's and the Portuguese

language's greatest poet. Its date of death (10th June) is the national
day of Portugal.

Zé Povinho is a Portuguese everyman created in 1875 by Rafael

Bordalo Pinheiro. He became first a symbol of the Portuguese
working-class people, and eventually into the unofficial
personification of Portugal.