EFCCS7E

Fundamental
Critical Care Support

Seventh Edition
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Fundamental Critical Care Support
Seventh Edition
Editors
Mark E. Hamill, MD, FACS, FCCM

Associate Professor
Virginia Tech Carilion School of Medicine
Trauma Surgeon, Surgical Intensivist
Carilion Clinic
Roanoke, Virginia, USA
No disclosures
Kristie A. Hertel, RN, MSN, CCRN, ACNP-BC, FCCM

Advanced Practice Provider
Vidant Medical Center
Greenville, North Carolina, USA
No disclosures
Javier Perez-Fernandez, MD, FCCM, FCCP

General Manager
Intensive Care Solutions
Medical Director, Critical Care Services
Baptist Hospital of Miami
Miami, Florida, USA
No disclosures
Contributors
Mohamed Abou El Fadl, MD

Critical Care and Neurocritical Care Medicine
Baptist Health South Florida
Miami, Florida, USA
No disclosures
Albert Abreu, MBA, MIS, RRT

Director, Cardiopulmonary
West Kendall Baptist Hospital
Miami, Florida, USA
No disclosures
Kazuaki Atagi, MD, PhD, FCCM

Director of Critical Care Medicine
Nara Prefecture General Medical Center
Nara, Japan
No disclosures
Jennifer Axelband, DO, FCCM, FACOEP
Director Neurocritical Care
Network Critical Care Education Director
St. Luke’s University Health Network
Bethlehem, Pennsylvania, USA
No disclosures
Abdullah Bakhsh, MSSS, FAAEM

Assistant Professor of Emergency Medicine
King Abdulaziz University
Jeddah, Saudia Arabia
No disclosures
Marie Baldisseri, MD, MPH, FCCM

Professor of Critical Care Medicine and Neurocritical Care
University of Pittsburgh Medical Center
Pittsburgh, Pennsylvania, USA
No disclosures
Jennifer Bath, MSN, RN, ACNS-BC, CEN, TCRN

Clinical Nurse Specialist for Trauma Services
Carilion Roanoke Memorial Hospital
No disclosures
Javier O. Belmo, RRT

Manager, Cardiopulmonary
West Kendall Baptist Hospital
Miami, Florida, USA
No disclosures
Ana Berbel Caban, MD

Intensivist and Infectious Diseases Physician
Miami, Florida, USA
No disclosures
Sherry Boone, MSN, ACNP-C, RN, CCRN

Assistant Professor of Nursing
Radford University Carilion
No disclosures
Gregory H. Botz, MD, FCCM

Professor of Anesthesiology and Critical Care
University of Texas MD Anderson Cancer Center
Houston, Texas, USA
No disclosures
Matthew T. Carr, MD
Attending Physician
Department of Emergency Medicine
The Brookdale Hospital Medical Center
Brooklyn, New York, USA
No disclosures
Heidi M. Clarke, PharmD, BCCCP

Clinical Manager
Director PGY2 Critical Care Residency
Miami, Florida, USA
No disclosures
Ivan Co, MD
University of Michigan
Ann Arbor, Michigan, USA
No disclosures
Bryan R. Collier, DO, FACS, FCCM

Professor of Surgery
Chief of Acute Care Surgery
No disclosures
Gary R. Collin, MD, FACS, FCCM

Chief of Surgery & Director of
Surgical Critical Care
Salem Veterans Affairs Medical Center
Salem, Virginia, USA
No disclosures
Ian Del Conde, MD, FACC

Associate Director of Cardiology
Miami Cardiac & Vascular Institute
Baptist Hospital
Miami, Florida, USA
No disclosures
David Dries, MD, MSE, MCCM

HealthPartners Institute
Professor of Surgery
University of Minnesota
Minneapolis, Minnesota, USA
No disclosures
Christina Dunbar Matos, DO

University of Louisville
Advanced Heart Failure/VAD/Transplant Department
Louisville, Kentucky, USA
No disclosures
Emily Faulks, MD
Assistant Professor of Surgery
Trauma and Critical Care Surgeon
No disclosures
Karel Fuentes, MD
Medical Director of Neurocritical Care
Baptist Health Neuroscience Center
Miami, Florida USA
No disclosures
Nicole M. Garcia, MD, FACS

Clinical Assistant Professor
Department of Surgery
East Carolina University,
Brody School of Medicine
No disclosures
Robert C. Gibson, RN, MS, ACNP-BC

Critical Care Education Coordinator
Mercy Hospital of Buffalo
Buffalo, New York, USA
No disclosures
Carrie L. Griffiths, PharmD, BCCCP, FCCM

Associate Professor and Clinical Pharmacy
Specialist: Virtual Critical Care
Wingate University School of Pharmacy
Wingate, North Carolina, USA
No disclosures
Jorge L. Hidalgo, MD, MACP, MCCM

Professor of Critical Care
Karl Heusner Memorial Hospital
Belize Healthcare Partners
Belize City, Belize
No disclosures
Steven M. Hollenberg, MD, FACC, FAHA, FCCP

Professor of Medicine
Hackensack Meridian School of Medicine
Program Director, Cardiology
Hackensack University Medical Center
Hackensack, New Jersey, USA
No disclosures
John C. Hunninghake, MD
Pulmonary/Critical Care Physician
Assistant Professor of Medicine (USU)
San Antonio Military Medical Center (BAMC)
San Antonio, Texas, USA
No disclosures
Robert C. Hyzy, MD, MCCM, ATS-F, FCCP

Professor of Internal Medicine
Medical Director, Critical Care Medicine Unit
University of Michigan Health System
Ann Arbor, Michigan, USA
No disclosures
Kaori Ito, MD, PhD, FACS

Assistant Professor
Teikyo University
Tokyo, Japan
No disclosures
Richard Iuorio, MD
Mount Sinai Hospital
New York, New York, USA
No disclosures
Muhammad Jaffar, MD, FCCM

Anesthesiology Residency Program Director
Detroit Medical Center
Wayne State School of Medicine
Detroit, Michigan, USA
No disclosures
David Jury, MD, MS

Staff Intensivist and Anesthesiologist
Department of Intensive Care and Resuscitation
Cleveland Clinic Foundation
Cleveland, Ohio, USA
No disclosures
Keith Killu, MD, FCCM

Assistant Professor of Clinical Medicine
Keck School of Medicine
University of Southern California
Los Angeles, California, USA
No disclosures
Anand Kumar, MD, FCCM

Professor
University of Manitoba
Winnipeg, Canada
No disclosures
James J. Lamberg, DO
Penn Medicine Lancaster General Health
Lancaster, Pennsylvania, USA
No disclosures
Amy Lucas, MSN, RN, CCNS, CCRN-K

Clinical Nurse Specialist
No disclosures
Michael Malian, MD, MA, FACS

Trauma/Critical Care Surgeon
Beaumont Dearborn Hospital
Dearborn, Michigan, USA
No disclosures
Miguel A. Matos, DO, MBA, MHA, MS

Carilion Clinic
No disclosures
Andrew G. Miller, MS, RRT-ACCS, RRT-NPS

Respiratory Care Practitioner, ECMO Specialist
Duke University Medical Center
Durham, North Carolina, USA
No disclosures
Frank M. O’Connell, MD, FACP, FCCP

Staff Anesthesiologist
AtlantiCare Regional Medical Center
Pomona, New Jersey, USA
No disclosures
John M. Oropello, MD, FCCM

Program Director, Critical Care Medicine
Director, Transplant ICU
Mount Sinai School of Medicine
New York, New York, USA
No disclosures
Lauren A. Plante, MD, MPH, FACOG

Professor
New York Medical College
Valhalla, New York, USA
No disclosures
Kehllee Popovich, MSN, ACNP-BC
System Lead, APP Education
Clinical APP, Structural Heart
University Hospitals Cleveland Medical Center
Cleveland, Ohio, USA
No disclosures
Don C. Postema, PhD

HealthPartners
Minneapolis, Minnesota, USA
No disclosures
Ignacio Previgliano, MD
Professor of Neurology
Maimónides University
Director
Hospital Fernández
Buenos Aires, Argentina
No disclosures
Jose Javier Provencio, MD, FCCM

Louise Nerancy Professor in Neurology
and Neuroscience
University of Virginia
Charlottesville, Virginia, USA
No disclosures
Nitin Puri, MD, FCCP

Co-Director Center for Critical Care
Cooper University Hospital
Camden, New Jersey, USA
No disclosures
April Miller Quidley, PharmD, BCCCP, BCPS, FCCM, FCCP

Supervisor, Critical Care and Emergency Medicine
Vidant Medical Center
No disclosures
Ahmed Reda Taha, MD, FRCP, FCCP, FCCM

Clinical Assistant Professor of Medicine
Cleveland Clinic Lerner College of Medicine
Case Western Reserve University
Critical Care Institute
Abu Dhabi, United Arab Emirates
No disclosures
Michael Ritchie, MD
Clinical Assistant Professor of Medicine
University of Louisville School of Medicine
Louisville, Kentucky, USA
No disclosures
Sophia Chu Rodgers, DNP, ACNP, FNP,

FAANP, FCCM
Critical Care Nurse Practitioner
Lovelace Medical Group
Lovelace Health Systems
Albuquerque, New Mexico, USA
No disclosures
William Rodriguez-Cintron, MD, FCCM

Chief, Pulmonary/Critical Care Medicine
San Juan VA Medical Center
San Juan, Puerto Rico
No disclosures
Gloria M. Rodríguez-Vega, MD, MCCM

Chief, Department of Critical Care
HIMA San Pablo Caguas
Caguas, Puerto Rico
Speaker bureau: Chiesi, clevedipine
Gregory P. Schaefer, DO, FACS

Medical Director, Surgical Critical Care
West Virginia University School of Medicine
Morgantown, West Virginia, USA
No disclosures
Alberto Sirven, MD, FACOG

West Kendall OBGYN
Miami, Florida, USA
No disclosures
David J. Skarupa, MD, FACS

Associate Professor of Surgery
University of Florida College of Medicine - Jacksonville
Jacksonville, Florida, USA
Principal Investigator at UF Health Jacksonville
for a multi-center funded phase 2 study on vascular conduits.
Whitney Sprinkel, BSN, CCRN

Registered Nurse
No disclosures
Christine C. Toevs, MD, MA, FCCM

Trauma/Critical Care Surgeon
Terre Haute Regional Hospital
Terre Haute, Indiana, USA
No disclosures
Shari A. Toomey, MBA, RRT, NPS

Clinical Team Leader
Carilion Clinic Children’s Hospital
No disclosures
Arlene Torres, DNP, ARNP, CCRN, ACNP-BC

Advanced Practice Provider Manager
Miami, Florida, USA
No disclosures
Jonathan Trager, DO , FAAEM, FCCP

Saint Luke's University Hospital
Clinical Assistant Professor (Adjunct)
Lewis Katz School of Medicine
Temple University
Philadelphia, Pennsylvania, USA
No disclosures
Robert J. Walter, MD, DHCE, FACP, FCCP

Chief, Pulmonary/Critical Care Medicine
Brooke Army Medical Center
Fort Sam Houston, Texas, USA
No disclosures
Daniel Wu, DO, FACOS, FACS, FCCM

Acute Care Surgeon
Trinity Health–St. Mary Medical Center
Langhorne, Pennsylvania, USA
No disclosures
Sergio Zanotti-Cavazzoni, MD, FCCM

Chief Medical Officer
Memorial Hermann Memorial City
Medical Center
Bellaire, Texas, USA
No disclosures
Contents
Preface
1. Recognition and Assessment of the Seriously Ill Patient
2. Airway Management
3. Cardiopulmonary/Cerebral Resuscitation
4. Diagnosis and Management of Acute Respiratory Failure
5. Mechanical Ventilation
6. Monitoring Oxygen Balance and Acid-Base Status
7. Diagnosis and Management of Shock
8. Neurologic Support
9. Basic Trauma and Burn Support
10. Acute Coronary Syndromes
11. Life-Threatening Infections: Diagnosis and Antimicrobial Therapy Selection
12. Management of Life-Threatening Electrolyte and Metabolic Disturbances
13. Special Considerations
14. Critical Care in Pregnancy
15. Ethics in Critical Care Medicine
16. Surgery in Critical Care
Appendix
1. Rapid Response System
2. Airway Adjuncts
3. Endotracheal Intubation
4. Intraosseous Needle Insertion
5. Arterial Blood Gas Analysis and Treatment
6. Brain Death
7. Organ Donation
PREFACE
Pioneers in critical care medicine drafted the first edition of the

Fundamental Critical Care Support (FCCS) textbook more than a quarter of
a century ago after the concept of critical care training for all clinicians was
conceived. Over the years FCCS has been an integral resource to critical
care learners and educators, teaching basic concepts to assess and manage
the critically ill or injured patient until an intensivist arrives or the patient
can be safely transferred to a higher level of care. With the seventh edition,
we build on the efforts of previous authors and strive to highlight the
knowledge provided over the last 50 years by the Society of Critical Care
Medicine (SCCM).
FCCS, seventh edition, was developed in consultation with subject matter
experts and with feedback from learners and educators. It is arranged in an
organ system-based, problem-based format and includes new concepts,
guidelines, and practices that reflect the latest evidence-based literature.
New case scenarios in each chapter guide the reader through learning
objectives and emphasize important concepts. New material includes
hematologic and oncologic considerations as well as postoperative
management of the surgical patient. Throughout the development process,
special attention was given to addressing the need to care for different
patient populations and to reflect variations in practice worldwide,
supporting SCCM’s mission to secure the highest-quality care for all
critically ill and injured patients.
The COVID-19 pandemic has challenged healthcare systems worldwide.
We have learned that, with certain exceptions, caring for patients with
COVID-19 follows the fundamentals of critical care. As recommendations
continue to change at a rapid pace, COVID-19-specific information runs the
risk being outdated by the time of publication. Because of this, COVID-19
is not specifically addressed in this edition. Instead we have focused on
providing a solid foundation from which to draw when assessing and
managing critically ill patients.
To deliver a high-quality product, expertise from a wide variety of fields
was required. Along with the participation of a distinguished volunteer
group of national and international critical care experts, we acknowledge
the help of many SCCM staff partners. We deeply appreciate their help on
this endeavor. To all the volunteers and partners who have selflessly offered
their time, effort, and expertise on this project—thank you. We are pleased
to share FCCS, seventh edition, and look forward to seeing the FCCS
program expand to meet the needs of critical care learners and educators
worldwide.
Mark E. Hamill, MD, FACS, FCCM
Editor
Kristie A. Hertel, RN, MSN, CCRN, ACNP-BC, FCCM
Editor
Javier Perez-Fernandez, MD, FCCM, FCCP
Editor
Chapter 1
RECOGNITION AND ASSESSMENT OF THE

SERIOUSLY ILL PATIENT
Objectives
Recognize the early signs and symptoms of critical illness.

Describe a framework for the initial assessment of the seriously ill
patient.
Explain the DIRECT methodology as a framework to approach the
initial management of critically ill patients.
Case Study
A 58-year-old man with a history of hypertension presents to the emergency

department with a 3-day history of fever, cough, and increasing shortness of
breath. On arrival to the hospital, the patient has a temperature of 38.5°C
(101.3°F), heart rate of 118 beats/min, respiratory rate of 26 breaths/min, a
blood pressure of 100/72 mm Hg, and a pulse oximetry reading of 90% on
room air.
– What findings are potential clues to a seriously ill patient?
– Which aspects of the physical examination would you concentrate on
initially?
– Which laboratory and radiographic investigations would you order for
this patient?
I. INTRODUCTION
Clinicians often think that patients with a critical illness present with
sudden acute clinical deterioration. However, in retrospect these patients
usually have shown early signs and symptoms that could have clued
clinicians to the potential of serious illness. Early identification of patients
at risk for life-threatening illness makes it easier to manage them and is
associated with improved patient outcomes. Time-sensitive interventions
and early stabilization usually require less aggressive treatments and
prevent further deterioration. Many clinical problems, if recognized early,
can be managed with simple measures such as supplemental oxygen,
respiratory therapy interventions, intravenous fluids, dextrose
administration, or effective analgesia. The early identification of patients in
trouble allows clinicians to identify the main physiologic problem,
determine its underlying cause, and begin specific treatments. The longer
the interval between the onset of an acute illness and the appropriate
intervention, the more likely it is that the patient’s condition will
deteriorate, even to cardiopulmonary arrest. Several studies have
demonstrated that physiologic deterioration precedes many
cardiopulmonary arrests by hours, suggesting that early intervention could
prevent the need for resuscitation, admission to the ICU, and other sentinel
events. Many hospitals are using rapid response systems to identify patients
at risk and begin early treatment. (See Appendix 1 for further information
on the organization and implementation of a rapid response system.) The
purpose of this chapter is to describe the general principles involved in
recognizing and assessing seriously or critically ill patients.
II. RECOGNIZING THE PATIENT AT RISK

Patients seldom deteriorate
abruptly, even though clinicians
may recognize the deterioration
suddenly.
Recognizing that a patient is seriously or critically ill is usually not difficult

when there are clear signs and symptoms present. However, in early stages,
some signs may be subtle and clinicians may not fully appreciate the
severity of the clinical picture. Young and otherwise healthy patients are
usually much slower to exhibit the typical signs and symptoms of acute
illness than elderly patients or those with comorbidities and/or impaired
cardiopulmonary function. Thus, recognition of serious illness in young and
healthy patients may be more challenging. Individuals who are
immunosuppressed or debilitated may not demonstrate a vigorous and
clinically obvious inflammatory response. Some conditions, such as cardiac
arrhythmias, do not evolve with progressively worsening and easily
detectable changes in physiology but rather present as an abrupt change of
state. In most circumstances, a balance exists between the patient’s
physiologic reserve and the acute disease. Patients with limited reserve are
more likely to be susceptible to severe illness and to experience greater
degrees of organ-system impairment. The goal for the clinician is to
recognize the potential for serious illness as early as possible. Early
recognition can facilitate time-sensitive interventions and offer patients the
best chance of a good outcome. Identifying patients at risk for deterioration
requires assessment of the current physiologic changes caused by their
acute disease process as well as their potential physiologic reserve based on
their chronic health issues and comorbid factors.
A. Assessing Severity
Tachycardia in response to
physiologic abnormalities (ie, fever,
low cardiac output) may be
increased with pain and anxiety or
suppressed in patients who have
conduction abnormalities or are
receiving ß-blocker medications.
Even normal vital signs may be

early indicators of impending
deterioration if they differ from
prior measurements.
“How sick is this patient?” is one of the most important questions clinicians
must answer because it will dictate the urgency needed to stabilize, treat,
and ultimately triage a patient to the appropriate level of care. Evaluation of
severity of illness in any given clinical situation starts with proper
measurement of vital signs and other specific physiologic variables
(Appendix 1). Obtaining a heart rate, respiratory rate, a well-measured
blood pressure, temperature, and pulse oximetry can be completed
efficiently and will set the basis for an accurate patient assessment. Acute
illness typically causes predictable physiologic changes associated with
both disease-specific and general clinical signs. For example, a patient’s
physiologic response to a bacterial infection may result in fever, delirium,
shaking chills, and tachypnea. The most important step is to recognize these
signs and initiate physiologic monitoring to quantify the severity of disease
and take appropriate action. Sick patients may present with confusion,
irritability, impaired consciousness, or a sense of impending doom. They
may appear short of breath and demonstrate signs of a sympathetic
response, such as pallor, sweating, or cool extremities. Symptoms may be
nonspecific, such as nausea and weakness, or they may identify the
involvement of a particular organ system (for example, chest pain).
Therefore, a high index of suspicion is required when measuring vital signs:
heart rate, blood pressure, respiratory rate, oxygenation, temperature, and
urine output. Clinical monitoring helps to quantify the severity of the
disease process, tracks trends and rates of deterioration, and directs
attention to those aspects of physiology that most urgently need treatment.
Studies have identified several clinical findings that independently predict a
higher risk of mortality. Some of these findings include low blood pressure,
oliguria, prolonged capillary refill time, and skin mottling. A recent
prospective cohort study found that the presence of a higher respiratory
rate, higher systolic blood pressure, lower central temperature, altered
consciousness, and decreased urine output were independently associated
with mortality when documented on day 1 of an ICU stay. When these
findings were all present, they offered similar or improved prognostic
abilities compared with validated severity of disease scores. The goals at
this stage of assessment are to recognize that a problem exists and to
maintain physiologic stability while pursuing the cause and refining
treatment with the implementation of disease-specific interventions.
B. Immediate Therapeutic Interventions
Making an accurate diagnosis in the acutely ill patient often must take
second place to treating life-threatening physiologic abnormalities. In the
early phases of evaluation, the clinician must identify any physiologic
derangement that requires immediate attention with supportive therapeutic
measures. Correcting the problem may be as simple as providing oxygen or
intravenous fluids. There may not be sufficient time for a lengthy pursuit of
a differential diagnosis initially if the patient is seriously ill and needs to be
stabilized. However, an accurate diagnosis is essential for refining treatment
options once physiologic stability is achieved. The general principles of
taking an accurate history, performing a brief, directed clinical examination
followed by a secondary survey, and organizing laboratory and radiographic
investigations are fundamentally important. Good clinical skills and a
disciplined approach are required to accomplish these tasks.
III. INITIAL ASSESSMENT OF THE CRITICALLY ILL
PATIENT
A framework for assessing the acutely ill patient is provided in Table 1-1
and discussed below. Further information on specific issues and treatments
can be found in later chapters of this text.
A. History
A primary and secondary survey

approach is recommended in the
assessment of a seriously ill patient.
The patient’s history usually provides the most valuable information for
diagnosis. Many seriously ill patients may have altered levels of
consciousness or confusion and are incapable of providing a reliable
history. Often the current history, past medical history, and medication list
must be obtained from family members, caregivers, friends, neighbors,
medical records, or other healthcare providers. The risk of critical illness is
increased in patients with the following characteristics:
Emergency admission (limited information)

Advanced age (limited reserve)
Severe coexisting chronic illness (limited reserve, limited options for
management)
Severe physiologic abnormalities (limited reserve, refractory to
therapy)
Need for, or recent history of, major surgery, especially an emergency
procedure
Severe hemorrhage or need for a massive blood transfusion
Deterioration or lack of improvement
Immunodeficiency
Combination of these factors
Table 1-1 Framework for Assessing the Acutely Ill or Injured Patient
Primary Survey Secondary Survey
Initial Contact—First Minutes Subsequent Reviews
What is the main physiological What is the underlying
problem? cause?
History Main features of circumstances and More detailed

environment information
Witnesses, healthcare personnel, Present complaint

relatives Past history, chronic
Main symptoms: pain, dyspnea, diseases, surgical
altered mental status, weakness procedures
Trauma or no trauma Hospital course (if
Operative or nonoperative applicable)
Medications and/or toxins Psychosocial and
physical
independence
Medications and
allergies
Family history
Ethical or legal
issues, code status
Systems review
Examination Look, listen, feel Structured examination

of organ systems
Airway
Breathing and oxygenation Respiratory system
Circulation Cardiovascular
Level of consciousness system
Abdomen and
genitourinary tract
Central nervous
and
musculoskeletal
systems
Endocrine and
hematologic
systems
Chart Review: Essential physiology, vital signs Case records and note
Documentation keeping
Heart rate, rhythm
Blood pressure Examine medical
Respiratory rate and pulse records, if available
oximetry Formulate specific
Level of consciousness diagnosis or
differential
diagnosis
Document current
events
Investigations
Arterial blood gas analysis (can Laboratory blood
obtain venous blood gas if tests
arterial access not possible) Radiology
Blood glucose Electrocardiography
Microbiology
Treatment Proceeds in parallel Refine treatment,

assess responses,
Ensure adequate airway and review trends
oxygen
Provide intravenous access ± Provide support for
fluids specific organ
Assess response to immediate systems as
resuscitation required
CALL FOR ASSISTANCE FROM Choose most
AN EXPERIENCED appropriate hospital
COLLEAGUE site for care
Obtain specialist
advice and
assistance
A complete history includes the present complaint, treatment history,

hospital course to the present (if applicable), past illnesses, past surgical
procedures, current medications, and any medication allergies. A social
history, including alcohol, tobacco, or illicit drug use, and a family history,
including the degree of physical, emotional, and psychosocial
independence, are essential and often overlooked. The history of the present
complaint must include a brief review of systems that should be replicated
in the examination that follows.
Critical illness is often associated with inadequate cardiac output,
respiratory compromise, and a depressed level of consciousness. Specific
symptoms will typically be associated with the underlying condition.
Patients may report nonspecific symptoms such as malaise, fever, lethargy,
anorexia, or thirst. Organ-specific symptoms may direct attention to the
respiratory, cardiovascular, or gastrointestinal systems. Distinguishing acute
from chronic disease is important at this point because chronic conditions
may be difficult to reverse and may act as rate-limiting factors during the
recovery phase of critical illness.
B. Examination
Ongoing deterioration or
development of new symptoms
warrants repetition of the primary
survey followed by a detailed
secondary survey.
Look, listen, and feel. The patient must be fully exposed for a complete
examination. The initial examination must be brief, directed, and
concentrated on the basic elements of airway, breathing, circulation, and
level of consciousness. As the treatment proceeds, a more detailed
secondary survey should be conducted to refine the preliminary diagnosis
and assess the response to the initial treatment. A full examination must be
performed at some point and will be guided by the history and other
findings.
Tachypnea is the single most
important indicator of critical
illness.
Paradoxical breathing is a sign of

severe respiratory compromise.
Remember the ABCs of resuscitation: airway, breathing, and circulation.

The airway and respiratory system should be assessed first, as summarized
in Table 1-2. Observe the patient’s mouth, chest, and abdomen. There may
be obvious signs suggesting airway obstruction, such as vomitus, blood, or
a foreign body. The patient’s respiratory rate, pattern of breathing, and use
of accessory respiratory muscles will help to confirm and assess the severity
of respiratory distress or airway obstruction (Chapter 2). The respiratory
rate should be assessed visually by counting the number of breaths because
respiratory rates displayed on cardiac monitors are subject to different
degrees of artifact and thus can be inaccurate. Tachypnea is the single most
important indicator of critical illness. Therefore, the respiratory rate must
be accurately measured and documented. Although tachypnea may result
from pain or anxiety, it may also indicate pulmonary disease, severe
metabolic abnormalities, or infection. Look for cyanosis, paradoxical
breathing, equality and depth of respiration, use of accessory muscles, and
tracheal tug. An increase in the depth of respiration (Kussmaul breathing)
may indicate severe metabolic acidosis. Periodic breathing with apnea or
hypopnea (Cheyne-Stokes respiration) usually indicates severe brainstem
injury or cardiac dysfunction. Ataxic breathing (Biot respiration) indicates
severe neuronal damage, which is associated with a poor prognosis.
Agitation and confusion may result from hypoxemia, whereas hypercapnia
will usually depress the level of consciousness. Low oxygen saturation can
be detected with pulse oximetry, but this assessment may be unreliable if
the patient is hypovolemic, hypotensive, or hypothermic. End-tidal CO2
monitoring is available on specific nasal cannulas as well as via ventilator
tubing and is an appropriate adjunct monitoring device for patients at high
risk for hypercapnic respiratory failure. Noisy breathing (eg, grunting,
stridor, wheezing, gurgling) may indicate partial airway obstruction,
whereas complete airway obstruction will result in silence.
Table 1-2 Assessment of Airway and Breathing
Airway
Causes of Direct trauma, blood, vomitus, foreign body, central nervous system
Obstruction depression (with soft tissue or tongue blocking airway), infection,
inflammation, laryngospasm
LOOK for Cyanosis, altered respiratory pattern and rate, use of accessory respiratory
muscles, tracheal tug, paradoxical breathing, altered level of consciousness
LISTEN for Noisy breathing (grunting, stridor, wheezing, gurgling); silence indicates
complete obstruction
FEEL for Decreased or absent airflow
Breathing
Causes of Inadequate Breathing or Oxygenation
Depressed Central nervous system
respiratory
drive
Decreased Muscle weakness, nerve/spinal cord damage, chest wall abnormalities,
respiratory pain
effort
Pulmonary Pneumothorax, hemothorax, aspiration, chronic obstructive pulmonary
disorders disease, asthma, pulmonary embolus, lung contusion, acute lung injury,
acute respiratory distress syndrome, pulmonary edema, rib fracture, flail
chest
LOOK for Cyanosis, altered level of consciousness, tracheal tug, use of accessory
respiratory muscles, altered respiratory pattern, altered respiratory rate,
equality and depth of breaths, oxygen saturation
LISTEN for Dyspnea, inability to talk, noisy breathing, dullness to percussion,
auscultation of breath sounds
FEEL for Symmetry and extent of chest movements, position of trachea, crepitus,
abdominal distension
A decrease in the blood pressure

may be a late sign of
cardiovascular disturbance
signaling failure of the
compensatory mechanisms.
Inadequate circulation may result from primary abnormalities of the

cardiovascular system or secondary abnormalities caused by metabolic
disturbances, sepsis, hypoxia, or drugs (Table 1-3). Clinicians are primed to
recognize low blood pressure as a worrisome sign. However, a normal
blood pressure does not rule out severe underlying circulatory problems.
Studies have shown that even transient drops in blood pressure are
associated with worse outcomes. Central and peripheral pulses should be
assessed for rate, regularity, volume, and symmetry. Capillary or nail-bed
refill examination may aid in detecting hypovolemia if delayed. A
combination of clinical findings (skin color, diminished distal pulses,
decreased urine output, cool temperature of extremities, prolonged capillary
refill) have been found to be useful in predicting low cardiac output states.
Evaluation of the patient’s pulse can provide some clues to ongoing
circulatory issues. Patients with hypovolemia or low cardiac output will
have a weak and thready peripheral pulse. A bounding pulse suggests
hyperdynamic circulation, and an irregular rhythm usually signifies atrial
fibrillation or some other arrhythmia. A ventricular premature beat is often
immediately followed by a compensatory pause, and the subsequent beat
often has a larger pulse volume. Pulsus paradoxus is defined as a greater
than 10 mm Hg decrease in the systolic blood pressure with deep
inspiration; it can occur with profound hypovolemia, constrictive
pericarditis, cardiac tamponade, asthma, and chronic obstructive pulmonary
disease. Change in location and character of the left ventricular impulse
(usually located in the fifth intercostal space in the left parasternal area)
may suggest left ventricular hypertrophy, congestive heart failure, cardiac
enlargement, severe mitral regurgitation, or severe aortic regurgitation. The
turbulent flow of blood through a stenotic heart valve or a septal defect may
produce a palpable thrill at the site of the left ventricular impulse.
Table 1-3 Assessment of Circulation

Causes of Circulatory Inadequacy
Primary — directly Ischemia, arrhythmias, valvular disorders, cardiomyopathy,
involving the heart pericardial tamponade
Secondary — Drugs, hypoxia, electrolyte disturbances, dehydration, sepsis,
pathology originating acute blood loss, anemia
elsewhere
LOOK for Reduced peripheral perfusion (pallor) and delayed capillary refill,
hemorrhage (obvious or concealed), altered level of
consciousness, dyspnea, decreased urine output, jugular venous
distension
LISTEN for Additional or altered heart sounds, carotid bruits
FEEL for Precordial cardiac pulsation, central and peripheral pulses
(assessing rate, quality, regularity, symmetry), cool extremities
In addition to the ABCs, a quick external examination should look for

pallor, cyanosis, diaphoresis, jaundice, erythema, or flushing. The skin may
be moist or dry; appear thin, edematous, or bruised; or demonstrate a rash
(ie, petechiae, hives). Fingernails may be clubbed or show splinter
hemorrhages. The eyes might reveal abnormal pupils or jaundice. The
conjunctiva may be pale, indicating an anemia. The patient may be alert,
agitated, somnolent, asleep, or obtunded. These physical findings can help
to guide decisions regarding differential diagnoses and the need for further
testing.
Palpation of the abdomen is an essential part of the examination of the
critically ill patient. Areas of abdominal tenderness and palpable masses
must be identified. The size of the liver and spleen must be noted as well as
any associated tenderness. It is important to assess the abdomen for rigidity,
distension, fluid wave, guarding, or rebound tenderness indicating possible
viscous perforation, infection, or peritonitis. Auscultation may reveal a
vascular bruit concerning for an aneurysm or the absence of bowel sounds
indicating a change in normal bowel patterns. A high suspicion for
intrauterine or ectopic pregnancy must be considered in all women of
childbearing age who present with lower quadrant pain. The flanks and
back should be examined, if possible.
A neurologic evaluation in a potentially critically ill patient is focused on
establishing changes in mentation/level of consciousness and quickly
identifying focal deficits that could represent an underlying neurologic
emergency. In young patients, slight changes in level of consciousness and
mental status may represent serious underlying disease. In older patients
with cognitive impairment at baseline, changes in mental status are
commonly associated with serious illness and may be the first and only
presenting sign. The Glasgow Coma Scale score should be recorded during
the initial assessment of central nervous system function and limb
movement (Chapter 8). Pupillary size and reaction should be documented,
and a more detailed assessment of central and peripheral sensory and motor
functions should be undertaken when time permits.
C. Chart Review and Documentation
Difficulty in obtaining a pulsatile

waveform by pulse oximetry may be
indicative of a vasoconstricted
state.
Critically ill patients have abnormal physiology that must be documented

and tracked. Physiologic monitoring provides parameters that are useful
only when they are accurate and interpreted by trained personnel (Chapter
6). The values and trends of these data provide key information for the
assessment of the patient’s status and guidance for treatment. Data must be
charted frequently and correctly to ensure good patient care. Particular
attention must be paid to the accuracy and reliability of the data. For
example, a true and reproducible arterial line pressure measurement
depends on patient position, equipment calibration, and proper zeroing of
the instruments. The source of the data also should be noted. Is the recorded
temperature from an esophageal or Foley temperature probe? Was the blood
pressure measured with a manual cuff or with a pressure transducer in an
arterial line? Was the appropriate size of blood pressure cuff used? The
medication record is an invaluable source of information about prescribed
and administered drugs.
An accurate measure of urine

output, usually with an indwelling
catheter, is essential in critically ill
patients.
Routine monitoring and charting should include heart rate, heart rhythm,
respiratory rate, blood pressure, core temperature, fluid balance, and
Glasgow Coma Scale score. The fluid balance should include loss from all
tubes and drains as well as any fluids used to flush drains. The inspired
oxygen concentration should be recorded for any patient receiving oxygen,
and the oxygen saturation level should be charted if measured with pulse
oximetry. Patients in the ICU setting may have central venous catheters or
continuous cardiac output catheters in place. These catheters can measure
central venous pressure, various cardiac pressures, stroke volume
variations, cardiac output, and mixed venous saturation. These complex
monitoring devices require specific operational expertise. Likewise, the
data must be interpreted by someone with clinical experience and expertise
in critical care. Finally, proper documentation of current continuous
medication infusions along with the drip rate is especially important to
provide an accurate picture of clinical condition.
D. Investigations
The presence of a metabolic

acidosis is one of the most
important indicators of critical
illness.
Additional investigative tests should be based on information obtained from

the patient’s history and physical examination as well as on previous test
results. Standard biochemistry, hematology, microbiology, and radiology
tests should be performed as indicated. In the evaluation of electrolyte
results, decreasing total serum carbon dioxide and/or an increased anion gap
are evidence of metabolic acidosis. An arterial blood gas analysis is one of
the most useful tests in an acutely ill patient, providing information about
blood pH, arterial oxygen tension, and arterial carbon dioxide tension.
Additional tests, such as lactate, blood glucose, serum electrolytes, and
renal function, can often be obtained from the same blood sample.
Increased levels of lactic acidosis have been associated with increased
mortality in various critical conditions. Elevated lactic acid can be an
ominous sign and should be closely monitored.
IV. TRANSLATING INFORMATION INTO EFFECTIVE

ACTION
This chapter discussed a simple framework based on a primary and
secondary survey as a basis for systematically approaching critically ill
patients (Table 1-1). The primary goals of this framework are to first ensure
physiologic stability and then proceed to treatment of the underlying cause.
The basic principles are summarized as the ABCs of resuscitating the
severely ill patient: airway—ensuring a patent airway; breathing—
providing supplemental oxygen and adequate ventilation; and circulation—
restoring circulating volume. These early interventions should proceed
regardless of the situation, whereas the context of the clinical presentation
(ie, trauma, postsurgical situation, presence of chronic illness, advanced
age) directs attention to the differential diagnosis and potential treatments.
The clinical history, physical examination, and laboratory tests should aid in
clarifying the diagnosis and determining the patient’s degree of physiologic
reserve. Because the typical features of critical illness may be more
effectively disguised in young and previously healthy patients than in
elderly or chronically ill patients, an acute deterioration may seem to occur
more abruptly in younger patients. Thus, it is particularly important to
assess trends in vital signs and physiologic parameters as the patient
undergoes treatment. These trends can help determine a patient’s response
and clarify the diagnosis.
More experienced help must be obtained if a patient’s condition is
deteriorating and there is uncertainty about the diagnosis or treatment.
Transfer to the most appropriate site for care is influenced by local
resources, but transfer to a high-dependency unit or ICU must be
considered. Transfer to a tertiary care facility within the region may be
necessary if resources at the current facility are not capable of caring for the
patient.
Key Points: Recognition and Assessment of the Seriously

Ill Patient
Early identification of a patient at risk for critical illness is essential to
improving patient outcomes.
The clinical manifestations of impending critical illness are often
nonspecific. Tachypnea and metabolic acidosis are two of the most
important predictors of risk; they signal the need for more detailed
monitoring and investigation.
Resuscitation and physiologic stabilization often precede a definitive
diagnosis and treatment of the underlying cause.
A detailed history is essential for making an accurate diagnosis,
determining a patient’s physiologic reserve, and establishing a patient’s
treatment preferences.
Frequent clinical and laboratory monitoring of a patient’s response to
treatment is essential.
Suggested Readings
1. Cretikkos MA, Bellomo R, Hillman K, et al. Respiratory rate: the

neglected vital sign. Med J Aust. 2008;188:657-659.
2. Elder A, Japp A, Verghese A. How valuable is physical examination of
the cardiovascular system? BMJ. 2016;354:i3309.
3. Hiemstra B, Eck RJ, Keus F, et al. Clinical examination for diagnosing
circulatory shock. Curr Opin Crit Care. 2017;23(4):293-301.
4. Hiemstra B, Eck RJ, Wiersema R, et al. Clinical examination for the
prediction of mortality in the critically ill: The Simple Intensive Care
Studies-I. Crit Care Med. 2019;47(10):1301-1309.
5. National Institute for Health and Care Excellence (NICE) Guidelines.
Acutely ill adults in hospital: recognising and responding to
deterioration. Published July 2007.
https://www.nice.org.uk/guidance/cg50. Accessed February 20, 2020.
Chapter 2
AIRWAY MANAGEMENT
Objectives
Recognize the indications for endotracheal intubation and signs of

impending airway compromise.
Discuss the different techniques used to manually establish a patent
airway and ensure adequate mask ventilation.
Elucidate the different types and proper use of tools to supplement
airway management, including the use of supraglottic airways.
List the necessary equipment needed for endotracheal intubation, the
clinical signs of a potentially difficult airway, and alternatives to direct
laryngoscopy to accomplish endotracheal intubation.
Delineate alternatives to establish an airway when endotracheal
intubation is not feasible.
Discuss the difficult airway algorithm and approaches to avoid and/or
rectify the Can’t Intubate, Can’t Ventilate/Oxygenate (CICV/CICO)
scenario.
Identify the pharmacologic agents used to facilitate airway
management, their classification, indications, and potential adverse
effects/contraindications.
Case Study
A 58-year-old man with known coronary artery disease, a coronary stent,

and who is on clopidogrel visits his primary care provider who takes a
biopsy of a thyroid mass in his office. Within 24 hours, the patient presents
to the emergency department and reports neck swelling, a change in his
voice, and new noticeable dyspnea. The patient is in mild distress with a
respiratory rate of 22 breaths/minute and room air oxygen saturation of
96%. You observe marked swelling on the left side of his neck and mild
inspiratory stridor.
– Is there an indication for endotracheal intubation?
– What are your concerns for securing this patient’s airway?
– What medications would you use to facilitate securing this patient’s
airway?
– If endotracheal intubation cannot be accomplished, what are
alternatives methods for establishing an airway?
I. INTRODUCTION
Airway management is pivotal in managing a critically ill patient.
Maintaining a patent airway is necessary for oxygenation and elimination of
carbon dioxide to keep normal acid-base homeostasis. While establishing or
preserving a patent airway, management involves minimizing the risk of
aspiration or exacerbating cardiovascular instability. In many patients,
endotracheal intubation will be needed; however, prior to establishing a
definitive airway, restoring a patent airway is necessary. In some patients,
this may prove more difficult than endotracheal intubation. The personnel
caring for critically ill patients should be proficient in manually establishing
a patent airway and facilitating oxygenation and ventilation. This chapter
delineates the different techniques and airway tools used for establishing a
patent airway, performing endotracheal intubation, and the pharmacologic
agents used to help achieve this goal.
II. ASSESSMENT
The first step in airway management is assessing airway patency and
recognizing any impending threat to the patient’s airway or breathing.
Determine whether the patient has a normal level of consciousness or

if the patient’s cognition is deteriorating. Is the patient unresponsive?
If the patient is apneic, the clinician should proceed with manual
support and assisted ventilation while preparing to establish a
definitive airway.
Recognize medical conditions or injuries (cervical spine trauma,
herniated cervical disc with myelopathy, etc.) which would complicate
manipulation of the head and neck.
Look for chest expansion. Is there symmetric motion of the right and
left sides? Is there paradoxical motion of the chest and abdomen (chest
rises and abdomen sinks)?
Do signs of respiratory distress exist? Excessive perspiration,
tachypnea, and retraction of the suprasternal and/or intercostal muscles
indicate use of the accessory muscles and possibly impending
respiratory muscle fatigue. Retraction of accessory muscles may also
indicate airway obstruction.
The clinician should listen over the neck and chest for breath sounds.
If there is chest wall movement but no breath sounds, airway
obstruction is likely. Obstruction could be the result of a liquid (gastric
acid, mucus) or a foreign body or soft tissue causing narrowing of the
airway. Associated noises, such as snoring, stridor or gurgling, may be
heard.
III. MANUAL METHODS TO ESTABLISH AN AIRWAY

In a spontaneously breathing patient with no compromise of the cervical
spine, the following three actions can be taken to ensure airway patency
(Figure 2-1):
1. Slight neck extension

2. Jaw thrust maneuver in which the mandible is elevated
3. Open the mouth with mandible movement inferiorly
Figure 2-1. Establishing an Open Airway
The operator extends the neck and maintains extension with his/her hands on both sides of
the mandible. This mandible is elevated with the fingers of both hands to lift the base of the
tongue, and the thumbs or forefingers are used to open the mouth.
In a patient with possible compromise of the cervical spine, neck extension

is not performed.
Two simple tools to facilitate airway patency are the oropharyngeal and
nasopharyngeal airways. Finding the proper size for each of these airways
is important. For the oropharyngeal airway, the proper length is from the
patient’s lips to the angle of the jaw. If the patient has intact airway reflexes,
this device should not be used because it may lead to laryngospasm,
gagging, and emesis (Figure 2-2).
Figure 2-2. Oropharyngeal Airway
Reproduced with permission Eubanks DH, Bone RC. Comprehensive respiratory care: a
learning system, St. Louis, 1990, Mosby.
The nasopharyngeal airway may be used with intact airway reflexes and is
much less likely to provoke gagging. The largest diameter which will easily
pass through the nostril should be used. The nasopharyngeal airway needs
to be long enough to get past the tongue. The proper length is estimated by
measuring from the tip of the nose to the ear tragus (Figures 2-3 and 2-4).
If a patient has a suspected basilar skull or midface fracture, the device
should not be used because it may pass beyond the cribriform plate into the
cranial vault. The presence of coagulopathy or use of anticoagulants or
antiplatelet agents are relative contraindications to its use because excessive
bleeding and airway obstruction may result.
Figure 2-3. Oropharyngeal Airway
Figure 2-4. Proper Placement of Nasopharyngeal Airway Beyond Soft Palate
The use of high-flow oxygen is recommended while employing maneuvers

to support the airway, such as a face mask, a non-rebreather mask, or a self-
inflating resuscitation bag (bag-valve-mask device).
IV. MANUAL MASK VENTILATION

Manual assisted ventilation by means of a bag-mask resuscitation unit is
indicated if the patient has:
Apnea
Inadequate spontaneous ventilation (eg, agonal respirations)
Successful manual mask ventilation depends upon: (1) maintaining an open

airway, (2) establishing a seal between the patient’s face and the mask, and
(3) delivering an adequate minute ventilation from the resuscitation bag to
the distal lung units. The first two elements are achieved through the correct
placement of the mask over the patient’s nose and mouth (Figure 2-5) and
establishment of an open airway, as previously described. It is useful to
have masks of different sizes available in the event that the initial selection
does not achieve a good seal with the face.
The patient’s tongue is the most

common cause of airway
obstruction.
Figure 2-5. Application of Face Masks

Single-handed (A) and two-handed (B) techniques for placement of a face mask.
A. When No Cervical Spine Injury Is Suspected
1. If needed and tolerated by the patient, an oropharyngeal or

nasopharyngeal airway may be placed to maintain a patent airway. A
small pad or folded towel may be positioned under the occiput to help
align the external auditory meatus of the ear with the sternal notch.
2. The operator stands above and behind the head of the supine patient.
The height of the bed should be quickly adjusted for the comfort of the
operator.
3. The base of the mask is first placed into the skin crease between the
lower lip and the chin, and the mouth is gently opened.
4. The apex of the mask is placed over the nose, using care to avoid
pressure on the eyes.
5. Because most operators are right-handed, the mask is stabilized on the
face with the left hand by holding the superior aspect of the mask apex
between the first and second digits to form a “C” shape over the mask
with the thumb pressing down by the nasal ridge and the second digit
over the bottom of the mask by the mouth (Figure 2-6).
6. The fifth, fourth, and perhaps third fingers of the left hand form an “E”
shape when placed along the left side of the mandible. It is helpful to
gently encircle the left side of the mask with the soft tissues of that
cheek to reinforce the seal along that edge. This further secures the
mask to the patient’s face while allowing the mandible to be partially
elevated (Figure 2-6).
7. The operator gently rotates the left wrist to cause slight neck extension
and contracts the fingers around the mandible to raise it slightly. The
composite motions of the left hand, therefore, produce slight neck
extension, mandibular elevation, and gentle downward pressure on the
face mask.
Figure 2-6. “C” Technique and “E” Technique to Stabilize the Mask
B. When a Cervical Spine Injury Is Suspected
1. The operator stands in the same position as described previously, and

an oropharyngeal or nasopharyngeal airway is inserted, if possible.
2. Successful manual ventilation occasionally can be accomplished while
the neck is stabilized in a cervical collar (Figure 2-7). Most often,
however, an assistant is required to stand to the side, facing the patient.
The anterior portion of the collar is removed, and the assistant places
one hand or arm along each side of the neck to limit movement of the
neck during manipulation of the airway. Linear traction is not applied.
3. The operator then proceeds with the steps described previously, except
the left wrist is not rotated to produce neck extension. Alternatively,
the operator may choose the two-handed method for mask placement,
which further ensures that no neck movement occurs. This method is
discussed next.
Figure 2-7. Cervical Stabilization
C. Alternative Two-Handed Method to Ensure Airway Patency and Mask

Application
The alternative two-handed method is useful if the patient has a large face
or a beard, after neck injury, or in any other situation when a mask seal is
difficult to secure.
1. The operator stands at the head of the bed as stated previously, and
adjunctive airway devices are used as previously suggested.
2. The base and apex of the mask are placed in the manner previously
described.
3. The operator uses the “C-E technique” described previously by placing
both hands along the mandible on each side of the face while the
thumbs rest over the apex of the mask and first fingers rest over the
base of the mask.
4. Soft tissues of the cheek are brought upward along the side edges of
the mask and held in place by each hand to reinforce the mask’s seal.
5. In the absence of possible cervical spine injury, the neck is slightly
extended as the operator gently elevates the mandible from both sides
and provides gentle pressure on the mask over the face.
6. An assistant provides ventilation, as needed, by compressing the
resuscitation bag.
D. Compression of the Resuscitation Bag to Provide Assisted Manual

Mask Ventilation
The goal of manual mask ventilation is to provide adequate minute

ventilation, the product of the tidal volume delivered during each
resuscitation bag compression and the number of compressions per minute.
Overzealous resuscitation bag compressions at a rapid rate may produce
dangerous hyperventilation, respiratory alkalemia, gastric distension,
vomiting, aspiration, and possibly barotrauma from overdistension.
The total gas volume within most

adult resuscitation bags is 1 to 1.5
liters.
The positive end-expiratory pressure (PEEP) valve can be attached to the
bag-valve-mask. PEEP can be titrated from 5 to 15 cm H2O to improve
oxygenation prior to intubation in patients who have inadequate
oxygenation with the bag-valve-device alone. PEEP should not exceed 15–
20 cm H2O with manual assisted ventilation because this pressure can open
the lower esophageal sphincter and cause gastric insufflation and vomiting.
Compression of the resusci-tation bag with just enough pressure to see the
chest rise can help prevent gastric distension.
An end-tidal monitor or a nebulizer reservoir may be attached to the bag-
valve-mask adaptor, as needed. The degree of end-tidal CO2 seen with each
resuscitation bag compression helps the provider to predict the adequacy of
ventilation. If the mask seal with the face is inadequate, the end-tidal CO2
reading will be artifactual and the nebulized medications may leak out.
1. If a single-handed method of mask placement is used, the resuscitation

bag is compressed over 1 second.
2. The delivered tidal volume may be estimated from the observed chest
expansion and auscultated breath sounds.
3. During bag compression, the operator should listen carefully for any
gas leaks around the mask. When a good seal is achieved, the feel of
the bag during lung inflation reflects some resistance caused by the
normal airway anatomy. If gas is moving from the bag too easily, a
leak should be suspected.
4. If the patient is apneic but has a pulse, manual breaths should be
delivered 10 times per minute (about every 6 seconds). If spontaneous
breathing is present, bag compression should be synchronized with the
patient’s inspiratory efforts. If the patient is breathing easily and
inhaling adequate tidal volumes frequently enough to produce
sufficient minute ventilation, a non-rebreather mask should be used
instead.
5. Oxygen (100%) at a flow rate of 15 L/min is delivered to the
resuscitation bag.
6. If the mask-to-face seal is not adequate and a leak is detected, the
operator should consider the following interventions:
Reposition the mask and hands.
Adjust the inflation of the face mask facial cushion, if possible, to
improve the seal or change to a larger or smaller mask.
Apply slightly more downward pressure to the face or displace
the mandible in an upward fashion, provided cervical spine
manipulation is not contraindicated.
Convert to the two-handed technique described previously.
Reposition any orogastric or nasogastric tube to another part of
the mask. Leaks are common when a tube is present, but rarely
will the tube need to be removed.
Consider compensating for a small leak by increasing the
frequency of bag compressions or the volume of gas delivered in
each compression.
If the resuscitation bag has a pressure-relief (pop-off) valve
designed to prevent transmission of high pressures to the lungs,
adjust the pop-off valve to ensure adequate tidal volumes in
patients with stiff lungs or high airway resistance.
The SOAP ME mnemonic is helpful in preparation for airway management

(Table 2-1).
SOAP ME: Mnemonic for Preparation for Airway

Table 2-1
Management
1. Suction
- Yankauer suction placed under the mattress on the right side, head of bed (×2 if
gastrointestinal bleed, vomiting, or copious secretions)
2. Oxygen
- Bag-valve-mask (with PEEP valve) ready
- Non-rebreather mask on patient (O2 wide open)
- Nasal cannula on the patient (with 15 L O2) during RSII
3. Airways
- Oral, nasal airways
- 2 ETT (expected size and one size below) w/ cuff valves and balloons checked,
and stylet in place
- 1 ETT ready for video laryngoscopy (curved stylet needed)
- Rescue devices (laryngeal mask airway, scalpel, etc.)
4. Position
- Adjust the bed height for airway operator’s comfort.
- Align the external auditory canal with the sternal notch
- Consider elevating the back and shoulders of obese patients
5. Monitoring and Medications
- Continuous monitoring devices
- RSII meds: Drawn up in carefully considered doses, labeled syringes
• Sedative (ketamine, etomidate, etc.)
• Paralytic (rocuronium, succinylcholine)
- Post-intubation sedation meds (propofol, etc.)
6. Equipment
- Continuous ETco2 or at least color-change device to confirm successful
intubation
- Bougie placed under the mattress next to Yankauer suction
- 2 laryngoscopes (MAC 3 and 4) with lights checked
- Video laryngoscope plugged in and turned on
Reproduced with permission SOAP ME Mnemonic. University of Maryland Department of

Emergency Medicine Educational Pearls. https://umem.org/educational_pearls/2577.
Abbreviation: PEEP, positive end-expiratory pressure. RSII, Rapid sequence induction and
intubation. ETT, endotracheal tube.
E. Cricoid Pressure
Cricoid pressure (Sellick maneuver) is the application of downward
(posterior) pressure on the anterior neck overlying the cricoid cartilage,
with an intended effect of physical occlusion of the esophagus. Cricoid
pressure has been previously recommended for use during mask ventilation
and intubation of patients who lack protective airway reflexes and during
rapid sequence intubation. New guidelines no longer recommend cricoid
pressure, except as a means of positioning the glottis for better visualization
during laryngoscopy. It does not reduce the risk of aspiration as previously
thought. Proper application of cricoid pressure may improve vocal cord
visualization. Excess pressure can compress the trachea and hypopharynx,
compromise mask ventilation, and increase the difficulty of endotracheal
intubation.
The absence of cyanosis or

hypoxemia does not guarantee
adequacy of ventilation.
V. AIRWAY ADJUNCTS
In approximately 5% of the general population, manual mask ventilation is
difficult to achieve. Impossible mask ventilation occurs in at least 1% of
patients. Predictors of difficult mask ventilation are neck radiation changes,
snoring, presence of a beard, and short thyromental distance. Presence of a
beard is the only potentially modifiable factor. Intubation via direct
laryngoscopy is difficult in approximately 5% of the general population and
impossible in 0.2% to 0.5% of patients. Predictors of airway difficulty are a
Mallampati airway classification III or IV (Figure 2-8), age of 57 years or
older, severely limited jaw protrusion, limited mouth opening, limited neck
mobility, male sex, and history of snoring. A crisis occurs when manual
mask ventilation and intubation are impossible. Supraglottic airway (SGA)
devices, like the laryngeal mask airway and the esophageal-tracheal double-
lumen airway device, are useful adjuncts to provide an open airway and
permit gas exchange in such situations. These devices are inserted blindly
and their use may offer additional time after a failed intubation attempt. The
choice of device depends on the operator’s experience, equipment
availability, and specific clinical circumstances.
Figure 2-8. Mallampati Classification
Most airway algorithms focus on three key airway adjuncts. These are mask
ventilation, intubation, and SGAs. The American Society of
Anesthesiologists and the Difficult Airway Society highlight that SGAs are
useful rescue devices, particularly during a “can’t intubate and can’t
ventilate” situation. The Vortex Approach is an airway management tool
that was developed to be used in real time during a time-critical airway
emergency, independent of the background of the clinicians. This approach
also focuses on the three major devices for providing oxygenation and
ventilation, termed “lifelines,” which are face mask ventilation,
endotracheal intubation, and SGA placement. If all three of these measures
fail, then a surgical airway should be performed.
In case of “can’t ventilate and can’t intubate/oxygenate (CICV or CICO)”
situation, the algorithm below helps to guide how to escalate the
interventions (Figure 2-9).
Figure 2-9. The Algorithm for “CICV/CICO”
Adapted from The Vortex Approach To Airway Management (http://vortexapproach.org/).
A. Supraglottic Airway Devices
The laryngeal mask airway (LMA) is a SGA device designed with a tube
attached to a bowl-shaped cuff that fits in the hypopharynx behind the
tongue. An LMA may be used to ventilate the lungs when mask ventilation
is difficult, provided that the patient does not have upper airway
abnormalities. It may also serve as a conduit for intubation when a
bronchoscope is used or as a rescue technique after failure to intubate. Less
sedation may be required with the LMA than with direct laryngoscopy
because stimulation to the airway (eg, gagging, laryngospasm, sympathetic
stimulation) in passing the device is only moderate. It is effective in
ventilating patients ranging from neonates to adults, but it does not provide
definitive airway protection. (For specific details regarding use of a
laryngeal mask airway, see Appendix 2.)
B. Esophageal-Tracheal Double-Lumen Airway Device
Another tool for providing an emergency airway is a double-lumen device

with two inflatable balloon cuffs. Although this item was designed
primarily for blind intubation during cardiorespiratory arrest, it can provide
ventilation if the distal cuffed portion of the tube device is inserted in the
esophagus or trachea. Its use is contraindicated for patients with central
airway obstruction, intact laryngeal or pharyngeal reflexes, known
esophageal pathology, or ingestion of caustic substances. Adequate training
is required to ensure appropriate use. (For information about inserting an
esophageal-tracheal double-lumen airway device, see Appendix 2.)
VI. ENDOTRACHEAL INTUBATION

Direct laryngoscopy with orotracheal intubation is the principal method for
tracheal intubation because of its speed, success rate, and availability of
equipment. Blind nasotracheal intubation may be useful for selected
patients. The techniques for orotracheal and nasotracheal intubation are
discussed and illustrated in Appendix 3.
The indications for endotracheal intubation can be simplified into three
parts:
1. Patency or protection of the airway at risk

2. Oxygenation or ventilation is failing
3. A need for intubation anticipated (ie, what is the expected clinical
course?)
Several other sub-indications for endotracheal intubation and mechanical

ventilation exist, although these are all related to the three major
indications. In addition, any patient who is deteriorating toward one of these
indications should be considered for endotracheal intubation.
In preparation for intubation, important issues include:
Assessment of airway anatomy and function to estimate degree of
difficulty for intubation (discussed later).
Assurance of optimal oxygenation. Preoxygenation with 100% oxygen
occurs during periods of apnea and before intubation attempts. For
spontaneously breathing patients, preoxygenate with a non-rebreather
mask using high-flow oxygen. For patients who are at highest risk,
consider continuous positive airway pressure, such as a continuous
positive airway pressure (CPAP) machine. Self-inflating resuscitation
bags, also called bag-valve-mask (BVM) devices, may not provide
appropriate preoxygenation.
Assurance of optimal ventilation. For most spontaneously breathing
patients, maintaining oxygenation before intubation is more important
than ventilation. Permissive hypercarbia may be temporarily allowed
in most situations. For patients with significant hypoventilation, or
where CO2 levels need to be controlled (eg, intracranial hypertension),
consider the use of a face mask that provides assisted positive pressure
ventilation, such as a bilevel positive airway pressure (BPAP)
machine.
Decompression of the stomach with an existing orogastric or
nasogastric tube. However, the insertion of such a tube to decompress
the stomach prior to intubation is often counterproductive because it
may elicit emesis and promote passive reflux of gastric contents.
Provision of appropriate analgesia, sedation, amnesia, and
neuromuscular blockade as required for a safe procedure (discussed
later).
Although emergent intubation leaves little time for evaluation and

optimization of conditions, elective and urgent intubation allows for
assessment of factors that promote safe airway management. The patient’s
clinical situation, intravascular volume status, hemodynamics, and airway
evaluation (degree of difficulty) should be assessed as a plan for airway
management is formulated. Airway evaluation includes assessment of
physical characteristics that together determine whether visualization of the
vocal cords will be difficult or impossible. This evaluation will suggest
whether alternative techniques to direct laryngoscopy (eg, video
laryngoscopy, awake intubation, flexible fiberoptic intubation, surgical
airway) are likely to be necessary and whether a more experienced
individual should be summoned immediately. Keep in mind that many of
these physical characteristics also cause difficulty with mask ventilation and
the ability to perform an emergent cricothyrotomy. These characteristics are
easy to remember if they are considered in the same order as the steps used
in oral intubation — that is, head position, mouth opening, displacement of
the tongue and jaw, visualization, and insertion of endotracheal tube:
Neck mobility. The presence of possible cervical spine injury, short

neck, or limited neck mobility caused by prior surgery, arthritis, or
ankylosing spondylitis will restrict the ability to position adequately. If
there is a possibility of cervical spine injury, neck extension should be
avoided and an appropriately sized cervical collar should be placed for
cervical motion restriction (Figure 2-7).
External face. The patient should be examined for evidence of a small
mandible or the presence of surgical scars, facial trauma, small nares,
or nasal, oral, or pharyngeal bleeding.
Mouth. Mouth opening may be limited as a result of
temporomandibular joint disease or facial scarring. An opening of less
than three finger breadths (approximately 6 cm) is associated with an
increased risk of difficult intubation.
Tongue and pharynx. Tongue size relative to the posterior pharynx
provides an estimate of the amount of room in the pharynx to visualize
glottic structures.
– Mallampati classification involves the patient opening the mouth
and protruding the tongue, then determining how much of the
uvula and soft palate can be seen.
Jaw. Thyromental distance is the distance in finger breadths between
the anterior prominence of the thyroid cartilage (Adam’s apple) and
the tip of the mandible (chin), and is an estimate of the length of the
mandible and the available space anterior to the larynx. A distance of
less than three finger breadths (approximately 6 cm) is associated with
difficult intubation. A more acute angulation of the stylet at the distal
end of the endotracheal tube may be helpful (see previous
information), although this angulation can make it more difficult to
pass the endotracheal tube despite an adequate glottic view.
If one or a combination of these physical characteristics indicates the

possibility of difficult intubation and if time allows, other options for
obtaining a secure airway and summoning someone with additional airway
expertise should be considered.
When difficulty in mask ventilation or intubation is anticipated, care is
advised before suppressing spontaneous ventilation with neuromuscular
blocking drugs or sedatives that cannot be reversed. Video laryngoscopy
has shown to be an effective method of airway management as both a
primary intubation technique and in management of the difficult airway.
However, video laryngoscopy has been associated with more serious
complications during intubation which may be caused by provider “tunnel
vision” during intubation attempts. In particular, video laryngoscopy is
associated with worse outcomes in patients with severe head injury and
more life-threatening complications in ICU patients compared with
traditional direct laryngoscopy. It is important to pay attention to acute vital
sign changes during airway management and not become distracted with
the procedure itself. Options for safe airway management include the
following, all of which preserve spontaneous ventilation:
Awake intubation by direct or video laryngoscopy

Flexible fiberoptic intubation (expert consultation required)
Awake tracheostomy (expert consultation required)
In the event that visualization of the glottis and mask ventilation are both
impossible and there is no spontaneous ventilation, options include:
LMA or esophageal-tracheal double-lumen airway device

Needle cricothyrotomy (expert consultation required)
Surgical cricothyrotomy/tracheostomy (expert consultation required)
Percutaneous tracheostomy (expert consultation required)
An algorithm for managing a potential or confirmed difficult airway is
shown in Figure 2-10.
Figure 2-10. Management of the Difficult Airway
Abbreviation: CICO; Cannot Intubate, Cannot Oxygenate.
After tracheal intubation, significant alterations in hemodynamics should be

anticipated. Hypertension and tachycardia may result from sympathetic
stimulation, and some patients may require therapy with antihypertensive
medications or sedatives. Hypotension is common, and decreased cardiac
output, the result of reduced venous return associated with positive pressure
ventilation, can precipitate arrhythmias or cardiac arrest. The effects of
sedative agents on the vasculature or myocardium, hypovolemia, and a
possible postintubation pneumothorax may also contribute to hypotension.
Other complications associated with positive pressure ventilation are
discussed in Chapter 5.
Failed intubation attempts can

result in periglottic edema and
create subsequent difficulty with
mask ventilation, leading to a
“can’t intubate and can’t
ventilate/oxygenate” (CICV/CICO)
situation.
Hypotension should be anticipated with all intubations, regardless of

whether anesthetic medications were administered. There are five major
risk factors for cardiac arrest after intubation in the ICU. These are arterial
hypotension (systolic blood pressure < 90 mm Hg), hypoxemia prior to
intubation, the absence of preoxygenation, obesity, and age older than 75
years. It is worth noting that the first three of these risk factors are
modifiable. If time permits, measures should be taken to improve blood
pressure (eg, fluid bolus, start vasopressor infusion) and to ensure adequate
preoxygenation. As previously discussed, high-flow oxygen via a non-
rebreather is appropriate for spontaneously ventilating patients. If this does
not improve oxygenation, consider a CPAP device. The use of a BVM is
not ideal, but acceptable, for preoxygenation in spontaneously breathing
patients. The BVM can increase work of breathing in spontaneously
breathing patients and the amount of oxygen delivered is dependent on a
tight seal and how the specific device was manufactured.
VII. PHARMACOLOGIC PREPARATION FOR

INTUBATION
During the process of airway management, both parasympathetic and
sympathetic responses are common and may require control with proper
pharmacologic therapy. The pharmacologic goal before intubation is to
provide the patient with optimal analgesia/anesthesia, amnesia, and sedation
without altering cardiopulmonary stability. At times, preservation of
spontaneous ventilatory drive is necessary. The selection of particular
methods or drugs depends upon the clinical circumstances and the patient’s
status, patient allergies, and the experience and preferences of the operator.
A. Analgesia/Anesthesia
Excessive use of benzocaine topical

sprays can produce clinically
significant methemoglobinemia.
A variety of topical anesthetic sprays are available, or lidocaine may

be delivered via an aerosol. Anatomic areas for special emphasis
include the base of the tongue, directly on the posterior wall of the
pharynx, and bilaterally in the tonsillar fossae. Care should be taken
not to exceed 4 mg/kg of lidocaine (maximum dose 300 mg) because it
is easily absorbed from the airway mucosa.
Administration of nerve blocks and transcricoid membrane lidocaine
administration requires special expertise outside the scope of this
course.
Some sedative agents also have analgesic properties; most do not.
B. Sedation/Amnesia
Rapid-acting, short-lived, and potentially reversible agents are preferred for
sedation. No single agent has every desirable feature, and often more than
one agent may be considered to provide a balanced technique. The status of
the patient’s intravascular volume and cardiac function must be carefully
considered during the selection of an agent and its dosage. Most may induce
hypotension when heart failure or hypovolemia is present. Examples of
commonly used medications are listed in Table 2-2. Be prepared to manage
hypotension following induction with fluid boluses and/or vasopressors
(Chapters 5 and 7).
Table 2-2 Medications Used to Facilitate Tracheal Intubation

Agent Dosing Benefits Cautions
Fentanyl 0.5-2 μg/kg IV bolus Rapid onset Chest wall rigidity with
every several Short acting rapid administration
minutes titrated to Reversible with Respiratory depression
analgesic effect naloxone Does not inhibit patient
awareness of procedure
Midazolam 0.1-0.3 mg/kg bolus Additive respiratory
titrated to sedative Provides amnesia depression when
effect every several Short acting combined with opioid
minutes Can be given as an Does not provide
infusion for ongoing analgesia
sedation
Reversible with
flumazenil
Etomidate 0.1-0.3 mg/kg single Rapid onset May induce myoclonus,
IV bolus Provides amnesia including mild trismus
Minimal No reversal agent
cardiovascular effects Transient adrenal
compared with other suppression
agents May provoke seizures
Does not provide
analgesia
Ketamine 1-4 mg/kg IV bolus Rapid onset May result in
Dissociative amnesic hallucinations upon
agent emergence
Increases Can cause tachycardia
sympathetic tone, and hypertension
useful in shock
patients
Has analgesic effects
Can be administered
IM (4–10 mg/kg)
Short acting
Propofol 1-2 mg/kg IV bolus Rapid onset Severe hypotension in
Provides amnesia if volume-depleted patients
unconscious Does not provide
Decreases analgesia
intracranial pressure Respiratory depression
Can be given as an Narrow therapeutic index
infusion for ongoing
sedation
Short acting
In an emergency situation, particularly in hemodynamically unstable

patients, the primary concern is securing the airway without severe
physiologic compromise. The secondary concern is for pain management,
followed by amnesia (Figure 2-11).
Figure 2-11. Hierarchy of Emergency Intubation Needs
Image courtesy of Chris Nickson.

In the past, premedication was a common practice prior to intubation. The
mnemonic LOAD was used for agents given before RSII, which included
lidocaine, opioid, atropine, and defasciculating agent. Unfortunately, almost
none of these agents have been shown to reduce adverse effects during
intubation and therefore they are no longer recommended. The following is
a brief summary of these agents:
Lidocaine 1 mg/kg intravenous bolus

– Can be used to blunt the cough reflex and reduce anesthetic
requirements
– Controversial because of a lack of evidence and risk for
hypotension
– Has not been shown to decrease intracranial pressure (ICP), does
not improve neurologic outcome, and may promote seizures in
patients with brain pathology
– Optimal onset time is 3 minutes, which may not be practical
during an emergency
Fentanyl 2 µg/kg intravenous bolus

– Only partially blocks hypertension and tachycardia response
– Dose of 6 µg/kg is much more effective but comes with
significant adverse effects
– Onset of effect is up to 2 minutes with maximal effect > 6
minutes, which is not practical during an emergency
– Excellent analgesic agent for non-emergency situations, does not
provide amnesia
Atropine intravenous bolus

– Use of atropine pretreatment in adults is no longer recommended
– May be considered in infants, but no longer recommended for
children older than 1 year
– Sinus bradycardia with succinylcholine is more common after a
second dose, so administration of atropine in this setting may be
considered
Defasciculation with a nondepolarizing agent (eg, rocuronium) prior to
succinylcholine
– Requires expertise and is generally not practical during an
emergency
– Dosing confusion exists between different sources, which can lead
to a high incidence of symptoms (eg, dyspnea) in an awake
patient
– Dose is given 3–5 minutes before intubation, which is not
practical during an emergency
– Requires an increased dose of succinylcholine after
defasciculating dose, which can lead to more adverse effects
Endotracheal intubation can be performed in obtunded patients without the

addition of pharmacologic agents. For unconscious patients with intact
airway reflexes, the use of neuromuscular blocking agents alone may be
appropriate. For conscious patients, an anesthetic agent is commonly used
to provide amnesia. Midazolam, in particular, is an excellent amnestic agent
but its onset is too slow for RSII. Fentanyl is an excellent analgesic agent
but does not cause amnesia alone. These two agents are commonly
combined for procedural sedation.
The use of anesthetic agents in shock patients is particularly difficult.
Etomidate is a good choice in unstable patients because it does not require a
dose adjustment based on age and has minimal cardiovascular effects. In
hemorrhagic shock, etomidate should not be under-dosed; use the 0.3 mg/kg
IV bolus dose in these patients. An increased risk of adrenal insufficiency
should be considered when using etomidate and clinical evaluation
completed if the patient develops signs/symptoms of adrenal insufficiency.
Opioids (eg, fentanyl) and sedatives

(eg, midazolam) have synergistic
effects. When combined they can
lead to apnea in awake patients and
reduce sympathetic tone, which can
lead to hemodynamic instability.
Ketamine is an excellent choice for shock patients because it increases

sympathetic tone and has analgesic effects, which are both beneficial for
patients that are hemodynamically unstable. Multiple studies have shown
ketamine is useful in shock patients and has sympathomimetic effects even
in very ill patients. Most of the recent studies and meta-analyses show that
ketamine does not increase ICP. There is no evidence that ketamine causes
harm in traumatic brain injury; in fact, it may be helpful in these patients.
Sympathomimetics like ketamine are best avoided in situations in which
resultant tachycardia and hypertension would be detrimental; for example,
in critical aortic stenosis or acute coronary syndrome.
Propofol dosing varies widely

depending on patient age and
volume status; use caution with this
agent in patients at risk for
hypotension.
Propofol is a useful induction agent, particularly in the elective setting

because it has multiple beneficial properties. It blunts airway reflexes better
than ketamine or etomidate, which helps facilitate endotracheal intubation
even if muscle relaxants are not given. It causes bronchodilation, making it
useful for severe asthma attacks and other forms of bronchospasm. It has
antiemetic properties, anticonvulsant properties (at higher doses), and
decreases ICP which makes it useful in most neurologic injuries.
Unfortunately, propofol is the most likely of these anesthetic agents to
result in hypotension secondary to vasodilation. Propofol also blunts the
baroreceptor reflex, which would normally lead to an increased heart rate
with hypotension. In addition, propofol has a narrow therapeutic index
which requires significant dosing adjustments based on patient age and
cardiovascular status. For example, dosing in children is typically 2.5–3.5
mg/kg, adults is 2–2.5 mg/kg, and elderly is 1–1.5 mg/kg. In unstable
patients, this dose is typically reduced by 50%. In hemorrhagic shock,
dosing is severely reduced to 20% of the typical intubating dose, which
would be 0.4 mg/kg in adults.
C. Neuromuscular Blockers
Endotracheal intubation in the ICU is typically performed during urgent or
emergent conditions. Rapid sequence induction and intubation (RSII) is
commonly performed and the addition of neuromuscular blocking agents
improves intubating conditions in most settings. Paralysis is avoided in
patients that are at high risk for difficult intubation and ventilation
(CICV/CICO). In those patients, intubation is performed after topical
anesthesia (awake intubation) or with sedation alone. Paralysis should only
be used if necessary and by experienced providers.
The following are commonly used neuromuscular blocking agents:
Succinylcholine, 1 mg/kg intravenous bolus (RSII dose): rapid onset;

short duration
– Has a long list of adverse effects and potential contraindications
(discussed next)
– Can be administered IM (3–4 mg/kg)
Rocuronium, 0.6 to 1.2 mg/kg intravenous bolus: rapid onset

equivalent to succinylcholine at 1.2 mg/kg (RSII dose), intermediate
duration of action
– Avoids many of the negative adverse effects and contraindications
seen with succinylcholine
– Longer duration of action mandates the use of a sedative infusion
after intubation
Vecuronium, 0.1 to 0.3 mg/kg, or cisatracurium, 0.1 to 0.2 mg/kg
intravenous bolus: slower onset of muscle paralysis; significantly
longer duration of effects
– Not appropriate agents for rapid sequence induction and
intubation
– Cisatracurium metabolism is independent of liver or renal
function
Contraindications to succinylcholine include malignant hyperthermia (MH),

hyperkalemia, conditions predisposing to exaggerated potassium release,
intracranial hypertension, and penetrating eye injuries. There is an FDA
Black Box warning for male children because of cases of hyperkalemia-
induced cardiac arrest in children who were later found to have
undiagnosed neuromuscular disorders. Masseter muscle rigidity (MMR),
also known as trismus or “jaws of steel,” can occur with succinylcholine
administration and may last up to 30 minutes. Adverse effects include
tachycardia, bradycardia, arrhythmias, hyperkalemia, fasciculations,
myalgia, sustained muscle contractions, malignant hyperthermia, masseter
muscle rigidity, increased intraocular pressure, increased intracranial
pressure, histamine release, increased intragastric pressure, anaphylaxis,
and cardiac arrest.
Hyperkalemic cardiac arrest can occur after succinylcholine administration
in patients who are predisposed to exaggerated potassium release (Table 2-
3):
Conditions Associated With Severe

Table 2-3 Hyperkalemia After Succinylcholine
Administration
Condition Timing (when risk starts)
Thermal injury (burns) Risk increases after 24 hours
Crush injury Risk remains up to 1-2 years after initial burn
Traumatic injury Risk increases after 1 week
- Massive trauma
- Closed head injury
Severe intra-abdominal infection Risk increases after 1 week

Neurologic disease Immediate risk if chronic denervating condition
- Spinal cord trauma
For acute conditions (eg, stroke), risk increases after
- Hemiparesis 24 hours
- Multiple sclerosis
- Stroke
- Guillain-Barré disease
- Encephalitis
Myopathy Immediate risk (eg, muscular myopathy)

- Duchenne muscular dystrophy
- Becker muscular dystrophy
- Mitochondrial myopathy
Disuse atrophy/immobility After several days (.16 days increases risk)
Prolonged relaxant use After several days of mechanical ventilation
Reprinted from Miller’s Anesthesia, Miller, Ronald. 825. Copyright 2019 with permission
from Elsevier.
D. Rapid Sequence Induction and Intubation

RSII is the simultaneous administration of a sedative agent and a
neuromuscular blocker, designed to facilitate intubation and reduce the risk
of gastric aspiration. It is the technique of choice when there is an increased
risk of aspiration (eg, full stomach, bowel obstruction, symptomatic
gastroesophageal reflux) and examination does not suggest a difficult
intubation. For patients who are at risk for aspiration and who are also at
risk for difficult intubation, awake intubation should be considered. The
emergency methods described earlier will be necessary if the patient cannot
be intubated and is impossible to ventilate, because the ability to ventilate
via mask is not tested before administration of the neuromuscular blocker.
E. Intracranial Pressure
Intracranial pressure may rise during laryngoscopy and intubation, and this
may be harmful in patients with preexisting intracranial hypertension.
Appropriate analgesia (eg, fentanyl) and anesthetic agent use will help
attenuate increases in ICP. Ketamine may be used in this population and
maintaining normocapnia (providing adequate ventilation) blunts changes
in ICP. Etomidate does not increase ICP. Propofol decreases ICP, which is
an ideal characteristic. However, measures should be taken to avoid
hypotension because this can increase mortality in patients with traumatic
brain injury.
Key Points: Airway Management

When assessing a patient for airway patency, look at the patient’s level
of consciousness, the presence or absence of protective airway
reflexes, signs of airway obstruction, and signs of an increased work of
breathing. This will help determine what measures to take to support
ventilation.
Every provider caring for the critically ill should be familiar with the
methods used to manually support a patent airway.
Proper use of the BVM resuscitation unit to assist ventilation should be
part of every healthcare provider’s training. Adequate oxygenation and
CO2 elimination are the objectives. For patients who are spontaneously
breathing, consider the use of a non-rebreather mask instead of the
BVM.
The use of cricoid pressure to reduce the risk of aspiration of gastric
contents is controversial. Use of the maneuver may impede BVM
ventilation and hinder visualization of the vocal cords with direct
laryngoscopy.
The use of a SGA, such as the LMA, may be extremely helpful in
salvaging a patient in a CICV/CICO scenario.
An assessment for potential difficult intubation based upon certain
anatomic features and pertinent history should be performed prior to
attempting endotracheal intubation. This will help predict any obvious
risks for difficult intubation. These actions may then guide whether it
is prudent to use hypnotic agents and neuromuscular blockers which
may suppress spontaneous ventilation.
Alternatives to conventional direct laryngoscopy should be considered
when the clinician encounters a potentially difficult airway. These
alternatives include maintaining spontaneous ventilation, video
laryngoscopy, use of SGA devices, cricothyroidotomy, and/or
tracheostomy.
Suggested Readings
1. Anderson J, Klock Jr PA. Airway Assessment and Prediction of the

Difficult Airway. In: Hagberg and Benumof’s Airway Management,
4th ed. Elsevier; 2018:185-195.
2. Apfelbaum JL, Hagberg CA, Caplan RA, et al. Practice guidelines for
management of the difficult airway: an updated report by the American
Society of Anesthesiologists Task Force on Management of the
Difficult Airway. Anesthesiology. 2013;118(2):251-270. PMID
23364566.
3. Carlos A. Artime and Carin A. Hagberg. Airway Management in the
Adult. In: Miller’s Anesthesia, 9th ed. Elsevier; 2020:1373-1410.
4. Chrimes N. The Vortex: a universal ‘high-acuity implementation tool’
for emergency airway management. Br J Anaesth. 2016;117 Suppl
1:i20-i27. PMID 27440673.
5. De Jong A, Rolle A, Molinari N, et al. Cardiac Arrest and Mortality
Related to Intubation Procedure in Critically Ill Adult Patients: A
Multicenter Cohort Study. Crit Care Med. 2018;46(4):532-539. PMID
29261566.
6. Jaap Vuyk, Elske Sitsen, and Marije Reekers. Intravenous Anesthetics.
In: Miller’s Anesthesia, 9th ed. Elsevier; 2020:638-676.
7. Kheterpal S, Martin L, Shanks AM, Tremper KK. Prediction and
outcomes of impossible mask ventilation: a review of 50,000
anesthetics. Anesthesiology. 2009;110(4):891-897. PMID 19293691.
8. Lascarrou JB, Boisrame-Helms J, Bailly A, et al. Video Laryngoscopy
vs Direct Laryngoscopy on Successful First-Pass Orotracheal
Intubation Among ICU Patients: A Randomized Clinical Trial. JAMA.
2017;317(5):483-493. PMID 28118659.
9. Lavery GG, Craig TR. Airway Management in the Critically Ill Adult.
In: Parrillo JE, Dellinger RP, eds. Critical Care Medicine. 4th ed.
Philadelphia, PA: Elsevier Saunders; 2014:11-30.
10. Magorian T, Flannery KB, Miller RD. Comparison of rocuronium,
succinylcholine, and vecuronium for rapid-sequence induction of
anesthesia in adult patients. Anesthesiology. 1993;79(5):913-918.
PMID 7902034.
11. Shafer SL. Shock values. Anesthesiology. 2004;101(3):567-568. PMID
15329579.
12. Sorin J. Brull and Claude Meistelman. Pharmacology of
Neuromuscular Blocking Drugs. In: Miller’s Anesthesia, 9th ed.
Elsevier; 2020:793-828.
13. Weingart SD, Levitan RM. Preoxygenation and prevention of
desaturation during emergency airway management. Ann Emerg Med.
2012;59(3):165-75.e1. PMID 22050948.
Suggested Website
1. Society of Critical Care Medicine. http://www.SCCM.org/Guidelines.

2. The Vortex Approach To Airway Management.
http://vortexapproach.org.
3. Difficult Airway Society. https://das.uk.com/guidelines.
Chapter 3
CARDIOPULMONARY/CEREBRAL
RESUSCITATION
Objectives
Identify patients who are likely to benefit from cardiopulmonary

resuscitation.
Propose a process for delegating responsibilities during the
resuscitative process.
Discuss treatment issues in cardiopulmonary arrest.
Highlight the importance of post-resuscitation care and
neuroprotective strategies, such as the use of targeted temperature
management.
Review specific cardiopulmonary events that occur in critically ill,
ventilated patients.
Case Study
You are performing rounds on patients on the general medical floor when a
code blue (cardiac arrest) is announced on the overhead paging system. You
are the first house staff member to arrive at the room. A 67-year-old man is
unresponsive and apneic on evaluation. The nurse is attempting to place the
patient on the monitor.
– What should be your immediate actions?
– What are the next steps if you are the team leader?
– What tasks are delegated to team members during the resuscitation?
I. INTRODUCTION
The immediate response to an in-hospital cardiac arrest is frequently the
responsibility of primary care providers, hospitalists, nurses, house staff,
and other members of the healthcare team. The Society of Critical Care
Medicine and the Fundamental Critical Care Support program recognize the
valuable training provided by the American Heart Association’s Basic Life
Support (BLS), Advanced Cardiovascular Life Support (ACLS), and
Pediatric Advanced Life Support (PALS) curricula. All healthcare
practitioners are encouraged to successfully complete the appropriate
courses.
II. ETHICAL ISSUES
A. Who Should Be Resuscitated?
CPR and advanced life support

may not be indicated for all
patients based on the patient’s
wishes and expected quality of life.
The purpose of cardiopulmonary resuscitation (CPR) and advanced life

support is to reverse sudden, unexpected death resulting from reversible
disease processes or iatrogenic complications. If possible, resuscitation
status and any limitations should always be discussed with the patient, the
patient’s family, or the surrogate decision maker before a cardiac arrest
event (Chapter 15). A subset of patients exists in which resuscitation will
provide no benefit; thus, avoiding unnecessary CPR and advanced life
support in these patients is the best practice. Out-of-hospital arrest can carry
a very high mortality rate because of the delay in initiation of CPR or the
patient required a prolonged course of CPR en route. Although no set of
variables is sensitive enough to accurately predict a poor outcome, there are
specific scenarios that are indicative of a worse prognosis and a low
probability of successful resuscitation that may not warrant CPR:
1. Patients on multiple vasopressors who experience cardiac arrest

2. Patients with advanced malignancy, heart disease, neurologic illness,
and no improvement despite maximal medical therapy
3. Patients who are brain dead
B. Level of Therapeutic Support
Whenever doubt exists regarding

resuscitation status, the provider
should institute resuscitation until
further information is obtained.
CPR is instituted based on implied consent, without a physician’s order.

However, any limitation of resuscitation requires a physician’s order. Do-
not-attempt-resuscitation (DNAR/DNR) orders should be documented in
the chart with a detailed explanation of the rationale. Such orders place
limits on advanced life support and resuscitation of a patient who is
pulseless and not breathing but it does not restrict other clinically indicated
medical care. “No resuscitation” does not mean “no care or treatment.”
Individual resuscitative plans suited to a patient’s particular wishes and
condition should be clearly delineated in the chart by the attending
physician. Conversations should identify a patient’s wishes regarding use of
chest compressions, medications, defibrillation, and intubation. If possible,
these conversations should take place when patients are at their baseline
level of health. Pain and anxiety should be treated in all cases regardless of
a patient’s resuscitation status.
C. Documentation
A well-trained team experienced in

resuscitation offers the best
potential for success.
The intended level of therapeutic support should be documented in the

patient’s chart so that the medical and nursing staff know exactly how to
proceed should a cardiorespiratory arrest occur unexpectedly. A discussion
of potential resuscitative measures should occur with all patients on
admission regardless of the acuity of their clinical status. The staff should
follow valid DNAR/DNR orders. Information about advance directives,
living wills, durable powers of attorney, and related forms also should be
documented and respected.
III. PRIMARY RESPONSE

Responders will usually have resuscitation resources available for
cardiorespiratory arrests that occur within the hospital. Often, however, the
most important aspects of a successful resuscitation relate to the
interactions, knowledge, and skills of the responders and the ability to
delegate and accept responsibility for components of the resuscitation
effort.
A. Assessment of the Immediate Situation
A do-not-attempt-resuscitation
order does not imply that care will
be withheld; patients should receive
proper treatment for their
underlying condition, including
pain and anxiety.
Has an appropriate individual assumed the leadership role?
If so, how can you assist? Identify yourself and offer help. Be ready to
accept a delegated role and to focus your efforts on that role while
remaining aware of other evolving resuscitation activities.
If not, you may be required to assume the leadership role until a more
qualified individual or the designated team member arrives.
B. The Leader’s Role
Proceed with the primary assessment and intervention, and delegate

appropriate tasks to the most qualified personnel available whenever
possible. This allows the resuscitation leader to maintain an overall
perspective, monitor cardiac rhythm, direct assessments and interventions,
and prescribe medications. The leader may need to perform some of these
tasks or reassign them if the primary designee is unsuccessful. The leader
should practice closed-loop communication with the team to ensure tasks
are completed in a timely fashion.
1. Evaluation and Initial Cardiac Resuscitation
Assess patient responsiveness. If the patient is unresponsive, activate

the emergency response system for additional help and quickly assess
for pulses and respiratory effort.
If the patient is unresponsive with absent pulses and respiratory effort,
start chest compressions (CPR) immediately and obtain an automated
external defibrillator (AED) or monitor/defibrillator. Chest
compressions should be performed at a rate of at least 100
compressions/min, and at a depth of at least 2 inches (5 cm) in adults.
Push hard and push fast. A CPR coach is recommended to ensure
quality CPR is delivered throughout the resuscitation.
If the patient is not intubated, provide 2 breaths (over 1 second each)
with bag-mask ventilation with a ratio of compressions to ventilation
of 30:2 during each 2-minute cycle of CPR. Each breath should be of
sufficient volume to see the chest rise and contain the maximum
oxygen concentration available. If intubated and connected to a
mechanical ventilator, the patient must be disconnected and changed to
manual bag-mask ventilation at a continuous rate of 8 to 10
breaths/min. Compressions-only CPR is acceptable for non-healthcare
providers.
Defibrillation should be delivered as soon as possible if monitoring
indicates ventricular fibrillation or pulseless ventricular tachycardia. A
single shock should be given at the energy level appropriate for the
defibrillator (360 joules with a monophasic defibrillator or 200 joules
with a biphasic defibrillator). Chest compressions should be resumed
immediately after the shock is delivered without checking the pulse or
rhythm. Rhythm analysis should occur after 2 minutes of
compressions, but this sequence may be modified in the hospital
setting with continuous electrocardiographic (ECG) monitoring.
2. Delegation
The list of important tasks to delegate has been outlined below. If the
number of responders is not sufficient, team members must establish
priorities for performance.
Manage the airway (Chapter 2). Establish a patent airway, provide
manual bag-mask ventilation, use available airway adjuncts, and/or
perform endotracheal intubation. Ventilations should not exceed the
recommended 8 to 10 breaths/min to optimize coronary artery
perfusion pressure by decreasing the percentage of time in positive
intrathoracic pressure. Avoid hyperventilation.
Perform chest compressions. The resuscitation leader should designate
a second person for relief and instruct the rescuers to exchange
responsibilities every 2 minutes. The person on relief should monitor
the effectiveness of compressions by checking the carotid or femoral
pulse. Chest compressions are interrupted only for shock delivery and
rhythm checks once the airway is secured. Pulse checks are performed
only if an organized rhythm is noted.
The presence or absence of a

pulse should be determined in
≤10 seconds.
Attach ECG monitor/machine.

Obtain intravenous or intraosseous access. Peripheral venous access
with a large catheter is preferred because it does not require
interruption of chest compressions. The intraosseous route can be used
as a temporary measure when other vascular sites are not immediately
available in adults (Appendix 4).
Provide medications as requested (eg, to manage the code cart,
defibrillator/pacer).
Maintain record of resuscitation interventions and patient assessments.
Obtain medical record and/or provide pertinent patient information.
Notify the patient’s personal attending physician of the
cardiopulmonary event and obtain further guidance. Discuss the
patient’s status, medical history, existence of advance directives, and
related topics.
Remove furniture, unnecessary equipment, and extra personnel from
the resuscitation area.
Notify the patient’s family of current events and provide emotional
support. If family members are present at the bedside, allow them to
remain if appropriate and provide an explanation of the procedures and
emotional support. (Nurses and/or staff chaplains often assume this
role.)
Minimize the interruptions of chest

compressions and maximize the
depth of compressions.
IV. CONTINUING RESUSCITATION

Once the primary response and assigned tasks have been successfully
initiated, each team member continues an appropriate role as the
resuscitation interventions are implemented.
Critical laboratory data should be obtained to assist with decisions

during the resuscitation and, perhaps, to reveal a cause for the cardiac
arrest. Important data include levels of glucose and measures of
arterial blood gases, hemoglobin, potassium, ionized calcium,
phosphorus, and magnesium. Suspected abnormalities or those
documented in recent laboratory values may be treated empirically.
Laboratory personnel should be notified of the ongoing resuscitation.
During cardiopulmonary resuscitation events, many institutions use
bedside ultrasound as a quick diagnostic tool to evaluate for the
underlying causes of arrest, such as cardiac tamponade or
pneumothorax. In addition, bedside ultrasound can be used to assess
the patient’s cardiac function or return of spontaneous circulation.
However, use of point-of-care ultrasound should never delay or
interfere with resuscitation. Pulse checks and ultrasound evaluation
should be as short as possible. The patient should never be allowed to
go without CPR for more than 10 seconds.
The patient’s chart should be reviewed for history and any possible
medication reaction that could lead to cardiac arrest, arrhythmia, or
decreased ventilatory drive.
It is appropriate to assume that the initial cardiopulmonary arrest
would not have been announced if a DNAR/DNR or similar directive
had been ordered by a physician, but this status should be confirmed as
other patient information and data are obtained. Whenever doubt exists
about a patient’s resuscitation status, full resuscitative measures
should be initiated and continued until clarified with the patient’s
attending physician and/or family/surrogate.
The point at which family members are notified of the
cardiopulmonary arrest will vary. If family is present, a team member
should provide information periodically during the resuscitation. The
presence of family during resuscitation should be carefully considered
and planned for if this practice is accepted by the institution and the
resuscitation team.
Arrangements for patient transfer to an ICU should be considered. A
transport cart, emergency drugs, external pacer, portable monitors,
oxygen, and other crucial supplies should be available to facilitate
immediate transfer as the patient stabilizes. The ICU will need to
prepare, so additional patient needs (eg, presence of arterial or central
lines and mechanical ventilation) should be communicated.
V. OTHER CONSIDERATIONS IN
CARDIOPULMONARY/CEREBRAL RESUSCITATION
The method that best produces blood flow to the coronary arteries,
brain, and other organs during a cardiopulmonary arrest has not yet
been determined. At present, closed-chest compressions remain the
standard technique for circulatory support. Use of mechanical chest
compression devices is increasing as an alternative to manual CPR.
Interposed abdominal compression CPR and active compression-
decompression CPR (device not available in the United States) may be
considered acceptable alternatives whenever personnel trained in the
techniques are available. The invasive alternative of open-chest cardiac
massage requires a team with special expertise and early institution for
optimal outcome. Immediate cardiopulmonary bypass may be effective
in improving the success of resuscitation in certain clinical scenarios
but is usually only available in specialty/tertiary care centers.
Early restoration of perfusion to the brain and other organs offers the
best chance for recovery of function. Patients who are mildly
hypothermic after cardiac arrest should not be actively warmed
because warming increases oxygen demand and alters vascular tone.
Targeted temperature management (32°C to 36°C [89.6°F to 96.8°F])
for at least 24 hours has been recommended to improve neurologic
outcome and reduce mortality in comatose patients following initial
resuscitation from an arrest (Section VI). Febrile patients should be
treated to reach a normal temperature as soon as possible. Seizures
must be aggressively treated to avoid further brain injury. Hyper- and
hypoglycemia should be avoided because these conditions have been
correlated with a worsened neurologic outcome. Other strategies to
protect the brain during and after no-flow states and in conjunction
with CPR are under investigation.
Quantitative end-tidal CO2 measurement with waveform display is
recommended for the intra- and post-resuscitation management of
cardiac arrest. Detection of or a rapid increase in end-tidal CO2 is often
the earliest indication of return of spontaneous circulation (ROSC).
Normocapnia (Pco2 38–42 mm Hg) is the goal.
Closed-chest compressions
produce approximately one-third
of normal cardiac output.
Arterial hyperoxia (defined as Pao2 > 300 mm Hg) should be avoided

during mechanical ventilation because certain studies have shown
worse neurologic outcomes and a trend toward increased mortality.
Prolonged hypothermia is still being studied after cardiac arrest, but
definitive data as to whether it improves neurologic outcomes or
mortality does not exist.
The use of electroencephalography post-cardiac arrest is still being
studied but definitive data as to whether it improves neurologic
outcomes or mortality does not exist.
The decision to terminate prolonged resuscitation efforts without
ROSC can be difficult. It is important to include all members of the
team and ask for any final suggestions prior to terminating
resuscitation. If the family is present for the resuscitation, they should
be kept aware of the situation and be prepared accordingly.
VI. TARGETED TEMPERATURE MANAGEMENT

Targeted temperature management (TTM), or therapeutic hypothermia, is a
critical part of the cardiocerebral resuscitation process. Early restoration of
perfusion to the brain and other organs offers the best chance for functional
recovery. Avoidance of hyperthermia in the post-cardiac arrest period is
essential. TTM with a goal of 32°C to 36°C (89.6°F to 96.8°F) core body
temperature for at least 24 hours is recommended for patients who remain
unconscious after ROSC (Figure 3-1). TTM is associated with both
reduced mortality rates and improved neurologic recovery after out-of-
hospital cardiac arrest as a result of ventricular fibrillation and pulseless
ventricular tachycardia. TTM is recommended for nonshockable rhythms
and for patients following in-hospital arrest because it may provide
neurologic protection and should be considered especially given the overall
poor prognosis in these situations. The options of TTM at lower and higher
temperatures allows flexibility to tailor the treatment to the patient and
avoid adverse effects of deeper hypothermia. A select group of post-cardiac
arrest patients who are unconscious may benefit from TTM (Table 3-1). No
specific time frame has been established for the start of TTM after cardiac
arrest. Time to initiation of targeted temperature management is being more
closely examined with limited retrospective data showing that delays in
initiation maybe associated with worse outcomes. Although the target
temperature should be reached as soon as possible, lifesaving cardiac
procedures should not be delayed to initiate TTM. Active temperature
management during rewarming is favored over passive rewarming.
Rewarming should be performed slowly over 12 or more hours. Avoid
rebound fever.
Figure 3-1. Example of Targeted Temperature Management Algorithm
Abbreviations: MAP, mean arterial pressure; ROSC, return of spontaneous circulation SBP,
systolic blood pressure; TTM, targeted temperature management.
Reproduced with permission Seder DB, Van der Kloot TE. Methods of cooling: practical
aspects of therapeutic temperature management. Crit Care Med. 2009; 37 (7 Suppl): S211-
22. Copyright © 2009 by the Society of Critical Care Medicine and Lippincott Williams &
Wilkins.
Table 3-1 Considerations for Targeted Temperature Management

Patients for whom therapeutic hypothermia should be considered:
Adult patients who remain comatose (ie, patients with a Glasgow Coma Scale score
less than 8 and/or patients who do not obey any verbal command after restoration
of spontaneous circulation, but before the initiation of cooling) following successful
resuscitation from a witnessed out-of-hospital cardiac arrest of presumed cardiac
cause; in-hospital cardiac arrest survivors (of any initial rhythm) may also benefit.
Patients with an initial rhythm of ventricular or pulseless ventricular tachycardia;
patients with initial rhythms of asystole or pulseless electrical activity may also
benefit.
May be used in hemodynamically unstable patients
Patients for whom therapeutic hypothermia should not be considered:
Patients with advanced directives that proscribe aggressive care

Patients with active non-compressible bleeding, but temperature management
(<36°C) is reasonable
The most significant adverse effects of TTM are the potential for
coagulopathy, increased risk of infection, cardiac arrhythmias, and
hyperglycemia. One of the most commonly encountered adverse effects is
shivering and the use of a validated scale to treat it can prove helpful. Both
pharmacologic treatments (eg, antipyretics, buspirone) and non-
pharmacologic management are important to control this adverse effect (eg,
heating blanket, warming patient’s extremities).
A. Temperature Management Devices
Invasive and external devices are available for TTM, but no one strategy
has proven to be superior. In the absence of specific temperature
management equipment, the use of iced saline and ice packs can be
effective, although hypervolemia from excessive administration of fluids
should be avoided. Careful monitoring for skin breakdown should be
performed around device sites or ice packs.
B. Potential Organ System Effects of TTM
Neurologic: shivering
Cardiac: dysrhythmias
Renal: “cold” diuresis, associated electrolyte derangements
Hematology: coagulopathy
Skin: frostbite
Altered drug metabolism
Adverse effects of hypothermia are less likely if cooling to higher

temperatures near 36°C (96.8°F).
C. Sedation and Pain Protocol
There are no specific pain or sedation protocols for TTM. Drug

pharmacokinetics and pharmacodynamics are altered during therapeutic
hypothermia. Aggressive attention to shivering is important; neuromuscular
blockade may be necessary if conventional management fails.
VII. RESPIRATORY ARREST
Case Study
You are outside the room of an ICU patient who is intubated when you hear
the ventilator suddenly begin alarming. You note the patient has worsening
hypoxia, hemodynamic instability, and absent right-sided breath sounds on
lung auscultation.
What are the possible etiologies for the patient’s deterioration?

What steps should you take to optimize the patient’s respiratory status?
A. Respiratory Arrest in the Nonintubated Patient

1. Immediate Concerns
One of the most common catastrophic events in nonintubated patients is
respiratory arrest. These patients are typically found in asystole or pulseless
electrical activity (PEA) but may be in ventricular fibrillation. The first
responders should institute immediate basic life support, including bag-
mask ventilation. Manual bag-mask ventilation with 100% oxygen should
be performed until a provider experienced in advanced airway management
arrives. Early endotracheal intubation allows for the most effective
ventilation and oxygenation. However, if attempts at endotracheal
intubation fail, adjuncts such as a laryngeal mask airway (LMA) or King
airway should be used.
2. Patient Assessment
In many instances, careful assessment of vital signs (including pulse
oximetry), air movement, and work of breathing will indicate that
respiratory impairment is present. Tachypnea progressing to bradypnea,
paradoxical abdominal breathing, and progressively decreasing alertness
may herald imminent respiratory arrest. Noninvasive respiratory monitoring
may identify patients who are decompensating. Normal arterial blood gas
measurements do not rule out the need for mechanical ventilatory support
because decompensation can occur precipitously once respiratory muscle
fatigue begins to manifest. Moreover, certain acute conditions (eg, asthma
or pulmonary embolus) cause tachypnea. A normal Pco2 in these instances
portends advanced respiratory failure and fatigue.
B. Special Management Issues
1. Cardiac Arrest in Patients Receiving Mechanical Ventilation

If a patient experiences cardiac arrest while receiving mechanical
ventilation, a complication related to ventilation must be suspected,
especially if the initial cardiac rhythm is bradycardia or asystole. Etiologic
possibilities include tension pneumothorax, ventilator failure or
disconnection, or displacement or obstruction of the endotracheal tube.
Patients should be disconnected from the ventilator immediately, and
manual ventilation with 100% oxygen should be initiated while further
assessment is undertaken. If high resistance to airflow is present, the
endotracheal tube should be unsecured and checked for kinks, and attempts
should be made to pass a suction catheter. Verification of tube placement
with expired CO2 monitoring is recommended as an adjunct to physical
assessment. If tube position or patency is in question, the tube should be
removed and the patient reintubated after being adequately oxygenated and
ventilated by means of a bag-mask device. Tension pneumothorax also
should be considered as a cause of high airway resistance.
2. Tension Pneumothorax
Patients with tension pneumothorax typically have hypotension and/or PEA
with narrow complex tachycardia. Physical assessment may reveal jugular
venous distension and ipsilateral decreased or absent breath sounds.
Ipsilateral tympanic percussion or subcutaneous emphysema may be noted
as well. In patients receiving mechanical ventilation, airway pressures for
normal tidal volume values will be high, and the ventilator high-pressure
alarm limit may be exceeded. Resistance to bag-mask ventilation will
increase as well. If readily available with a trained provider, a focused
bedside ultrasound examination may quickly assess for the presence of a
pneumothorax.
For patients with severe hypotension or PEA and findings consistent with
tension pneumothorax, treatment should be instituted immediately, without
waiting for radiologic confirmation. Needle thoracostomy can be
accomplished on the affected side by sterile placement of a 16- or 18-gauge
catheter through the anterior chest wall in the second intercostal space, at
the midclavicular line. Successful decompression is associated with a rush
of air, restoration of pulses, and a decrease in airway pressures in response
to bag-mask or mechanical ventilation. All needle thoracostomy procedures
should be followed by standard tube thoracostomy because this procedure
can result in: 1) temporary relief of a tension pneumothorax; 2) creation of a
pneumothorax if the presumption of a tension pneumothorax was wrong; or
3) no change in the patient’s condition if the needle is not long enough to
decompress the pleural space (ie, patients with a large chest wall thickness
that is the result of muscle or adipose tissue). Endotracheal tube obstruction
(from a patient biting the tube or buildup of secretions) can mimic some of
the findings described but does not usually cause severe hypotension or
PEA.
VIII. ADVANCED LIFE SUPPORT IN THE CRITICAL

CARE UNIT
A. General Issues
To be prepared for critical events such as cardiopulmonary arrest, clinicians
should know the clinical background and status of patients in the critical
care unit. They should review each patient’s record during checkout rounds
for signs of potential problems, such as electrolyte abnormalities. In
addition, the clinical history and course may give clues to the etiology of a
potential complication. For instance, a patient on a ventilator who is known
to have a large emphysematous bulla and who suddenly develops PEA has a
high likelihood of developing a tension pneumothorax secondary to rupture
of the bleb. Making patient rounds at the beginning of each tour of duty also
gives the staff an opportunity to clarify the resuscitation or code status of
each patient.
B. Principal Concerns
Airway management and oxygenation/ventilation are important issues in

the initial approach to acute decompensation of an ICU patient. Adequate
oxygenation/ventilation should be evaluated by physical assessment as well
as expired CO2 monitoring (if intubation is performed). If there is evidence
of abrupt cardiac or respiratory compromise, patients who are
mechanically ventilated at the time of the arrest should be disconnected
from the ventilator immediately and should receive 100% oxygen by bag-
mask ventilation. Early endotracheal intubation should be performed for
those patients who are not intubated already; tube placement should be
verified by physical assessment, chest radiograph, and exhaled CO2
detection. Pulselessness can be verified by observing the arterial waveform
if a functioning arterial line is in place or by carotid or femoral pulse
checks. Chest compressions should be performed and early defibrillation
for ventricular fibrillation should be undertaken as recommended by
Advanced Cardiovascular Life Support guidelines.
Key Points: Cardiopulmonary/Cerebral Resuscitation

The patient’s resuscitation status should be in accordance with
documented directives and should be addressed on hospital admission.
Familiarity with recommendations for cardiopulmonary resuscitation
is encouraged for all members of the resuscitation team.
During resuscitation the team leader must effectively delegate specific
duties and supervise the process of resuscitation.
Resuscitation team members must accept delegation and remain
focused on those duties.
Chest compressions should be optimized by ensuring a rate of at least
100/min, changing compressors every 2 minutes, continuing
compressions before and after shock delivery, and minimizing
interruptions.
A complication related to mechanical ventilation should be suspected
in patients who sustain an arrest while receiving ventilation, especially
if the initial dysrhythmia is bradycardia or asystole.
In patients with hypotension and/or PEA and findings consistent with
tension pneumothorax, needle thoracostomy should be instituted
without waiting for a chest radiograph to be performed.
Critically ill patients, or patients at risk of becoming critically ill,
should be monitored for early signs of physiologic deterioration, and
appropriate intervention should be instituted to avoid cardiopulmonary
arrest.
TTM is associated with both reduced mortality rates and improved
neurologic recovery after cardiac arrest.
Suggested Readings
1. Holzer M. Targeted temperature management for comatose survivors

of cardiac arrest. N Engl J Med. 2010;363:1256-1264.
2. Howes D, Gray SH, Brooks SC, et al. Canadian Guidelines for the use
of targeted temperature management (therapeutic hypothermia) after
cardiac arrest: a joint statement from The Canadian Critical Care
Society (CCCS), Canadian Neurocritical Care Society (CNCCS), and
the Canadian Critical Care Trials Group (CCCTG). Resuscitation.
2016;98:48-63.
3. Jain A, Gray M, Slisz S, Haymore J, Badjatia N, Kulstad E. Shivering
treatments for targeted temperature management: a review. J Neurosci
Nurs. 2018;50(2):63-67.
4. Johnson NJ, Danielson KR, Counts CR, et al. Targeted temperature
management at 33 versus 36 degrees: a retrospective cohort study. Crit
Care Med. 2020;48(3):362-369.
5. Kim JG, Ahn C, Shin H, et al. Efficacy of the cooling method for
targeted temperature management in post-cardiac arrest patients: a
systematic review and meta-analysis. Resuscitation. 2020;148:14-24.
6. Kirkegaard H, Søreide E, De Haas I, et al. Targeted temperature
management for 48 vs 24 hours and neurologic outcome after out-of-
hospital cardiac arrest: a randomized clinical trial. JAMA.
2017;318(4):341-350.
7. Lascarrou J-B, Merdji H, Le Gouge A, et al. Targeted temperature
management for cardiac arrest with nonshockable rhythm. N Engl J
Med. 2019;381:2327-2337.
8. McKenzie N, Williams TA, Tohira H, et al. A systematic review and
meta-analysis of the association between arterial carbon dioxide
tension and outcomes after cardiac arrest. Resuscitation. 2017;111:116-
126.
9. Nallamothu BK, Guetterman TC, Harrod M, et al. How do
resuscitation teams at top-performing hospitals for in-hospital cardiac
arrest succeed? A qualitative study. Circulation. 2018;138(2):154-163.
10. Nielsen N, Wetterslev J, Cronberg T, et al. Targeted temperature
management at 33°C versus 36°C after cardiac arrest. N Engl J Med.
2013;369:2197-2206.
11. Roberts BW, Kilgannon JH, Hunter BR, et al. Association between
early hyperoxia exposure after resuscitation from cardiac arrest and
neurological disability: prospective multicenter protocol-directed
cohort study. Circulation. 2018;137(20):2114-2124.
12. Scales DC, Cheskes S, Verbeek PR, et al. Prehospital cooling to
improve successful targeted temperature management after cardiac
arrest: a randomized controlled trial. Resuscitation. 2017;121:187-194.
13. Stanger D, Kawano T, Malhi N, et al. Door-to-targeted temperature
management initiation time and outcomes in out-of-hospital cardiac
arrest: insights from the Continuous Chest Compressions Trial. J Am
Heart Assoc. 2019;8(9):e012001.
14. Taccone FS, Picetti E, Vincent JL. High quality targeted temperature
management (TTM) after cardiac arrest. Crit Care. 2020;24(1):6.
15. Winther-Jensen M, Pellis T, Kuiper M, et al. Mortality and
neurological outcome in the elderly after target temperature
management for out-of-hospital cardiac arrest. Resuscitation.
2015;91:92-98.
Suggested Websites
1. Society of Critical Care Medicine. http://www.SCCM.org.
2. American Heart Association. http://www.americanheart.org.
3. Circulation. http://www.circulationaha.org.
4. European Resuscitation Council. http://www.erc.edu.
Chapter 4
DIAGNOSIS AND MANAGEMENT OF ACUTE

RESPIRATORY FAILURE
Objectives
Define and classify acute respiratory failure.

Describe the pathophysiology and manifestations of acute respiratory failure.
Review the management of acute respiratory failure.
Case Study
A 58-year-old-man presents to the emergency department in the winter with a few

days of worsening dyspnea, productive cough, fever, and malaise. He is an active
smoker with known chronic lung disease, obesity, hypertension, hyperlipidemia,
and diabetes mellitus. He does not see the doctor much, and reports inconsistent
adherence with his medications. The patient is awake but slightly lethargic. He
appears to be in moderate respiratory distress with evident use of accessory muscles
during inspiration and expiration and a respiratory rate of 30 breaths/min. Audible
crackles are present in the right posterior lung fields with scattered expiratory
wheezes. You are called to assess the patient and initiate treatment.
– How would you prioritize the immediate needs for this patient?
– What tests would be useful to stratify the severity of this patient’s condition?
– Which respiratory support should be considered?
– What pharmacologic treatment(s) should be initiated?
I. INTRODUCTION
Acute respiratory failure (ARF) is one of the leading causes of admission to the
ICU. It is defined as a lack of capacity of the respiratory system and/or other vital
organs, such as the brain and heart, to meet the patient’s oxygenation, ventilation, or
metabolic requirements. The pulmonary system is involved in two crucial functions:
elimination of carbon dioxide (CO2) and oxygenation of the blood. There are three
types of respiratory failure: hypoxemic, hypercapnic, and mixed. Hypoxemic
respiratory failure, historically known as type 1, is defined by a room air Pao2 of ≤
60 mm Hg (≤ 6.7–8 kPa) or an abnormal ratio of Pao2 to fraction of inspired oxygen
(Pao2:Fio2, or P:F ratio; discussed later). This abnormality of Pao2 should exist in
the absence of intracardiac right-to-left shunting. Hypercapnic respiratory failure, or
type 2, is defined by a Paco2 ≥ 50 mm Hg (≥ 6.7 kPa) that is not caused by
respiratory compensation for metabolic alkalosis, usually with a pH < 7.35. Mixed
respiratory failure has features of both hypercapnia and hypoxemia and is a
common form of respiratory failure in critically ill patients. Respiratory failure is
considered chronic once the renal system attempts compensation with the retention
of bicarbonate. This usually occurs over days of persistent hypercapnia and the
resulting respiratory acidosis. Frequently, in patients with chronic lung disease,
ARF may be superimposed on chronic respiratory insufficiency. In such
circumstances, the acute component is distinguishable from the chronic component
by the degree of respiratory acidosis (as defined by an abnormal pH) in relation to
Paco2 and elevated bicarbonate values and knowledge of baseline oxygen
requirements.
II. CAUSES OF ACUTE RESPIRATORY FAILURE

Acute respiratory failure develops in a variety of clinical settings. It may result from
primary pulmonary insults or from other systemic non-pulmonary disorders, as
summarized in Table 4-1. Diseases of the central nervous system, neuromuscular
system, upper and lower airways, pulmonary parenchyma, pulmonary vasculature,
thoracoabdominal cavity, and cardiovascular system may all give rise to ARF.
Table 4-1 Causes of Respiratory Failure

Hypoxemic
Airways Lung Parenchyma Vascular Trauma
Bronchospasm Infection/pneumonia Pulmonary embolism Pneumothorax
Tracheobronchial ARDS Pulmonary hypertension Hemothorax
injury Interstitial lung disease Congenital heart disease Blast lung injury
Obstruction Atelectasis Congestive heart failure Pulmonary
Inhalational lung Neoplasm Fat embolism laceration
injury Chronic Toxic inhalation
bronchitis/emphysema (smoke, chlorine
Cystic gas)
fibrosis/bronchiectasis
Pulmonary edema
Hypercapnic
Drugs Metabolic Intracranial Trauma
Opioids Hypocalcemia Encephalitis/meningitis Rib fractures/flail
Benzodiazepines Hypothyroidism/myxedema Stroke/CVA chest
Other sedatives Hypophosphatemia Increased intracranial pressure Burn eschar
NMB agents (central hypoventilation) Spinal cord
injury
Diaphragmatic
injury
Chest Bellows Lung Parenchyma Neuromuscular/Musculoskeletal Upper Airway
Obesity End-stage COPD/cystic Kyphosis/scoliosis Tonsillar/adenoid
hypoventilation fibrosis Myasthenia gravis enlargement
syndrome Multiple sclerosis Goiter
Abdominal Guillain-Barré syndrome Epiglottis
compartment Amyotrophic lateral sclerosis Vocal cord
syndrome Poliomyelitis paralysis
Botulism Laryngeal
edema
Tracheomalacia
Obstructive
sleep apnea
Abbreviations: ARDS, acute respiratory distress syndrome; COPD, chronic obstructive pulmonary
disease; CVA, cerebrovascular accident; NMB, neuromuscular blockade.
Reproduced with permission Pamplin J, Borgman M, eds. Fundamental Critical Care Support:
Resource Limited. Mount Prospect, IL: Society of Critical Care Medicine; 2020.
Hypoxemic respiratory failure may be seen in disorders that interfere with the
oxygenation of the blood as it circulates through the alveolar capillaries. This may
occur in patients with severe pneumonia, acute respiratory distress syndrome
(ARDS), or acute pulmonary edema. Hypercapnia most often results from
inadequate alveolar ventilation, which results in ineffective CO2 clearance. This can
be seen in patients with severe airflow obstruction, central respiratory failure, or
neuromuscular respiratory failure.
The following are common ICU scenarios that lead to ARF:
Chronic obstructive pulmonary disease (COPD) exacerbations are

characterized by increased thick mucopurulent secretions as well as wheezing
secondary to bronchospasm. They are often associated with both hypoxemic
and hypercapnic acute respiratory failure (ie, mixed ARF).
Pneumonia is most commonly associated with hypoxemic respiratory failure,
although it also can be associated with hypercapnic respiratory failure,
especially in the setting of other chronic lung diseases such as COPD.
ARDS is a manifestation of a severe systemic inflammatory response caused
by pulmonary or non-pulmonary injury or disease. Hypoxemic respiratory
failure predominantly occurs because of an increased shunt fraction from
alveolar filling.
Traumatic brain injury is associated mainly with hypercapnic respiratory
failure, although it can be complicated by hypoxemic respiratory failure in the
setting of concurrent aspiration, pulmonary contusions, neurogenic pulmonary
edema, or chronic pulmonary disease.
Medication or substance overdose usually occurs from central nervous system-
depressing agents, such as benzodiazepines, opioids, or barbiturates. It presents
with hypercapnic respiratory failure secondary to a centrally mediated
decreased respiratory drive resulting in alveolar hypoventilation.
Decompensated congestive heart failure is associated with predominantly
hypoxemic failure secondary to alveolar filling and increased shunt; however,
hypercapnic respiratory failure may also occur in severe exacerbations or in the
presence of pulmonary disease.
III. PATHOPHYSIOLOGY OF ACUTE RESPIRATORY FAILURE
A. Hypoxemia
Hypoxemia signifies a decrease in the partial pressure of oxygen (Pao2) in the
blood. Hypoxia defines a state in which the supply of oxygen to the body as a whole
or a specific region is inadequate. Although the usual definitions of hypoxemic
respiratory failure include pulse oximetry (Spo2) and Pao2, additional measurements
of oxygenation, mechanisms of hypoxemia, and the degree of its impact include: the
alveolar-arterial (A-a) gradient, the ratio of Pao2 to the fraction of inspired oxygen
(Fio2) known as the P:F ratio, and the oxygenation index (OI). Regardless of how
hypoxemic respiratory failure is defined or monitored, the important clinical context
is how the degree of hypoxemia results in tissue hypoxia.
Alveolar-arterial gradient:
The A-a gradient is the oxygen gradient between the alveolar oxygen partial
pressure (PAo2) and the content of dissolved oxygen in the arterial supply (Pao2). A
normal A-a gradient for a young healthy adult is usually 5–10 mm Hg, but increases
with age. An age-adjusted approximation for the A-a gradient = (Age/4) + 4. The
calculation for A-a gradient is:
A-a gradient = PAo2 – Pao2
Pao2 is measured by obtaining an ABG analysis, whereas PAo2 is calculated by the

following equation:
PAo2 = Fio2 × (PATM – PH2o) – (Paco2/R)
Fio2 is the fraction of inspired oxygen (0.21 at room air)
PATM is the atmospheric pressure (760 mm Hg at sea level)

PH2o is the partial pressure of water (47 mm Hg at 37°C)
Paco2 is the partial pressure of CO2 obtained from the ABG analysis
R is the respiratory quotient (approximately 0.8)
P:F Ratio:
The Pao2:Fio2 (P:F) ratio, in which Pao2 is measured as mm Hg and Fio2 is the
fraction of inspired oxygen, is a measurement of oxygenation that accounts for the
amount of supplemental oxygen that the patient is requiring. It is a simple
calculation that is most commonly used in patients with hypoxemic respiratory
failure, specifically ARDS, to classify the severity of their disease process and trend
it over time. A normal P:F ratio is usually 300–500. Based on the Berlin definition
of ARDS, the P:F ratio stratifies the severity of the hypoxemia and provides
indications for certain advanced management therapies. The most accepted
definition of ARDS is the Berlin definition, which was updated in 2012. To be
classified as having ARDS, a patient must meet all three of the following criteria:
Onset within 7 days after a known clinical insult or new or worsening

symptoms
Bilateral diffuse alveolar opacities on chest imaging (chest radiograph or CT
scan)
P:F ratio < 300*
Mild : 201 to 300
Moderate: 101 to 200
Severe: < 100
*P:F ratio is measured at a minimum PEEP setting for CPAP of 5 cm H2O.
Oxygenation Index (OI):
The P:F ratio can be helpful for

following trends in a patient’s condition
and evaluating ventilation strategies.
The OI is a measurement of oxygenation dysfunction that takes into account mean

airway pressure while a patient is on mechanical ventilation.
OI = [100 × (mean airway pressure (cm H2O) × Fio2]/Pao2
An OI of ≥ 25 can indicate severe hypoxemia. The OI has some advantages over the
P:F ratio. The two main techniques to improve alveolar oxygenation for a patient on
positive pressure ventilation are to increase the Fio2 and the airway pressure (the
latter commonly by increasing positive end-expiratory pressure [PEEP]). Thus, two
different patients with the same Pao2 and Fio2 can have different mean airway
pressures but the same P:F ratios; therefore, their different OIs will more accurately
predict the discrepancy in oxygenation dysfunction.
For Example:
Which patient has a higher likelihood of worse outcomes?
Patient 1: Pao2 65 mm Hg, Fio2 80%, PEEP 10, PIP 30, MAP 20*, P:F 0.8 = OI
21
Patient 2: Pao2 65 mm Hg, Fio2 80%, PEEP 18, PIP 40, MAP 29*, P:F 0.8 = OI
26
Answer: Patient 2 with an OI of > 25 has more severe hypoxemia with evidence
of worse lung compliance, and ultimately a higher mortality rate compared with
Patient 1.
Abbreviations: PIP, peak inspiratory pressure; Ti, inspiratory time.
*Mean airway pressure (MAP) based on Ti 1.0, respiratory rate 30 breaths/min, pressure based
on presumed lung compliance differences.
Mechanisms of Hypoxemia:
The four main mechanisms of hypoxemia are ventilation/perfusion (V̇ /Q̇ )
mismatch, hypoventilation, diffusion impairment, and reduced inspired oxygen
tension (Pio2).
The most common underlying physiologic abnormality in hypoxemic respiratory

failure is a mismatch of alveolar ventilation (V̇) and pulmonary perfusion (Q̇), as
illustrated in Figure 4-1. The mismatch of ventilation and perfusion, where
ventilation is decreased relative to perfusion, is called low V̇ /Q̇. V̇ /Q̇ matching is
particularly important to oxygenation of blood as opposed to elimination of CO2
(discussed in Section IV) because of the kinetics of the hemoglobin oxygen
dissociation curve (Chapter 6, Figure 6-1 for the oxyhemoglobin dissociation
curve). Although there is normally a heterogeneous amount of ventilation and
perfusion among the upper, middle, and lower lung zones, significant decreases in
either V̇ or Q̇ contribute to a V̇ /Q̇ mismatch with a net result of hypoxemia. Lung
areas with high V̇ /Q̇ ratios, which provide a high Pao2, cannot compensate for areas
with a low V̇ /Q̇ ratio (providing low Pao2) as the hemoglobin molecule is already
about 90% saturated at a Pao2 of about 60 mm Hg. The admixture of poorly
oxygenated blood returning from abnormal alveoli dilutes oxygenated blood from
more normal lung units, resulting in systemic hypoxemia. The hypoxemia caused by
V̇ /Q̇ mismatch is usually easily corrected by supplemental oxygen.
Figure 4-1. Ventilation and Perfusion Matching in the Lung
A, At the end of the pathologic continuum, areas of limited ventilation relative to perfusion produce
shunt effect and hypoxemia. B, Ventilation and perfusion are matched in the normal lung. C, At the
opposite of the continuum, areas of better ventilation than perfusion produce dead space effect.
Diseases that cause progressive obstruction of distal airways, alveolar filling, or

atelectasis (eg, pneumonia, aspiration, pulmonary edema) result in decreased
oxygen availability in the distal airways for uptake through the pulmonary
capillaries. Subsequent hypoxic pulmonary vasoconstriction results in decreased
blood flow to these abnormal lung units. Although this decline has a lower effect
than the decrease in oxygen availability, it results in a greater proportion of
deoxygenated blood (venous admixture) that is returned to the left side of the heart.
One extreme of V̇ /Q̇ mismatch is shunt because there is perfusion of the
unventilated lung. In diseases that cause diffuse alveolar flooding (eg, ARDS),
refractory hypoxemia may be the result of shunt physiology. Treatment of
hypoxemia caused by V̇ /Q̇ mismatch should be directed toward treating the
underlying cause such as infections, reversing airway obstruction, reopening
(recruiting) atelectatic lung zones, and preventing closure (de-recruitment) of the
affected lung units. Oxygen therapy and/or mechanical ventilation are cornerstones
in providing support until such time that the cause of V̇ /Q̇ mismatch has been
reversed.
Other causes of hypoxemia include:
Decreased diffusion of oxygen across the alveolocapillary membrane complex

because of interstitial edema, inflammation, fibrosis, etc.
Alveolar hypoventilation
High altitude with low inspired partial pressure of oxygen
Diffusion abnormality is rarely the primary cause for hypoxemia because oxygen
transport across the alveolocapillary membrane is generally perfusion limited rather
than diffusion limited; however, in cases such as increased cardiac output and
tachycardia, diffusion may be limited when the transit time across pulmonary
capillaries is reduced. Therapy for diffusion abnormalities, in addition to
maintaining adequate circulating volume, includes treatment of the cause of
interstitial pathology (ie, diuretics for cardiogenic pulmonary edema, corticosteroids
for inflammatory disorders). Ensuring adequate minute ventilation will correct
hypoxemia that is solely the result of hypoventilation. High altitude is a rare cause
of acute hypoxemia in patients. As a compensatory treatment strategy, providing
oxygen supplementation (Fio2) while the cause of the hypoxemia is investigated and
corrected may improve oxygenation.
B. Hypercapnia
Hypercapnic respiratory failure is caused by either excess CO2 production or

decreased effective alveolar ventilation. Alveolar minute ventilation (VA) is
determined by the tidal volume (VT), the respiratory rate frequency (f), and
physiologic and anatomic dead space (VD).
VA = (VT – VD)f
Hypercapnia has a multitude of causes as listed in Table 4-1. In general, healthy
individuals do not display symptoms of hypercapnia until the Paco2 rises about 70 to
80 mm Hg, whereas patients with chronic hypercapnia may be able to tolerate Paco2
levels as high as 90 to 120 mm Hg before becoming symptomatic. Hypercapnic
respiratory failure, therefore, has a different Paco2 threshold for each patient but can
be summarized as the condition in which insufficient CO2 removal by the lungs
necessitates medical therapy and/or ventilatory support.
Hypercapnia, resulting from either decreased VT or the respiratory rate frequency,
may occur with drug ingestions or anesthetics that lead to depression of the
medullary respiratory centers. An elevated Paco2 normally increases the ventilatory
drive. Therefore, hypercapnic respiratory failure implies that the patient is unable to
sustain minute ventilation (f × VT).
Treatment of decreased VT or respiratory rate may require reversal of sedation or
other drugs, endotracheal intubation with mechanical ventilation to rest fatigued
muscles, supplemental nutrition, respiratory stimulants, or treatment of other
possible primary causes. For neuromuscular disorders such as myasthenia gravis
and Guillain-Barré syndrome, serial measurement of ventilatory mechanics, such as
negative inspiratory force and forced vital capacity, can dictate when mechanical
ventilation is warranted. Either a negative inspiratory force below −20 to 25 cm
H2O or forced vital capacity < 10 mL/kg, should raise concern that a patient’s
ventilatory mechanics are sufficiently impaired and mechanical ventilation is
needed. Desaturation or hypoxemia cannot be relied on because they are secondary
to alveolar hypoventilation, and therefore a late finding of respiratory failure.
Increased physiologic dead space (VD) may also produce hypercapnia and is another
type of mismatch illustrated in Figure 4-1. When gas flow to and from airways
remains adequate but blood flow is diminished, CO2 does not have the opportunity
to diffuse out of the pulmonary circulation, and CO2-rich blood is returned to the
left atrium. Increased dead space ventilation may occur in respiratory muscle fatigue
from any cause, leading to rapid shallow breathing. Increased VD may also be seen
in hypovolemia, pulmonary embolism, poor cardiac output, or when the regional
airway pressure is relatively higher than the regional perfusion pressure, reducing
pulmonary blood flow in that area.
The more rapidly the negative

inspiratory pressure and forced vital
capacity deteriorate, the lower the
threshold for intubation and
mechanical ventilation.
Strategies to reduce dead space may include reduction in peak or mean airway
pressures, if the patient is receiving mechanical ventilation, augmentation of
intravascular volume and/or cardiac output, or treatment of other causes for limited
pulmonary blood flow. It may be possible to compensate for hypercapnia caused by
high VD by modifying parameters to increase minute ventilation during mechanical
ventilation while the cause of hypercapnia is sought and corrected. Because of the
high solubility of CO2, a diffusion barrier rarely ever occurs. Increased CO2
production may contribute to hypercapnia secondary to either excess carbohydrate
nutritional calories or extreme hypercatabolic conditions (eg, burns,
hyperthyroidism, persistent fever).
C. Mixed Respiratory Failure

Patients commonly demonstrate characteristics of both pathophysiologic categories
of ARF during the course of illness. An understanding of each underlying
pathophysiology is necessary to plan the appropriate therapeutic support. Several
related disease processes often act synergistically to compound respiratory failure.
For example, the patient with chronic pulmonary disease and a large dead space
often has associated heart failure, which increases V̇ /Q̇ mismatching and worsens
hypoxemia. In a patient with severe ARDS, pulmonary interstitial and alveolar
edema result in increased intra-pulmonary shunt and dead space, and decreased
functional lung size because of alveolar collapse; subsequently, the shunt
contributes primarily to hypoxemia while increased deadspace causes hypercapnia,
resulting in mixed respiratory failure.
IV. MANIFESTATIONS OF ACUTE RESPIRATORY FAILURE
A. Clinical Presentation of Respiratory Distress
Clinical manifestations of respiratory distress commonly include signs and

symptoms of hypoxemia, hypercapnia, or both. These include:
Altered mental status ranging from agitation to somnolence

Evidence of increased work of breathing, such as nasal flaring in infants, use of
accessory respiratory muscles, intercostal/suprasternal/supraclavicular muscle
retraction, tachypnea, hyperpnea, or a paradoxical or dysynchronous breathing
pattern (Figure 4-2)
Bradypnea
Cyanosis of mucosal membranes (eg, tongue, mouth) or nail beds
Diaphoresis, tachycardia, hypertension, and other signs of catecholamine
release
Figure 4-2. Normal Versus Abnormal Respiration
A, The abdominal wall moves outward as the diaphragm moves downward in

normal inspiration. B, With respiratory muscle fatigue, the diaphragm becomes
flaccid and moves upward during inspiration resulting in inward movement of the
abdominal wall.
B. Diagnostic Tests
Pulse oximetry can be used to rapidly evaluate oxygenation in a patient with
respiratory distress by estimating the arterial oxyhemoglobin saturation (Chapter
6). However, pulse oximetry provides no assessment for hypercapnia. Arterial blood
gas analysis is commonly used in severely ill patients to determine the two primary
measures of respiratory failure, the Pao2 and Paco2, as well as pH. Additional tests,
such as electrolytes, hematocrit, and drug levels, may provide clues to the
underlying etiology of ARF. Chest radiography and bedside ultrasonography in
combination with these laboratory tests is invaluable in suggesting the underlying
pathophysiology of ARF.
Waveform capnography (end-tidal CO2

[ETco2]) may be used as a surrogate for
Paco2.
Waveform capnography (end-tidal CO2 [ETco2]) is a measure of the partial pressure

of exhaled CO2 and may be used as a surrogate for Paco2 (Figure 4-3). Although
ETco2 may not accurately reflect actual Paco2 because of alterations in dead space
ventilation (areas of the lung in which ventilation occurs but there is no perfusion),
ETco2 trends are useful for monitoring patient ventilation, especially when ABG
analysis is limited or unavailable. In addition, capnography provides reassurance
that an endotracheal tube (ETT) or tracheostomy is in place, particularly during
transport.
Figure 4-3. Waveform Capnography
A, Normal. B, Status asthmaticus. C, Trigger dyssynchrony. D, Worsening
hypoventilation.
V. MANAGEMENT CONSIDERATIONS
A. Oxygen Supplementation
Most patients with ARF require supplemental oxygen. Oxygen transfer from
alveolar gas to capillary blood occurs by diffusion across the alveolar-capillary
membrane and is driven by the oxygen partial-pressure gradient between the partial
pressure of alveolar oxygen (Pao2) and the Po2 of the pulmonary capillary blood. In
most cases of ARF, the Pao2 can be substantially increased by use of supplemental
oxygen, thus increasing the gradient across the membrane and improving the Pao2.
Supplemental oxygen can be provided by a variety of devices (Figure 4-4). The

effectiveness of each is determined by its capacity to deliver sufficient oxygen at a
high enough flow rate to match the patient’s spontaneous inspiratory flow rate.
Matching between the flow capacity of the oxygen device and the patient’s
inspiratory flow demand determines how much room air is entrained by the
nonintubated patient breathing in an open system. Any entrained room air (Fio2 =
0.21) will dilute (decrease) the Fio2 of the delivered gas in such a way that the
tracheal Fio2, and hence Pao2, may be considerably lower than the Fio2 delivered
from the oxygen source. Therefore, oxygen-supplement systems are usually
classified as high oxygen (capable of delivering up to 100% oxygen), controlled
oxygen (set oxygen percentage), or low oxygen. Similarly, the devices are also
categorized as either high flow, moderate flow, or low flow, reflecting the flow-
delivery capacity of the gas at the preset Fio2 level. Table 4-2 provides an overview
and compares some commonly used supplemental oxygen delivery devices.
Table 4-2 Comparison of Supplemental Oxygen Delivery Devices

O2 Flow
Device (L/min) FIO2 (%) Benefits Limitations and
Complications
Low-flow 1–6 24–45 Low cost, compact, portable Upper respiratory tract
nasal cannula drying/bleeding when
not humidified
Simple face mask 1–15 25–90 Simple device with higher FIO2 Upper respiratory tract
than nasal cannula drying/bleeding when
not humidified
Nonrebreather 10–15 60–90 Simple device with high FIO2 When using high flow
mask rate, can consume O2
supply quickly
High-flow nasal 10–60 21–100 Delivers high-flow, heated, Expensive, not very
cannula (heated & humidified air, matches patient portable, requires
humidified) with high minute ventilation power
For example, a tachypneic and hyperpneic patient will have a high inspiratory flow
rate during each breath. In such cases, hypoxemia is less likely to respond well to
oxygen supplementation by nasal cannula because it is a low-oxygen, low-flow
system and cannot match the patient’s high inspiratory flow rate. Room air will be
entrained during inspiration, and the tracheal Fio2 will be reduced. A high-oxygen,
high-flow system should be selected for this type of patient.
Supplemental oxygen should be

considered a temporizing intervention
while the primary etiology of
hypoxemia is diagnosed and treated.
Figure 4-4. Oxygen Delivery Devices

A. Nasal Cannula
Delivers humidified oxygen

Nasal passages must be patent
Blender setup: FIO2 is set by dial; 1-2 L flow can be used as continuous positive airway pressure
for infants
Wall setup: FIO2 is set by flow rate
Approximate FIO2 (if respiratory rate and tidal volume are normal):
Adult
1L = 24% 4L = 36%
2L = 28% 5L = 40%
3L = 32%
B. Simple Oxygen Mask
Delivers humidified oxygen

Minimum flow rate = 6 L/min (to clear exhaled CO2 from mask)
Approximate concentrations: 6 L = 40%; 7 L = 50%; 8L = 60%
C. Aerosol Mask
Delivers cool, aerosolized oxygen or air
FIO2 is set by dial on oxygen adapter
Maximum FIO2 = 40%-60%
Minimum flow rate = 8 L/min
D. Face Tent
Delivers cool, aerosolized oxygen or air

Loose fit under the chin for patient comfort, speaking, etc.
FIO2 is set by dial on oxygen adapter (concentration is unstable)
E. Venturi Mask
Delivers humidified oxygen (aerosol adapter can be added)
FIO2 is set by entrainment dial on mask
Low concentrations = 24%, 26%, 28%, 31%
High concentrations = 35%, 40%, 50%
F. High-flow Nasal Cannula

Uses up to 100% oxygen source
Flow rate <60 L/min
G. Tracheostomy Mask
Delivers heated, aerosolized oxygen or air

FIO2 is set by dial on blender
H. Non-rebreathing Mask
Delivers non-humidified oxygen
Used for emergency delivery
FIO2 range = 60 - ?100%
Reservoir bag provides 100% FIO2 and minimizes room air dilution
Flap valves minimize entrainment of room air (which will dilute FIO2)
Flow rate is adjusted according to the patient’s ventilator pattern to keep reservoir bag inflated
1. Low-Flow Nasal Cannula

Short prongs of the nasal cannula are inserted into the nares. Oxygen (100%) is
delivered through the cannula, but at a rate between 0.5 and 5 L/min. The resulting
Fio2 depends on the patient’s minute ventilation and, therefore, cannot be precisely
controlled, but the maximal tracheal Fio2 is not likely to exceed 0.4 to 0.5 (40% to
50%). Higher flow rates do not result in much higher Fio2 levels and have a drying
and irritating effect on nasal mucosa. The nasal cannula is comfortable and well
tolerated by many patients with ARF in whom precise control of Fio2 is not
necessary. It is a low-flow, low-oxygen device.
2. Aerosol Face Mask

The commonly used aerosol face mask combines a variable oxygen setting and
moderate flows. The mask, which has large side holes, is attached by large-bore
tubing to a nebulizer that blends 100% oxygen and room air to deliver gas at a
preset Fio2 level. Flow matching can be evaluated by observing the patient during
spontaneous breathing. If the entire aerosol mist disappears from the mask during
inhalation, the patient’s inspiratory flow demands are probably exceeding the
capacity of the nebulizer and room air is being entrained. The aerosol face mask is a
variable oxygen, moderate-flow device.
3. Air-Entrainment Face Mask

Air-entrainment masks (also called Venturi masks) deliver oxygen through a jet-
mixing device that increases the velocity of oxygen and causes a controlled
entrainment. The Fio2 can be more precisely controlled from 0.24 to 0.5 (24% to
50%) at high-flow rates simply by selecting the interchangeable jet nozzle and
adjusting the oxygen flow rate. It is a high-flow, controlled-oxygen device.
4. Reservoir Face Mask

The reservoir face mask incorporates a reservoir bag from which the patient
breathes. This bag is filled with 100% oxygen from a supply source. The flow rate
is adjusted so that the bag remains completely or partially distended throughout the
respiratory cycle. When the mask is properly applied, oxygen delivery to the
nonintubated patient can be maximized but rarely exceeds an Fio2 of 0.6 to 0.9. The
reservoir face mask is a high-oxygen, high-flow device.
A reservoir mask is frequently used for

improving oxygenation in patients with
severe hypoxemia until further
evaluation and treatments are
accomplished.
5. Resuscitation Bag-Mask Unit

Although not commonly considered an oxygen-supplement device, bag-mask units
are usually included with other emergency equipment and, therefore, are readily
accessible. When the mask is held firmly over the patient’s face, room air
entrainment is largely excluded. If the oxygen flow to the bag is kept high (≥ 15
L/min), a high-oxygen supply is provided at sufficient flow. The resuscitation bag
need not be compressed to supply oxygen. It is a high-oxygen, high-flow device.
B. Advanced Oxygen Supplementation
1. High-Flow Nasal Cannula

High-flow nasal cannula (HFNC) systems involve delivery of heated and
humidified oxygen at high flow rates. Standard oxygen therapy delivers dry and
cold air into the respiratory tract, which may promote inflammation, increase airway
resistance, and affect mucocilliary clearance. Conversely, heated and humidified air
delivered via the HFNC has been shown to reduce airway resistance and airway
inflammation while promoting secretion clearance.
HFNC may also improve respiratory mechanics because of the higher flow rates
that it is capable of delivering. For example, in the setting of ARF, a patient’s
minute ventilation can far exceed 20 L/min. Whereas the nonrebreather mask can
only achieve a flow of 15 L/min, the HFNC is capable of matching the patient’s
needs by reaching oxygen delivery at a flow of up to 60 L/min in adults.
Furthermore, these high flow rates can generate a modest PEEP in the airway.
Although debated, in general, up to 1 cm H20 of PEEP is generated for every 10
L/min of flow the system delivers, which improves oxygenation. Lastly, the high
inspiratory flow rates wash out the CO2-rich exhalation air in the upper airway. As
the pharyngeal dead space is reduced, the actual oxygen concentration reaching the
alveoli is higher than with conventional oxygen therapy.
When setting the initial parameters for HFNC, flow rate should be titrated first
(typically by 10 L/min increments) followed by Fio2. Temperature may be set from
31°C (87.8°F) to 37°C (98.6°F) as tolerated by patient. If adequate saturation and/or
improvement in work of breathing is not achieved when reaching 60 L/min with
Fio2 50%, endotracheal intubation should be considered.
Potential contraindications to HFNC include concomitant COPD because evidence

has demonstrated that noninvasive positive pressure ventilation (NIPPV) has
mortality benefit. If a patient requires endotracheal intubation, although has a do-
not-intubate status, HFNC may be appropriate from both a therapeutic and a
palliative perspective. The last indication, backed by consistent evidence, is the use
of HFNC as a preoxygenation tool when performing rapid sequence intubation.
HFNC has consistently shown to increase safe apnea time.
2. Noninvasive Positive Pressure Ventilation

NIPPV is a form of mechanical ventilation that provides respiratory assistance
through a mask or helmet without a secure or invasive airway. Both oxygenation
and ventilation can be augmented in the already breathing patient through the
delivery of positive pressure and Fio2, ranging from ambient air at 21% up to 100%.
Some advantages and disadvantages of NIPPV are listed in Table 4-3.
Table 4-3 Advantages and Disadvantages of NIPPV
Advantages Disadvantages
Reduced need for sedation Claustrophobia

Preservation of airway-protective reflexes Noise
Avoidance of upper airway trauma Increased workload for respiratory
Decreased incidence of nosocomial sinusitis practitioner
and pneumonia Facial/nasal pressure lesions with
Improved patient comfort prolonged use
Shorter ICU and hospital lengths of stay Unprotected airway
Improved survival Inability to suction deep airway
Potential to reduce postextubation failure Gastric distension
Delay in intubation
NIPPV encompasses several different modalities. The two modes most frequently
used in patients with ARF are bilevel positive airway pressure (BiPAP) and
continuous positive airway pressure (CPAP). Each mode has unique indications but
share the same contraindications (Table 4-4). Overall, NIPPV can decrease
mortality, endotracheal intubations, and ICU length of stay in a variety of clinical
scenarios. However, it has been shown to increase mortality if used incorrectly. All
types of NIPPV are contraindicated in patients who are not able to follow
commands, cannot handle oral secretions appropriately, underwent recent
esophageal surgery, have facial deformities, require restraints, and/or are
hemodynamically unstable. As with HFNC, if work of breathing and/or oxygenation
do not improve after an initial trial of NIPPV, endotracheal intubation should not be
further delayed.
Table 4-4 Contraindications to NIPPV
Cardiac or respiratory arrest

Severe metabolic or respiratory acidosis (pH < 7.10–7.20)
Hemodynamic instability
Patient not protecting airway
Poor respiratory drive/apnea
Active emesis, upper gastrointestinal bleed, or excessive pulmonary secretions
Trauma or burns involving the face
Recent maxillofacial or transsphenoidal surgery
Recent facial, esophageal, or gastric surgery
Prolonged duration of NIPPV anticipated
Severe agitation or anxiety requiring restraints
Reduced level of consciousness or inability to follow commands
Infectious respiratory outbreak (aerosolization of droplets from open respiratory circuit)
BiPAP may be indicated in several clinical scenarios. NIPPV has potential benefit
for several patient types but is not ideal for all. Traditionally, patients with
exacerbations of congestive heart failure or COPD can respond well with NIPPV as
a bridge while the underlying process is addressed. Other situations in which
NIPPV may provide benefit over mechanical ventilation or avoid the need for
mechanical ventilation include immunocompromised patients with respiratory
failure, patients with asthma exacerbation, postextubation, respiratory failure in
patients with cystic fibrosis, intubation refusal, and palliative care. The use of
NIPPV in ARDS is controversial. In some studies, it has been shown to decrease the
rate of endotracheal intubation but does not influence overall mortality.
The initial setup for NIPPV and close monitoring of the patient within the first 1 to
2 hours are the most crucial aspects for ensuring success of NIPPV. Suggestions for
initiation and monitoring NIPPV are highlighted in Table 4-5. The patient should be
properly monitored in an environment in which a nurse, respiratory therapist, or
physician has continuous direct observation of the patient and proper monitoring
with heart rate, blood pressure, pulse oximetry, and ideally ETco2. Pre-NIPPV
baselines for pH, Paco2 (or Spo2), Pco2 (or ETco2), respiratory rate, and patient
comfort must be established, and clear ideal trajectory identified in these numbers
and observations to indicate success or failure. Reassessment after initiating NIPPV
should occur within 30 to 60 minutes. In general, if there is no improvement within
4 to 6 hours (or if there is earlier clinical decline), invasive mechanical ventilation
should be strongly considered. Sedation should be used cautiously during NIPPV to
avoid respiratory depression. Consider gastric decompression with a nasogastric
tube if a helmet is used or the patient requires very high delivered pressures (above
15 cm H2O). The patient’s oral intake should be limited in the initial period in the
event that gastric insufflation causes emesis or the patient fails NIPPV and requires
invasive mechanical ventilation.
Table 4-5 Initiation, Early Titration, and Assessment of NIPPV
Ensure that NIPPV is indicated (and there are no contraindications).

Explain this ventilation mode to the patient, including expectations and goals.
Establish baseline vital signs, blood gas results, and ETco2.
Identify clear criteria to determine success or failure.
Properly fit mask or helmet.
Initial Mode Options:
CPAP BiPAP
PEEP 5–10 EPAP 5 cm H2O
cm H2O IPAP 10–15 cm H2O
FIO2 100% FIO2 100%
Backup rate ≥ 6–8 breaths/min
Adjust difference between IPAP and EPAP to achieve desired VT (and VA), measuring end
effect with either Paco2 or ETco2.
Titrate down FIO2 as desired for Pao2 or Spo2
Reassess within 30 to 60 minutes and closely monitor thereafter until success or failure is
clear.
Abbreviations: BiPAP, bilevel positive airway pressure; CPAP, continuous positive airway pressure;
EPAP, expiratory positive airway pressure; ETco2, end-tidal carbon dioxide; FIO2, fraction of inspired
oxygen; IPAP, inspiratory positive airway pressure; NIPPV, noninvasive positive pressure ventilation;
Pao2, partial arterial oxygen pressure; Paco2, partial arterial carbon dioxide pressure; PEEP, positive
end-expiratory pressure; Spo2, oxygen saturation; VA, alveolar minute ventilation; VT, tidal volume.
The initial parameters that are set include the inspiratory positive airway pressure
(IPAP), expiratory airway pressure (EPAP), Fio2, and back-up respiratory rate. The
IPAP may be adjusted to manipulate ventilation parameters, while the EPAP (in
conjunction with the Fio2) may be adjusted to control oxygenation. A difference of
at least 4 cm of water (cm H2O) between the IPAP and EPAP is recommended.
Parameters are titrated to promote a patient ventilation of 5–8mL/kg, improve
oxygenation to 88–92%, while being comfortably tolerated. Initial reasonable
BiPAP settings would be an IPAP of 8 cm H2O, EPAP of 4 cm H2O, Fio2 of 50%,
and a back-up respiratory rate of 12. If additional minute ventilation is required,
increase IPAP accordingly; conversely, EPAP and Fio2 may be titrated to improve
oxygenation.
Patients with COPD who have been endotracheally intubated can be extubated
earlier to BiPAP ventilation. This not only decreases days on mechanical
ventilation, but also ICU length of stay and even mortality. CPAP is primarily
indicated in hypoxemic respiratory failure secondary to acutely decompensated
congestive heart failure (CHF). CPAP may be beneficial by several mechanisms.
First, it maintains an elevated PEEP, therefore increasing mean airway pressure and,
as a consequence, oxygenation. Secondly, in patients with CHF, as positive pressure
is delivered, intrathoracic pressure increases. As a result, preload decreases, thereby
reducing lung edema while decreasing afterload and promoting an increase in
cardiac output. CPAP is the equivalent of EPAP in BiPAP. As discussed earlier, a
starting point of 5 cm H2O of CPAP may be adequate if the patient’s saturation and
work of breathing improve, although more typically a pressure of 8–10 cm H2O
may be required.
C. Pharmacologic Adjuncts
Many diseases that cause ARF produce similar anatomic and physiologic
derangements, including bronchial inflammation, mucosal edema, smooth muscle
contraction, and increased mucus production and viscosity. Each of these processes
may contribute to obstruction of airway gas flow, increased airway resistance,
mismatch, and elevated VD. Some pharmacologic agents may be helpful in the care
of such patients and may directly alter shunt or dead-space effects.
1. β2-Agonists
Inhaled β2-agonists are important therapy in patients with ARF secondary to many
causes. Stimulation of β2-adrenergic receptors causes bronchial and vascular
smooth-muscle relaxation. These agents are typically administered by metered-dose
inhaler or by intermittent or continuous nebulization (Table 4-2). On rare occasions,
in very critically ill patients with obstructive airway disease, β2-agonists are
administered by both inhalation and subcutaneous injection. Long-acting inhaled
agents do not have a role in the management of patients with acute respiratory
failure. Racemic epinephrine aerosol is an established therapy for upper airway
obstruction in children with croup and is also used for laryngeal edema in adults.
2. Anticholinergic Agents
Ipratropium bromide competes with acetylcholine at the bronchial receptor site,
resulting in bronchial smooth-muscle relaxation. This agent is delivered by metered-
dose inhaler or nebulization (Table 4-6). Ipratropium has a more delayed onset of
action than β2-agonists and has more consistent bronchodilatory effects in COPD
than in asthma. The addition of ipratropium to albuterol appears to have an additive
benefit in approximately 30% of patients with asthma. Tiotropium is a long-acting
anticholinergic bronchodilator that has sustained effects in patients with COPD;
however, its use in acute exacerbations is not recommended.
Table 4-6 Pharmacologic Agents for Obstructive Airway Disease

Drug Preparation Route of Dosage
Administration
Albuterol 0.05% solution Inhaled Adult: 2.5–5 mg q 2–4 ha
(aerosol) Pediatric: 0.05–0.15 mg/kg q 4–6 ha
MDI (90 µg/puff) Inhaled Adult: 1–2 puffs q 2–4 ha
Pediatric: 1–2 puffs q 4–6 ha
Levalbuterol 0.31, 0.63, or Inhaled Adult and children ≥12 y: 0.63–1.25
1.23 mg/unit (aerosol) mg q 6–8 h
dose solution Pediatric (6–11 y): 0.31–0.63 mg q 6–8
h; more aggressive dosing may be
used in acute exacerbations
MDI (45 µg/puff) Inhaled Adult: 1–2 puffs q 4–6 h
Pediatric (age ≥4 y):1–2 puffs q 4–6 h
Metaproterenol 5% solution Inhaled Adult: 0.3 mL q 2–4 ha
Sulfate (aerosol) Pediatric: 0.25–0.5 mg/kg q 2–4 ha
MDI (0.65 Inhaled Adult: 2–3 puffs q 4–6 ha
µg/puff) Pediatric: 1–3 puffs q 4–6 ha
Terbutaline MDI (0.2 Inhaled Adult: 1–2 puffs q 4–6 ha
µg/puff) Pediatric: 1–2 puffs q 4–6 ha
0.1% solution Subcutaneous Adult: 0.2–0.4 mL; repeat in 15–30 min
Pediatric: 0.2 mg/kg; maximum 6 mg
Epinephrine 1 mg/mL Subcutaneous Adult: 0.1–0.5 mg; repeat in 20–30 min
(1:1000) Pediatric: 0.01 mg/kg
Inhaled Epinephrine 1 mg/mL Inhaled Adult: 2.5-5 mL q 3 h
(1:1000) Pediatric: >4 y: 2.5-5 mL q 3 h; <4 y:
2.5 mL q 3 h
Ipratropium 0.025% solution Inhaled Adult: 500 µg q 6–8 h;
(aerosol) Pediatric: Infant and child: 250 µg q 6–
8 h: >12 y: 250–500 µg q 6–8 h
MDI (18 µg/puff) Inhaled Adult: 2–4 puffs q 6 h
Pediatric: 1–2 puffs q 8 h
Abbreviations: q, every; MDI, metered-dose inhaler; NS, normal saline

aIn patients with severe asthma, frequency of administration of inhaled β-agonists should be guided
by response to therapy and risk for adverse effects. Therapy is routinely initiated with three treatments
every 20 minutes. Further therapy adjustments are then based on response. Continuous nebulization
may also be employed. Caution should be exercised when considering use of continuous nebulized
β2-agonists, particularly in older patients and those with underlying cardiac disease.
3. Corticosteroids
Providing corticosteroid therapy has a clear benefit for critically ill patients with
respiratory failure who are at risk of an exacerbation of asthma or COPD. Although
the central role of inflammation in obstructive airway disease is well established,
corticosteroids may also decrease β-receptor tachyphylaxis. Intravenous and oral
routes are equal in efficacy. Limited consensus exists on dosing schedules in
asthma. Doses of methylprednisolone of 80 mg/24 h have been as effective as > 360
mg/24 h. Some clinicians use doses equivalent to those given for asthma when
treating COPD, whereas others begin with doses equivalent to 1 mg/kg/24 h,
adjusting as patient response dictates. Careful monitoring of corticosteroid adverse
effects is warranted. Acute myopathies have been described after the administration
of moderate to high dosages of corticosteroids in patients with COPD and/or
asthma. After the acute exacerbation, inhaled corticosteroids are often useful
adjuncts to therapy and may allow a reduction in systemic corticosteroid dosage.
However, routine use of inhalational agents is not recommended in the setting of
acute severe bronchospasm. In ARDS, the use of corticosteroids is not well
understood, but may have some benefit in the late phase, between 7 and 13 days
after onset.
4. Antibiotics
Bacterial infection (bronchitis/pneumonia) frequently precipitates ARF. Antibiotics
should be used when there is clinical suspicion that a bacterial respiratory infection
is present (eg, change in sputum characteristics, pulmonary infiltrates on the chest
radiograph, fever, leukocytosis), and they should be chosen to effectively treat the
usual pathogens (Chapter 11). Therapy should be subsequently adjusted when
culture and sensitivity data become available.
Several randomized trials have compared clinical outcomes in patients hospitalized
with acute exacerbation of COPD and have shown antibiotic treatment has been
associated with a decreased risk of adverse outcomes. When the decision is made to
use antibiotics, it is important to distinguish a simple from a complicated case of
acute exacerbation of COPD and a 5-day course is usually recommended.
D. Miscellaneous Agent and Treatments
Agents to hydrate or otherwise alter the composition, elasticity, or viscosity of

mucus have been used, although their efficacy has not been consistently
demonstrated except in selected patient groups (eg, patients with cystic fibrosis).
Examples of these agents include mucolytics such as acetylcysteine or propylene
glycol, bronchorrheic agents such as saturated solution of potassium iodide or
glyceryl guaiacolate, and alkalinizing agents such as aerosolized sodium
bicarbonate.
Postural drainage, chest physical therapy, nasotracheal suctioning, incentive
spirometry, intermittent positive pressure breathing, and cough/deep-breathing
exercises have long been used. Also available are newer measures such as positive
expiratory pressure therapy, vest devices (high-frequency chest oscillator), and
mattress percussion devices. Many of these modalities may be applied to treat
specific symptoms of ARF or the cause of respiratory failure. The effectiveness and
positive impact of the contributions of the bedside nurse or the respiratory care
practitioner and the avoidance of intubation/mechanical ventilation should not be
underestimated.
Key Points: Diagnosis and Management of Acute Respiratory
Failure
Acute respiratory failure is classified as hypoxemic, hypercapnic, or mixed.
Arterial blood gas measurements are the primary assessment tool for
determining this classification.
The most common pathophysiologic mechanism for hypoxemic acute
respiratory failure is ventilation/perfusion mismatch.
Acute hypercapnic respiratory failure is primarily the result of a change in one
or more determinants of the alveolar minute ventilation equation: tidal volume,
respiratory frequency, and physiologic dead space.
Oxygen supplementation is commonly used to treat hypoxemia. The oxygen
supply device that is chosen must be capable of matching the oxygen and
respiratory flow demands of the patient.
Pharmacologic and therapeutic adjuncts should be considered when treating
patients with acute respiratory failure.
Suggested Readings
1. Cannon J, Colombo C, Pamplin J, et al. Joint Trauma System Clinical Practice

Guideline. Acute Respiratory Failure. U.S. Army Institute of Surgical
Research. Publication date January 23, 2017.
https://jts.amedd.army.mil/assets/docs/cpgs/JTS_Clinical_Practice_Guidelines
_(CPGs)/Acute_Respiratory_Failure_23_Jan_2017_ID06.pdf. Accessed
January 30, 2019.
2. Chiumello D, Brochard L, Marini J, et al. Respiratory support in patients with
acute respiratory distress syndrome: an expert opinion. Crit Care.
2017;21(240):1-8.
3. Dolovich MB, Ahrens RC, Hess DR, et al. Device selection and outcomes of
aerosol therapy: Evidence-based guidelines: American College of Chest
Physicians/American College of Asthma, Allergy and Immunology. Chest.
2005;127(1):335-371.
4. Lodeserto FJ, Lettich TM, Rezaie SR. High-flow Nasal Cannula: Mechanisms
of Action and Adult and Pediatric Indications. Cureus. 2018;10(11):e3639.
Published 2018 Nov 26. doi:10.7759/cureus.3639
5. Manser R, Reid D, Abramson M. Corticosteroids for acute severe asthma in
hospitalized patients. Cochrane Database Syst Rev. 2001;(1):CD001740.
doi:10.1002/14651858. CD001740.
6. Marino PL. The ICU Book. 4th ed. Philadelphia, PA: Wolters Kluwer Health;
2014:391-464 and 487-586.
7. Pontoppidan H, Geffin B, Lowenstein E. Acute respiratory failure in the adult:
1. N Engl J Med. 1972;287:690-698.
2. N Engl J Med. 1972;287:743-752.
3. N Engl J Med. 1972;287:799-806.
10. Rochwerg B, Brochard L, Elliott MW, et al. Official ERS/ATS clinical practice
guidelines: noninvasive ventilation for acute respiratory failure. Eur Respir J.
2017;50:1602426 [https://doi. org/10.1183/13993003.02426-2016].
11. Spinelli E, Mauri T, Beitler J, Pesenti A, Brodie D. Respiratory drive in the
acute respiratory distress syndrome: pathophysiology, monitoring, and
therapeutic interventions. Intensive Care Medicine. 2020;46(4):606-618.
12. Sponsler K, Markly D, Labrin J. What is the appropriate use of antibiotics in
AECOPD. The Hospitalist. 2012 Jan 26. http://the-
hospitalist.org/issue/january-2012.
Chapter 5
MECHANICAL VENTILATION
Objectives
Discuss the indications and techniques for noninvasive positive

pressure ventilation.
Describe the clinical parameters that should be reviewed to decide
whether the patient is failing to respond to noninvasive methods and
requires invasive mechanical ventilation.
Describe the characteristics of different types of breaths and modes of
Outline ventilator settings and monitoring needs for the initiation of
Describe interactions between ventilatory parameters and
modifications needed to avoid harmful effects of mechanical
ventilation.
Review the guidelines for initial ventilator management that apply to
specific clinical situations.
Case Study
A 67-year-old woman with severe chronic obstructive pulmonary disease

presents to the hospital and reports an upper respiratory tract illness and
increasing shortness of breath of 2 days’ duration. She has been using her
home nebulizers without relief. Her vital signs show a blood pressure of
140/90 mm Hg, heart rate of 122 beats/min, respirations of 32 breaths/min,
and a temperature of 37.2°C (99.0°F). Physical examination is remarkable
for use of accessory muscles of respiration and diffuse wheezing bilaterally.
She is alert but unable to speak in full sentences. An arterial blood gas
analysis demonstrates a pH of 7.49, Pco2 of 29 mm Hg, and a Po2 of 48 mm
Hg. Bronchodilator therapy is started, and the woman is given IV steroids.
– What type of respiratory support should be initiated?
– What settings should be selected for respiratory support?
– What are the goals of respiratory support?
I. INTRODUCTION
When hypoxic or hypercapnic respiratory failure cannot be treated by other
means, as discussed in Chapter4, advanced support with positive pressure
ventilation may be needed. A ventilator is a device used to assist or replace
the work of the respiratory system. Positive pressure ventilation can be
delivered noninvasively via a mask or helmet or invasively via an
endotracheal tube or tracheostomy. Generally accepted indications for
initiating positive pressure ventilatory support are summarized in Table 5-1.
Table 5-1 Indications for Positive Pressure Ventilatory Support

Ventilation Respiratory muscle dysfunction
abnormalities Respiratory muscle fatigue
Chest wall abnormalities
Neuromuscular disease
Decreased ventilatory drive

Increased airway resistance and/or obstruction
Oxygenation Refractory hypoxemia

abnormalities
Need for positive end-expiratory pressure
Work of breathing Need for decreased work of breathing
alterations Shock
Respiratory muscle fatigue
Severe acidosis
Need for sedation and/or neuromuscular blockade

Need to decrease systemic or myocardial oxygen consumption
Use of hyperventilation to reduce intracranial pressure
Facilitation of alveolar recruitment and prevention of atelectasis
II. NONINVASIVE POSITIVE PRESSURE VENTILATION
A. What Is Noninvasive Positive Pressure Ventilation?

Noninvasive positive pressure ventilation (NPPV) refers to a form of
mechanical ventilation that provides respiratory assistance without an
invasive artificial airway. The potential beneficial effects of NPPV are
similar to those of invasive mechanical ventilation and include decreased
work of breathing, improved oxygenation, and improved gas exchange. In
addition, this type of ventilation avoids many of the complications
associated with intubation and invasive mechanical ventilation. Potential
advantages and disadvantages of NPPV are listed in Table 5-2.
Table 5-2 Advantages and Disadvantages of Noninvasive Positive

Pressure Ventilation
Advantages Disadvantages
Reduced need for sedation Claustrophobia

Preservation of airway-protective Increased workload for respiratory
reflexes practitioner
Avoidance of upper airway trauma Facial/nasal pressure lesions
Decreased incidence of nosocomial Unprotected airway and pneumonia
sinusitis
Improved patient comfort Inability to suction deep airway
Shorter length of stay in ICU and Gastric distension with use of face
hospital mask or helmet
Improved survival Possible upper-extremity edema,
axillary vein thrombosis, tympanic
membrane dysfunction, and
intrahelmet noise with use of helmet
Delay in intubation
B. How Does NPPV Work?
NPPV uses two levels of positive airway pressure, combining the

modalities of pressure support ventilation (PSV) and continuous positive
airway pressure (CPAP) (discussed later). By convention, the PSV modality
is referred to as IPAP (inspiratory positive airway pressure), and the CPAP
modality is referred to as EPAP (expiratory positive airway pressure). CPAP
alone can also be delivered noninvasively but does not provide support of
ventilation. CPAP allows spontaneous breathing from a gas source at an
elevated baseline system pressure (higher than atmospheric pressure) and is
functionally equivalent to positive end-expiratory pressure (PEEP). The
difference between these two pressure levels (ΔP) determines tidal volume
generated. NPPV can be delivered using a standard ICU ventilator or a
portable device. The benefits of using an ICU ventilator include delivery of
a more precise and higher concentration of oxygen, the separation of
inspiratory and expiratory tubing to prevent rebreathing CO2, better
monitoring and alarm features, and improved detection of air leaks. Alarm
setups may need to be altered on standard ventilators because the alarms are
typically triggered by exhalation, and noninvasive ventilation inherently has
more gas leakage compared with ventilation via an endotracheal tube.
Ventilators specifically designed to provide patient-triggered noninvasive
pressure support or patient-triggered volume-cycled breaths are optimal.
C. What Types of Interfaces Are Available?

The ventilator connects to a tightly fitted face mask, nasal mask, nasal
plugs, or a helmet (Figure 5-1). Many patients with acute respiratory failure
are mouth breathers, so the face mask is preferred because it is associated
with smaller leaks than the nasal plugs and nasal mask. The nasal passages
may offer significant resistance to airflow, limiting the benefits of NPPV.
Some gas leakage is anticipated with both masks and can be compensated
for by increasing pressure settings or increasing the set tidal volume (VT)
level. When a nasal mask is used, the patient’s mouth should be kept closed
or chin straps should be employed to reduce leakage.
Figure 5-1. Devices for Delivery of Noninvasive Positive Pressure Ventilation
Examples of noninvasive positive pressure ventilation delivery devices: A, face mask; B,

total face mask; C, nasal mask with chin strap; and D, helmet.
The use of the helmet as an interface for the NPPV device has been
increasing recently. The levels of PEEP that can be delivered through the
helmet can be higher than those that can be obtained with other interfaces or
with a high-flow nasal cannula. Benefits of the helmet include comfort,
where the patient can move more freely, or the ability to partially preserve
some intake, like drinking through a straw if needed. In addition, less skin
injury and lacerations are noted. Assessing the tidal volume is usually
difficult when using a helmet because of varying distention. Disadvantages
could include noise, accumulation of CO2 in the helmet, and desynchrony
between the patient and the ventilator because of less sensitivity of
triggering.
D. Which Patients Benefit From NPPV?

Before NPPV is initiated, patient characteristics and the potential for
successfully treating the underlying respiratory condition should be
evaluated. Table 5-3 lists conditions leading to respiratory failure that are
likely to improve with use of NPPV. Of these, acute exacerbations of
chronic obstructive pulmonary disease and cardiogenic pulmonary edema
are the two conditions best studied and they have accepted indications for
the application of NPPV. An approach to initiating NPPV after appropriate
patient evaluation is outlined in Table 5-4. NPPV is best used in the alert,
cooperative patient whose respiratory condition is expected to improve in
24 to 48 hours. Potential candidates should be hemodynamically stable,
able to control airway secretions, and able to synchronize with the
ventilator. If a provider skilled in the application of NPPV is not available,
if the patient is too sick for this support, or if NPPV has failed to benefit the
patient, it is critical to move quickly to invasive mechanical ventilation.
Respiratory Conditions Likely to Respond to Noninvasive

Table 5-3
Positive Pressure Ventilation
Hypoxemic Respiratory Failure
Cardiogenic pulmonary edema without hemodynamic instability

Respiratory failure in patients with mild to moderate Pneumocystis pneumonia
Respiratory failure in immunocompromised patients (especially in hematologic
malignancies and transplant patients)
Respiratory failure of likely reversible cause within 48–72 hours
Hypercapnic Respiratory Failure
Acute exacerbation of chronic obstructive pulmonary disease

Acute exacerbation of asthma
Respiratory failure in patients with cystic fibrosis
Table 5-4 Initiation of Noninvasive Positive Pressure Ventilation
Do not delay intubation if needed and keep in mind the patient’s resuscitation status.
Consider ABG analysis prior to initiation.
Explain the procedure.
Keep head of bed at ≥45°.
Ensure appropriate mask or helmet size.
Assess the patient’s tolerance of the mask by applying it by hand before securing the
harness.
Use the following initial ventilator settings:
Mode: Spontaneous
Trigger: Maximum sensitivity
FIO2: 1.00
EPAP: 4-5 cm H2O (higher levels are poorly tolerated initially)
IPAP: 10-15 cm H2O
Backup rate: Start at 6/min
Adjust the difference between EPAP and IPAP to achieve and effective VT and CO2
clearance. Adjust EPAP for alveolar recruitment in increments of 2 cm H2O per step
to improve oxygenation. Depending on the ventilator, a similar increase in IPAP may
be required to maintain the same VT. The VT will be identified on the NPPV machine
with each breath the patient takes.
If assist-control volume ventilation is used, begin with a VT of 6 to 8 mL/kg
(depending on the underlying pulmonary condition).
Titrate pressures, volume, and FIO2 to achieve appropriate pH, PaO2, and PaCO2 levels.
Ventilator changes can be made every 15 to 30 minutes.
Follow vital signs, pulse oximetry, mental status, clinical appearance, and ABG (if
indicated).
Remember that goals of NPPV may include a respiratory rate <30 breaths/min, VT
>6-8 mL/kg of predicted body weight, improved gas exchange, and patient comfort.
It is also important to be cognizant that IPAP > 20 cm H2O may lead to gastric
distension.
Abbreviations: ABG, arterial blood gas; EPAP, expiratory positive airway pressure; IPAP,
inspiratory positive airway pressure; NPPV, noninvasive positive pressure ventilation; VY,
tidal volume
E. Which Patients Should Not Receive Noninvasive Mechanical

Ventilation?
In general, NPPV should not be initiated in the following circumstances:
uncooperative patients; patients with difficulty clearing secretions, recurrent
emesis, or post-cardiac or respiratory arrest; and patients with
hemodynamic instability. A more detailed list of contraindications for the
use of NPPV is presented in Table 5-5.
Contraindications to Use of Noninvasive Positive Pressure

Table 5-5
Ventilation
Cardiac or respiratory arrest

Hemodynamic instability
Myocardial ischemia or arrhythmias
Patient who is unable to cooperate
Inability to protect the airway
High risk for aspiration
Active upper gastrointestinal hemorrhage
Severe hypoxemia
Severe encephalopathy
Facial trauma, recent surgery, and/or burns
Significant agitation
F. How Are Patients Monitored on NPPV?
Avoid inspiratory pressures greater

than 20 cm H2O because gastric
distension can occur.
Patients receiving NPPV must be monitored closely in a proper setting, and

continuous pulse oximetry and cardiac monitoring are suggested. Close
clinical follow-up assessments are required, including evaluations of the
pH, Pao2, and Paco2. Consider transition to invasive ventilation when a clear
trend toward improvement has not been observed over the first 1 or 2 hours,
or when the therapeutic goals have not been achieved within the first 4 to 6
hours. Sedation should be used cautiously and with adequate monitoring
when NPPV is initiated. Additional measures that may be considered
include application of a protective nose and mouth patch to protect any
pressure injuries and gastric decompression if a face mask or helmet is
used. Oral intake should be restricted until the patient has stabilized and
intubation is no longer a consideration. An algorithm for assessing NPPV is
presented in Figure 5-2.
Figure 5-2. Assessment of Noninvasive Positive Pressure Ventilation
Abbreviations: ARF, acute respiratory failure; NPPV, noninvasive positive pressure

ventilation
Case Study (continued)
Noninvasive positive pressure ventilation is initiated. Two hours after

initiation, the patient exhibits persistent marked accessory muscle use and
altered mental status. Vitals signs now show a heart rate of 130 beats/min,
blood pressure of 160/90 mm Hg, respiratory rate of 32 breaths/min, and
temperature of 36.6°C (98°F). Arterial blood gas demonstrates a pH of
7.27, Pco2 of 60 mm Hg, and Po2 of 90 mm Hg. Patient is now somnolent.
– Should this patient be intubated and invasive mechanical ventilation

initiated?
– What are the initial settings on invasive mechanical ventilation?
– How should patients on invasive mechanical ventilation be monitored?
III. DECISION TO INTUBATE

The decision to initiate invasive mechanical ventilation is a crucial and
time-sensitive one. Delay in intubation, inability to identify a difficult
airway, and inability to anticipate possible hemodynamic consequences of
intubation can reduce the likelihood of good patient outcomes. In general,
consideration of three quick bedside questions can help facilitate a prompt
decision to proceed with invasive mechanical ventilation, especially when
transitioning from noninvasive ventilation.
Is there failure in airway maintenance or protection (eg, inability to

handle secretions)?
Is there failure to achieve desired goals with current respiratory
support (oxygenation, ventilation, or work of breathing)?
Is the illness anticipated to worsen in the next 24 to 48 hours?
IV. INVASIVE MECHANICAL VENTILATION

Mechanical ventilation via an endotracheal tube is commonly used to
support critically ill patients. It is a definitive intervention with the goal of
obtaining acceptable oxygenation and ventilation with a secure airway.
Each mechanical ventilation respiratory cycle can be divided into two
phases: inspiration and expiration (Figure 5-3A).
A. Triggering (A) signals the transition from expiration to inspiration; (B)
end inspiratory flow; cycling (C) indicates the transition from inspiration to
expiration. Total respiratory cycle (ABCD), inspiration (ABC), and
expiration (CD).
B. Start of inspiration (A), start of expiration (B), inspiration (AB),
expiration (BC), and total respiratory cycle (ABC)
The respiratory cycle is the time from the initiation of one breath until the
initiation of the next breath. Triggering (A) signals the transition from
expiration to inspiration; cycling (C) indicates the transition from
inspiration to expiration. Other components of the total respiratory cycle
(ABCD) include inspiratory pause (BC), inspiration (ABC), and expiration
(CD). Spontaneous breaths do not include an inspiratory pause. The
spontaneous respiratory cycle (ACD) is demonstrated in Figure 5-3B.
Figure 5-3. Respiratory Cycle During Mechanical Ventilation and Spontaneous Breathing
Inspiration is the point at which the exhalation valve closes and fresh gas
under pressure from the ventilator enters the chest. The amount of gas
delivered during inspiration is determined by any of three targets that can be
set on the ventilator: volume, pressure, and/or flow.
Cycling is the changeover from the end of inspiration to the expiratory
phase. It occurs in response to one of three parameters: elapsed time,
delivered volume, or a decrease in flow rate. During expiration, the
ventilator gas flow is stopped, and the exhalation circuit is opened to allow
gas to escape passively from the lungs. Expiration continues until the next
inspiration begins.
Triggering is the changeover from expiration to inspiration. Triggering a
ventilator-delivered breath depends on the patient’s interaction with the
ventilator:
Assisted breath: The patient initiates a breath, and this inspiratory

effort produces a drop in airway pressures or a diversion of constant
gas flow in the ventilator circuitry. A signal triggers the ventilator to
deliver a breath. This is an example of partial ventilator control.
Unassisted, mandatory, or controlled breath: In the absence of patient
interaction with the ventilator, breaths are delivered based on elapsed
time (eg, at a set rate of 10 breaths/min and no detection of patient
effort, the ventilator will be triggered every 6 seconds). This is an
example of full ventilator control.
Spontaneous breaths (no ventilator assistance) are also possible in

synchronized intermittent mandatory ventilation (SIMV) and bilevel
ventilation. The most common ventilator breaths are described later. CPAP
allows spontaneous breathing at a higher baseline pressure.
V. TYPES OF TARGETED/CYCLED BREATHS
A. Volume-Cycled Breath
A volume-cycled breath, often called volume assist-control breath, ensures

the delivery of a preset tidal volume (unless the peak pressure limit is
exceeded). On most ventilators, the setting of peak inspiratory flow rate and
the choice of inspiratory flow waveform (square, sine, or decelerating)
determine the length of inspiration. Some ventilators change the peak
inspiratory flow rate to maintain constant inspiratory time on switching
between a constant flow (square) and decelerating flow (ramp) waveforms.
With volume-cycled breaths, worsening airway resistance or lung/chest-
wall compliance results in increases in peak inspiratory pressure to maintain
the set tidal volume (unless the peak pressure limit is exceeded and the
ventilator will discontinue the remainder of the breath to avoid excessively
high inspiratory pressures).
B. Time-Cycled Breath
A time-cycled breath, often called pressure assist-control breath, applies a
constant pressure for a preset time. The application of pressure throughout
inspiration results in a square (constant) pressure-over-time waveform
during inspiration and a decelerating inspiratory flow waveform as the
pressure gradient falls between the ventilator and the patient (since pressure
rises as the lung fills). Flow in this breath format is variable and this leads
to variable tidal volume depending on lung compliance. Flow depends on
the resistance of the lung, the compliance of the lung, and patient effort.
With this type of breath, changes in airway resistance or lung/chest-wall
compliance will alter tidal volume (ie, worsening of airway resistance or
lung compliance results in a decrease in tidal volume).
C. Flow-Cycled Breath
A flow-cycled breath, usually called a pressure support breath, is a
spontaneous mode of ventilation. The patient initiates every breath and the
ventilator delivers support with the preset pressure value. With this support,
the patient self-regulates the respiratory rate and tidal volume. The set
inspiratory pressure support level is kept constant with a decelerating flow.
The patient triggers all breaths. A change in the mechanical properties of
the lung/thorax and/or patient effort affects the delivered tidal volume. The
pressure support level must be regulated to obtain the desired ventilation.
Pressure support breaths are terminated when the flow rate decreases to a
predetermined percentage of the initial peak flow rate (typically 25%). As
the patient’s inspiratory effort decreases, the flow decreases, marking the
proximity of the end of inspiration.
VI. MODES OF MECHANICAL VENTILATION

The mode of ventilation describes how one or more types of ventilator
breaths interface with the patient to provide ventilatory support. When
mechanical ventilation is initiated, the optimum ventilatory support for a
given clinical circumstance and the specific needs of the patient must be
determined. Commonly used modes of ventilation include assist-control
(AC) ventilation, SIMV, and PSV. The various modes are achieved by using
some combination of the three types of ventilator breaths and may be
combined with the application of PEEP.
A. Assist-Control Ventilation
AC ventilation can be delivered with either volume-cycled (volume assist-

control) or time-cycled (pressure assist-control) breaths. We will emphasize
volume control because it is the most commonly used mode.
In volume AC, the preset VT is guaranteed at a preset flow rate and with a
set minimum respiratory rate. The patient can initiate breaths and trigger the
ventilator, and the ventilator will assist to achieve the preset VT delivered at
the preset flow. Thus, patients receive the minimum number of ventilator
breaths (set rate), but the total number of breaths is higher if the patient
triggers the ventilator with additional inspiratory efforts.
With proper use of AC, the work of breathing may be significantly
decreased. However, if the ventilator and the patient are not in synchrony or
if the ventilator inspiratory flow rates are not matched to the patient’s
demand, this mode may result in an increase in the patient’s work of
breathing.
The total number of breaths during AC ventilation may be higher than the
minimum set rate, based on the patient’s respiratory drive and ability to
trigger the ventilator. This mode has also been called continuous mandatory
ventilation (CMV). However, CMV more accurately represents a situation
in which the patient does not trigger additional breaths (ie, absent
respiratory drive, as when the patient is paralyzed [discussed next]).
The other breath type of AC is pressure control. Pressure and inspiration
time are set, allowing the breath to be delivered at a certain rate per minute.
In pressure control, the set pressure is the controlling parameter and time is
the signal that ends the inspiration. The delivered tidal volume is
determined by these set parameters and the compliance of the lungs. The
flow is determined by the set pressure, the inspiratory:expiratory ratio (I:E
ratio), lung resistance and compliance, and the patient’s efforts. As the
patient’s compliance decreases or resistance increases, the tidal volume will
decrease. If compliance increases or resistance decreases, then tidal volume
will increase.
B. Pressure Support Ventilation

PSV provides a preset level of inspiratory pressure assist with each
ventilator-detected patient effort. This inspiratory assist is selected to
overcome the increased work of breathing imposed by the disease process,
endotracheal tube, inspiratory valves, and other mechanical aspects of
ventilatory support. The set amount of pressure that is applied augments
each patient-triggered breath. All breaths are flow cycled (usually, the assist
will decelerate when flow falls < 25% of the initial flow rate generated by
the patient-initiated breath). The patient controls the respiratory rate and
exerts a strong influence on the duration of inspiration, flow rate, and VT. In
addition, the delivered VT is influenced by pulmonary compliance and
resistance. Rapid changes in these parameters potentially alter the VT and
work of breathing. PSV may be coupled with SIMV (see next section),
primarily as a means to diminish excess work of breathing for spontaneous
breaths occurring between mandatory breaths.
PSV augments the patient’s own

respiratory effort and is best
adjusted by observing changes in
the patient’s respiratory rate, VT,
and comfort.
The amount of pressure support is titrated according to the patient’s VT

measured by the ventilator during expiration. Suggested parameters include
a setting that achieves one or more of the following goals:
A VT of 6 to 8 mL/kg, depending on patient needs

A slowing of spontaneous breathing rate to an acceptable range (< 30
breaths/min)
The desired minute ventilation
Appropriate apnea alarms and a backup ventilation setting are essential.
Potential benefits of PSV include the comfort and tolerance this ventilatory
mode offers some patients. In addition, PSV may reduce the work of
breathing by diminishing patient-ventilator asynchrony. Typically, as
pressure support is increased in patients with lung disease, the patient’s
work of breathing and respiratory rate decrease and VT increases. With
PSV, an endotracheal tube cuff leak may interfere with appropriate cycling
because flow may never drop to the preset threshold for cycling (ie, 25% of
the peak flow rate).
C. Synchronized Intermittent Mandatory Ventilation
SIMV delivers either volume-cycled or time-cycled breaths at a preset

mandatory rate. Volume cycling is most commonly used for the mandatory
breaths. This type of ventilation may not be suited for the critically ill
patient who requires a set VT to be delivered with every breath and are fully
dependent on the ventilator support. Breaths may be triggered by the patient
or by the time elapsed. If the patient-initiated breath falls within a certain
period of time before the onset of the mandatory breath, the ventilator
synchronizes its support by delivering the mandatory breath early, thus
essentially converting a controlled breath to an assisted one. The number of
breaths that will be synchronized in this fashion is the preset (mandatory)
rate. When no effort is detected, the ventilator delivers the preset VT at the
preset (time-elapsed) rate. When the patient initiates breaths over the set
mandatory rate spontaneously, these breaths are usually supported by the
ventilator (assisted breaths) with the addition of pressure support. Notice
the difference from assist control—volume control ventilation, in which
each breath (patient- or ventilator-initiated) had the same guaranteed VT.
In SIMV, the addition of pressure support to these spontaneous patient-
initiated breaths is recommended, using a value that offsets the resistance of
the endotracheal tube. Synchronization allows for enhanced patient-
ventilator synchrony by delivering the preset machine breaths in
conjunction with the patient’s inspiratory effort for each mandatory breath.
It is recommended that PSV be used
in conjunction with SIMV to
decrease the patient’s work of
breathing during spontaneous
breaths.
The SIMV mode allows patients to contribute to and determine a portion of

their ventilatory requirement. The negative inspiratory pressure generated
by spontaneous breathing may lead to increased venous return to the right
side of the heart, which may improve cardiac output and cardiovascular
function. When no pressure support is added, potential increases in work of
breathing may delay weaning from mechanical ventilation.
D. Controlled Mechanical Ventilation
CMV delivers unassisted ventilator breaths at a preset rate. All breaths are
mandatory and are either volume-cycled or time-cycled. No additional
spontaneous assisted breaths are initiated beyond the set number of
controlled breaths. Current ventilators do not allow direct setting of CMV,
and this mode can be achieved only in patients who are not capable of
spontaneous respiratory effort, such as those who are heavily sedated or
receiving neuromuscular blockade during surgery under anesthesia.
Do not confuse the CMV (assist-

control) setting on modern
ventilators for controlled
mechanical ventilations.
E. CPAP and Weaning
CPAP is seldom used as initial support for acute respiratory failure in a

patient who is intubated and is not considered a mode of mechanical
ventilation. Here continuous positive pressure is applied throughout the
respiratory cycle with the patient breathing spontaneously around the
applied pressure. Therefore, respiratory rate and VT depend entirely on the
patient’s inspiratory effort (without help from the ventilator) as the patient
inspires against the resistance of the endotracheal tube. CPAP with low
levels of pressure support (typically 5–7 cm of water) may be used for
weaning during the final stages of invasive ventilation when patients are
being assessed for their potential readiness for extubation.
Airway pressure and flow tracings of spontaneous respiration, CPAP, and
the different modes of mechanical ventilation are illustrated in Figure 5-4.
Figure 5-4. Airway Pressure and Flow Tracings
The advantages and disadvantages of the various modes of invasive
mechanical ventilation are summarized in Table 5-6. In choosing a mode of
ventilation, it is important to consider specific goals, the most important of
which are adequacy of ventilation and oxygenation, reduction in the work
of breathing, and the assurance of patient comfort and synchrony with the
ventilator.
Potential Advantages and Disadvantages of Selected

Table 5-6
Modes of Mechanical Ventilation
Mode Advantages Disadvantages
AC volume
ventilation Reduced work of Excessive inspiratory
breathing pressures
Ensures minimum Barotrauma
minute ventilation Auto-PEEP
Comfortable respiratory Respiratory alkalosis
pattern
AC pressure
ventilation Variable flow rates Variable VT
Limits pressure
Pressure support
ventilation Patient comfort Apnea alarm may not
trigger backup ventilation
improved patient- mode
ventilator interaction ET cuff leak can affect
Decreased work of cycling
breathing Requires spontaneous
Augmented patient breathing
breaths
Flow-cycled breaths
Synchronized
intermittent Volume or time-cycled Increased work of breathing
mandatory breaths compared with AC
ventilation Patient or time-elapsed Not a good mode for
initiation of breaths critically ill patients
Improved preload with Increased WOB if pressure
negative pressure support not set to assist
spontaneous respirations spontaneous breaths
Controlled
mechanical Rests muscles of Requires use of
ventilation respiration completely sedation/neuromuscular
Volume or time-cycled blockade
only Adverse hemodynamic
effects
Patient is unable to trigger
any spontaneous breaths
Abbreviations: AC, assist-control; ET, endotracheal; VT, tidal volume; WOB, work of
breathing
VII. CHOOSING A MODE AND INITIAL VENTILATOR

SETTINGS
Choosing a mode of mechanical ventilation depends on the reason it is
required and the underlying disease process. In general, AC is used as the
initial mode for a patient needing invasive mechanical ventilation.
When initiating ventilatory support in adults, a fraction of inspired oxygen
(Fio2) of 1.0 is used to ensure maximal amount of available oxygen during
the patient’s adjustment to the ventilator and during the initial attempts to
stabilize the patient’s condition. In addition, the high level of oxygen offers
support for complications that may have occurred before and during
intubation. The usual recommended VT level is 6 to 8 mL/kg of the
predicted body weight. Higher VT levels should be avoided to reduce the
possibility of lung injury. An appropriate respiratory rate should be set to
achieve the desired minute ventilation. Normal minute ventilation (VT ×
respiratory rate) is approximately 7 to 8 L/min, but certain conditions may
require levels that more than double this baseline. Minute ventilation should
be adjusted to produce the Paco2 level that allows an acceptable acid-base
(pH) status for the patient’s clinical condition. As a general rule, Fio2, mean
airway pressure, and PEEP affect the Pao2, whereas the respiratory rate,
dead space (VD), and VT affect alveolar minute ventilation and Paco2.
Although a normal or close to normal pH status may allow resumption of

optimal functioning of the cellular metabolism essential to the recovery of a
critically ill patient, in some circumstances (acute respiratory distress
syndrome and severe obstructive lung disease), the goals of mechanical
ventilation are not to normalize blood gases. Hypercapnia and respiratory
acidosis are tolerated in such situations to achieve goals such as minimizing
dynamic hyperinflation and avoiding ventilator-associated lung injury.
Hence, individual ventilator settings and their titration contribute to a
dynamic process that must be tailored to the patient’s changing needs.
Guidelines for the initiation of mechanical ventilation are listed in Table 5-
7.
To estimate predicted body weight
Males:
50 + 2.3 (height in inches –
60)
50 + 0.91 (height in cm –
152.4)
Females:
45.5 + 2.3 (height in inches –
60)
45.5 + 0.91 (height in cm –
152.4)
Table 5-7 Guidelines for the Initiation of Mechanical Ventilation
1. Choose the ventilator mode with which you are most familiar. The primary goals of
ventilatory support are adequate oxygenation/ventilation, reduced work of breathing,
synchrony between patient and ventilator, and avoidance of high end-inspiration
alveolar pressures.
2. The initial FIO2 should be 1.0. The FIO2 thereafter can be titrated downward to maintain
the Spo2 at 92% to 94%. In ARDS, Spo2 ≥88% may be acceptable to minimize
complications of mechanical ventilation.
3. Initial VT = 6 to 8 mL/kg in patients with relatively normal lung compliance. In patients
with poor lung compliance (eg, ARDS), a target VT of 4 to 6 mL/kg by PBW is
recommended to avoid overdistension and maintain an inspiratory plateau pressure
≤30 cm H2O.
4. Choose a respiratory rate and minute ventilation appropriate for the particular clinical
requirements. Target pH, not PaCO2.
5. Use PEEP in diffuse lung injury to maintain an open alveoli at end expiration. If
volume is held constant, PEEP may increase peak inspiratory plateau pressure, a
potentially undesirable effect in ARDS. PEEP levels >15 cm H2O are rarely
necessary
6. Set the trigger sensitivity to allow minimal patient effort to initiate inspiration. Beware
of auto cycling if the trigger setting is too sensitive.
7. In patients at risk of obstructive airway disease, avoid choosing ventilator settings
that limit expiratory time and cause or worsen auto-PEEP.
8. Call the critical care consultant or other appropriate consultant for assistance.
Abbreviations: ARDS, acute respiratory distress syndrome; PBW, predicted body weight;
PEEP, positive end-expiratory pressure; Spo2, oxyhemoglobin saturation as measured by
pulse oximetry; VT, tidal volume
VIII. CONTINUING CARE DURING MECHANICAL

VENTILATION
After mechanical ventilation has been initiated, the following parameters
should be assessed and titrated to achieve the desired goals. Many
important interrelationships exist among ventilator settings, and the
consequences of making any change must be appreciated. This
interdependency of parameters may lead to beneficial or harmful effects in
the respiratory and/or cardiovascular systems. Critical care consultation
should be obtained for continuing ventilator management.
A. Inspiratory Pressures
During positive pressure volume assist-control ventilation, airway pressure
rises progressively to a peak inspiratory pressure (Ppeak; Figure 5-5),
which is reached at end inspiration. The Ppeak is the sum of the pressure
required to overcome airway resistance and the pressure required to
overcome the elastic properties of the lung and chest wall. Ppeak,
sometimes referred to as peak airway pressure, is affected by many other
variables, such as the flow rate, diameter of the endotracheal tube,
secretions, and diminished bronchial diameter. When an inspiratory hold is
applied at the end of inspiration, gas flow ceases, all dynamic factors are
eliminated, and the pressure drops to a measurement called the inspiratory
plateau pressure (Pplat). The Pplat reflects the pressure required to
overcome the elastic recoil within the lung and chest wall and, contrary to
the Ppeak, is a static pressure. The Pplat is the best estimate of peak
alveolar pressure, which is an important indicator of alveolar distension.
Accurate measurement of Pplat requires the absence of any patient effort
and an inspiratory hold for a minimum of 0.5 seconds (usually 1 second).
Figure 5-5. Relationship of Peak Inspiratory Pressure and Inspiratory Plateau Pressure
Abbreviation: PEEP, positive end-expiratory pressure
Potential adverse effects from high inspiratory pressures include

barotrauma, volutrauma, and reduced cardiac output. Barotrauma
(pneumothorax, pneumomediastinum) and volutrauma (lung parenchymal
injury caused by overinflation), although linked to high Ppeak, correlate
best with Pplat. The relation of Ppeak and Pplat is illustrated in Figure 5-5.
This figure demonstrates airway pressure tracings for typical volume assist-
control ventilation under conditions of normal compliance and resistance,
increased airway resistance, and decreased respiratory system compliance.
As mentioned earlier, an example of the relationship of Ppeak and Pplat to
alveolar distension is demonstrated by the effect of endotracheal tube size
on Ppeak and Pplat. As the internal diameter of an endotracheal tube is
decreased in a patient receiving (fixed volume) ventilation, the same VT
will result in higher Ppeak, yet Pplat (obtained during inspiratory hold) and
alveolar distension remain unchanged as the pressure is dissipated across
the resistance of the endotracheal tube. The same VT, regardless of the type
of breath, produces the same alveolar distension at end inspiration. To avoid
injury in patients receiving mechanical ventilation, Pplat should be
maintained < 30 cm H2O. When compliance is decreased, both Ppeak and
Pplat rise for a fixed VT. As resistance is unchanged, the difference between
peak pressure and plateau pressure is not affected.
Elevated Pplat may be reduced by the following interventions:
Decrease PEEP, which may also decrease oxygenation and worsen

alveolar collapse (if PEEP is used to improve oxygenation and alveolar
stability).
Decrease VT, which may lead to hypercapnia because of a reduction in
minute ventilation.
Avoid and decrease auto-PEEP (see next section) with interventions
that prolong the expiratory time, understanding that this may lead to
hypercapnia.
B. Relation of Inspiratory Time to Expiratory Time and Auto-PEEP

If the expiratory time is too short to allow full exhalation, the previously
delivered breath is not completely expired and the next lung inflation is
superimposed on the residual gas in the lung. This results in lung
hyperinflation and PEEP above the preset level on the ventilator. This
increase in end-expiratory pressure is called auto-PEEP, or intrinsic,
inadvertent, or occult PEEP. Auto-PEEP can be quantified by using manual
methods or through electronic programs within some ventilators during an
expiratory hold maneuver. However, it is most easily diagnosed
qualitatively by viewing the flow-versus-time graphic waveform tracing
available on most mechanical ventilators because the expiratory flow fails
to reach the zero flow level before the initiation of the next breath (Figure
5-6). The potentially harmful physiologic effects of auto-PEEP on peak,
plateau, and mean airway pressures are the same as those of preset PEEP. In
addition, high levels of PEEP may decrease venous return to the heart,
resulting in hypotension and higher Pco2 because of increased dead space,
and adversely affect oxygenation (especially with asymmetric lung disease).
Figure 5-6. Flow-Time Waveform Demonstrating Auto-PEEP
Abbreviation: PEEP, positive end-expiratory pressure
Auto-PEEP may be reduced by the following interventions:
Decrease respiratory rate by changing the set rate or sedating the

patient. These interventions result in fewer inspirations per minute and
thus increase the total expiratory time available; this is the most
effective way of decreasing auto-PEEP.
Decrease VT, which requires less time to deliver a smaller breath and
allows more time for exhalation.
Increase flow rate, delivering the VT faster and allowing more time in
the cycle for exhalation. This intervention has little impact unless the
initial flow rate was set at an extremely low level. It will also lead to
an increase in the airway pressure.
Change the inspiratory waveform from decelerating (ramp) to constant
(square), which delivers VT in a shorter time, allowing more time for
exhalation.
As discussed previously, the first two interventions may lead to hypercapnia
because of a reduction in minute ventilation; however, the benefits of a
decrease in auto-PEEP despite the lower minute ventilation may lead to
little change in Paco2. When severe air trapping occurs, allowing sufficient
expiratory time may improve ventilation and CO2 removal. Hypercapnia
and a controlled reduction in pH (permissive hypercapnia) may be
acceptable in some clinical conditions but requires expert consultation. This
approach may not be suitable for patients with intracranial hypertension
because hypercapnia causes cerebral vasodilation and further increases in
the intracranial pressure.
C. Fio2
High levels of inspired oxygen may be harmful to lung parenchyma after

prolonged exposure. Although the precise threshold for concern is not
known, it is desirable to reduce the Fio2 to ≤ 0.5 (50% oxygen) within the
first 24 hours. However, hypoxemia is always considered a greater risk to
the patient than high Fio2 levels. The primary determinants of oxygenation
during mechanical ventilation are Fio2 and mean airway pressure. Other
minor determinants include VT, inspiratory-expiratory ratio, inspiratory
flow rate, PEEP, auto-PEEP, use of inspiratory pause, and the inspiratory
flow waveform pattern (volume breaths). In the patient with acute
respiratory distress syndrome (ARDS), PEEP becomes a major determinant
of mean airway pressure. The interrelationships of these various parameters,
as already demonstrated, often lead to complex adjustments within the
mechanical ventilation plan.
D. Minute Ventilation and Alveolar Minute Ventilation
Minute ventilation, defined as the amount of gas exchanged by an

individual in 1 minute, is calculated as the respiratory rate multiplied by
mean VT. The primary determinant of CO2 exchange during mechanical
ventilation is the alveolar minute ventilation, calculated as:
VA = (VT − VD)f
in which VD is dead space and f is the respiratory rate (Chapter4). The VT,
the respiratory rate, and their interrelationships with other ventilatory
parameters have already been discussed. Physiologic VD represents, in
general, lung units that are relatively well ventilated but under-perfused.
The physiologic effect of high amounts of VD is hypercapnia (impaired CO2
clearance). Dead space may result from the pathologic process in the lung
or from mechanical ventilation complicated by high airway pressures, low
intravascular volume, or low cardiac output.
As previously discussed, adequate ventilation is assessed by consideration
of both the Paco2 and the pH. Hyperventilation resulting in a low Paco2
level may be an appropriate short-term compensatory goal during metabolic
acidosis while the primary etiology is corrected. Similarly, a patient with
chronic hypercapnia has an increased baseline Paco2 and maintains a near-
normal pH by renal compensation (increased bicarbonate retention).
Patients with chronic compensated hypercapnia should receive sufficient
minute ventilation during mechanical ventilation to maintain the Paco2 at
their usual (baseline) level, and utmost attention should be paid to the pH to
avoid severe alkalemia and loss of retained bicarbonate.
E. Humidification
Gases delivered by mechanical ventilators are typically dry, and the upper
respiratory tract is bypassed by artificial airways, resulting in loss of heat
and moisture. Heating and humidification of gases are routinely provided
during mechanical ventilation to prevent mucosal damage and minimize
inspissation of secretions. Available systems include passive humidifiers
(artificial nose) or active, microprocessor-controlled heat and humidifying
systems (heated humidifiers). The passive humidifiers are contraindicated
in the presence of copious secretions, minute ventilation > 12 L/min, air
leaks > 15% of delivered tidal volume, or blood in the airway.
F. Use of Positive End-Expiratory Pressure

Adjustment of PEEP is the cornerstone strategy employed for disease states
that cause alveolar collapse or airway closure (eg, ARDS). It causes
alveolar recruitment and prevents repeated opening and closing of the
alveoli (atelectrauma). Titration of PEEP for hypoxemic respiratory failure
secondary to ARDS can be performed according to the PEEP/Fio2
combinations given in Table 5-8.
Suggested Combinations of PEEP and FIO2 to Reach Goal

Table 5-8
PaO2
FIO2 0.3 0.4 0.4 0.5 0.5 0.6 0.7 0.7 0.7
PEEP (cm H2O) 5-14 5-14 8-16 8-16 10-20 10-20 10-20 12-20 14-20
FIO2 0.8 0.8 0.9 0.9 0.9 1.0 1.0 1.0
PEEP (cm H2O) 14-22 14-22 14-22 16-22 18-22 20-22 22 24
Abbreviations: PEEP, positive end-expiratory pressure; FIO2, fraction of inspired oxygen
In patients with severe obstructive lung disease, applying external PEEP

and setting it close to the auto-PEEP value can help offset the work of
breathing to trigger the ventilator. Seeking expert consultation is prudent if
higher levels of PEEP are required to maintain oxygenation.
G. Prophylactic Therapies
Mechanical intubation is a risk factor for venous thromboembolism, gastric
stress ulceration, and nosocomial pneumonia. Measures to prevent venous
thromboembolism include the prophylactic use of anticoagulation (unless
contraindicated) and/or pneumatic compression devices. Using a proton
pump inhibitor or histamine 2-receptor blocker is warranted for stress ulcer
prevention. The risk of ventilator-associated pneumonia (ventilator bundle)
is reduced by elevation of the head of the bed to ≥ 30°, oral hygiene, and
daily evaluations for liberation from mechanical ventilation.
IX. SEDATION, ANALGESIA, AND NEUROMUSCULAR

BLOCKADE
Endotracheal intubation and mechanical ventilation can be uncomfortable
and anxiety provoking. To improve the patient’s comfort and synchrony
with the ventilator, anxiolytics, sedatives, and analgesics may be
administered. Neuromuscular blocking agents should be used with caution,
and expert consultation should be sought before initiation. Guidelines for
the use of these agents are outlined in the Society of Critical Care
Medicine’s Clinical Practice Guidelines for Sustained Neuromuscular
Blockade in the Adult Critically Ill Patient and in Clinical Practice
Guidelines for the Management of Pain, Agitation, and Delirium in Adult
Patients in the Intensive Care Unit. Caution also should be exercised with
use of sedation in nonintubated patients with acute respiratory insufficiency
or impending respiratory failure.
X. VENTILATORY GUIDELINES FOR SPECIFIC

CLINICAL SITUATIONS
Case Study
A previously healthy 36-year-old man presents to the hospital and reports a

cough, sputum production, and a fever of 2 days’ duration. An admission
chest radiograph reveals a developing infiltrate in the left lower lobe. The
man is admitted to the general ward and started on antibiotics for
community-acquired pneumonia. Less than 24 hours later, the patient
continues to deteriorate and requires oxygen at 10 L/min. He is not in
obvious respiratory distress; however, pulse oximetry reveals severe
hypoxemia (83% to 89% on supplemental oxygen, 10 L/min). Sputum
cultures show Streptococcus pyogenes (group A) colonies, and a new chest
radiograph reveals new, diffuse bilateral alveolar infiltrates. The patient is
intubated because of worsening hypoxemia.
– What initial ventilator settings would you use for this patient?
– What steps should be taken to minimize barotrauma during ventilation?
– What parameters should be measured and monitored?
A. Acute Respiratory Distress Syndrome
ARDS causes a decrease in lung compliance, making the lungs stiff and
difficult to inflate, and produces hypoxemic respiratory failure (Chapter4).
Guidelines for mechanical ventilation in ARDS are outlined in Tables 5-8
and 5-9. High Ppeak and Pplat complicate mechanical ventilation because
of the low lung compliance or high airway resistance. Lower VT (4–6
mL/kg of predicted body weight) is required, and the Pplat should be
maintained at the desired level of ≤ 30 cm H2O; permissive hypercapnia
may be required to accomplish that goal. The Fio2 is increased as necessary
to prevent hypoxemia but reduced as soon as other ventilatory interventions
are effective. Because of increased shunt in ARDS, hypoxemia may be
severe. PEEP is the most effective way to improve oxygenation and is
typically applied in the range of 8 to 15 cm H2O, based on the severity of
hypoxemia. Higher PEEP levels may be indicated in severe lung injury.
Although patients with ARDS are somewhat less likely to develop auto-
PEEP because expiratory time requirements are reduced as a result of
decreased lung compliance (stiffness), its presence should be monitored,
especially at higher inspiratory-expiratory ratios. Table 5-9 outlines the
recommended strategy for ventilating patients with ARDS. Table 5-8
outlines the recommended Fio2 and PEEP combinations.
Mechanical Ventilation in Acute Respiratory Distress

Table 5-9
Syndrome
Goals
PaO2: 55-80 mm Hg (7.3-10.7 kPa)

Pplat: ≤30 cm H2O
VT: 4-6 mL/kg PBW
pH: >7.15 is acceptable
Start with Assist-Control with VT of 8 mL/kg PBW
Decrease by 1 mL/kg over the next 4 hours until VT of 4-6 mL/kg is reached.
If Pplat is >30 cm H2O, decrease VT by 1 mL/kg until VT is 4 mL/kg or arterial pH
reaches 7.15.
If using VT of 4 mL/kg and Pplat is <25 cm H2O, VT can be increased by 1 mL/kg
until Pplat is 25 cm H2O or VT is 6 mL/kg.
If a Pplat of ≤30 cm H2O has been achieved with a VT >6 mL/kg and a lower VT is
clinically problematic (ie, need for increased sedation), it is acceptable to maintain
the higher VT.
Initiation of PEEP in Acute Respiratory Distress Syndrome
Initiate PEEP at 5 cm H2O and titrate up in increments of 2-3 cm H2O (Table 5-8).
Full recruitment effect may not be apparent for several hours.
Monitor blood pressure, heart rate, and PaO2 or pulse oximetry during PEEP titration
and at intervals while the patient is receiving PEEP therapy.
Optimal PEEP settings are typically 8-15 cm H2O.
NOTE: These guidelines are summarized to facilitate early intervention in critical patients.
The physician should be familiar with these situations and seek appropriate consultation
as soon as possible.
Abbreviations: Pplat, plateau pressure; VT, tidal volume; PBW, predicted body weight;
PEEP, positive end-expiratory pressure
Case Study
A 28-year-old woman with a history of asthma is intubated and admitted to

the ICU for an acute asthma exacerbation. Peak airway pressure on
admission was 40 cm H2O, and Pplat was 25 cm H2O immediately after
intubation; however, 6 hours later, peak airway pressures have arisen to 55
cm H2O while the Pplat has remained the same.
– What is the likely etiology of her high peak airway pressures in the
setting of unchanged plateau pressures?
– What adjunctive therapies, in addition to ventilator support, does this
patient need to reduce the elevated airway pressures?
– Which parameter (ie, peak airway pressure or Pplat) has been
associated with a higher risk of barotrauma in an intubated patient?
B. Obstructive Airway Disease
Mechanical ventilation for patients with asthma and chronic obstructive
pulmonary disease is designed to support oxygenation and assist ventilation
until airway obstruction has improved. After initial intubation, airway
secretions and persistent small airway obstruction may manifest as elevated
peak airway pressures and a normal Pplat. This suggests an airway
obstruction (not worsening compliance), and bronchodilators and steroids
should be used aggressively to help alleviate this obstruction while
mechanical ventilation supports the patient. As airflow improves, the
patient will tolerate higher VT levels and longer inspiratory times.
Mechanical ventilation in these patients may also produce hyperinflation,
auto-PEEP, and resultant hypotension. Therefore, careful attention is needed
to balance cycle, inspiratory, and expiratory times. The initial VT should be
6 to 8 mL/kg, and the minute ventilation should be adjusted to a low normal
pH. With volume ventilation, the inspiratory flow rate should be set to
optimize the inspiratory-expiratory ratio and allow complete exhalation.
Such management reduces breath stacking and the potential for auto-PEEP.
C. Asymmetric Lung Disease

Asymmetric lung disease or injury that occurs after aspiration, contusion, or
a localized pneumonia may cause abnormal distribution of ventilation and
gas exchange during mechanical ventilation. Because the conditioned gas
from the ventilator follows the path of least resistance along the bronchi, the
VT is distributed primarily to the less-affected (more-compliant) lung and
may overexpand it. Overdistension of the less-affected lung and poor
expansion of the diseased/injured lung worsen ventilation-perfusion
relationships in both lungs, and hypoxemia and hypercapnia may occur,
persist, or worsen, in addition to causing injury to the normal lung. Standard
settings and principles of ventilator support should be initiated. However, if
this is unsuccessful, expert consultation should be obtained to facilitate
further efforts at patient management. Putting the less-involved lung in the
gravitationally dependent (decubitus) position may be helpful in directing
pulmonary blood flow to lung units receiving better ventilation. Other
techniques, such as differential lung ventilation, could be considered, and
immediate expert consultation may be required.
D. Heart Disease
The major goals of ventilatory support in patients with myocardial ischemia
are to decrease the work of breathing and ensure adequate oxygen delivery
to the heart. Decreasing the work of breathing will reduce the consumption
of oxygen by respiratory muscles, thus increasing oxygen availability to the
heart. Patients with cardiogenic pulmonary edema who are mechanically
ventilated receive additional benefit from the decrease in preload as a result
of increased intrathoracic pressure. Left ventricular afterload also decreases
through application of positive juxtacardiac pressure during systole.
E. Neuromuscular Disease
Patients with peripheral neuromuscular disease typically have an intact
respiratory drive and normal lungs. These patients may require a higher VT
level to avoid the sensation of dyspnea. Adjustments are made in other
ventilatory parameters to ensure a normal arterial pH.
XI. MONITORING MECHANICAL VENTILATORY

SUPPORT
Patients who receive mechanical ventilatory support require continuous
monitoring to assess the beneficial and potential adverse effects of
treatment (Table 5-10). Arterial blood gas measurements provide valuable
information about the adequacy of oxygenation, ventilation, and acid-base
balance. This information is essential during the initial phases of ventilatory
support and during periods of patient instability. If available, a pulse
oximeter (Chapter 6) and end-tidal capnometer (for measuring end-tidal
CO2) can be used to further monitor the patient’s progress.
Table 5-10 Recommendations for Monitoring Mechanical Ventilatory

Support
Obtain a chest radiograph after intubation and repeat as indicated to evaluate any
deterioration in status.
Obtain arterial blood gas measurements after initiation of mechanical ventilation and
intermittently based on patient status.
Measure vital signs frequently and observe the patient directly (including patient-
ventilator interaction).
Measure inspiratory plateau pressure as clinically appropriate.
Use pulse oximetry to monitor oxygenation.
Use ventilator alarms to monitor key physiologic and ventilator parameters.
Ventilators are equipped with sophisticated alarms and monitors to assist

with patient management and detection of adverse events. When initiating
ventilatory support, the respiratory care practitioner usually establishes
alarm parameters for low and high minute ventilation, high inspiratory
pressures, and low exhaled volumes and pressures. Many ventilators allow
for the measurement of auto-PEEP.
The low-pressure alarm is intended to alert the clinician to a leak in the
circuit or to ventilator disconnection. A high-pressure alarm warns that the
set maximum peak airway pressure has been exceeded; this alarm is usually
set 10 cm H2O above the patient’s baseline peak airway pressure. If a
patient receiving volume ventilation develops mucous plugging or a marked
change in airway resistance or lung compliance, the peak pressure will rise
acutely. If the peak pressure alarm sounds with volume ventilation, it
implies that the patient is not receiving the set VT because inspiration ends
when the pressure alarm limit is exceeded. Conversely, in pressure preset
modes of ventilation, changes in airway resistance or lung compliance will
trigger the low exhaled volume alarm.
XII. HYPOTENSION ASSOCIATED WITH INITIATION

OF MECHANICAL VENTILATION
A. Tension Pneumothorax
When hypotension occurs immediately after initiation of mechanical
ventilation, tension pneumothorax should be one of the first considerations.
This diagnosis is based on a physical examination that finds decreased or
absent breath sounds and tympany to percussion on the side of the
pneumothorax. Tracheal deviation away from the side of the pneumothorax
may be observed, although it is uncommon after placement of an
endotracheal tube. Treatment includes emergent decompression by inserting
a large-bore catheter or needle into the second or third intercostal space in
the midclavicular line. Treatment should not be delayed awaiting a chest
radiograph. The insertion of a catheter or needle is both diagnostic and
therapeutic: it improves blood pressure and reverses the findings of physical
examination. The insertion of the catheter or needle must be followed by
chest tube placement.
B. Conversion from Negative to Positive Intrathoracic Pressure

Normal intrathoracic pressure is slightly negative relative to the
atmosphere. When positive pressure ventilation is initiated, intrathoracic
pressure becomes positive. As intrathoracic pressure rises, right atrial
pressure rises and the intravascular pressure gradient for return of blood
from the large extrathoracic veins into the right heart decreases. As a result,
blood return to the heart may be reduced. Left ventricular preload, stroke
volume, cardiac output, and blood pressure then may decrease in sequence.
Underlying intravascular volume depletion exacerbates the deleterious
effects of the increased intrathoracic pressure on cardiac output and blood
pressure. Treatment of this common complication includes volume
resuscitation by means of rapidly infused fluid boluses to raise extrathoracic
venous pressure and increase venous return to the right heart until the blood
pressure increases. Oxygen saturation should be monitored to avoid overly
aggressive fluid resuscitation. Use of ventilation techniques associated with
high mean airway pressure may exacerbate the deleterious hemodynamic
consequences of mechanical ventilation.
C. Auto-PEEP
As previously discussed, auto-PEEP occurs when the combination of
ventilator settings and patient physiology results in an inadequate expiratory
time. Excessive end-expiratory pressure may increase intrathoracic pressure
and cause hypotension because of decreased venous return to the heart.
Although auto-PEEP may occur in any patient, those with obstructive
airway disease are particularly predisposed to this condition because of the
need for a prolonged expiratory phase.
D. Acute Myocardial Ischemia/Infarction

Stress from the cause of acute respiratory failure, as well as the stress of
intubation itself, may lead to increased myocardial oxygen demand and to
acute myocardial ischemia, infarction, and subsequent hypotension. Patients
at high risk should be evaluated with serial electrocardiograms and
myocardial markers of injury.
XIII. READINESS AND WEANING FROM INVASIVE

MECHANICAL VENTILATION
Mechanical ventilation is not without complications, including and not
limited to, superimposed infections, laryngeal injury, diaphragmatic
dysfunction, and others.
The need to assess the readiness of a patient to wean from mechanical
ventilation should be done on a daily basis and those patients that can be
freed from mechanical ventilation should be disconnected from the
machines as soon as possible without risking complications.
A few clinical parameters and criteria can be used as indicators for
readiness to wean. Below are some criteria used:
The main cause of the respiratory failure that lead to the intubation and
mechanical ventilation has improved significantly or resolved.
Adequate mental status to maintain an airway (including the ability to
clear secretions)
Adequate oxygen saturation > 90%, Po2 > 60 mm Hg with Fio2 40–
50%
PEEP around 5–8 cm H2O
pH > 7.25
Able to initiate inspiratory effort
Appropriate mentation to protect airway
Minimal secretions with strong cough
Hemodynamically stable and no escalation of resuscitation or
vasopressors
Weaning patients from mechanical ventilation to extubation can be a

challenging process. Formal discontinuation assessment should be done
when the patient is placed on a spontaneous breathing trial (SBT), and not
receiving significant support from the machine. The SBT should continue
for about 30 minutes, and no more than 2 hours. There are few predictors
and parameters that should be examined and achieved before the decision is
made to extubate the patient. The use of Negative Inspiratory Force (NIF),
Force Vital Capacity (FVC), or the Respiratory Shallow Breathing Index
(RSBI) have been used by many clinicians. Expert consultation should be
considered when deciding to extubate the patient.
As many as one in every five patients with planned extubation might
require re-intubation. This failure is highly dependent on the correct
evaluation of previously described parameters. Most extubation failures
occur within the first 24 hours up to 72 hours after extubation.
Key Points: Mechanical Ventilation

The primary goals of noninvasive and invasive positive pressure
ventilation are to support ventilation and oxygenation, and to reduce
work of breathing while ensuring patient comfort.
NPPV is best used in the alert, cooperative patient whose respiratory
condition is expected to improve in 24 to 48 hours.
The advantages and disadvantages of the different modes of invasive
mechanical ventilation must be considered when determining the
optimal ventilatory support for the patient’s clinical condition.
Guidelines for initiating mechanical ventilation should be carefully
followed, with adjustments made based on patient assessment and
monitoring.
The complex interactions of inspiratory pressures, inspiratory-
expiratory ratio, Fio2, and PEEP must be appreciated to evaluate the
potential benefits and harmful effects in each patient.
The primary determinants of oxygenation are Fio2 and mean airway
pressure, whereas alveolar ventilation primarily affects CO2 exchange.
During mechanical ventilation, a patient must be closely monitored

using the ventilator alarm systems, continuous pulse oximetry,
attentive physical assessment, measurement of inspiratory Pplat (as
clinically appropriate), and intermittent arterial blood gases and chest
radiographs as needed.
High inspiratory plateau pressures are associated with a higher
incidence of ventilator-induced lung injury and should be maintained
below 30 cm H2O.
Hypotension occurring immediately after initiation of invasive

mechanical ventilation should prompt evaluation for tension
pneumothorax, decreased venous blood return because of intrathoracic
pressure, auto-PEEP, or myocardial ischemia.
Suggested Readings
1. Acute Respiratory Distress Syndrome Network. Ventilation with lower

tidal volumes as compared with traditional tidal volumes for acute
lung injury and the acute respiratory distress syndrome. N Engl J Med.
2000;342:1301-1308.
2. Caples SM, Gay PC. Noninvasive positive pressure ventilation in the
intensive care unit: a concise review. Crit Care Med. 2005;33:2651-
2658.
3. Fink M, Abraham E, Vincent J, et al, eds. Chapter 66: Controlled
mechanical ventilation. In: Textbook of Critical Care. 5th ed.
Philadelphia, PA: WB Saunders Co; 2005.
4. Fink M, Abraham E, Vincent J, et al, eds. Chapter 67: Patient-
ventilator interaction. In: Textbook of Critical Care. 5th ed.
Philadelphia, PA: WB Saunders Co; 2005.
5. Hess DR, Kacmarek RM. Essentials of Mechanical Ventilation. 2nd
ed. New York, NY: McGraw-Hill Companies; 2002.
6. Kallet RH, Jasmer RM, Pittet JF, et al. Clinical implementation of the
ARDS Network protocol is associated with reduced hospital mortality
compared with historical controls. Crit Care Med. 2005;33:925-929.
7. Leisching T, Kwok H, Hill NS. Acute applications of noninvasive
positive pressure ventilation. Chest. 2003;124:699-713.
8. MacIntyre N. Ventilatory management of ALI/ARDS. Semin Respir
Crit Care Med. 2006;27:396-403.
9. MacIntyre N, Branson RD. Mechanical Ventilation. Philadelphia, PA:
WB Saunders Co; 2000.
10. MacIntyre NR, Cook DJ, Ely EW Jr, et al. Evidence-based guidelines
for weaning and discontinuing ventilatory support: a collective task
force facilitated by the American College of Chest Physicians; the
American Association for Respiratory Care; and the American College
of Critical Care Medicine. Chest. 2001;120(6 Suppl):375S.
11. Marini JJ. Dynamic hyperinflation and auto-PEEP end-expiratory
pressure: lessons learned over 30 years. Am J Respir Crit Care Med.
2011;184:756-762.
12. Marini JJ, Gattinoni L. Ventilatory management of acute respiratory
distress syndrome: a consensus of two. Crit Care Med. 2004;32:250-
255.
13. Murray MJ, Cowen J, DeBlock H, et al. Clinical practice guidelines
for sustained neuromuscular blockade in the adult critically ill patient.
Crit Care Med. 2002;30:142-156.
14. Petrucci N, Iacovelli W. Ventilation with smaller tidal volumes: a
quantitative systematic review of randomized controlled trials. Anesth
Analg. 2004;99:193-200.
15. Tobin MJ. Advances in mechanical ventilation. N Engl J Med.
2001;344:1986-1996.
16. Tobin MJ. Principles and Practice of Mechanical Ventilation. 3rd ed.
McGraw Hill Companies; 2013.
Suggested Website
1. Society of Critical Care Medicine/Guidelines. www.SCCM.org.

Chapter 6
MONITORING OXYGEN BALANCE AND

ACID-BASE STATUS
Objectives
Outline the determinants of oxygen balance.

Recognize disorders of oxygen delivery.
Assess oxygen balance.
Discuss hemodynamic monitoring and volume responsiveness.
Explain the use of acid-base status in monitoring the seriously ill
patient.
Discuss acid-base disturbances.
Describe disease processes that cause metabolic acidosis.
Case Study
A 67-year-old woman with a medical history of hypertension, diabetes

mellitus, and systolic heart failure (left ventricular ejection fraction [LVEF
20%]) presented to the hospital with altered mental status and shortness of
breath. The patient’s pulse is 123 beats/min, blood pressure 84/54 mm Hg,
respiratory rate 28 breaths/min, and oxygen saturation on pulse oximetry
(Spo2) 89% while breathing room air. She was found to have a lower
gastrointestinal bleed.
– What monitoring devices should be implemented?
– What blood tests should be obtained to determine whether the oxygen
balance is adequate?
I. INTRODUCTION
Monitoring devices are not therapeutic and information from monitoring
devices must be integrated with patient assessment and clinical judgment to
determine optimal care. In addition, the clinician must be aware of the
limitations and risk-benefit ratio of a monitoring system. Monitoring may
be as simple as measuring the pulse or temperature or as complex as
invasive hemodynamic techniques with direct and calculated
measurements. Physiologic stress leads to early effects on the heart rate,
respiratory rate, vascular tone, and blood pressure. Significant abnormalities
of these vital signs may suggest the need for more intensive monitoring.
More invasive monitoring strategies carry a higher risk of complications,
but should be considered if they provide sufficient new information to guide
therapy. This chapter will emphasize only basic monitoring techniques that
can be initiated in most care environments.
The goals of monitoring in seriously ill patients are to recognize
physiologic abnormalities and to guide interventions. These actions help to
ensure adequate blood flow and oxygen delivery for maintenance of cellular
and organ function. Tissue oxygenation cannot be directly measured or
monitored at the bedside in a predictable and reliable manner. However,
estimates of the adequacy of oxygenation can be made based on knowledge
of the oxygen balance, which is determined by oxygen delivery and oxygen
consumption. An understanding of these principles is required to appreciate
the usefulness and limitations of various monitoring tools.
II. PRINCIPLES OF OXYGEN DELIVERY

Organs consume oxygen to make energy and therefore organs require
oxygen to function properly. In addition, oxygen delivery requires the
driving force of the cardiovascular system. Oxygen delivery is defined as
the amount of oxygen presented to the tissues. Oxygen consumption is
defined as the amount of oxygen needed to meet the body’s metabolic
demands. At baseline, the body delivers 4–5 times more oxygen than what
is needed by the tissues. This extra delivery is the oxygen reservoir that is
available for sharp increases in consumption, such as running away from a
threat (Figure 6-1). In critical illness, physiologic derangements that result
in an absolute decrease in the oxygen delivered or an increase in tissue
oxygen demand may compromise this margin of safety. In addition,
adequate oxygen delivery does not always guarantee appropriate oxygen
utilization. For example, infection leading to sepsis can decrease the
mitochondria’s ability to effectively use oxygen at the tissue level. Efforts
to improve oxygen delivery are more easily manipulated in the critically ill
patient than oxygen consumption. Oxygen delivery is dependent on the
oxygen content of arterial blood and the ability of the body to carry it to the
tissues (cardiac output).
Oxygen delivery (DO2) = cardiac output (CO) × arterial oxygen content
(Cao2)
Figure 6-1. Oxyhemoglobin Dissociation Curve
The oxyhemoglobin dissociation curve relates the Po2 to oxyhemoglobin saturation. Near-
maximal saturation of hemoglobin occurs at a Po2 of 60 mm Hg (8.0 kPa). Po2 values
above this point provide only a modest increase in oxyhemoglobin saturation. Note,
however, that a rapid decrease in oxyhemoglobin saturation occurs when the Po2 drops
below 60 mm Hg (8.0 kPa).
Invasive and/or more complex noninvasive monitoring is required for exact

measurement of cardiac output. However, an understanding of the variables
that determine oxygen content in the blood and cardiac output, along with
less invasive monitoring, may guide appropriate treatment.
A. Oxygen Content of Arterial Blood
Arterial oxygen content (Cao2) is defined as the amount of oxygen bound to

hemoglobin plus the amount of oxygen dissolved in arterial blood plasma.
The components of arterial oxygen content are related by the formula:
Cao2(mL O2/dL) = [Hemoglobin (g/dL) × 1.34 × Sao2(%)] + [0.0031 ×
Pao2(mm Hg)]
The major determinants of oxygen

delivery are hemoglobin, Sao2, and
cardiac output.
Sao2 is the arterial oxyhemoglobin saturation and Pao2 is the partial pressure
of oxygen dissolved in arterial blood. Each fully saturated gram of
hemoglobin transports 1.34–1.39 mL of oxygen, depending on the affinity
of hemoglobin for oxygen. Hemoglobin is the major contributor of oxygen
for tissue demands and releases bound oxygen based on cellular uptake of
dissolved oxygen as blood flows through the capillaries. The ability of
hemoglobin to release more oxygen when supply is inadequate or cellular
demand is increased is one of the main compensatory mechanisms to
sustain cellular function. The oxyhemoglobin dissociation curve shows the
relationship of hemoglobin saturation and partial pressure of oxygen (Pao2)
(Figure 6-1).
When the Pao2 drops to approximately 40 mm Hg (5.3 kappa) in the
capillaries, the decrease in oxyhemoglobin saturation to 75% reflects the
amount of oxygen released to the tissues. During physiologic stress,
oxyhemoglobin saturation at the tissue level may decrease to <20%,
reflecting the release of additional oxygen to tissues. Acidosis, fever, and
increased CO2 production will shift this curve to the right, resulting in a
lower affinity of oxygen for hemoglobin and greater delivery of oxygen to
the tissues. Lower temperature, higher pH, and lower CO2 will shift the
curve to the left and increase the affinity of oxygen for hemoglobin. In other
words, a shift to the right will result in more oxygen being delivered to the
tissues.
Stored packed red blood cells
rapidly lose a substance called 2,3-
diphosphoglycerate (2,3 DPG).
This results in an impairment in
oxygen transport to tissues.
Calculated Cao2 reflects oxygen

that is available in the arterial
circulation and not necessarily the
oxygen that is delivered to or
consumed by specific tissues.
Arterial oxygen content can be estimated by using the direct measurement

of the hemoglobin concentration and arterial oxyhemoglobin saturation in
intermittent blood samples because dissolved oxygen (0.0031 × Pao2)
contributes minimally to oxygen content. Although hemoglobin is not
monitored continuously, oxyhemoglobin saturation measured by pulse
oximetry (Spo2) allows continuous assessment of this determinant of
arterial oxygen content.
B. Cardiac Output
In addition to the oxygen content of arterial blood being optimum, an

appropriate cardiac output is needed to ensure delivery of oxygen to the
tissues. Monitoring tools aside, the evaluation of a critically ill patient
begins with a thorough clinical examination (Table 6-1). Cardiac output (in
mL/min or L/min) is the product of heart rate and stroke volume (Figure 6-
2).
Table 6-1 Clinical Assessment of Determinants of Cardiac Output
Variable Method of Assessment

Heart rate and rhythm Finger on pulse
Pulse oximetry
Electrocardiography
Preload
Right heart Neck vein distension, liver enlargement, dependent edema
Presence of dyspnea on exertion, orthopnea
Assessment of central venous pressure can help understand right
heart filling/preload conditions.
Left heart Pulmonary edema, rales on lung examination
Afterload (left heart) Skin temperature and moisture

Cold and clammy, generally alludes to high afterload in
shock state
Hot, flush +/- diaphoretic alludes to low afterload in shock
state
Contractility Ejection fraction and stroke volume estimate by echocardiography
Figure 6-2. Cardiac Output as the Product of Heart Rate and Stroke Volume
Stroke volume is the quantity of blood pumped out of the left heart with
each beat and is determined by the difference between the end-diastolic
volume and end-systolic volume of the ventricle. Variables that determine
stroke volume are preload, afterload, and contractile function. The first
compensatory mechanism to increase oxygen delivery is often an increase
in heart rate. Patients who are unable to increase their heart rate (eg, beta-
blockade or fixed pacing) will have a limited ability to compensate.
Persistent tachycardia should be

considered as a possible
compensatory mechanism to
increase oxygen delivery.
Although the heart rate is easily measured and evaluated, an evaluation of

stroke volume requires special noninvasive, minimally invasive, or invasive
methods. The option of measuring cardiac output by assessing stroke
volume depends on the training, expertise, and resources available. The
pulmonary artery catheter is used as an invasive method of measuring
intermittent or continuous cardiac output but requires critical care expertise.
Minimally invasive hemodynamic methods measure cardiac output using
analysis of the arterial waveform or aortic blood flow. Devices that analyze
the arterial waveform to determine pulse pressure, stroke volume, and
cardiac output require an arterial catheter, and some also require placement
of a central venous catheter. Esophageal Doppler devices estimate cardiac
output from measurement of blood flow in the descending aorta.
Noninvasive hemodynamic monitors use principles of bioimpedance or
bioreactance to determine stroke volume and cardiac output.
The clinician must be aware of the limitations that affect measurement
accuracy and interpretation of any chosen technique. If cardiac output is not
directly measured, an indirect assessment of variables involved in
determining cardiac output can be determined clinically (Table 6-2) and
knowledge of hemodynamic principles can be useful.
Table 6-2 Devices to Measure Cardiac Output or Stroke Volume
Level Devices Benefits Risks/Concerns

Invasive Pulmonary Most reliable Infections, bleeding,
artery pulmonary embolism,
catheter (PAC) pulmonary artery rupture,
pneumothorax,
dysrhythmias
Minimally Arterial line- Least invasive. In addition to Accuracy. Calibration.
invasive operated cardiac output and stroke Unknown patented
devices volume, displays stroke volume algorithms.
variation/pulse pressure Costly.
Esophageal variation.
Doppler Costly. Requires training
Accurate assessment of aortic for insertion and
blood flow velocity/timing in interpretation. Risk of
order to monitor stroke volume bleeding and esophageal
and cardiac output perforation.
Noninvasive Bioimpedance, Not invasive Less accurate, better with

bioreactance trends
(more
accurate)
1. Contractility
Contractility is the ability of myocardial fibers to shorten during systole. It
is highly dependent on preload and afterload and is difficult to measure as
an independent variable. Systemic factors that can affect contractility in the
critically ill patient are endogenous sympathetic activation, acidosis,
ischemia, inflammatory mediators, and vasoactive agents. An increase in
contractility would result in a larger stroke volume. Echocardiographic
measurement of the ejection fraction provides some information to the
clinician on contractility.
2. Preload
Preload is a measure or estimate of the ventricular volume at the end of
diastole (end-diastolic volume) and is determined by venous return and
ventricular compliance. The distensibility or stretch (compliance) of the
ventricle and the volume load (venous return) it can accept are the basis for
the Frank-Starling curve. In general, a greater end-diastolic volume leads to
increased stretch on the myocardium, resulting in a larger stroke volume
and therefore, better cardiac output. The curve is actually bell-shaped and
too much fluid, thus elevated preload, can lead to overstretch of the
ventricle, leading to decreased stroke volume as a result of the loss of
effective contractility (Figure 6-3). Because it is difficult to measure
volume, preload is most often estimated from the ventricular end-diastolic
pressure, which is transmitted and reflected in the atrial pressure. The atrial
pressure is estimated by the measurement of pressure in a central vein or the
pulmonary artery. Thus, the right ventricular preload is estimated by
measurement of the central venous pressure (CVP) and the left ventricular
preload by the measurement of pulmonary artery occlusion pressure
(PAOP). These pressures indirectly reflect the end-diastolic volume as well
as the compliance of the ventricular wall. Using bedside ultrasonography,
assessment of the size and variability of the inferior vena cava with
respiration may aid in the assessment of right ventricular preload. However
it should not be used independently because it is not sensitive or specific
enough to predict volume responsiveness.
Figure 6-3. Relationship Between Ventricular Preload and Stroke Volume:
When end-diastolic volume of the ventricle (preload) increases, stroke volume usually
increases proportionately.
The relationship between the measured pressure and volume in the

ventricular chambers depends on the compliance or distensibility of the
ventricle. During myocardial ischemia, sepsis, valvular dysfunction, and
even tachycardia, the ventricles may become less compliant and may not
fully relax during diastole. This diastolic dysfunction reduces the
ventricular volume at end diastole but may be associated with a higher
filling pressure; therefore, the clinician may misinterpret pressure
measurements to indicate adequate volume loading. Changes in
intrathoracic pressures (eg, tension pneumothorax, positive pressure
ventilation) may also affect the filling pressures.
Pressure and volume are not linear,

CVP and PAOP should not be used
alone to determine volume status.
Trends are more beneficial than
isolated values.
3. Afterload
Afterload is the myocardial wall tension required to overcome the
resistance, or pressure load, that opposes ejection of blood from the
ventricle during systole. The higher the afterload, the more tension the
ventricle must develop, the more work is performed, and the less efficient
the contraction may become. Afterload is usually estimated from the
systemic mean arterial pressure (left ventricle) and mean pulmonary artery
pressure (right ventricle) by calculations of systemic and pulmonary
vascular resistance.
III. ASSESSMENT OF OXYGEN BALANCE

In addition to oxygen delivery, oxygen consumption by the tissues affects
oxygen balance (Figure 6-4). Several factors can increase oxygen
consumption in a critically ill patient including but limited to: pain,
agitation, anxiety, seizures, piloerection, shivering, fever, and increased
work of breathing. However, less is known about the factors that determine
oxygen utilization at the cellular and tissue levels, and no direct routine
measures of oxygen consumption are available. Indirect calculated
measurement of oxygen consumption requires invasive or complex
techniques. These measures reflect global oxygen utilization and do not
provide information on oxygen utilization by specific tissues or organs.
Figure 6-4. Oxygen Balance
Measuring global oxygen balance may be useful in monitoring the critically
ill patient. The goal of resuscitation in a critically ill patient is to ensure an
appropriate oxygen balance. When there is not an oxygen balance, and
consumption is higher than delivery for an organ, the organ is ischemic.
Ischemia leads to organ failure as the organ shifts from aerobic to anaerobic
metabolism. Minimally invasive measurements of global oxygen balance
include central venous oxyhemoglobin saturation (Scvo2) and lactate
concentrations.
Normal Svo2 is >65%.
Normal Scvo2 is >70%.
Scvo2 can be obtained continuously or intermittently from a catheter placed

in the internal jugular or subclavian vein and correlates with the mixed
venous oxyhemoglobin saturation (Svo2) obtained from a pulmonary artery
catheter in the pulmonary artery. The Svo2 measures the oxyhemoglobin
saturation of blood from the whole body that has been mixed in the
pulmonary artery. These measures of venous oxyhemoglobin saturation
represent the amount of oxygen still bound to hemoglobin after traversing
the tissue capillaries and returning to the right heart; the difference between
the Sao2 and Svo2 estimates the amount of oxygen used (Figure 6-5). In
normal individuals, the Svo2 is >65% and the Scvo2 is 2% to 3% lower.
However, in patients with shock and/or hypoperfusion, the Scvo2 may be
5% to 7% higher than the Svo2 because of greater desaturation of venous
blood from the gastrointestinal tract contributing to Svo2. Low values of
Scvo2 suggest an imbalance in the oxygen supply and demand. This
imbalance may be caused by decreases in cardiac output, hemoglobin
concentration, Sao2, or increases in tissue oxygen consumption. Patients
may have more than one abnormality contributing to oxygen imbalance. A
normal Scvo2 may still be associated with tissue hypoxia in conditions such
as severe sepsis and certain poisonings (eg, cyanide). Further evaluations of
lactate concentration and organ function are needed to assess oxygen
balance in the seriously ill patient when the Scvo2 is normal.
Figure 6-5. Determinants of Oxygen Balance
Abbreviations: Hgb, hemoglobin; Sao2, arterial oxyhemoglobin saturation

Oxygen balance depends on the oxygen delivered to the tissues and the metabolic needs of
those tissues. An estimate of the oxygen utilized by the tissues is provided by the central
venous oxyhemoglobin value (Scvo2) and mixed venous oxyhemoglobin saturation (Svo2).
Lactate is another indicator of the overall oxygen balance. It is produced
during anaerobic metabolism when cellular hypoxia occurs. The elevation
of blood lactate in shock and hypoperfusion may be the result of an
inadequate oxygen supply to tissue but also may be affected by altered
hepatic metabolism, use of vasoactive drugs, and other factors. Lactate
concentrations do not have high sensitivity or specificity for inadequate
tissue oxygenation, but elevated concentrations often are associated with
tissue hypoperfusion. A decreasing lactate concentration may be a useful
indicator of effective interventions.
Elevated lactate concentrations

correlate with a worse prognosis in
severely ill patients (Figure 6-6).
Figure 6-6. Lactate and Mortality
Capillary refill time is another useful tool. It is a simple clinical maneuver

that may assist with evaluation of oxygen delivery and hemodynamic
resuscitation in a critically ill septic patient.
Case Study (cont.)
A 67-year-old woman with a medical history of hypertension, diabetes

mellitus, and systolic heart failure (LVEF 20%) presented to the hospital
with altered mental status and shortness of breath. The patient’s pulse is 123
beats/min, blood pressure 84/54 mm Hg, respiratory rate 28 breaths/min
and oxygen saturation on pulse oximetry (Spo2) 89% while breathing room
air. She was found to have a lower gastrointestinal bleed.
– What factors may lead to poor oxygen delivery?
– What monitoring strategies would be employed to assess the condition
of this patient?
IV. MONITORING DETERMINANTS OF OXYGEN

BALANCE
Precise monitoring of oxygen balance is not easily accomplished because
special expertise, invasive monitoring, and significant resources are
required. However, monitoring of variables, such as oxyhemoglobin
saturation, blood pressure, Scvo2, lactate concentration, and fluid
responsiveness combined with other clinical information, may provide
guidance in evaluating the adequacy of oxygen balance in seriously ill
patients.
Trends in the values of measured

variables are usually more helpful
than single values.
A. Monitoring of Oxyhemoglobin Saturation
1. Principles
The pulse oximeter is a simple, noninvasive device that estimates arterial
oxyhemoglobin saturation. The transmission of red and infrared light
through the capillary bed creates several signals throughout the pulsatile
cardiac cycle. These signals measure the absorption of the transmitted light
by the tissue or venous and arterial blood. Calculations made from the
processed signals provide estimates of the oxygen saturation of
hemoglobin, expressed as a percentage. This is not the same as the Pao2 in
the blood, although Pao2 is the primary determinant of the saturation of
hemoglobin. It does not reflect adequacy of oxygen delivery or ventilation.
The value measured by the device is commonly called the Spo2 to
distinguish it as the oxyhemoglobin saturation measurement by a pulse
oximeter rather than the Sao2, which is determined directly from an arterial
blood sample by co-oximetry. Pulse oximetry is useful in detecting
hypoxemia and titrating the delivered oxygen concentration in patients
receiving supplemental oxygen.
2. Clinical Issues
Studies have shown that to ensure a Pao2 of 60 mm Hg (8.0 kPa), an Spo2 of
92% should be maintained in patients with light skin, whereas 94%
saturation may be needed in patients with dark skin. Oximetry sensors can
be applied to the finger, toe, earlobe, bridge of nose, forehead, or any skin
surface from which a reliable pulsatile signal can be obtained. Factors that
can affect signal detection or fidelity are listed in Table 6-3. Pulse
oximeters display a digital heart rate derived from the pulsatile signal
detected by the sensor. This rate should equal the patient’s heart rate as
measured by another method, so these two rates should be compared as the
first step in the analysis of an Spo2 measurement.
Pulse oximetry measurements will

be affected by inflation of a blood
pressure cuff on the same extremity
as the oximetry sensor because of
disappearance of the pulsatile
waveform.
Table 6-3 Factors That Affect Accuracy of Pulse Oximetry
Anatomic or Physiologic External Factors

Factors Lipid suspensions, propofol (falsely elevate the oxygen
Dark skin saturation)
False nails Bright room lighting
Nail polish Electrical interference
Hypothermia Poorly adherent probe
Vasoconstriction Excessive motion of the sensor
Hypotension
Poor regional perfusion
Hematocrit <15%
Hyperlipidemia
Carboxyhemoglobin
Tachycardias
B. Blood Pressure Monitoring
Although blood pressure is not a direct determinant of oxygen balance, an

appropriate driving pressure is necessary for oxygen delivery at the tissue
level. Blood pressure is directly proportional to cardiac output and systemic
vascular resistance according to the following relationship:
Blood pressure = cardiac output × systemic vascular resistance
Blood pressure may be monitored invasively, with arterial cannulation,
or noninvasively with a cuff.
1. Automated Noninvasive Devices
a. Principles
Automated blood pressure devices are frequently used to obtain
intermittent blood pressure measurements. These devices use one of
several methods to measure systolic and diastolic pressures, but the
most common method is oscillometry. Systolic and diastolic pressures
and the mean arterial pressure are directly measured via appearance,
disappearance, and amplitude of oscillating waves. The arm is the
preferred measurement site in adults, but alternative sites include the
calf, forearm, or thigh, the latter being the least comfortable site for
patients. The cuff should not be placed on an extremity that is being
used for intravenous infusion or in an area susceptible to circulatory
compromise. The appropriate cuff size is necessary for accurate
measurements. A cuff that is too large will underestimate the true
blood pressure, and a cuff that is too small will overestimate the true
blood pressure.
b. Clinical Issues
An adequate blood pressure measurement does not ensure adequate
tissue perfusion. Automated blood pressure devices are less accurate in
clinical situations commonly encountered with the critically ill patient,
such as shock, vasoconstriction, mechanical ventilation, and
arrhythmias. Shivering, muscle contraction, and movement of the
extremity can lead to erroneous measurements. Blood pressure
monitoring via an arterial catheter is preferable to the use of an
automated blood pressure device in hemodynamically unstable
patients.
2. Arterial Cannulation
a. Principles
An indwelling arterial catheter allows for continuous measurement of
blood pressure, pulse volume or pressure, and mean arterial pressure
(Figure 6-7) by transduction of pressure via a specialized monitoring
setup. Pulse pressure is the difference between the systolic and
diastolic pressure measurements. It may also be used for arterial blood
gas measurement. The primary indications for insertion of an arterial
cannula are the need for frequent arterial samples and continuous
assessment of arterial blood pressure. Use of an arterial catheter should
be considered for arterial blood sampling if more than four samples are
required in 24 hours. Arterial pressure monitoring may also be used
with minimally invasive hemodynamic monitoring systems to evaluate
cardiac output, stroke volume, or pulse pressure variation.
Figure 6-7. Appearance of Arterial Pressure Wave with Invasive Monitoring
When invasive monitoring is used, the calculation of the mean arterial pressure is
based on the area under the curve.
The most common insertion sites for arterial catheters are (in order of
preference for adults) the radial, femoral, axillary, and dorsalis pedis
arteries. Brachial artery cannulation is usually avoided if possible
because it is an end artery and hand ischemia is a potential
complication. Shorter catheters are used for radial and dorsalis pedis
artery insertion and longer catheters for insertion in femoral and
axillary sites. Preferred sites have alternative collateral circulations.
The choice of site is based on the presence of palpable pulses, general
hemodynamic state, and other anatomic or physiologic factors unique
to each patient.
The dorsalis pedis artery is less

reliable for pressure monitoring
in adults because of its size and
distance from the heart.
b. Clinical Issues
The arterial catheter is never used for infusion of any medications or
fluids and must be monitored continuously. Concern about the
accuracy of the intra-arterial pressure measurements should lead to a
return-to-flow assessment with a manual blood pressure cuff.
Measurements should be made after calibration of the
catheter/transducer system at or near the level of the heart.
Several technical and anatomic factors may affect the accuracy of the
pressures obtained with the catheter system. Distortion of the arterial
waveform signal may occur because of vascular alterations, the
hydraulic coupling system of the transducer, the calibration of the
transducer, or the maintenance of the pressurized system tubing.
Inspection of the result may show an overdamped and domed
waveform or the high-spiking “overshoot or ringing” pattern of the
underdamped waveform. Both distortions have the greatest effect on
the systolic and diastolic pressures, whereas the mean arterial pressure
is less affected.
Pulse Pressure = Systolic Pressure

– Diastolic Pressure
Normal = 30–40 mm Hg
As with noninvasive monitoring, intra-arterial blood pressure monitoring

may not be a sensitive indicator of hypoperfusion because of compensatory
vasoconstriction. Additional clinical information regarding volume status
can be obtained by visual inspection of the arterial blood pressure
waveform in mechanically ventilated patients (Figure 6-8). Positive
pressure during inspiration may decrease the stroke volume in patients with
inadequate intravascular volume because of decreased venous return. The
decrease in stroke volume leads to a decreased pressure that is visually
represented as a systolic variation of blood pressure and a decrease in the
pulse pressure.
Hypotension is not always

associated with the presence of
shock or tissue hypoperfusion.
Figure 6-8. Variation of Blood Pressure in a Mechanically Ventilated Patient with

Hypovolemia
With positive pressure applied during inspiration, the decrease in systolic pressure is
greater than the decrease in diastolic pressure, resulting in a decrease in pulse pressure.
Possible complications associated with arterial catheter insertion are listed
in Table 6-4. These can be minimized by careful insertion technique,
appropriate catheter size for the artery, proper site care, and a continuous
flush system. The arterial waveform must be continuously monitored and
displayed, with alarm settings to prevent inadvertent blood loss through a
catheter that is accidentally opened to the atmosphere. The extremity with
the arterial catheter should be inspected frequently for evidence of ischemia
or infection. Any sign of ischemia distal to the catheter or infection at the
site of insertion requires immediate removal of the catheter. Arterial
catheters should be removed as soon as possible to minimize the risk of
infection.
Table 6-4 Possible Complications of Arterial Catheters
Hematoma formation Arterial pseudoaneurysm

Blood loss Infection
Arterial thrombosis Accidental administration of fluids or medications
Proximal or distal embolization
C. Monitoring Right Ventricular Filling Pressures and Scvo2
A central venous catheter in the internal jugular or subclavian vein allows

measurement of CVP and Scvo2. Placement of a central venous catheter
may be indicated for other reasons as well (Table 6-5). Confirmation of
catheter placement in the internal jugular or subclavian vein and the tip in
the superior vena cava by chest radiography is recommended to ensure
accurate measurements of CVP and Scvo2 and to detect complications of
the procedure.
Table 6-5 Common Indications for Central Venous Cannulation
Measurement of mean central venous pressure

Measurement of central venous oxygen saturation
Large-bore venous access
Difficult or long-term venous access
Administration of irritating drugs and/or parenteral nutrition
Hemodialysis
Placement of a temporary pacing wire
Placement of a pulmonary artery catheter
CVP, obtained from an appropriately positioned catheter, estimates the right
ventricular filling pressure as a reflection of preload (end-diastolic volume).
Normal values for CVP are 2 to 6 mm Hg, and measurements should be
made at the end of expiration. Significant variation of the CVP waveform
may occur during spontaneous breathing and mechanical ventilation,
requiring visual assessment of the waveform to identify the end of
expiration (Figure 6-9). In general, a low CVP indicates a low intravascular
volume associated with a low preload. Normal or high CVP measurements
must be evaluated cautiously because they may not predict adequate or
increased preload volume caused by changes in intrathoracic pressure or
ventricular compliance. Assessment of fluid responsiveness is necessary to
estimate adequacy of preload with normal or elevated CVP measurements.
Right ventricular preload estimates do not necessarily correlate with left
ventricular preload.
Figure 6-9. Typical Cyclic Pattern for CVP Waveform
Typical cyclic pattern for continuous venous pressure (CVP) waveform that shows
inspiration (I) and expiration (E). A, Respiratory variation during spontaneous ventilation:
CVP decreases during spontaneous inspiration as intrapleural pressure decreases. B,
Respiratory variation during positive pressure mechanical ventilation: CVP increases during
delivery of the mechanical breath as positive pressure is transmitted from the airway to the
intrapleural space and great vessels. The vertical arrows denote the point of end-expiration
during spontaneous and mechanical ventilation.
Scvo2 can be monitored intermittently by withdrawal of blood for analysis

or continuously with a catheter containing an oximeter to evaluate oxygen
balance. Clinical protocols have used Scvo2 measurements along with other
parameters to determine adequacy of resuscitation. Normal Scvo2 values are
usually 70%.
D. Measuring Left Ventricular Filling Pressures

Left ventricular filling pressures are usually estimated from measurement of
the PAOP. A pulmonary artery catheter is necessary to obtain this
information but requires expertise in insertion, data collection, and data
interpretation. Static single measurements of left ventricular filling pressure
can often be provided by echocardiography.
E. Measuring Cardiac Output
Cardiac output plays a key role in determining oxygen delivery to the

tissues. Measurement methods, such as thermodilution with a pulmonary
artery catheter, esophageal Doppler ultra-sonography, and arterial waveform
pulse pressure analysis, require varying degrees of invasiveness as well as
special expertise. In the absence of direct measurement of cardiac output,
less-specific indicators of tissue oxygenation, such as lactate concentration
and Scvo2, may guide specific interventions. A calculated value for cardiac
output can be achieved by using hemodynamic parameters along with
laboratory analysis of arterial blood gas, hemoglobin, and central venous
blood gas. This calculation is readily available online (search “FICK
equation calculator”) and gives an additional tool for resource-limited areas
to monitor/trend cardiac output.
V. TREATMENTS FOR A NEGATIVE OXYGEN BALANCE

After monitoring devices have been initiated and the patient has been
determined to be in a negative oxygen balance, resuscitation should be
continued until the balance has been restored. The first step in management
is to identify and reverse the underlying cause of the organ failure/shock.
Multiple disease processes reduce oxygen delivery or increase or alter
oxygen consumption (Table 6-6). In addition, resuscitation usually involves
increasing oxygen delivery because it is easier to alter than oxygen
consumption. At its core, resuscitation goals are to increase cardiac output,
hemoglobin, or oxygen saturation to improve oxygen delivery. Cardiac
output is dependent on preload, contractility, and afterload. A step-by-step
process for restoring oxygen delivery to the tissues will be discussed in the
following paragraphs.
Table 6-6 Disorders/Factors That Can Affect Oxygen Delivery
Pulmonary (Hypoxemia) Cardiac Miscellaneous

Hypoventilation Low cardiac output Severe anemia
V/Q mismatch Right to left intracardiac shunt Methemoglobinemia
Pulmonary shunt Carboxyhemoglobinemia
Dead space Mitochondrial disorders
Diffusion limitation
High altitude
A. Cardiac Output
1. Fluid/Volume Responsiveness (Preload)

The practical question that clinicians often face in caring for critically ill
patients is whether further fluid administration will improve cardiac output
and oxygen delivery. This dilemma is not adequately addressed by single
measurements of heart rate, CVP, or blood pressure. It is important to
recognize that subpar fluid resuscitation can lead to inadequate perfusion. It
should be equally understood that overzealous administration of fluids can
have deleterious effects. In fact, only about 50% of unstable critically ill
patients respond to fluid administration.
Significant variation in the cardiac output, stroke volume, systolic blood
pressure, or pulse pressure in mechanically ventilated patients with
evidence of impaired oxygen delivery may suggest the need for additional
fluids to optimize cardiac output. With each positive pressure breath from
the ventilator, venous return and right ventricular preload is decreased. If
the right ventricle is dependent on preload, then positive pressure breaths
will result in a decrease in the right ventricular stroke volume, leading to a
decrease in left ventricular preload and left ventricular stroke volume
(cardiac output). A variety of devices are available that can monitor
variation in systolic blood pressure, pulse pressure, and/or stroke volume.
All have limitations in accuracy that must be considered, such as adequate
tidal volume, tachyarrhythmias, and adequate sedation.
A patient is deemed to be volume responsive if any of the following
hemodynamic parameters are demonstrated:
Stroke volume increase of 10%–15%

Stroke volume variation/pulse pressure variation ≥12%
Cardiac output increase of 10%–15%
Passive leg raising (PLR) is another technique that may be used at the
bedside with less invasive monitoring techniques to determine whether
additional fluid is beneficial. This maneuver is performed by placing the
head of the bed flat from the semi-recumbent position and then raising both
legs simultaneously to a 45° angle (Figure 6-10). This action results in a
gravitational transfer of 250–350 mL of blood from the lower limbs and
splanchnic compartment toward the right heart. No fluid is infused and the
clinical effects are completely reversible. If a significant increase in cardiac
output or stroke volume is noted within 30 to 60 seconds of PLR, the
patient is determined to be fluid responsive. PLR has been noted to be
reliable in mechanically ventilated patients and patients with spontaneous
respiratory effort who are not mechanically ventilated. Although blood
pressure and pulse pressure have traditionally been used during PLR,
cardiac output and stroke volume changes are much more sensitive in
assessing volume responsiveness. No increase or an insignificant increase
in blood pressure is less helpful in this circumstance. PLR should not be
performed in patients with increased intracranial pressure and may not be
reliable when intra-abdominal pressures are increased.
Figure 6-10. Effects of Passive Leg Raising
Fluid boluses may also be used to determine whether a patient is fluid
responsive. Boluses of isotonic crystalloid (usually 250–500 mL) are
administered over a short period (5–10 minutes) and subsequent cardiac
output or stroke volume measurements are noted. If a significant increase in
cardiac output or stroke volume occurs following the bolus, the patient is
fluid responsive. This technique must be used carefully because additional
fluid may be detrimental to the patient’s cardiac or respiratory status.
2. Mean Arterial Pressure (Afterload)

If oxygen balance is not restored and the patient is found to be adequately
fluid resuscitated, the next parameter to regulate is the mean arterial
pressure. Addition of vasopressors or vasodilators leads to normalization of
afterload leading to an increase in cardiac output.
3. Contractility
Low cardiac output after normalization of preload and afterload requires the
addition of intravenous infusion of inotropes. Inotropes increase
contractility, thus leading to an increase in stroke volume. Prior to initiation
of inotropic agents, a healthcare practitioner should have monitoring of
cardiac output established to effectively titrate these medications.
B. Hemoglobin
The patient’s hemoglobin is monitored and if the level is <7g/dL (<8g/dL if
heart failure/ischemia), then the patient should be considered for a
transfusion. Transfusion may be required for hemoglobin levels >8g/dL if
the patient is symptomatic. Symptomatic anemia results in hypo-tension,
tachycardia, orthostatic hypotension, fatigue, dizziness with movement, and
in extreme cases, hypoxemia. As the transporter of oxygen to the tissues,
loss of hemoglobin significantly affects oxygen delivery. Blood transfusions
have significant risks on their own and should only be done if necessary.
C. Oxygenation
If the patient’s oxygen level is not adequate, supplemental oxygen can be
added to ensure appropriate saturation of hemoglobin. Supplemental
oxygen can range from a nasal cannula to endotracheal intubation.
Treatment of the underlying cause of hypoxemia is important to decrease
the length of time supplemental oxygen is required (Chapter4).
VI. ACID-BASE DISORDERS

Acid-base disorders are common in the critically ill patient, and assessment
of acid-base status may indicate a specific diagnosis and/or therapeutic
interventions. The presence of metabolic acidosis could suggest
hypoperfusion and prompt further assessment of the adequacy of the
oxygen balance. An appropriate evaluation of acid-base status requires
accurate interpretation of simultaneous measurements of electrolytes,
albumin, and arterial blood gases, as well as knowledge of compensatory
physiologic responses. Appendix 5 includes acid-base case studies for
practice in analyzing arterial blood gas and electrolyte information and in
determining appropriate interventions.
A. Evaluation of Acid-Base Disorders
Analysis of acid-base disorders in seriously ill patients requires a systematic

approach. Although several methods can be used (base excess, strong ion
difference), the approach discussed here relies on traditional analysis using
formulas based on hydrogen ion and bicarbonate (HCO3) concentrations
that can be applied at the bedside.
1. Determine the overall acid-base condition by measuring pH. Is

acidemia or alkalemia present?
2. If an abnormality is present, determine whether the primary process is
metabolic (change in [HCO2]) or respiratory (change in partial pressure
of arterial carbon dioxide [Paco2]).
3. If a respiratory disturbance is present, determine whether it is an acute

or a chronic process.
4. If a metabolic disturbance is present, determine whether respiratory
compensation is adequate.
5. Always calculate the anion gap (AG); if needed, correct for albumin.
6. If an anion gap is present, is there another metabolic derangement
present?
B. Metabolic Acidosis
Metabolic acidosis results from an increase in endogenous acid production

that overwhelms renal excretion (eg, ketoacidosis, lactic acidosis),
exogenous acid input (eg, toxin ingestion), excessive loss of bicarbonate
(eg, diarrhea), or decreased renal excretion of endogenous acids (eg, renal
failure). Compensation is achieved primarily by increasing minute
ventilation to eliminate CO2. The adequacy of respiratory compensation can
be estimated by the following formulas:
Winter’s Formula/Expected Paco2 = 1.5 × [HCO2] + 8 ± 2; or Δ Paco2 = 1.2
× Δ [HCO2]
The lower limit of respiratory compensation is usually a Paco2 of

approximately 10 mm Hg (1.3 kPa). This means the Paco2 will not go lower
than 10 mm Hg to compensate for a metabolic acidosis.
Metabolic acidosis is further characterized by a normal or increased anion
gap. Normally, unmeasured anions exceed unmeasured cations, and the
difference results in the anion gap (AG). A patient’s normal AG is made up
of albumin and phosphate, with a normal value of approximately 10 ± 4
mmol/L. An increased AG indicates an increase in unmeasured anions
and/or a decrease in unmeasured cations. The patient’s AG is calculated
using the following formula:
AG = Na+ – (Cl- + HCO2-)
If the patient’s calculated AG is higher than the patient’s expected normal

gap, the patient has an AG metabolic acidosis. An increased AG has
limitations as the sole indicator of a metabolic acidosis. In patients with
severe hypoalbuminemia, an AG acidosis can exist even when a normal AG
is measured. In such patients, the expected normal AG may be as low as 4
to 5 mmol/L. It is imperative to calculate a corrected AG for such patients.
A simple rule of thumb: for every albumin decrease of 1 g/dL, a decrease of
2.5 to 3 mmol in the expected normal AG will occur.
In seriously ill patients, the most common causes of metabolic acidosis with
an increased AG are lactic acidosis, renal failure, and diabetic ketoacidosis
(Table 6-7).
Table 6-7 MUDPILES Acronym for Increased Anion Gap Metabolic

Acidosis
M Methanol
U Uremia
D Diabetic ketoacidosis
P Propofol. Propylene glycol. Paracetamol (acetaminophen)
I Iron. Isoniazid
L Lactate
E Ethanol. Ethanol glycol
S Starvation ketoacidosis. Salicylate
Tachypnea is an early sign of
critical illness. An increased
respiratory rate may be a
compensatory mechanism for
metabolic acidosis.
Metabolic acidosis with a normal AG, often called hyperchloremic acidosis,

may result from gastrointestinal or renal loss of HCO2 or volume
resuscitation with normal saline (Table 6-8).
Table 6-8 HARD UP Acronym for Normal Anion Gap Metabolic

Acidosis
H Hyperchloremia
A Acetazolamide
R Renal tubular acidosis
D Diarrhea
U Ureteroenterostomy
P Pancreatico-enterostomy
C. Metabolic Alkalosis
Metabolic alkaloses are usually separated into chloride-responsive (most

common) and chloride-resistant. A urine chloride level is needed to
distinguish between these two categories. A urine chloride <20 mmol/L is
seen in chloride-responsive metabolic alkalosis and a urine chloride >20
mmol/L is seen in chloride-resistant metabolic alkalosis. Diuretic therapy is
a common cause of hypochloremic metabolic alkalosis in hospitalized
patients. Normal compensation for metabolic alkalosis is hypoventilation;
Paco2 may rise 6 to 7 mm Hg (0.8–0.9 kPa) for every increase of 10
mmol/L in HCO2. Treatment includes chloride replacement for chloride-
responsive states and assessment of the renal-adrenal axis for chloride-
resistant conditions. Hypokalemia is common to both types and should be
corrected. Severe alkalemia is associated with high mortality and requires
aggressive treatment.
D. Respiratory Acidosis
Respiratory acidosis is most commonly the result of ineffective alveolar
ventilation. If the respiratory acidosis is acute, the pH decreases by 0.08
units for each increase of 10 mm Hg (1.3 kPa) in Paco2. A very small
increase in plasma HCO2 can be seen acutely because of titration of
intracellular non-bicarbonate buffers. For each acute increase of 10 mm Hg
(1.3 kPa) in Paco2, the HCO2 increases by 1 mmol/L to a maximum of 30 to
32 mmol/L. In chronic respiratory acidosis, the pH decreases 0.03 units and
the HCO2 increases 3.5 mmol/L for each increase of 10 mm Hg (1.3 kPa) in
Paco2. The limit of normal renal compensation in chronic respiratory
acidosis is an HCO2 of approximately 45 mmol/L. Higher values suggest an
associated metabolic alkalosis. Treatment of respiratory acidosis involves
the rapid identification of the etiology and implementation of corrective
action. In some circumstances, intubation and mechanical ventilation may
be necessary to support alveolar ventilation.
E. Respiratory Alkalosis
Respiratory alkalosis results from primary hyperventilation that is the result
of a variety of etiologies. Acute pulmonary processes or an acidosis should
be considered in the seriously ill patient. Similar to changes noted in
respiratory acidosis, pH increases 0.08 for every decrease of 10 mm Hg (1.3
kPa) in Paco2 in acute respiratory alkalosis, and pH increases 0.03 for each
decrease of 10 mm Hg (1.3 kPa) in Paco2 in chronic respiratory alkalosis.
The [HCO2] decreases 2 mmol/L in acute respiratory alkalosis and 5
mmol/L in chronic respiratory alkalosis for each decrease of 10 mm Hg (1.3
kPa) in Paco2. Chronic respiratory alkalosis is unique among acid-base
disorders in that pH may return to normal if the condition is prolonged.
Therapy is directed to the underlying cause.
F. Complex Acid-Base Disorders
Simple acid-base disorders result from a single process such as metabolic
alkalosis. In many critically ill patients, multiple acid-base disturbances
exist concurrently and result in complex acid-base disorders. For example,
sepsis often presents with respiratory alkalosis and metabolic acidosis. A
systematic approach to acid-base analysis is needed to identify the ongoing
disturbances and determine appropriate diagnoses and interventions.
Formulas that are helpful in evaluating acid-base status are listed in Table
6-9.
Table 6-9 Acid-Base Formulas

Acid-Base Disorder Equation
Respiratory Acidosis
Acute Decrease in pH = 0.08 × (PaCO2 – 40)
10
Increase in [HCO3 = ΔPaCO2 ± 3
10
Chronic Decrease in pH = 0.03 × (PaCO2 – 40)
10
Increase in [HCO3 = 3.5 × ΔPaCO2
10
Respiratory Alkalosis
Acute Increase in pH = 0.08 × (40 – PaCO2)
10
Decrease in [HCO3 = 2 × ΔPaCO2
10
Chronic Increase in pH = 0.03 × (40 – PaCO2)
10
Decrease in [HCO3 = 5 – 7 × ΔPaCO2
10
Metabolic Acidosis Anion Gap = [Na] – ([Cl] + [HCO3)
Expected PaCO2 = 1.5 × [HCO3 + 8 ± 2 or expected ∆PCO2 = 1.2 ×
∆[HCO3
Metabolic Alkalosis Increase in PaCO2 = 0.6 – 0.7 × Δ[HCO3
Reproduced with permission Killu K, Sarani B, eds. Fundamental Critical Care Support. 6th
ed. Mount Prospect, IL: Society of Critical Care Medicine; 2017.
Key Points
Monitoring Oxygen Balance and Acid-Base Status

Oxygen delivery is dependent on cardiac output (blood flow) and the
oxygen content of arterial blood (hemoglobin and oxygen saturation).
Hemoglobin is the major contributor of oxygen for tissue demands.
Normal ventricular filling pressure measurements may not indicate
adequate preload volume.
Measurements of global oxygen balance that may be useful to monitor
in the seriously ill patient include central venous oxyhemoglobin
saturation (Scvo2) and lactate concentrations.
Low Scvo2 values suggest an oxygen imbalance that may be the result
of decreases in cardiac output, hemoglobin concentrations, or arterial
oxyhemoglobin saturation, or increases in tissue oxygen consumption.
The pulse oximeter estimates arterial oxyhemoglobin saturation but
does not reflect adequacy of oxygen delivery.
Blood pressure monitoring via an arterial catheter is preferable to the
use of an automated blood pressure device in unstable patients.
Determination of systolic blood pressure, pulse pressure, or stroke
volume variation and fluid responsiveness using special monitoring
devices may be helpful in optimizing cardiac output and oxygen
delivery.
Assessment of acid-base status may suggest specific diagnoses and/or
therapeutic interventions.
Suggested Readings
1. Cherpanath T, et al. Predicting fluid responsiveness by passive leg

raising: a systematic review and meta-analysis of 23 clinical trials. Crit
Care. 2016;44(5):981-991.
2. Gauthier PM, Szerlip HM. Metabolic acidosis in the intensive care
unit. Crit Care Clin. 2002;18:289-308.
3. Hartog C, Bloos F. Venous oxygen saturation. Best Prac Res Clin
Anaesthesiol. 2014;28:4194-4928.
4. Hernandez G, Ospina-Tascón G, Damiani L, et al. Effect of a
resuscitation strategy targeting peripheral perfusion status vs serum
lactate levels on 28-day mortality among patients with septic shock.
JAMA. 2019;321(7):654-664.
5. Jubran A. Pulse oximetry. Crit Care. 2015;19:272.
6. Kellum JA. Disorders of acid-base balance. Crit Care Med.
2007;35:2630-2636.
7. Kraut JA, Madias NE. Lactic acidosis. N Engl J Med. 2014;371:2309-
2319.
8. Magder S. Central venous pressure: a useful but not so simple
measurement. Crit Care Med. 2006;34:2224-2227.
9. Marik PE, Cavallazzi R, Vasu T, Hirani A. Dynamic changes in arterial
waveform derived variables and fluid responsiveness in mechanically
ventilated patients. A Systematic review of the literature. Crit Care
Med. 2009;37:2642-2647.
10. Marx G, Reinhart K. Venous oximetry. Curr Opin Crit Care.
2006;12:263-268.
11. Mohammed I, Phillips C. Techniques for determining cardiac output in
the intensive care unit. Crit Care Clin. 2010;26:355-364.
12. Monnet X, Teboul JL. Assessment of volume responsiveness during
mechanical ventilation: recent advances. Crit Care. 2013;17:217.
13. Monnet X, Teboul JL. Minimally invasive monitoring. Crit Care Clin.
2015;31:25-42.
14. Monnet X, Teboul JL. Passive leg raising. Intensive Care Med.
2008;34:659-663.
15. Ortega R, Hansen CJ, Elterman K, et al. Videos in clinical medicine:
pulse oximetry. N Engl J Med. 2011;3.
16. Whittier WL, Rutecki GW. Primer on clinical acid-base problem
solving. Dis Mon. 2004;50:122-162.
Chapter 7
DIAGNOSIS AND MANAGEMENT OF

SHOCK
Objectives
Identify the four main categories of shock.

Discuss the goals of resuscitation in shock.
Summarize the general principles of shock management.
Describe the physiologic effects of vasoactive agents.
Discuss the diagnosis and management of oliguria and acute kidney
injury.
Case Study
A 72-year-old man is admitted to the floor with difficulty breathing and a

productive cough. His medical history includes chronic obstructive
pulmonary disease (COPD), hypertension, and diabetes mellitus. He was
prescribed oral antibiotics by his primary care physician 3 days ago. He
presented for care with worsening symptoms and was admitted to a medical
step-down unit. Now he is unable to speak in complete sentences. Physical
examination reveals coarse breath sounds on the left side with scattered
wheezes. His skin is cool and clammy. Vital signs include a temperature of
38.8°C (101.8°F), heart rate of 136 beats/min, respiratory rate of 26
breaths/min, blood pressure of 112/40 mm Hg, and pulse oximetry of 84%
on 2 L/min of oxygen.
– Is this patient in shock?
– What initial interventions will improve oxygen delivery to his tissues?
– What initial investigations will identify the etiology?
I. INTRODUCTION
Shock is a life-threatening syndrome of impaired tissue oxygenation and
perfusion caused by a variety of different etiologies. The diagnosis of shock
requires the integration of patient information from the history and physical
examination in combination with results from diagnostic studies. Without
recognition and treatment, shock may progress to an irreversible state and
death. Prompt recognition and early, effective interventions are necessary to
prevent organ dysfunction and irreversible organ failure. Efforts to restore
adequate perfusion and investigate the cause of shock should occur
simultaneously and without delay to minimize morbidity and prevent
mortality. Strong evidence supports timely resuscitative efforts to restore
perfusion through administration of fluids and vasoactive medications while
investigating and correcting the underlying causes of shock.
Impaired tissue oxygenation and perfusion may result from one or more of
the following:
A decrease in systemic oxygen delivery (inadequate cardiac output,

low blood oxygen content)
Ineffective tissue perfusion (maldistribution of blood flow to tissues or
inadequate perfusion pressure)
Impaired use of delivered oxygen (cellular or mitochondrial
dysfunction)
The metabolic consequences of cellular hypoxia can be manifested in

laboratory studies, such as serum lactate and pH.
II. CLINICAL ALTERATIONS IN SHOCK
The presentation of patients with shock may be subtle (eg, mild confusion,
sinus tachycardia) or easily identifiable (profound hypotension, anuria).
Shock may be the initial manifestation of an underlying condition or it may
develop as the condition progresses.
Providers must be vigilant and prepared to identify shock using clinical
assessment and trends in vital signs. Tachypnea is a readily apparent
compensation and early warning sign of shock. Clinical manifestations of
shock result from inadequate perfusion, compensatory responses, and the
specific etiology of shock. Shock that has overwhelmed compensatory
mechanisms may present as hypotension, altered mental status,
oliguria/anuria, and dysfunction of other organs. A systemic inflammatory
response is often triggered by shock and contributes to progression of organ
dysfunction and failure.
Direct and indirect effects of hypoperfusion are apparent in laboratory
findings, such as abnormalities in blood pH, arterial oxygenation, blood
urea nitrogen, creatinine, bilirubin, hepatic transaminases, and coagulation
parameters. An anion gap metabolic acidosis is a common finding of
hypoperfusion and is often associated with an elevated lactate
concentration. An elevated lactate level is a surrogate for systemic
hypoperfusion, the severity being reflected by the degree of elevation.
Trending lactate levels can be a means to monitor effectiveness of
resuscitation.
Compensatory mechanisms in shock involve complex neuroendocrine
responses that attempt to increase tissue perfusion and oxygenation. In
many forms of shock, sympathetic vasoconstriction redirects blood flow
from organs requiring low levels of oxygen (eg, skin) toward oxygen-
dependent organs (eg, brain and heart). Compensatory vasoconstriction can
maintain blood pressure early in shock and lead to an increase in the
diastolic pressure and a narrowing of the pulse pressure. Intense
vasoconstriction correlates with cold, clammy extremities and contributes to
organ hypoperfusion. Hypothermia also may be a manifestation of severe
vasoconstriction. Patients with distributive shock (discussed later) often
have vasodilation and warm extremities, but other signs of hypoperfusion
are usually present. Tachycardia, mediated by the sympathetic response,
reflects an attempt to increase cardiac output in shock. Tachypnea may be a
compensatory response to metabolic acidosis, a response to lung injury, or a
reaction to direct stimulation of the respiratory center.
Additional changes in shock alter oxygenation at the tissue level. As
discussed in Chapter 6, hemoglobin releases more oxygen as it traverses
the capillaries to meet tissue demands. A rightward shift of the
oxyhemoglobin saturation curve as a result of acidosis or increased
temperature facilitates release of hemoglobin-bound oxygen. The greater
extraction of oxygen is reflected in lower mixed venous oxyhemoglobin
saturation (Svo2) or central venous oxyhemoglobin saturation (Scvo2)
measurements in many forms of shock (Chapter 6). However, a normal
value for either of these measurements does not imply that tissue
oxygenation is adequate because some forms of shock (eg, septic shock)
may lead to impaired tissue or cellular use of oxygen.
The increased systemic vascular

resistance present in cardiogenic,
hemorrhagic, and obstructive shock
reflects compensation to maintain
blood pressure (perfusion
pressure).
III. CLASSIFICATION OF SHOCK
Undifferentiated Shock
Patients presenting in extremis with profound abnormalities in perfusion
require rapid interventions to begin correcting their shock state. Because of
rapid physiologic deterioration, providers often must begin resuscitative
efforts with little to no information as to the etiology of shock. Begin with a
primary survey focused on managing life-threatening airway, breathing, and
circulation problems, including acute hemorrhage. Effective delegation of
tasks among available team members is essential. Definitive interventions
are not necessary at first; jaw thrusts and oral/nasal airways can facilitate a
patent airway resulting in effective gas exchange and improved breathing.
Direct pressure to the site of hemorrhage, use of a tourniquet above the site
of hemorrhage, and fluid resuscitation will reduce the loss of hemoglobin
and may improve cardiac output.
Obtaining frequent vital signs provides trend information to the
resuscitating provider. Initial diagnostics ideally have a short processing
time and yield information directly helpful in identifying the etiology of
shock. Arterial blood gas (ABG) data with lactate determination quickly
provide insight into the perfusion and oxygenation status of the patient.
Chest radiographs will identify the presence of an infiltrate, effusion, or
pneumothorax contributing to inadequate oxygen delivery.
Electrocardiogram (ECG) and telemetry will demonstrate dysrhythmias and
morphology changes suggestive of acute ischemia earlier than troponin
assays. Point-of-care ultrasound (POCUS) has emerged as a beneficial tool
for the resuscitating provider to identify causes of shock and to assess
response to resuscitation efforts; however, specialized training is required
for appropriate use.
Classification of Shock Causes

There are four main categories of shock based on causative factors:
hypovolemic, distributive, cardiogenic, and obstructive (Table 7-1). Each
type of shock has unique hemodynamic characteristics. Exacerbation of
underlying chronic conditions caused by shock may blur hemodynamic
characteristics between the types of shock. Septic shock is a form of
distributive shock, but it may have a hypovolemic component before fluid
resuscitation. Myocardial dysfunction may be present in septic shock and
hypovolemic shock. A careful history and physical examination and
focused review of medical records often provide information that is helpful
in determining the likely cause of shock.
Table 7-1 Classification of Shock
Hypovolemic Cardiogenic
Hemorrhagic Ischemic cardiomyopathy (ie, STEMI)
Nonhemorrhagic (ie, Acute valve dysfunction
burns, GI losses)
Dysrhythmia
Distributive Obstructive
Septic Massive pulmonary embolism
Adrenal crisis Tension pneumothorax
Neurogenic (upper Cardiac tamponade
spinal cord injury)
Constrictive pericarditis
Anaphylactic
Abdominal compartment syndrome
Abbreviations: GI, gastrointestinal; STEMI, ST-elevation myocardial infarction.
Knowledge of the expected hemodynamic profiles associated with the

different types of shock is helpful in determining appropriate therapy, even
when specific measurements are not available. Table 7-2 presents the usual
hemodynamic profiles for more common forms of shock, but variations
occur depending on specific etiology, cardiac function, and resuscitation
status.
Table 7-2 Hemodynamic Profiles of Shock
Type of Heart Cardiac Ventricular Systemic Pulse SVO2

Shock Rate Output Filling Vascular Pressure or
Pressures Resistance ScvO2
Cardiogenic ↑ or ↓ ↑ ↑ ↓ ↓
↓c
Hypovolemic ↑ ↓ ↓ ↑ ↓ ↓
Distributive ↑ ↑ or Na ↓ ↓ ↑ ↑ or
Na
Obstructive ↑ ↓ ↑ or Nb ↑ ↓ ↓
Abbreviations: SVO2, mixed venous oxyhemoglobin saturation; ScvO2, central venous

oxyhemoglobin saturation; N, normal
aMay be decreased before or early in resuscitation.
bLeftventricular filling pressures may be normal or low in massive pulmonary embolism.
cCardiogenic shock may result from extremes of tachycardia or bradycardia.
Adapted with permission Killu K, Sarani B, eds. Fundamental Critical Care Support. 6th ed.
Mount Prospect, IL: Society of Critical Care Medicine; 2017.
A. Hypovolemic Shock
Hypovolemic shock occurs when intravascular volume is depleted because

of hemorrhage, gastrointestinal or urinary fluid losses, dehydration, or
profound soft-tissue edema. Internal fluid losses as a result of increased
capillary permeability may be prominent in burn injury, trauma,
pancreatitis, and other forms of inflammation-associated shock. The
hemodynamic findings in hypovolemic shock are decreased cardiac output,
decreased right and left ventricular filling pressures (preload), and an
increased afterload (systemic vascular resistance [SVR]) caused by
compensatory vasoconstriction. The Svo2 or Scvo2 is decreased because of
decreased cardiac output. The value of hemoglobin and hematocrit
measurements in acute hemorrhage can be inaccurate because there may not
be time for equilibration between fluid compartments to dilute the
remaining hemoglobin. An above normal hemoglobin and hematocrit may
reflect significant dehydration. Physical examination and correlation with
vital signs can direct the provider toward a more complete understanding of
hemoglobin and hematocrit measurements. Tachycardia may reflect an
attempt to increase cardiac output when stroke volume cannot be increased
because of hypovolemia. Capillary refill may be delayed, skin turgor poor,
and mucous membranes dry with hypovolemia. POCUS, used by a trained
provider, allows identification of hypovolemia by examining the size of the
inferior vena cava and response to inspiration. Coaptation of ventricular
walls also reflects significant hypovolemia. Internal jugular veins will not
distend with the Valsalva maneuver or may be flat on POCUS assessment.
B. Distributive Shock
Loss of peripheral vascular tone (vasodilation) is characteristic of

distributive shock. Fluid is sequestered in the venous spaces instead of
being returned to the heart. Characteristics of hypovolemic shock and
cardiogenic shock are often seen with distributive shock. The most common
form of distributive shock is septic shock, with neurogenic shock and
anaphylactic shock being much less common. The hemodynamic profile
usually includes a normal or increased cardiac output, usually related to low
SVR and low to normal ventricular filling pressures. Decreased cardiac
output may result if intravascular volume is not optimized or there is co-
existing myocardial depression. Svo2 or Scvo2 may be normal or increased
because of shunting of blood in the microvasculature or the inability of
tissue to use oxygen (as in sepsis). In contrast to other forms of shock, the
vasodilation of fluid-resuscitated distributive shock results in warm
extremities, decreased diastolic pressure, and increased pulse pressure.
Neurogenic shock caused by cervical or upper thoracic spinal cord
dysfunction or injury may be associated with bradycardia rather than
tachycardia. Fever may be present in septic shock and adrenal crisis. Close
monitoring of the patient with anaphylactic shock for airway compromise is
essential because of the risk of rapid development of airway edema.
Anterior myocardial infarction is a

common source of cardiogenic
shock (Chapter 10).
C. Cardiogenic Shock
Ineffective cardiac pump function causing hypoperfusion is the hallmark of

cardiogenic shock. Causes include acute valve dysfunction, tachy- and
bradydysrhythmias, and acute coronary syndrome. Most patients with
cardiogenic shock also have an acute coronary syndrome but other common
causes include decompensated heart failure and complications after cardiac
surgery. The classic and most common presentation is a low cardiac output
or index, elevated SVR, and a high pulmonary capillary wedge pressure,
but ventricular preload measurements and SVR can vary depending on the
underlying cause. Clinical symptoms include low blood pressure with
evidence of end-organ hypoperfusion, such as low urine output, mental
status changes, cool extremities along with pulmonary congestion, and a
narrowed pulse pressure. POCUS is an excellent resource to identify
inadequate pump function, pericardial effusions, and acute valve
dysfunction. POCUS also evaluates the effectiveness of fluid resuscitation,
vasopressors, and inotropes. Measurement of serum Brain Natriuretic
Peptide (BNP) or its fragment molecule, NT-proBNP are useful as
diagnostic markers of acute congestive heart failure. Plasma BNP levels in
excess of 100 pg/mL are indicative of acute congestive heart failure with
high sensitivity and specificity. An NT-proBNP level greater than 900
pg/mL is similarly diagnostic with the same degree of accuracy.
D. Obstructive Shock
The common features in obstructive shock are limitation of cardiac filling

because of external compression and excessive afterload. Cardiac
tamponade impairs diastolic filling of the right ventricle, whereas tension
pneumothorax limits right ventricular filling by obstruction of venous
return. Massive pulmonary emboli increase right ventricular afterload and
prevent blood from reaching the lungs to be reoxygenated. Severe intra-
abdominal hypertension as an element of abdominal compartment
syndrome impairs venous return to the heart. Decreased cardiac output,
increased afterload, and variable left ventricular filling pressures, depending
on the etiology, characterize the hemodynamic profile in obstructive shock.
In cardiac tamponade, the pressures of the right heart chambers, the
pulmonary artery, and the left heart chambers equilibrate in diastole. A drop
of > 10 mm Hg in systolic blood pressure during inspiration (pulsus
paradoxus) is an important clinical finding in patients with suspected
cardiac tamponade. Distended jugular veins may be seen, depending on the
time course of development and intravascular volume status. CT
angiography of the chest remains the gold standard for diagnosis of
pulmonary embolism. The presence of pericardial effusion with impaired
ventricular function on bedside ultrasound is diagnostic for pericardial
tamponade. Chest radiography and ultrasound will both be diagnostic of
pneumothorax. Tension pneumothorax is diagnosed by a combination of
severe hypoxia, absent breath sounds, shock, and a pneumothorax on chest
radiograph or absence of pleural slide on bedside ultrasound.
IV. GENERAL PRINCIPLES OF SHOCK MANAGEMENT
Restoration of hemodynamic
stability should be a priority while
efforts to treat the cause of shock
are implemented.
The overall goal of shock management is to improve oxygen delivery and

use to prevent cellular and organ injury. Effective therapy requires treatment
of the underlying etiology, restoration of adequate perfusion, and
comprehensive supportive care. Monitoring should allow for trending and
focus on assessing effectiveness of interventions, commonly referred to as
“end points of resuscitation.” Interventions to restore perfusion center on
achieving an adequate blood pressure (typically a mean arterial pressure
[MAP] > 65 mm Hg), normalizing cardiac output, and optimizing oxygen
delivery. In normal physiology, oxygen delivery far exceeds oxygen
consumption, allowing strenuous activity or tolerance of physiologic stress.
Oxygen delivery is improved by maximizing saturation of hemoglobin,
transfusing red blood cells, and increasing cardiac output (stroke volume ×
heart rate). Oxygen consumption is increased in severe infection, seizures,
and fever. Source control of infections, administration of antipyretics, and
control of seizures are effective measures to reduce oxygen consumption.
These goals are usually accomplished with a combination of interventions,
as summarized in Table 7-3 and Figure 7-1.
Table 7-3 Interventions for Managing Shock
Component Intervention
Blood pressure Fluids, vasopressor or vasodilator agentsa
Cardiac Output
Preload Fluids, vasodilator agentsa
Contractility Inotropic agents
Afterload Vasopressor or vasodilator agentsa
Oxygen Content
Hemoglobin Blood transfusion
Hemoglobin saturation Supplemental oxygen, mechanical ventilation
Oxygen demand Mechanical ventilation, sedation, analgesia, antipyretics
aVasodilator agents are used only when blood pressure is adequate.
Figure 7-1. Approach to the Patient With Shock

Abbreviations: BP, blood pressure; MAP, mean arterial pressure
Key aspects of initial shock management include a blood pressure goal, with titration of
fluids and vasoactive drugs to ensure adequate intravascular volume and MAP > 65 mm
Hg. After these initial objectives are achieved, oxygen delivery and organ perfusion may be
assessed by using such monitors as lactate levels, central venous oxygen saturation
(Scvo2), urine output, and evidence of end organ performance. Fluid responsiveness may
be determined by invasive hemodynamic monitoring systems or simple tests such as
straight leg raising.
Shock frequently occurs without hypotension. Providers should not await

hypotension to begin treating shock and improving perfusion. Hypotension
is a clear sign that compensatory mechanisms are failing and that organs are
at risk of progressive failure. The first goal in treating hypotensive shock is
to achieve a minimum MAP. This is needed to maintain blood flow to the
heart and other organs while optimizing other components of oxygen
delivery. A MAP ≥ 65 mm Hg is often recommended as an initial goal. A
higher MAP may be needed in patients with myocardial ischemia or chronic
hypertension, but an increase in blood pressure is beneficial only if it
translates into improved perfusion. Achievement of MAP targets is
accomplished with fluid boluses and vasoactive drugs.
It is important to distinguish between achieving blood pressure goals and
improving perfusion, which may be exclusive of each other. Blood pressure
measurement using noninvasive and invasive methods is far more readily
available than newer technologies that measure tissue perfusion. Although
normal blood pressure does not necessarily correlate with adequate
perfusion, targeting a goal MAP during the early resuscitation of shock is a
reasonable initial end point of resuscitation until other markers can be
assessed. Caution should be exercised with interventions to improve blood
pressure because an associated increase in cardiac output may increase
myocardial oxygen demand. Following initial resuscitation, the MAP goal
should be individualized based on further assessment of the adequacy of
systemic and organ perfusion.
Many patients with shock require

intubation.
The next goal in the management of shock is to optimize oxygen delivery.
As outlined in Chapter 6, this can be enhanced by increasing cardiac
output, hemoglobin concentration, or oxyhemoglobin saturation. In the
absence of specific measurement of cardiac output or stroke volume, an
assessment of adequate oxygen delivery depends on the etiology of shock
and the presence of perfusion abnormalities (discussed later). Fluids and/or
vasoactive agents are often needed to optimize cardiac output. The
determinants of the oxygen content of blood (hemoglobin and
oxyhemoglobin saturation) can be easily measured and optimized when
indicated. Increasing the hemoglobin concentration by transfusion is an
efficient way of improving oxygen delivery by increasing oxygen transport
capacity. For example, increasing the hemoglobin concentration from 7
g/dL to 9 g/dL increases oxygen delivery by almost 30%, even if cardiac
output remains constant. The oxyhemoglobin saturation can be increased by
raising the partial pressure of arterial oxygen with oxygen supplementation
and mechanical ventilation. However, once the partial pressure of arterial
oxygen has been increased to a range of 60 to 70 mm Hg (8–9.3 kPa), little
additional benefit is gained by increasing it further. An oxyhemoglobin
saturation of 95% and greater is recommended in patients with shock.
A. Monitoring
Patients with shock require monitoring to determine appropriate

interventions and assess response to interventions (Chapter 6). Continuous
electrocardiographic monitoring is needed to assess changes in heart rate
and rhythm. Blood pressure is best monitored with an arterial catheter
because of the inaccuracies of noninvasive devices in patients with shock.
Pulse oximetry should be monitored routinely to facilitate assessment of
oxyhemoglobin saturation. Hypoperfusion may be disclosed by a poor pulse
oximetry waveform. A low central venous pressure in the appropriate
clinical situation may suggest inadequate intravascular volume. New
technologies assess pulse pressure and stroke volume variation (PPV or
SVV) to monitor volume status with greater variability reflecting
hypovolemia. Measurement of Scvo2 via a central venous catheter may be
useful as an indicator of oxygen balance, but a normal Scvo2 value does not
rule out hypoperfusion. Comparison of oxyhemoglobin concentration
(O2Hgb) between venous and arterial blood gases provides insight regarding
oxygen delivery and consumption. A urinary catheter should be inserted to
monitor urine output as an indicator of renal perfusion, with a suggested
goal of 0.5 to 1 mL/kg/h. Lactate concentration and acid-base status should
be assessed initially and at appropriate intervals. Normal or decreasing
lactate concentrations or improving acidosis suggest improved oxygen
delivery and tissue response. Other laboratory data should be considered to
assess progression or improvement of organ dysfunction.
The trend of measurements over

time, especially in response to
interventions, is often more
valuable than a single
measurement.
B. Fluid Therapy
Physical examination may provide valuable information about the
intravascular volume status. Diffuse or dependent crackles, as well as
distended neck veins, suggest high ventricular filling pressures unless acute
respiratory distress syndrome or diffuse pneumonia is present. Clear lung
fields and flat neck veins suggest inadequate preload in the hypotensive
patient. Although orthostatic changes in blood pressure and heart rate may
be helpful in determining the degree of volume depletion, the tachycardic
hypotensive patient should not be subjected to these positional changes. The
nature and degree of fluid deficits should be determined to identify the type
and appropriate quantity of fluid replacement. Monitoring of fluid
responsiveness, as described in Chapter 6, may be helpful in determining
the appropriate volume of fluids.
The initial therapy for most forms of shock is expansion of intravascular
volume. Increasing preload creates more potential energy by distending the
ventricles, resulting in stroke volume increases. It is important to monitor
volume status closely to avoid excess preload which reduces cardiac output.
Fluid resuscitation in the patient with shock can be more complex in the
context of acute and chronic medical conditions. Guidance for fluid
resuscitation in adults with septic shock is outlined in Figure 7.2. Unless
suspicious for hemorrhagic shock, initial fluid resuscitation is begun with
either crystalloid or colloid solutions. Crystalloids are less expensive than
colloids and typically accomplish the same goals, although a higher total
volume is needed because of their higher volume of distribution. Isotonic
fluids consisting of a balanced electrolyte solution which closely resemble
normal concentrations may avoid iatrogenic metabolic derangements. If
0.9% normal saline is used for fluid resuscitation, providers should monitor
electrolytes frequently to avoid iatrogenic hyperchloremia and metabolic
acidosis that can occur with infusion of large volumes. Hypotonic fluids
may create rapid fluid shifts between intracellular, interstitial, and
intravascular spaces as well as severe electrolyte abnormalities. Hypertonic
solutions (2%–23.4% saline) should be used with great caution and frequent
monitoring of electrolytes. Colloid solutions include hetastarch, albumin,
and gelatins. Use of albumin is limited by cost in some areas. Providers
should exercise caution in the use of hetastarch for resuscitation of patients
in shock because of the increased risk of renal injury and coagulopathy.
Crystalloids in titrated boluses of 500 to 1000 mL (up to 30 mL/kg) or
colloids in titrated boluses of 250 to 500 mL may be given initially to most
adult patients and repeated as necessary while appropriate parameters are
closely monitored. Smaller bolus amounts are indicated for patients with
suspected or known cardiogenic shock. Use of bedside assessment tools,
such as ultrasound and the passive leg raise test, may provide guidance on
the benefits and risks of additional fluid. Providers should establish which
end points of resuscitation and measurements of volume status will be
monitored and evaluate data points regularly.
Initial administration of 30 mL/kg

of crystalloid to adults in septic
shock should be followed by
reassessments of oxygenation.
Figure 7-2. Application of Fluid Resuscitation in Adult Septic Shock
Abbreviations: ALI, acute lung injury; CHF, congestive heart failure; CMS, U.S. Centers for
Medicare and Medicaid Services; CVP, central venous pressure; ESRD, end-stage renal
disease ; SSC, Surviving Sepsis Campaign; Scvo2, central venous oxygen saturation
Reproduced with permission Dellinger RP, Schorr CA, Levy MM. A Users' Guide to the 2016
Surviving Sepsis Guidelines. Crit Care Med. 2017; 45(3):381-385. Copyright © 2017 by the
Society of Critical Care Medicine and Wolters Kluwer Health, Inc. All Rights Reserved.
Only red blood cells have oxygen-carrying capacity. Transfusion is

appropriate in the setting of acute blood loss anemia (hemorrhagic shock) or
among patients with severe impairments in oxygen delivery. In the actively
bleeding patient, hemostatic resuscitation with whole blood or a mixture of
plasma, platelets, and red blood cells (balanced-ratio component
transfusion) is necessary to restore oxygen delivery while simultaneously
controlling coagulopathy. Conservative transfusion thresholds (Hgb of 7
g/dL) have been successful in reducing costs without compromising
outcomes. Among patients in shock, transfusion should be considered as a
means of volume expansion and to improve oxygen delivery. A more liberal
approach to transfusion may be relevant in patients with severe hypoxemia,
myocardial ischemia, or co-existent hemorrhage who could benefit from
increased capacity for oxygen delivery. Correction of coagulopathy among
patients in septic shock should be reserved for those with coincidental
gastrointestinal bleeding or who are anticoagulated and require reversal for
an emergent invasive procedure. Fresh frozen plasma should be used only
for correction of a coagulopathy and not for volume replacement. Priorities
in the administration of fluids are resuscitation and replacement of ongoing
losses. As the clinical course continues, the solution that most closely
approximates the patient’s losses should be used, with serum electrolytes
guiding therapy.
The purpose of achieving euvolemia is to optimize cardiac output and
restore perfusion. Often, this correction manifests clinically as resolution of
tachycardia, hypotension, or oliguria. However, these end points may
remain altered despite euvolemia in states such as septic (distributive),
neurogenic, or obstructive shock. Vasoactive drug support is indicated in
patients who continue to have a low blood pressure or impaired cardiac
output after euvolemia has been established, or who no longer have a
beneficial response to fluid challenge or passive leg raising. The potential
deleterious effects of overly aggressive fluid resuscitation include
deterioration of oxygenation because of pulmonary edema, ileus or bowel
edema, and compartment syndromes. Therefore, frequent auscultation of
the chest for the presence of crackles, determination of relevant
compartment pressures, and monitoring of partial pressure of arterial
oxygen or oxyhemoglobin saturation by pulse oximetry should be
performed during fluid resuscitation.
Intra-abdominal pressure monitoring should be considered in patients
requiring massive fluid resuscitation (Chapter 16). In the absence of
advanced hemodynamic monitoring, volume therapy should be
administered carefully in patients with persistent hypotension and/or
hypoperfusion until no further change is noted in the blood pressure
following a fluid bolus. This suggests that additional fluid no longer
improves the patient’s cardiac output and administration of more fluid can
lead to the deleterious effects noted previously. Further correction of
hypotension or other perfusion abnormalities may require pharmacologic
support with vasoactive drugs. This approach to volume therapy presents
minimal risk in patients with adequate oxygenation.
No one vasoactive agent or

combination of agents has been
demonstrated to be superior in
managing shock.
C. Vasoactive Agents
Vasoactive agents for the acute management of shock include medications
with vasopressor, inotropic, and chronotropic effects. A vasopressor is a
medication that results in arteriolar constriction, a rise in systemic vascular
resistance, and a rise in arterial blood pressure. An inotrope is a medication
that augments cardiac contractility. Many agents have more than one
hemodynamic effect, and results may vary among individual patients and
with dosage. The goals of resuscitation are usually more important than the
specific agent chosen. Table 7-4 summarizes each vasoactive drug and its
mechanism of action. An intensivist should be consulted when the decision
to use vasoactive medications is made. Early initiation of vasoactive
medications is advised to decrease the duration of hypoperfusion. Guidance
for administering vasoactive agents in patient with septic shock is found in
Figure 7.3. Intraosseous access (Appendix 4) allows for early
administration of vasoactive medications without central venous access. In
emergent circumstances, some ino-tropes and vasopressors can be
administered for a short duration through large-bore peripheral IV catheters
that are placed at the antecubital fossa or more proximally.
Vasoactive agents are important

tools to achieve adequate perfusion
in shock patients. Steroid
administration to address relative
or actual adrenal insufficiency may
contribute to improved perfusion.
Table 7-4 Vasoactive Agents

DA-R β1a (↑ β2b α1c (↑ V1 Angiotensin
(↑UOP) HR) (↓BP) BP) Receptors II-type Ie
Dopamine 1-20 1-5 6-10 >10

µg/kg/min µg/kg/min µg/kg/min µg/kg/min
Phenylephrine 1-300 +++
µg/min
Norepinephrine + ++++
0.01–0.5 μg/kg/min
(2–30 μg/min)
Epinephrine ++++ +++ ++++
0.01-0.5 µg/kg/min
(2–50 μg/min)
Dobutamine +++ ++
(1-20 µg/kg/min)
Milrinoned +++ +++
(0.125-0.5
µg/kg/min)
Vasopressin +++
(0.01-0.04 units/min)
Angiotensin II +++
(1.25-40 ng/kg/min)
Abbreviations: BP, blood pressure; DA-R, dopamine receptor; HR, heart rate; UOP, urine
output
Potency scale is from 1+ to 4+
aβ = adrenergic receptor that increases cardiac contractility and/or heart rate
1
bβ = adrenergic receptor that mediates bronchodilation and arteriole dilation
2
cα = adrenergic receptor that mediates arteriole constriction and increase in peripheral
1
vascular resistance
dMilrinone = a phosphodiesterase inhibitor with indirect β and β effects
1 2
V1 receptor= vasopressin binds to G-protein-coupled V1 receptors on vascular smooth
muscle that leads to increased intracellular calcium levels and vasoconstriction
eAng II-type I = Binds angiotensin II receptor type 1 and stimulates aldosterone release
yielding vasoconstriction and increased afterload
Figure 7-3. Vasopressor Use for Adult Septic Shock With Guidance for Steroid
Administration
Abbreviation: MAP, mean arterial pressure
Reproduced with permission Dellinger RP, Schorr CA, Levy MM. A Users' Guide to the 2016
Surviving Sepsis Guidelines. Crit Care Med. 2017; 45(3):381-385. Copyright © 2017 by the
Society of Critical Care Medicine and Wolters Kluwer Health, Inc. All Rights Reserved.
1. Norepinephrine
Norepinephrine is the initial vasoactive drug recommended in the treatment
of septic shock. It is a more potent α-adrenergic vasoconstrictor than either
dopamine or phenylephrine, and it also has β1-mediated inotropic and
chronotropic effects. In adults, the infusion rate of norepinephrine starts at
0.05 μg/kg/min (μg/min) and is titrated to desired effects. As with other
vasoconstrictors, cardiac output may decrease as afterload and blood
pressure are increased. Norepinephrine may increase renal blood flow in
patients with adequate volume resuscitation. An increase in heart rate is
uncommon with use of norepinephrine.
2. Dopamine
Dopamine is a less frequently used vasoactive agent with dose-dependent
inotropic and vasopressor effects. It is no longer a drug of choice in the
treatment of septic shock. Although dose response varies greatly among
patients, some generalizations about dose and anticipated effect may be
helpful. At low rates of infusion (1–5 µg/kg/min), dopamine has modest
inotropic and chronotropic effects. In this dose range, it acts on the
dopaminergic receptors in the kidney and may increase urine output;
however, its use for renal effects is not recommended because it does not
prevent renal dysfunction or improve outcomes. At intermediate rates of
infusion (6–10 μg/kg/min), dopamine has primarily inotropic effects. At
higher infusion rates (≥ 10 μg/kg/min), it has significant α-agonist effects
that produce dose-related vasoconstriction. At infusion rates ≥ 20
μg/kg/min, dopamine usually offers no advantage over norepinephrine,
which may have greater vasopressor effect. Potential adverse effects include
arrhythmias (particularly atrial fibrillation) and tachycardia.
3. Epinephrine
Epinephrine has both α-adrenergic and β-adrenergic effects, potent
inotropic and chronotropic effects, and at higher doses, vasopressor effects.
Doses start at 0.05 μg/kg/min (μg/min) and can be titrated as desired. The
epinephrine-induced increase in myocardial oxygen consumption may limit
the use of this agent in adults, especially in the presence of coronary artery
disease. Potential side effects of epinephrine include tachyarrhythmias and
increased lactic acid production. The Surviving Sepsis Campaign
recommends adding epinephrine as the second-line agent after
norepinephrine for patients in septic shock, with a recommended dose of
20–50 µg/min (Figure 7-3). Recent literature has also supported the use of
“push-dose” epinephrine in the resuscitation of patients with shock who do
not have central venous access. This can be especially useful among
patients being resuscitated outside of an intensive care unit. Epinephrine
1:10,000 diluted to an epinephrine 10 µg/mL concentration given in 0.5- to
2-mL aliquots every 2 to 5 minutes can facilitate achieving MAP targets
while infusions of other vasoactive medications are prepared and
intraosseous or central venous access is obtained. Epinephrine is also part
of Advanced Cardiac Life Support protocols.
4. Phenylephrine
Phenylephrine is a pure α-adrenergic vasoconstrictor. In adults, the infusion
rate starts at 25 μg/min and can be titrated to the desired blood pressure.
Because its mechanism of action involves solely arterial constriction, it is
most useful in states with arterial dilation without concomitant cardiac
depression, such as neurogenic shock or hypotension caused by an epidural
anesthetic. Phenylephrine is not recommended for use in septic shock
unless in a salvage role when there is failure to improve with multiple other
vasoactive medications or significant dysrhythmias occur with
norepinephrine. In emergent circumstances, push-dose phenylephrine may
be administered via peripheral IV or intraosseous catheter to improve
coronary perfusion and cardiac output. Administration consists of 50–200
μg of phenylephrine 100 μg/mL given every 2 to 5 minutes.
5. Vasopressin
Vasopressin is a potent vasopressor that acts through V1 receptors to
produce vasoconstriction. As blood pressure is increased, cardiac output
may decrease, similar to the effect of norepinephrine. The recommended
dose in adults is 0.01 to 0.04 units/min. In septic shock, vasopressin is
recommended by the Surviving Sepsis Guidelines at a fixed dose (0.03
units/min) to augment MAP in patients already on norepinephrine. The
addition of vasopressin in septic shock may reduce the dose of
norepinephrine needed to achieve MAP targets. Higher doses (0.04
units/min) for prolonged periods of time may lead to ischemic events,
especially mesenteric ischemia. Vasopressin may be considered for use in
hypotensive shock refractory to other agents and fluid resuscitation, but it
has not been found to improve mortality.
6. Dobutamine
Dobutamine is a non-selective β-adrenergic agonist with inotropic effects. It
is used in doses of 5 to 20 μg/kg/min and is usually associated with an
increase in cardiac output, which is mediated mostly by an increase in
stroke volume. Arterial blood pressure may remain unchanged, decrease, or
increase slightly. Dobutamine must be introduced with care in the
hypotensive patient; in the face of inadequate intravascular volume
replacement, blood pressure can drop precipitously and tachycardia may be
problematic. This agent has variable chronotropic effects. Among patients
in septic shock with concomitant acute heart failure, the inotropic effects of
dobutamine may be of value and supersede the use of norepinephrine to
achieve MAP targets and improve perfusion.
7. Milrinone
Milrinone is a phosphodiesterase inhibitor that inhibits the breakdown of
cyclic adenosine monophosphate, the second messenger for catecholamines.
Therefore, milrinone is a sympathomimetic agent with mostly β-adrenergic-
like effects. It will increase cardiac output mostly by increasing stroke
volume and will decrease afterload by causing arteriolar dilation. It should
be used with caution in hypovolemic patients because it can cause
significant hypotension.
8. Angiotensin II
Angiotensin II is a potent vasoconstrictor and has been recently approved
for use by the Food and Drug Administration in high-output shock.
Angiotensin II accomplishes this through multiple mechanisms, including
direct vasoconstriction of peripheral vessels, water reabsorption through
potentiation of antidiuretic hormone, sodium retention via the synthesis of
aldosterone, and through synergistic activity with catecholamines. Although
it is not a new drug, there is a renewed interest in its use in treating
refractory shock. Evidence suggests that angiotensin II may preferentially
be of benefit in acute kidney injury and acute respiratory distress syndrome
in which the renin-angiotensin system (RAS) is known to be disrupted.
During hypotension, the RAS is activated in response to decreased pressure
and solute content in the kidney. Acute kidney injury limits the response of
the kidney to hypotension. Acute respiratory distress syndrome disrupts the
RAS as angiotensin I is converted to angiotensin II in the lungs.
Angiotensin II may have a role in cardiogenic shock, angiotensin-
converting enzyme inhibitor overdose, cardiac arrest, liver failure, and in
settings of extracorporeal circulation. Assessment of a serum renin level
may be helpful to determine whether a patient would benefit from this
medication.
D. End Points of Resuscitation

No single end point can be used to assess resolution of shock and return to
normal homeo-stasis. Furthermore, fluid and pharmacologic therapy should
be titrated based on the trend for the particular end point rather than its
absolute value.
Blood pressure, pulse, and urine output are the most commonly used end
points in resuscitation of shock. When resuscitating patients with shock
early in their course or in facilities with limited resources, easily assessed
end points should be used. Achievement of euvolemia may reflect an ability
to de-escalate vasopressors and inotropes while maintaining a target MAP.
Resolution of metabolic acidosis, normalization of lactic acid levels, and
resolution of altered mental status reflect improved perfusion. Insertion of a
urinary catheter to monitor urine output should occur early to allow
trending. In patients with prolonged hypoperfusion, urine output may
remain low despite achieving target blood pressures and improving global
perfusion. Urine output may not be a reliable end point in patients with
preexisting or new renal dysfunction. All parameters can be easily
measured but lack sensitivity and specificity for either detection of
impending shock or its resolution. As such, vital signs may be normal even
if the patient is in a state of compensated shock. Conversely, vital signs may
remain abnormal despite appropriate therapy (eg, low blood pressure and
urine output despite reaching a euvolemic state).
In addition to the clinical evaluation of vital signs and urine output,
monitoring techniques that assess cardiac output or stroke volume may be
helpful in determining when fluid resuscitation is optimized as an end point
(Chapter 6). Monitoring a PPV or SVV requires arterial catheterization and
can be useful beyond the initial resuscitation of patients outside of the
intensive care unit. In addition, use of POCUS to assess ventricular filling
and inferior vena cava dimensions may be helpful in the assessment of
volume status. Scvo2 and lactate concentrations as measurements of global
oxygen balance may also be useful in monitoring the patient in shock and
assessing the impact of interventions. Neither measurement assesses the
need for fluid versus pharmacologic support of the circulation.
Normalization of organ function as assessed by laboratory values (such as
renal or liver chemistries) is another end point to assess, but these
measurements are not usually helpful in the first 24 hours.
V. MANAGEMENT OF SPECIFIC TYPES OF SHOCK
A. Hypovolemic Shock
The treatment goals in hypovolemic shock are restoration of intravascular
volume and prevention of further volume loss. Therapy for hypovolemic
shock should be targeted to reestablish normal blood pressure, pulse, and
organ perfusion. For initial resuscitation, either colloid or crystalloid fluids
are effective if given in sufficient volume. Subsequently, the fluid that is
used should replace the fluid that has been lost. For example, blood
products may be needed to replace blood loss (Chapter 9), and crystalloid
should be used for vomiting and dehydration. For hypotension, the
crystalloid of choice is an isotonic solution because of the osmolality
needed to restore intravascular volume. In large volume resuscitation,
however, normal saline infusion may produce hyperchloremic metabolic
acidosis. Vasoactive medications should be considered only as a
temporizing measure while fluid resuscitation is ongoing or when
hypotension persists despite adequate volume resuscitation. POCUS allows
for ongoing reassessment of volume status and monitoring of response to
fluid challenges. Passive leg raise provides an intrinsic bolus equivalent to
300 mL and can demonstrate fluid responsiveness if blood pressure
increases by 10–20% after raising both legs to an elevation of 45°. Central
venous pressure monitoring may help to guide fluid resuscitation in patients
without significant heart or lung disease.
B. Distributive Shock
The initial approach to resuscitating the patient with septic shock, which is
a common form of distributive shock, is restoration and maintenance of
adequate intravascular volume. Patients with sepsis manifest life-
threatening organ dysfunction caused by a dysregulated host response to
infection. Prompt recognition is essential in patients with sepsis who have
persistent hypotension requiring vasopressors to maintain a MAP of ≥ 65
mm Hg and have a serum lactate level > 2 mmol/L (18 mg/dL) despite
adequate volume resuscitation because they have progressed to septic
shock. Delays in recognition, resuscitation, antibiotic administration, and
achieving other source control are associated with increased morbidity and
mortality. Obtaining cultures and prompt administration of appropriate
antibiotics are essential, as are other interventions to control the infection
(eg, removal of contaminated catheters, surgical procedures including
drainage and debridement of infected collections). Culture-proven infection
is not necessary to initiate antibiotics; however, cultures are of value later in
de-escalating antibiotic therapy. Lactate concentration should be measured
and repeated if abnormal as one component of assessing the resuscitation
efforts.
Volume expansion is the initial

treatment of septic shock. Table 7-4
provides a summary of vasoactive
drugs that should be added if
adequate perfusion is not achieved
despite administration of
appropriate intravascular volume.
Volume expansion should be initiated with isotonic crystalloid solutions

with an initial recommended bolus dose of 30 mL/kg and further boluses as
needed based on patient response to attain targeted resuscitation goals.
Caution should be exercised and lower bolus volumes may be indicated
when resuscitating patients with known cardiomyopathy or heart failure.
Vasodilation and diffuse capillary leakage are common in septic shock, and
fluid requirements may be large. Colloid solutions can be considered for
patients who require substantial amounts of crystalloids. If the patient with
septic shock remains hypotensive despite adequate fluid resuscitation,
norepinephrine is recommended as the initial vasoactive drug. Vasopressin
or epinephrine can be considered for patients who fail to respond
adequately to norepinephrine. Dobutamine may be considered in those
patients with inadequate perfusion after adequate administration of fluids
and vasopressors and displaying concomitant heart failure. Reversible
myocardial dysfunction with ventricular dilation and a decrease in ejection
fraction frequently occurs in shock, especially septic shock. An initial MAP
of < 65 mm Hg may require initiation of vasoactive pharmacologic therapy
until fluid resuscitation is optimized. Corticosteroids, such as intravenous
hydrocortisone in divided doses, may be considered in patients with septic
shock when adequate fluids and vasoactive medications fail to restore
hemodynamic stability.
Anaphylactic shock is often treated with volume resuscitation and
subcutaneous epinephrine. In circumstances of very low blood pressure and
poor peripheral perfusion, titrated intravenous vasopressors are indicated.
Acute adrenal insufficiency is treated with volume therapy, intravenous
corticosteroids, and vasoactive medications, if needed (Chapter 12).
Chapter 8 contains information about the management of neurogenic
shock.
C. Cardiogenic Shock
The primary goal in treating cardiogenic shock is to improve myocardial
function. Arrhythmias should be treated promptly. Reperfusion by
percutaneous intervention is the treatment of choice in cardiogenic shock
that is the result of myocardial ischemia (Chapter 10). Diastolic
dysfunction during myocardial ischemia may decrease ventricular
compliance and elevate the left ventricular filling pressures, falsely
indicating adequate preload. Therefore, a cautious trial of fluid
administration may be warranted (250-mL bolus amounts). When blood
pressure is decreased in cardiogenic shock, initial therapy with a single
agent that has inotropic and vasopressor effects (eg, norepinephrine or
dopamine) is indicated. Severely hypotensive patients (systolic arterial
pressure < 70 mm Hg) should be treated with norepinephrine to rapidly
raise the systolic arterial pressure. The addition of an intravenous inotrope,
such as milrinone or dobutamine (or dopexamine, which is available in
some countries), may be considered to augment myocardial contractility
after blood pressure stabilizes, with the goal of decreasing vasopressor
requirements. If moderate hypotension is not responsive to initial therapy,
consultation should be sought for potential interventions, such as intra-
aortic balloon counterpulsation or left/right ventricular assist devices.
The elevated SVR may impair cardiac output if it is a primary
hemodynamic alteration, as occurs in chronic congestive heart failure.
Often in acute cardiogenic shock, the SVR is secondarily elevated to
maintain vascular perfusion pressure. Treatment aimed primarily at
reducing afterload with a vasodilator should be initiated very cautiously and
only in patients with hypoperfusion accompanied by adequate blood
pressure.
Afterload and preload reduction

should be avoided in cardiac failure
when hypotension is present.
When cardiac failure is characterized by low cardiac output, normal or

elevated blood pressure, and hypoxemia caused by high pulmonary
capillary pressure, reduction of preload and afterload is helpful in
improving hypoxemia. High pulmonary capillary pressure can be diagnosed
clinically. Preload reduction is accomplished with loop diuretics
(furosemide or bumetanide) and venodilators (nitroglycerin and morphine),
whereas afterload reduction is accomplished with arterial vasodilators
(angiotensin-converting enzyme inhibitors or, occasionally, nitroprusside).
If the blood pressure can be increased to normal levels with inotropes, the
cautious addition of afterload and preload reduction is feasible in the
presence of low cardiac output or high pulmonary capillary pressure.
D. Obstructive Shock
In the patient with obstructive shock, relief of obstruction is the treatment of
choice. Maintenance of intravascular volume is vitally important.
Increasing preload by fluid resuscitation may improve the cardiac output
and hypotension temporarily. Inotropes or vasopressors have a minimal role
in the management of obstructive shock, and these agents provide only
temporary improvement, if any. Massive pulmonary embolus is a common
cause of obstructive shock.
Treatment for obstructive shock caused by a pulmonary embolism is
centered on fluid resuscitation to maintain cardiac output and prompt
anticoagulation to prevent clot propagation (Chapter 13). Thrombolytic
therapy or thrombectomy is sometimes needed in patients with refractory
cardiac collapse caused by massive pulmonary emboli. If cardiac
tamponade is present, pericardiocentesis may be a lifesaving intervention.
Tension pneumothorax must be treated promptly by needle decompression
and subsequent tube thoracostomy. Abdominal compartment syndrome in
the most extreme cases may require decompressive laparotomy.
Diuretics and venodilators should

be avoided in obstructive shock.
VI. OLIGURIA AND ACUTE KIDNEY INJURY

The kidneys are frequently affected by hypotension and hypoperfusion in
all forms of shock. Oliguria, defined as urine output < 0.5 mL/kg/h in
adults, is an important manifestation of hypoperfusion or decreased
glomerular filtration rate. There have been several criteria proposed over
the years for consistency in classifying kidney injury. The Kidney Disease
Improving Global Outcomes (KDIGO) staging criteria provides a
straightforward framework for providers to assess the stage of acute kidney
injury based on serum creatinine and urine output criteria. An increase in
serum creatinine by (0.3 mg/dL or 1.5-1.9 times baseline) or urine output <
0.5 mL/kg/hr for 6-12 hours are indicative of Stage I Acute Kidney Injury
(AKI). Further increases in creatinine and prolonged oliguria or anuria
reflect worsening AKI. Additional details regarding advanced stages of
AKI can be accessed at https://kdigo.org. Patients with chronic kidney
disease or who are regularly dialyzed may be more challenging when
assessing for AKI and may best be co-managed with Nephrology. Oliguria
may be an earlier indicator of renal dysfunction than changes in laboratory
parameters. Persistence of oliguria for at least 6 hours is one criterion for
acute kidney injury (AKI). Hypoperfusion may also result in an increase of
serum creatinine and blood urea nitrogen, which are the most common
laboratory measures of renal function. Acute changes in serum creatinine
and urine output are used to define AKI and classify severity across a broad
range of renal dysfunction. A key point is that small alterations in creatinine
(even a serum creatinine increase of 0.3 mg/dL [26.5 μmol/L] within 48
hours) or urine output predict an increased risk of renal failure and require
further evaluation. The preponderance of AKI in the shock patient relates
directly to hypovolemia with renal hypoperfusion and development of acute
tubular necrosis. Early recognition of hypovolemia and inadequate renal
perfusion is essential to facilitate early fluid resuscitation and vasopressor
administration to optimize renal perfusion and maintain adequate renal
function.
Along with other parameters mentioned previously, resolution of oliguria
may be considered a goal of resuscitation in shock. Oliguria also may be the
result of inherent renal injury or postrenal obstruction, a situation in which
urine output cannot be used as a goal of adequate resuscitation. The degree
of oliguria correlates with severity of AKI, with anuria reflecting the most
severe cases. Worsening renal laboratory studies should prompt concern and
consideration of a nephrology consultation. Maintenance of urine output of
at least 0.3 mL/kg/h portends a better prognosis. Causes of oliguria and
AKI are categorized as prerenal, renal, and postrenal, as outlined in Table
7-5.
Table 7-5 Differential Diagnosis of Oliguria and Acute Kidney Injury
Prerenal
Decreased cardiac output (eg, volume depletion, cardiac failure, tamponade)
Redistribution of blood flow (distributive shock) with peripheral vasodilation and/or
shunting
Renal
Glomerular disease (glomerulonephritis)
Vascular disease (eg, vasculitis)
Interstitial disease (eg, antibiotics)
Renal tubular disease
Ischemia
Nephrotoxic drugs
Postrenal (Obstructive)
Bilateral ureteral obstruction
Urethral stricture
Bladder outlet obstruction
Urinary catheter obstruction
Additional laboratory tests may help differentiate prerenal causes of

oliguria and AKI from other etiologies. Some laboratory tests of renal
function are shown in Table 7-6.
Table 7-6 Laboratory Tests to Distinguish Prerenal Conditions from

Acute Tubular Necrosis
Laboratory Tests Prerenal Acute Tubular Necrosis
Blood urea nitrogen/creatinine ratio >20 10-20
Urine specific gravity >1.020 >1.010
Urine osmolality (mOsm/L) >500 <350
Urinary sodium (mmol/L) >20 >40
Fractional excretion of sodium (%)a <1 >2
aFractionalexcretion of sodium = ([urine sodium ÷ serum sodium] ÷ [urine creatinine ÷
serum creatinine]) × 100.
Among patients who have received furosemide recently or chronically,

fractional excretion of urea can be measured in place of sodium excretion to
assess for prerenal etiologies of AKI and oliguria. Management of oliguria
or AKI caused by shock or other etiologies in the critically ill patient should
follow an organized approach. The patient should be evaluated promptly to
determine the cause of renal dysfunction. Reversible causes should always
be rapidly identified and corrected. Insertion of a urinary catheter and a
renal ultrasound scan will exclude urinary obstruction in most patients. The
urinary catheter is also a useful device to monitor urine output and should
be used in patients with shock. More frequent measurements of blood urea
nitrogen, serum creatinine, and urine output are needed in the setting of
AKI. Volume status should be assessed using clinical examination and the
monitoring techniques outlined in Chapter 6. Intravascular volume should
be optimized with crystalloid and/or colloid solutions to improve renal
perfusion. Vasoactive drugs, along with fluids, may be needed in patients
with shock to achieve an adequate blood pressure. Loop diuretics may be
considered (if blood pressure is adequate) in the setting of volume overload.
Although the conversion to a non-oliguric state does not change outcome,
fluid management is usually easier with continued urine output, especially
in patients with severe hypoxemic respiratory failure. A single dose of
furosemide (1–1.5 mg/kg ideal body weight) may be administered as a
physiologic stress test in patients without hypotension or active
resuscitation. A urine output < 200 mL over 2 hours is a strong predictor of
progression to stage III AKI, need for renal replacement therapy, and
mortality. No evidence supports the use of low-dose dopamine in oliguric
patients. Once oliguric or anuric AKI is confirmed and persistent, fluids
should be restricted to the replacement of ongoing losses (including
insensible losses). In disease states associated with ongoing loss of
intravascular volume, fluid administration is necessary to maintain adequate
left ventricular preload. These losses may be substantial, as in pancreatitis,
severe sepsis, and large open wounds.
Because there is no specific treatment for most cases of AKI, expectant and
supportive care is maintained. Drug dosages need adjustment not only for
the severity of AKI but also for the type of renal replacement therapy that
may be used. Nephrotoxic drugs (such as intravenous contrast) should be
avoided if possible. Monitoring of drug concentrations should be used to
guide therapy when possible. Problems with extracellular fluid overload,
hyperkalemia, and hypermagnesemia should be anticipated and avoided if
possible. Hyperkalemia usually can be managed medically until dialysis is
available (Chapter 12). Nutritional therapy must be adjusted for renal
function and renal replacement therapy.
Renal replacement therapy is necessary when uremic symptoms develop or
whenever extracellular volume excess, hyperkalemia (or other electrolyte
abnormalities), or metabolic acidosis is refractory to medical therapy.
Various intermittent or continuous therapies are available to accomplish
fluid removal (ultrafiltration) or solute removal (dialysis, hemofiltration,
hemodiafiltration). An appropriate selection depends on the circumstances
of the individual patient (especially hemodynamic status) and the resources
available. Consultation with a nephrologist is advised to assist with
determining the most appropriate treatment.
Case Study Conclusion
A Rapid Response Team assessed the patient and spoke with the on-call
hospitalist. An arterial blood gas with lactic acid was obtained to assess
adequacy of oxygenation, ventilation, and perfusion. Inhaled
bronchodilators were ordered and BiPAP was initiated. A chest radiograph,
ECG, and troponin were performed. No evidence of acute coronary
syndrome was evident; however, B-lines were present on the chest
radiograph and intravenous furosemide was administered. Blood cultures
were obtained while the antibiotic spectrum was broadened. Four hours
later, the patient was able to oxygenate adequately without BiPAP and was
able to speak in complete sentences. His skin is now warm and dry and his
vital signs show the following: temperature 37°C (98.6°F), heart rate of 90
beats/min, respiratory rate of 18 breaths/min, blood pressure of 120/80 mm
Hg, and Spo2 of 95% on 2 L/min of oxygen by nasal cannula.
Key Points
Diagnosis and Management of Shock

Shock is characterized by impaired tissue oxygenation and
hypoperfusion.
The four major categories of shock with characteristic hemodynamic
patterns are hypovolemic, distributive, cardiogenic, and obstructive.
The clinical manifestations of shock result from inadequate tissue
oxygenation and perfusion, compensatory responses, and the specific
etiology.
Interventions to restore perfusion center on achieving an adequate
blood pressure, increasing cardiac output, optimizing the oxygen
content of blood, and/or decreasing oxygen demand.
The initial therapy for most forms of shock is replacement of
intravascular volume with crystalloid or colloid solutions.
The selection of a vasoactive agent to treat shock should be based on
the hemodynamic effect desired for an individual patient and
knowledge of the pharmacology of available agents.
Reversible causes of acute oliguria or AKI should always be excluded,
and intravascular volume should be optimized with crystalloid and/or
colloid solutions.
Suggested Readings
1. Cecconi M, De Backer D, Antonelli M, et al. Consensus on circulatory

shock and hemodynamic monitoring. Task Force of the European
Society of Intensive Care Medicine. Intensive Care Med.
2014;40(12):1795-1815.
2. Dabrowski GP, Steinberg SM, Ferrara JJ, et al. A critical assessment of
endpoints of shock resuscitation. Surg Clin North Am. 2000;80(3):825-
844.
3. Gutierrez G, Reines HD, Wulf-Gutierrez ME. Clinical review:
Hemorrhagic shock. Crit Care. 2004;8(5):373-381.
4. Havel C, Arrich J, Losert H, et al. Vasopressors for hypotensive shock.
Cochrane Database Syst Rev. 2011;(5):CD003709.
doi:10.1002/14651858.CD003709.pub3.
5. Kidney Disease: Improving Global Outcomes (KDIGO) Acute Kidney
Injury Work Group. KDIGO: Clinical practice guideline for acute
kidney injury. Kidney Int Suppl. 2012;2:1-138.
6. Koyner JL, Davison DL, Brasha-Mitchell E, et al. Furosemide stress
test and biomarkers for the prediction of AKI severity. J Am Soc
Nephrol. 2015;26(8):2023-2031.
7. Mehta RL, Pascual MT, Soroko S, et al. Spectrum of acute renal
failure in the intensive care unit: the PICARD experience. Kidney Int.
2004;66(4):1613-1621.
8. Myburgh JA, Mythen MG. Resuscitation fluids. N Engl J Med.
2013;369:1243-1251.
9. Oh HJ, Shin DH, Lee MJ, et al. Urine output is associated with
prognosis in patients with acute kidney injury requiring continuous
renal replacement therapy. J Crit Care. 2013;28(4):379-388.
doi:10.1016/j.jcrc.2012.11.019
10. Radhakrishnan J, Cattran DC. The KDIGO practice guideline on
glomerulonephritis: reading between the (guide)lines--application to
the individual patient. Kidney Int. 2012;82(8):840-856.
doi:10.1038/ki.2012.280
11. Rhodes A, Evans L, Alhazzani W, et al. Surviving Sepsis Campaign:
International Guidelines for Management of Sepsis and Septic Shock:
2016. Crit Care Med. 2017;45:1-67.
doi:10.1097/CCM.0000000000002255
12. van Diepan S, Katz J, Albert N, et al. Contemporary Management of
Cardiogenic Shock: A Scientific Statement. Circulation.
2017;136(16):e232-e268. doi:10.1161/CIR.0000000000000525
13. Vincent JL, De Backer D. Circulatory shock. N Engl J Med.
2013;369(18):1726-1734.
Suggested Websites
1. Kidney Disease: Improving Global Outcomes. www.kdigo.org.

2. Surviving Sepsis Campaign. www.survivingsepsis.org.
3. Society of Critical Care Medicine. www.SCCM.org.
Chapter 8
NEUROLOGIC SUPPORT
Objectives
Review the principles of primary and secondary brain insults and the
common mechanisms of neuronal injury.
Apply the concepts of intracranial hypertension and brain oxygen
delivery and consumption to the management of the brain-injured
patient.
Review the clinical and diagnostic assessment of a brain-injured
patient.
List common treatments in brain injury.
Review specific management principles and options for selected
pathophysiologic conditions.
Case Study
A 62-year-old man is brought to the emergency department at 6:00 a.m. in

the morning after waking up with aphasia and right hemiplegia. He was last
seen well the evening before around 11:00 p.m. He has a history of
hypertension and type 2 diabetes mellitus. His current medications include
aspirin, hydrochlorothiazide, carvedilol, and glyburide. Examination reveals
a blood pressure of 160/100 mm Hg, heart rate of 90 beats/min and regular,
respiratory rate of 14 breaths/min, and temperature of 37.2°C (98.9°F). He
is alert but unable to speak or follow commands. His cranial nerve
examination shows a left conjugate gaze preference, absent movement of
the right lower face with sparing of the forehead, absence of response to
noxious stimuli on the right side of his face, and a diminished gag reflex on
the right side. He has a right hemiplegia and does not respond to noxious
stimuli applied to the right side of his body. The remainder of his physical
examination is unremarkable. An immediate computed tomography (CT)
scan of the head shows a small area of decreased grey matter/white matter
differentiation in the left insular cortex.
– What type of primary brain injury is likely to be present?
– What is the next important diagnostic test?
– What interventions and monitoring should be instituted in addition to
the CT scan?
I. INTRODUCTION
Primary injuries to the brain include ischemic events, trauma, hemorrhage,
and anoxia, which may occur either in isolation or in combination.
Mechanisms for these and other primary injuries are shown in Table 8-1.
Table 8-1 Common Mechanisms of Primary Brain Injuries
Trauma: concussion, contusion, shear injury, penetrating injury, and diffuse axonal
injury
Ischemia: global (eg, cardiac arrest with anoxia) or regional (eg, stroke)
Inflammation: meningitis, encephalitis
Compression: tumor, cerebral edema, hematoma (eg, epidural, subdural, or
intraparenchymal)
Metabolism: encephalopathies (eg, hepatic, electrolyte, drugs, toxins, prolonged
seizures)
Often, little can be done to reverse the immediate and frequently

devastating effects of the primary cerebral insult that produces neuronal
injury or death. In some circumstances, the immediate effects of an injury
may be reversed by prompt surgical or medical intervention. Many types of
brain insults produce a region of maximum injury associated with a
surrounding area of tissue, or penumbra, that may survive and recover if
further damage can be mitigated. Common mechanisms of secondary injury
are shown in Table 8-2. The mechanisms of secondary brain injury may
evolve over time from other primary insults. For example, edema after head
trauma commonly produces secondary brain compression, vasospasm after
subarachnoid hemorrhage (SAH) may cause regional ischemia and stroke,
or secondary hemorrhagic conversion after an ischemic stroke may induce
compression and further ischemia.
Table 8-2 Common Mechanisms of Secondary Brain Injuries
Hypoperfusion: global (ie, secondary to high intracranial pressure, systemic arterial

hypotension, or severe anemia) or regional (eg, secondary to high intracranial
pressure, local edema, or vasospasm)
Hypoxia: systemic hypoxemia, regional hypoperfusion, or high tissue consumption
(ie, seizures, hyperthermia)
Electrolyte or acid-base changes from systemic or regional ischemia
Reperfusion injury with free radical formation
Prolonged seizures
II. BRAIN INJURY MANAGEMENT PRINCIPLES

Because the primary injury in the central nervous system is often not
reversible, the main goal for treatment is prevention of secondary injury.
The focus of treatment for a neurologically compromised patient is the
same as the one aimed for patients with other illnesses and injuries, that is,
to ensure adequate oxygen delivery to meet the needs of both the damaged
and the undamaged brain tissue. The initial care team must take early and
aggressive action to ensure that secondary brain injury is prevented,
minimized, or reversed with careful monitoring and management,
particularly the prevention and early treatment of hypoxia and hypotension.
Optimizing oxygen delivery to the brain requires attention to oxygenation,
hemoglobin concentration, cardiac output, and blood pressure (BP).
Prevention and early treatment of fever, pain, agitation, and anxiety can
minimize oxygen demands. A unique challenge in acute brain injury is the
metabolic demand caused by seizures which can potentiate secondary
injury. Therefore, monitoring and treatment of seizures is an important
aspect of preventing secondary injury.
A. Intracranial Hypertension
Intracranial pressure (ICP) reflects the balance of volume-control
mechanisms within the noncompliant cranial compartment. Because the
brain is enclosed within the rigid skull and relatively inflexible dura, with
tissues and fluids that are not compressible, control of the different
intracranial components is essential to maintain brain homeostasis, regulate
ICP, and preserve cerebral perfusion. The critical compartment relationship
depends on the volume occupied by each component. An increase in one
component (eg, brain) must be accompanied by a decrease in another
component (eg, blood), also known as the Monro-Kellie doctrine. When the
compensatory mechanisms are overwhelmed, ICP increases and injury may
ensue. In addition to the impaired cerebral perfusion, which may be a
consequence of globally increased ICP, small pressure gradients within the
skull may cause herniation of the brain around dural reflections (the falx
and the tentorium), with shift of the midline structures. These movements
within the skull may compromise function (eg, cause stupor or coma by
disrupting the activity of the brainstem reticular formation) or lead to
vascular compression and stroke. Understanding the vector of
intercompartmental shifts in the cranium can help predict which patients
will experience life-threatening secondary injury from compression.
An intensivist, neurointensivist, or a neurosurgeon should be consulted if
intracranial hypertension is suspected. The patient may need ICP
monitoring either through a catheter inserted into a lateral ventricle (allows
both monitoring and drainage of cerebrospinal fluid [CSF]), or a strain
gauge (or fiberoptic) pressure monitor inserted into the brain parenchyma
(Table 8-3). This monitoring includes ICP, temperature, and/or brain
oxygen. Measurements of cerebral oxygenation require special equipment
and expertise that are not available in most facilities. When direct measures
are not available, the initial care team must treat the patient based on the
principles of oxygen supply and demand.
Increased ICP has an important
effect on the regional and global
supplies of oxygen to the brain
because it compresses arteries and
decreases cerebral blood flow.
Conditions Potentially Requiring Invasive Intracranial

Table 8-3
Pressure Monitoring
Traumatic brain injury (Table 8-6)

Acute obstructive hydrocephalus from acute subarachnoid hemorrhage, intracranial
hemorrhage with intraventricular extension, or cerebellar stroke or hemorrhage
compressing the fourth ventricle
Nonobstructive hydrocephalus from subarachnoid/intraventricular hemorrhage or
infection/inflammation in the meninges
Subarachnoid hemorrhage with coma or clinical deterioration if increased ICP is
suspected
Large ischemic stroke
Fulminant hepatic failure
Global brain ischemia/anoxia with increasing edema
B. Impaired Substrate Delivery (Hypoperfusion and Hypoxia)

Cerebral autoregulation reflects an active and passive system of blood flow
physiology by which arteriolar dilation or constriction controls regional
cerebral blood flow (CBF) and links oxygen demand to its delivery. Thus,
global CBF normally remains constant over a defined range of mean arterial
pressures (MAP). Loss of autoregulation occurs in many pathologic
conditions and may lead to regional or global vasodilation and edema
formation that can further increase ICP. Increases in blood volume also
profoundly affect the pressure inside the noncompliant cranial vault (based
on the Monro-Kellie doctrine).
Although related, changes in CPP
may not always result in similar
changes in CBF.
CBF correlates with the cerebral perfusion pressure (CPP) in many

pathologic conditions in which autoregulation is impaired. CPP is defined
as the MAP minus the ICP (the pressure impeding blood flow):
CPP = MAP – ICP
The normal CPP is between 60 and 100 mm Hg. If the ICP increases
without a change in MAP, CPP decreases, and CBF will also decrease if
autoregulation has failed. The decrease in CBF increases the risk of brain
ischemia. Clinicians should pay particular attention to changes in mental
status because these may indicate inadequate perfusion (among many other
possibilities).
The MAP must be measured at the same location as the ICP to be accurate;
this is usually done by zeroing the arterial line transducer at the ear and
keeping it at the same height as the head when the head is elevated. It is
important to understand that the correlation between CBF and CPP assumes
normal cardiac output. Impaired cardiac output, particularly when
associated with strong vasoconstrictor medications (vasopressors), will
dissociate CPP and CBF.
C. Recommendations for Therapy

Therapy for acute brain injury is based on the two previously mentioned
physiologies: reduction of intracranial hypertension and optimization of
substrate delivery. Algorithmic management of ICP after brain injury is an
important mechanism to standardize care. The typical progression includes
the use of osmotic agents, such as mannitol and hypertonic fluids, to
increase the oncotic pressure in the blood and draw interstitial fluid out of
the brain, thereby decreasing “brain water.” Further management techniques
include diverting CSF through an external ventricular device, upright body
positioning to optimize CSF transit out of the calvarium, and prevention of
events that increase sympathetic tone, such as seizures.
In parallel to pressure-reducing therapies, strategies to minimize damage to
the brain in distress focus on therapies designed to balance oxygen demand
and substrate delivery (CBF and oxygen). Table 8-4 summarizes commonly
accepted principles and therapeutic guidelines for treating a variety of brain
insults and avoiding secondary brain injury. Note the focus on factors that
minimize oxygen consumption and maximize oxygen delivery.
Table 8-4 General Principles of Managing Brain Injury

Prevent Abnormal Oxygen Demands
1. Avoid fever. Fever increases metabolic demand, resulting in neuronal injury and
elevates ICP.
2. Avoid seizures. Prophylactic anticonvulsant administration is indicated after moderate
or severe traumatic brain injury to prevent seizures in the first week, but the available
evidence does not support longer use in head trauma or its use in other neurologic
injuries
3. Avoid anxiety, agitation, or pain. Neuronal oxygen consumption may be decreased by
an antianxiety agent, sedation, and analgesia.
4. Avoid shivering.
5. Minimize stimulation, particularly for the first 72 hours.
Promote Oxygen Delivery
1. Ensure systemic oxygen transport with adequate oxygenation, hemoglobin

concentration, and cardiac output.
2. Ensure optimal BP. Many primary insults are associated with hypertension that may
be a physiologic compensation or may be injurious. Elevated BP may be undesirable
in patients with unsecured aneurysms and recent intracranial hemorrhage. However,
excessive lowering of BP may result in secondary ischemia.
3. Avoid prophylactic or routine hyperventilation because an increase in extracellular
brain pH constricts responsive vessels and may reduce CBF to ischemic zones. Brief
hyperventilation while instituting other methods to lower elevated ICP may be
lifesaving in patients with evidence of herniation.
4. Ensure euvolemia because hypovolemia may result in systemic hypotension and
hypoperfusion of brain tissue.
5. Rapid sequence intubation should be used for patients with increased ICP. Consider
administration of intravenous lidocaine or intravenous propofol to blunt the rise in the
ICP associated with intubation. Avoid using depolarizing neuromuscular blockers (ie,
succinylcholine) without defasciculating doses of nondepolarizing blockers (ie,
vecuronium, rocuronium, and cisatracurium).
III. ASSESSMENT
After appropriate management of airway, breathing, and hemodynamic
concerns, the priority in neurologic assessment is to distinguish among
ischemic, structural, metabolic, and infectious injuries. Suspected ischemic
stroke requires an immediate decision regarding thrombolytic therapy or
intervention, and emergent neurologic consultation should be obtained. The
presence of an expanding mass lesion accompanied by significant brain
shift may indicate the need for immediate surgical evaluation and possible
intervention. The most common causes of such an event include epidural,
subdural, and intracerebral hematomas. Intracranial hematomas should be
suspected in the settings of head trauma, recent neurosurgery, anticoagulant
therapy, alcohol abuse, coagulopathies, and chronic or acute hypertension.
The diagnostic procedure of choice, CT scan of the brain, characterizes the
extent of structural injury. Medical treatment may be a temporizing option
until more definitive therapy is available and implemented.
Early identification of patients with

ischemic stroke or potential
surgical lesions provides the best
opportunity to minimize secondary
brain injury.
Serial examinations are necessary to detect the possible sequelae of many

brain insults. Any change in the examination is an indicator of deterioration
and should prompt an immediate and thorough reevaluation. For example,
decreased consciousness without lateralizing findings may be the result of
elevated ICP, hydrocephalus, fever, toxic substances, or worsening of an
encephalopathy, etc.
The Glasgow Coma Scale (GCS) score is widely used in the initial and
serial assessment of patients with head trauma, and it may be useful in
evaluating patients with other brain insults. Importantly, it serves as a
standardized language by which the care team can communicate the level of
responsiveness of the patient. Table 8-5 lists its components.
Table 8-5 Components of Glasgow Coma Scale Score
Clinical Parameters Adults Points

Eye opening Spontaneous 4
Response to speech 3
Response to pain 2
No response 1
Verbal response Oriented and appropriate 5
Disoriented and confused 4
Inappropriate words 3
Incomprehensible sounds 2
No response 1
Best motor response Obeys commands 6
Localizes pain 5
Withdraws from pain 4
Flexor response 3
Extensor response 2
No response 1
Total Glasgow Coma Scale score = eye + verbal + motor scores; best possible score = 15,
worst possible score = 3.
Serial examinations, including evaluation of brainstem and cranial nerve

function, should be performed. Pupillary asymmetry may be an important
sign of unilateral compression with midline shift, which commonly
precedes downward herniation in patients with supratentorial masses.
Uncoordinated eye movements, a change in respiratory pattern, or
deterioration in motor response may suggest an increase in intracranial
mass effect and should be investigated immediately.
When physical examination or CT

scan suggests significant brain
compression, medical therapy to
reduce ICP should be instituted
immediately while awaiting
definitive treatment.
When clinical findings suggest downward central herniation, emergent

administration of mannitol or hypertonic saline should be initiated to lower
ICP, and emergent neurosurgical assistance should be obtained. A brief
period of hyperventilation may be considered with the understanding that
hyperventilation has been found to increase brain ischemia and should be
used only as a temporizing measure when the patient’s survival is in
question. Whether repetition of an imaging study or immediate surgical
therapy is required depends on the nature, location, and progression of the
pathologic process.
The Cushing reflex of hypertension

followed by bradycardia and
altered respiration may indicate
downward central brain herniation.
Neurosurgical consultation is advised for any patient who: (1) is at risk for
developing an expanding intracranial mass lesion; (2) has an open or
depressed skull fracture or acute ventricular obstruction; (3) demonstrates
blood in the fourth ventricle, cerebellar bleeding, or SAH; or (4) has CSF
leakage. Nontraumatic disease processes, such as spontaneous intracerebral
hematoma, large brain tumors, or brain abscesses, require urgent
neurosurgical consultation if clinical findings or an imaging study indicate
significant mass effect (midline deviation, ventricular obliteration,
brainstem or basal cistern compression).
Urgent neurosurgical consultation should be obtained for hemorrhages and
infarcts in the posterior fossa regardless of the level of consciousness.
Although such patients may have few findings on initial clinical
examination, progressive swelling around the lesion may necessitate
emergent surgical decompression. Typically, any cerebellar mass greater
than 3 cm in diameter with hydrocephalus or brainstem compression
requires consideration of evacuation.
IV. SPECIFIC DIAGNOSES AND CONSIDERATIONS
A. Traumatic Brain Injury
Approximately 25% of patients who experience blunt head trauma require

urgent evacuation of a subdural hematoma (Figure 8-1A) or an epidural
hematoma (Figure 8-1B) to relieve compression of the brain. Neurosurgical
consultation should be considered early. Because 20% of patients with
severe traumatic brain injury (TBI) will have concomitant cervical spinal
cord injuries, immobilization of the cervical spine until it can be
appropriately assessed is very important.
(left) Figure 8-1A. Subdural Hematoma
(right) Figure 8-1B. Epidural Hematoma
Penetrating and nonpenetrating head injuries are often associated with the
formation of cerebral edema, brain contusions, or hemorrhage within the
parenchyma. Because the skull cannot expand to accommodate increased
intracranial volume and the compensatory space in the subarachnoid space
of the spinal canal is very limited, the ICP commonly becomes elevated.
Monitoring and treatment of increased ICP are considered important in such
patients.
Cerebellar hemorrhage with altered

consciousness is a surgical
emergency.
Guidelines for the management of severe TBI have been developed by the
Brain Trauma Foundation on the basis of established evidence and expert
opinion. These principles are included in the recommendations in Table 8-
6.
Table 8-6 General Principles for Treatment of Traumatic Brain Injury
Ensure the ABCs of resuscitation are performed.

Avoid hypotension and maintain systolic BP ≥100 mm Hg for patients 50–69 years
old or ≥110 mm Hg for patients 15–49 or >70 years old. Optimal mean arterial
pressure is unknown.
Avoid hypoxemia (PaO2 <60 mm Hg [8.0 kPa] or oxygen saturation <90%) while
adequate oxygenation is maintained.
Maintain alignment between head and trunk to avoid jugular compression.
Keep the head of the bed at 30° to 45° elevation unless the patient is hypotensive.
Elevation of the head promotes venous drainage and CSF displacement to the spinal
compartment. Adjust any devices that may constrict the neck, including cervical
collars.
Treating sustained ICP >22 mm Hg is recommended because values above this level
are associated with increased mortality. A combination of ICP values, clinical
examination, and brain CT findings may be used to make management decisions.
Maintain the PaCO2 at 35 to 40 mm Hg (4.7-5.3 kPa). Prolonged prophylactic
hyperventilation with a partial pressure of carbon dioxide in arterial blood (Paco2) of
25 mm Hg or less is NOT recommended.
Use normal saline as the primary maintenance fluid. Do not use hypotonic fluids.
Actively treat fever to maintain body temperature at normal levels.
Prophylactic hypothermia within 2.5 hours and within 48 hours post-injury is NOT
recommended to improve outcomes in patients with diffuse injury.
Control agitation with sedation if necessary. Use medications with a relatively short
half-life to facilitate reliable and ongoing neurologic assessments.
Maintain the usual electrolyte homeostasis and treat hyperglycemia/hypoglycemia.
Assess and treat coagulation defects.
Low-molecular-weight heparin or low-dose unfractionated heparin may be used in
combination with mechanical prophylaxis. However, there is an increased risk of
intracranial hemorrhage
Provide nutrition to attain full caloric replacements as tolerated by at least the fifth
day and at most by the seventh day post-injury to reduce mortality. Post-duodenal
feeding is recommended to reduce the incidence of ventilator-associated pneumonia.
Prophylactic use of phenytoin or valproate is NOT recommended for prevention of
late posttraumatic seizures (PTS). However, phenytoin is recommended to decrease
the prevalence of early PTS within 7 days of a TBI when the benefit outweighs the
risk of complications associated with this treatment, although early PTS have not
been associated with worse outcomes. (There is insufficient evidence to recommend
levetiracetam when compared with phenytoin in preventing early PTS and toxicity at
this time).
Although hyperosmolar therapy may lower ICP, there is insufficient evidence to
support the use of any specific hyperosmolar agent to lower ICP for patients with
severe TBI.
AVOID steroid use. These agents are contraindicated in patients with head trauma
because they are associated with increased mortality.
Management of patients with severe TBI using information from ICP monitoring is
recommended to reduce in-hospital and 2-week post-injury mortality.
The recommended target CPP value for survival and favorable outcomes is between
60 and 70 mm Hg. Whether 60 or 70 mm Hg is the minimum optimal CPP threshold
is unclear and may depend on the patient’s autoregulatory status. Aggressive
attempts to maintain CPP >70 mm Hg with fluids and/or vasopressors may be
avoided because of the risk of adult respiratory failure or other adverse effects.
Bifrontal decompressive craniotomy (DC) is NOT recommended to improve
outcomes in patients with severe TBI with diffuse injury and with ICP elevation to
values >20 mm Hg for more than 15 minutes within a 1-hour period that are
refractory to first-tier therapies. However, it has been demonstrated to reduce ICP
and to minimize days in the ICU.
A large fronto-temporoparietal DC is recommended over a small one for reduced
mortality and improved neurologic outcomes in patients with severe TBI.
An external ventricular device (EVD) zeroed at the midbrain with continuous drainage
of CSF may be considered to lower ICP more effectively than intermittent use. Use of
CSF drainage to lower ICP in patients with an initial GCS score of <6 during the first
12 hours after injury may be considered.
Administration of barbiturates to induce burst suppression measured by EEG as
prophylaxis against the development of intracranial hypertension is NOT
recommended.
High-dose barbiturate administration is recommended to control elevated ICP
refractory to maximum standard medical and surgical treatment. Hemodynamic
stability is essential before and during barbiturate therapy.
Although propofol is recommended for the control of ICP, it is NOT recommended for
improved mortality or 6-month outcomes. Caution is required because high-dose
propofol can produce significant morbidity.
Jugular bulb monitoring of arteriovenous oxygen content difference as a source of
information for management decisions may be considered to reduce mortality and to
improve outcomes at 3 and 6 months after injury. Avoid jugular venous saturation of
<50% in order to reduce mortality and improve outcomes.
Abbreviations: CPP, cerebral perfusion pressure; CSF, cerebral spinal fluid; CT, computed
tomography;
DC, depressive craniectomy; EVD, external ventricular device; GCS, Glasgow Coma Scale;
ICP, intracranial pressure; PTS, posttraumatic seizures; TBI, traumatic brain injury.
B. Intracerebral Hemorrhage
Intracerebral hemorrhage (ICH) occurs in 12 to 31 per 100,000 people each

year in the United States, accounting for 10% of all strokes. Approximately
60% of patients with ICH have a history of hypertension. Other frequent
causes include cerebral amyloid angiopathy (CAA), coagulopathy,
medication-induced, vascular abnormalities, and sympathomimetic drugs.
ICH is a medical emergency. Rapid diagnosis and management are crucial
because early deterioration is common in the first few hours after the onset
of ICH. It is important for the clinician to assess the need for airway
support, the risk of herniation and brainstem compression, hematoma
expansion, elevated ICP, and strategies for prevention of secondary brain
injury. A contrast-enhanced CT scan can occasionally show a “spot sign” (a
contrast spot in the hemorrhage bed) that suggests continued bleeding. The
clinician should also calculate the ICH score, a grading scale composed of
GCS score, age, and initial neuroimaging. It predicts in-hospital mortality
and is useful in counseling families.
Intracerebral hemorrhage (ICH)

mortality increases as ICH score
increases. An ICH score 3 has a
mortality of 72% and reaches 100%
with an ICH score 5 & 6.
Rapid diagnosis and management

is crucial because early
deterioration is common in the first
few hours after the onset of ICH.
Elevated BP may contribute to rebleeding and edema formation but may
also preserve regional CPP. Recent guidelines suggest target BP control
(systolic blood pressure [SBP] 140–180 mm Hg) with the understanding
that patients with long-standing hypertension and history of chronic kidney
disease are at higher risk of acute kidney injury. Basic principles of BP
control include rapid correction with titratable agents. If elevated ICP is
suspected, expert consultation is advised for assistance with BP
management. Preferred agents include labetalol, nicardipine, or clevidipine.
Use of vasodilators remains controversial, but medications that cause
substantial intracranial vasodilation (eg, nitroprusside, nitroglycerin) should
be avoided.
Expansion of the hematoma occurs commonly, especially in patients taking
anticoagulants or antiplatelet agents, have liver disease, have platelet
dysfunction related to end-stage renal disease, or have a low platelet count.
Rapid reversal of coagulopathy with appropriate reversal agents should be
done as soon as possible. Neurosurgical consultation for evacuation of
hematoma should be considered in patients with a life-threatening
deteriorating neurologic examination, cerebellar location, intraventricular
hemorrhage causing hydrocephalus, and large mass effect. Some
neurosurgeons may consider removal of the hematoma, especially in a
young, clinically deteriorating patient with a large lobar hemorrhage or
when the hemorrhage is associated with a surgically treatable lesion, such
as an aneurysm, arteriovenous malformation, or cavernous angioma. Deep
basal ganglionic hemorrhages do not yet have a universally accepted
surgical therapy (Figure 8-2A). Small hemorrhages may not require
specific surgical therapy (Figure 8-2B).
Figure 8-2A.(Left) CT Scan Demonstrating Large Right Basal Ganglion Intracerebral
Hemorrhage with Midline Shift and Intraventricular Extension
Figure 8-2B.(Right) CT Scan Demonstrating Small Left Parietal Lobar Intracerebral

Hemorrhage
C. Subarachnoid Hemorrhage
Subarachnoid hemorrhage may be categorized as traumatic or nontraumatic.

Nontraumatic SAH, often aneurysmal in nature, accounts for 1% to 7% of
all strokes and is considered a neurovascular emergency. Overall,
approximately 10% of patients die before arriving at the hospital and 65%
of survivors are left with some cognitive impairment. Therefore, prompt
consultation with a center experienced in the care of these patients is
advised. Characteristics from the patient history (“worst headache of their
life”) and CT findings usually confirm the diagnosis of SAH (Figure 8-3).
Classification systems (eg, the Hunt and Hess scale or the Fisher scale)
have been used to categorize findings and suggest prognosis but do not alter
the care provided by the primary team, as outlined in Table 8-7. The
treatment plan should include securing the aneurysm before the period of
delayed deterioration (within first 24 hours has become a common
standard) to prevent rebleeding, diagnose and manage obstructive
hydrocephalus, and monitor for and treat delayed neurologic deterioration
(cerebral vasospasm), including vasospasm prophylaxis with nimodipine
within 24 hours. Nimodipine is beneficial because it can reduce the
possibility of secondary cerebral hemorrhage, has neuroprotective
properties, and improves overall outcomes. Guidelines are available from
the American Heart Association/American Stroke Association (AHA/ASA)
and the Neurocritical Care Society. Almost all patients, regardless of
severity, should be stabilized and evaluated for rapid transfer to a
specialized center for management.
Figure 8-3. CT Scan Demonstrating Subarachnoid Hemorrhage (FCCS 6th ed Figure 8-3)
D. Ischemic Stroke
Table 8-7 Treatment of Subarachnoid Hemorrhage
Ensure the ABCs of resuscitation are performed.

Perform rapid evaluation of the aneurysm location for surgical clipping or coiling,
which requires urgent neurosurgical and/or neurointerventional consultation.
Hydrocephalus is caused by blockage of CSF circulation and absorption. Temporary
CSF diversion is achieved with an EVD.
Control BP early, before definitive surgical therapy. The standard is to keep SBP
>140 mm Hg (with concern for patients with preexisting hypertension and/or chronic
kidney disease). Rebleeding is the major early complication until the aneurysm is
clipped or coiled. A variety of intravenous agents have been useful. Labetalol and
nicardipine have been advocated. Nitroprusside should be avoided because of its
tendency to induce cerebral vasodilation. Nimodipine, a calcium channel blocker
used to treat delayed deterioration, can have effects on BP that can be amplified
when using other antihypertensive agents.
Initiate oral nimodipine, 60 mg every 4 hours (an intravenous preparation is available
in some countries). Hypotension should be avoided.
Maintain euvolemia. It is common for patients to present with volume depletion.
Some experts advocate gentle intravascular volume expansion. Significant cardiac
injury can occur as result of catecholamine levels; thus, careful attention to
arrhythmias and cardiac function is necessary.
Avoid hyponatremia, which is commonly encountered. Normal saline has been used
as the primary intravenous fluid although some experts now advocate chloride-
sparing infusions unless hyponatremia is prominent. Hyponatremia usually reflects
cerebral salt wasting rather than SIADH and should NOT be treated with volume
restriction. Both traumatic and nontraumatic SAH patients will have inappropriately
high urine osmolality, so this marker cannot be used to indicate SIADH. If salt
administration is indicated, hypertonic saline is the treatment of choice.
Hyponatremia should be corrected slowly because central pontine myelinolysis can
occur from rapid and aggressive sodium correction.
Seizure prophylaxis should be considered for patients until the aneurysm is secured.
Active treatment of seizures should be done according to guidelines and protocols.
Treat pain and anxiety. It is important to avoid straining or Valsalva because either
can potentially contribute to aneurysm rupture. A balance should be achieved
between oversedation and undermanagement of pain and anxiety because one
could mask symptoms of neurologic deterioration. Consider medications with a short
half-life.
Antiemetics may be helpful in preventing discomfort and strain associated with
vomiting.
Because this disease requires the combined efforts of intensivists, neurosurgeons,
and neurointerventionalists, it is prudent to manage patients in centers with the
capacity for aneurysm clipping and coiling and for vasospasm treatment.
Abbreviations: CSF, cerebral spinal fluid; EVD, external ventricular drain; SIADH, syndrome
of inappropriate antidiuretic hormone
Stroke is a leading cause of disability. In the United States alone, there are
approximately 750,000 strokes each year. Of these patients, 15% to 30% are
disabled, 20% require long-term institutional care, and 50% are unable to
return to work. The estimated cost of stroke in the United States is $72
billion. Ischemic stroke usually occurs because of thromboembolic
obstruction of arteries. Administration of intravenous recombinant tissue
plasminogen activator (tPa) during the first 3 to 4.5 hours following the
known onset of ischemic stroke substantially improves outcome in one-
third of patients. Recent studies have demonstrated a role for intra-arterial
treatment with a clot retrieval system (called a stent-retriever device) in
selected patients with larger artery occlusion if they present within the first
24 hours of symptoms (Figure 8-4). This aggressive intervention results in
the impressive relative reduction of disability in 73% of patients.
Figure 8-4. CT Angiogram Demonstrating Occlusion of Left Middle Cerebral Artery (arrow)
Onset of symptoms, or the last time the patient was known to be at baseline
(often called Last Known Well [LKW]), is the time used to determine
whether a patient is a candidate for thrombolytic therapy. The use of a
stroke severity rating scale, such as the National Institutes of Health Stroke
Scale (NIHSS) is recommended. Like the GCS, it forms a common
language by which to risk-stratify patients for treatment. After an initial CT
scan rules out the presence of hemorrhage, intravenous recombinant tPA
should be administered in a dosage of 0.9 mg/kg (10% as a bolus over 1
minute and 90% in a 1-hour infusion) for patients in whom treatment can be
started within 4.5 hours. Protocols should be in place, including absolute
and relative contraindications, to ensure proper selection of candidates for
thrombolytic therapy. Personnel who are not familiar with the use of
recombinant tPA for the acute treatment of non-hemorrhagic stroke should
seek immediate neurologic consultation before administering therapy. Intra-
arterial clot retrieval is an important option for patients with large artery
occlusion, regardless of whether recombinant tPA has been administered.
Guidelines are available from the AHA/ASA.
The use of a stroke severity rating

scale, such as the National
Institutes of Health Stroke Scale
(NIHSS), is recommended.
Supportive care includes management of hypertension. Although an

elevated BP is often present early, a decrease in pressure usually occurs in
the first hours after stroke without specific medical treatment. No evidence
defines a level of BP that requires emergent intervention. The AHA and
ASA have compiled consensus recommendations for patients who are
candidates for thrombolytic therapy. For those patients who are not
candidates for thrombolysis, emergency administration of antihypertensive
agents is not indicated unless the diastolic BP is > 120 mm Hg, SBP is >
220 mm Hg, or there is evidence of end-organ injury (eg, pulmonary
edema). If treatment is indicated, the BP should be lowered cautiously with
a reasonable goal of lowering the pressure approximately 15% in the first
24 hours after stroke onset.
In an otherwise eligible patient for

acute reperfusion patient whose BP
is >185/110 mm Hg, anti-
hypertensive medications such as
labetalol, nicardipine, clevidipine,
hydralazine and enalaprilat can be
used to lower and maintain target
BP. Please refer to AHA guidelines
for BP management protocol.
If a patient deteriorates clinically during or after IV tPA, the clinician
should stop tPA infusion immediately, monitor vital signs, obtain head CT
stat and if confirmed hemorrhage, administer cryoprecipitate. Significant
edema formation, typically within the first 72 hours, or extensive
hemorrhage within the ischemic zone may indicate the need for emergent
hemicraniectomy. Younger patients with middle cerebral artery (MCA) or
internal carotid artery (ICA) infarction should be considered for
decompressive hemicraniectomy within 48 hours of the onset of symptoms.
Medical management includes osmotic therapy, sedation, prevention of
secondary brain injury (avoid hypotension and hypoxia), early nutrition,
glucose control (range 140–180 mg/dL), temperature control, and venous
thromboembolism (VTE) prophylaxis.
Determination of when the initial

stroke symptoms appeared is
critical.
VTE prophylaxis should be administered to immobilized patients. Low-

molecular-weight heparins are favored in relation to unfractionated heparin,
although both could be similarly effective. No data are available on the use
of new oral anticoagulants. Aspirin administration within 24 to 48 hours of
the onset of the stroke is recommended for most patients after hemorrhage
is excluded. In patients with minor strokes, treatment for 21 days with dual
antiplatelet therapy (aspirin and clopidogrel) started within 24 hours can be
beneficial for early secondary stroke prevention.
E. Anoxic Injury
Relative anoxia may be a part of other injuries and may be the result of
airway loss, systemic hypoxemia, hypoperfusion, and other causes. Anoxia
may also be the primary brain insult, as occurs during cardiac arrest.
Neuronal damage may occur as a direct result of the primary insult of
hypoxemia or hypoperfusion.
The initial team should maintain the usual standards of optimal oxygen
delivery. Despite extensive studies of many agents and therapy options,
none has proven selectively beneficial, nor has the poor prognosis from
anoxic brain injury improved over time. The International Liaison
Committee on Resuscitation (ILCOR) task force recommends targeted
temperature management for adults with out-of-hospital cardiac arrest with
an initial shockable rhythm at a constant temperature between 32°C to 36°C
(89.6°F to 96.8°F) for at least 24 hours. Guidelines are available from the
AHA and the ILCOR.
F. Metabolic Abnormalities, Infectious Emergencies, and Seizures
In the absence of papilledema or

focal neurologic signs, a lumbar
puncture may be performed without
a prior CT scan for evaluation of
meningitis.
In adult patients with depressed consciousness after airway management

and initial resuscitation, the administration of 50% dextrose (50 mL
intravenously) and thiamine (100 mg intravenously) should be considered
for the treatment of potential hypoglycemia and the prevention of Wernicke
encephalopathy if an immediate determination of the blood glucose
concentration is not available. Intravenous naloxone should be administered
if narcotic intoxication is a possibility. Other metabolic abnormalities, such
as electrolyte disorders (ie, acute hyponatremia, hypercalcemia), liver
failure, or uremia may also cause coma. Because headache or altered state
of consciousness accompanied by fever, nuchal rigidity, and leukocytosis
suggests meningitis or encephalitis, the CSF should be submitted for
physical, chemical, and bacteriologic (culture and Gram stain) studies. If
clinical examination suggests a mass lesion or elevated ICP, a CT scan
should be performed before lumbar puncture. If the scan reveals evidence
of mass effect or generalized cerebral edema, a lumbar puncture may
precipitate a herniation syndrome and should be postponed. When infection
is part of the differential diagnosis, appropriate antibacterial and antiviral
treatment should be initiated before performing the imaging study or
lumbar puncture because early therapy for bacterial meningitis or
encephalitis may be lifesaving. Blood cultures should be obtained before
antibiotic therapy unless this would delay treatment. Antibiotics and
resuscitation should not be delayed to obtain a lumbar puncture or brain CT.
Treatment recommendations are outlined in Chapter 11.
If possible, avoid the use of

neuromuscular blocking agents in
patients at risk for seizure because
these agents obscure detection of
seizure activity.
G. Status Epilepticus
Status epilepticus (SE) is a life-threatening neurologic emergency that
requires prompt treatment and diagnosis. It is defined as 5 minutes or more
of continuous seizure activity or recurrent seizure activity without return to
baseline. It may be classified as convulsive and non-convulsive. The
treatment management plan should include work-up to determine possible
etiologies and rapid protocol for termination of seizures.
Intravenous benzodiazepines are administered at the onset of prolonged or
repeated seizure activity. Status epilepticus requires emergent neurologic
consultation, and lorazepam 0.1 mg/kg should be administered
intravenously. Intramuscular midazolam, 0.15 mg/kg, is an alternative if
intravenous access is not immediately available. The addition of
phenytoin/fosphenytoin, valproate sodium, or levetiracetam has been shown
to be useful. If seizures continue, secure the airway and initiate advanced
treatment for refractory SE. Anticonvulsants used in refractory SE include
propofol (3 mg/kg loading dose, then infusion of 1–5 mg/kg/h) or
midazolam (0.2 mg/kg loading dose, then infusion of 1–20 μg/kg/min) with
electroencephalography and other ICU monitoring.
Possible etiologies of Status

Epilepticus
Acute: CNS infection, metabolic,
TBI, sepsis, stroke, drugs, hypoxia,
cardiac arrest, hypertensive
encephalopathy, autoimmune
encephalitis
Chronic: Breakout seizures, CNS
tumors, alcohol withdrawal
Seizure activity after an acute brain injury increases cerebral oxygen

requirements and typically elevates ICP. Appropriate therapy should be
administered to terminate seizure activity as soon as possible. The
intravenous administration of anticonvulsants, many of which have a potent
sedative effect, may depress respiratory function and requires appropriate
supportive therapy. In addition, hypotension may occur, requiring additional
intravenous fluids and/or vasopressors to preserve MAP and CPP.
H. Spinal Cord Injury
Cervical spine injury can usually be determined in awake patients because

they reflect neck pain and weakness. If awareness is impaired, cervical
spinal cord injury should be suspected in patients with respiratory
weakness, extremity weakness without facial weakness, hypotension with
bradycardia, priaprism in male patients, and difficulty maintaining
normothermia. Patients with lesions below the fourth cervical segment (C4)
may breathe adequately on presentation but could progress to respiratory
failure with abrupt decompensation and thus must never be left
unmonitored.
Thoracolumbar spine injury spares the upper extremities but involves leg
weakness; depending on the spinal level, the patients may have hypotension
with tachycardia or unusual swings in BP.
Initial management includes spinal motion restriction (cervical collar,
backboard) while obtaining emergent spine surgery consultation. However,
patients should not be left on backboards after arrival in the emergency
department because of the risk of pressure ulcer development. A MAP of >
85 mm Hg for the first 7 days after injury is recommended by some
clinicians to improve perfusion to the injured area of cord. The American
Association of Neurological Surgeons/Congress of Neurological Surgeons
do not recommend the use of methylprednisolone in spinal cord injury.
CT scans of the spine can be obtained without removing immobilizing
devices.
I. Other Neurologic Causes of Acute Respiratory Failure (Acute

Nontraumatic Weakness)
Patients with conditions causing global weakness, such as myasthenia
gravis and Guillain-Barré syndrome, may have problems maintaining upper
airway patency in addition to respiratory muscle weakness. In such patients,
endotracheal intubation may be warranted for airway protection before
being mandated by the falling tidal volume. Measurement of vital capacity
and negative inspiratory pressure is important. Patients with increased work
of breathing, hypoxemia, < 20 mL/kg vital capacity, or maximum
inspiratory pressure <-30 cm H20 should be moved to the ICU and will
likely need intubation soon. Intubation should be based on tachypnea and
discomfort without waiting for an elevation of Paco2. Hypoxia as a result of
atelectasis in patients with adequate airway protection may be treated with
continuous positive airway pressure if airway protection is not a concern. A
neurologist should be consulted when the diagnosis is suspected because
treatment with intravenous immunoglobulin or plasma exchange may slow
or halt disease progression and speed recovery. Autonomic dysfunction is
common in the Guillain-Barré syndrome and may lead to large and rapid
swings in BP and heart rate requiring intravenous therapy.
J. Death by Neurologic Criteria (Brain Death) and Organ Donation

Despite the best efforts of medical and surgical teams, massive injury,
cerebral infarction, anoxia, or hemorrhage may result in a loss of all
cerebral and brainstem functions. Evaluation of brain death and the
guidelines for organ donation are variable, depending on the country, state,
and facility. For more information about brain death and organ donation,
see Appendix 6 and 7.
Key Points
Neurologic Support
Brain injury occurs as a consequence of a primary insult and secondary
injury. The prevention of secondary brain injury is a critical goal for
the initial care team.
The most significant mechanisms for secondary injury in brain-
damaged patients are hypotension and hypoxia.
Optimizing oxygen delivery while controlling oxygen consumption is
a general treatment principle for all types of brain injury.
Important principles and guidelines for initial treatment apply to all
types of primary brain injury and help prevent harmful secondary
sequelae.
BP management is dependent on the initial brain injury. However,
excessive lowering of BP in any acute brain injury may induce
secondary ischemia.
Avoid prophylactic or routine hyperventilation in patients with brain
injuries. Mannitol should be administered for signs of downward
herniation or if neurologic deterioration is not attributable to other
factors. Hyperventilation may be initiated cautiously as a temporizing
measure.
Ensure euvolemia using normal saline as the primary maintenance
fluid.
Seizure activity after acute brain injury should be terminated with an
intravenous dose of a benzodiazepine, followed by an intravenous
loading dose of an antiepileptic drug.
Suggested Readings
1. Albers GW, Marks MP, Kemp S, et al. Thrombectomy for stroke at 6

to 16 hours with selection for perfusion imaging. DEFUSE 3
Investigators. N Engl J Med. 2018;378(8):708-718.
2. Bleck TP. Bacterial meningitis and other nonviral infections of the
nervous system. Crit Care Clin. 2013;29(4):975-987.
3. Boland TA, Lee VH, Bleck TP. Stress-induced cardiomyopathy. Crit
Care Med. 2015;43(3):686-693.
4. Brain Trauma Foundation, American Association of Neurological
Surgeons, Congress of Neurological Surgeons, AANS/CNS Joint
Section on Neurotrauma and Critical Care. Guidelines for the
management of severe traumatic brain injury. 4th ed. 2016;1-:-
Retrieved from www.braintrauma.org.
5. Brophy GM, Bell R, Claassen J, et al. Guidelines for the evaluation
and management of status epilepticus. Neurocrit Care. 2012;17(1):3-
23.
6. Busl KM, Bleck TP. Neurogenic pulmonary edema. Crit Care Med.
2015;43(8):1710-1715.
7. Callaway CW, Donnino MW, Fink EL, et al. Part 8: Post–cardiac arrest
care: 2015 American Heart Association guidelines update for
cardiopulmonary resuscitation and emergency cardiovascular care.
Circulation. 2015;132(18 Suppl 2):S465–S482.
8. Chesnut RM, Bleck TP, Citerio G, et al. A consensus-based
interpretation of the Benchmark Evidence from South American
Trials: Treatment of Intracranial Pressure Trial. J Neurotrauma.
2015;32(22):1722-1724.
9. Connolly ES, Rabenstein AA, Carhuapoma JR, et al. Guidelines for
the management of aneurysmal subarachnoid hemorrhage: a guideline
for healthcare professionals from the American Heart
Association/American Stroke Association. Stroke. 2012;43(6):1711-
1737.
10. DeNett T, Feltner C. Hypertonic saline versus mannitol for the
treatment of increased intracranial pressure in traumatic brain injury. J
Am Assoc Nurse Pract. 2019;4:2327-6924.
11. Diringer MN, Bleck TP, Claude Hemphill J 3rd, et al. Critical care
management of patients following aneurysmal subarachnoid
hemorrhage: recommendations from the Neurocritical Care Society’s
Multidisciplinary Consensus Conference. Neurocrit Care.
2011;15(2):211-240.
12. Donnino MW, Andersen LW, Berg KM, et al. ILCOR Advisory
Statement. Temperature Management After Cardiac Arrest.
Circulation. 2015;132(25):2448-2456.
13. Hawryluk GWJ, Aguilera S, Buki A, et al. A management algorithm
for patients with intracranial pressure monitoring: the Seattle
International Severe Traumatic Brain Injury Consensus Conference
(SIBICC). Intensive Care Med. 2019;45(12):1783-1794.
14. Hemphill JC, Greenberg SM, Anderson CS, et al. Guidelines for the
management of spontaneous intracerebral hemorrhage: a guideline for
healthcare professionals from the American Heart
Association/American Stroke Association. Stroke. 2015;46(7):2032-
2060.
15. Hutchinson PJ, Kolias AG, Timofeev IS, et al. Trial of decompressive
craniectomy for traumatic intracranial hypertension. N Engl J Med.
2016;375(12):1119-1130.
16. Kapur J, Elm J, Chamberlain JM, et al. Randomized trial of three
anticonvulsant medications for status epilepticus. N Engl J Med.
2019;381(22):2103-2113. DOI: 10.1056/NEJMoa1905795.
17. Kotloff RM, Blosser S, Fulda GJ, et al. Management of the potential
organ donor in the ICU: Society of Critical Care Medicine/American
College of Chest Physicians/Association of Organ Procurement
Organizations Consensus Statement. Crit Care Med. 2015;43(6):1291-
1325.
18. Liu Y, Qiu H, Su J, et al. Drug treatment of cerebral vasospasm after
subarachnoid hemorrhage following aneurysms. Chin Neurosurg Jl.
2016;2(4).
19. Munoz J, Keough EA, Barrios JC, et al. Primary decompressive
craniectomy in neurocritical patients. A meta-analysis of randomized
controlled trials, cohort and case-control studies. J Emerg Crit Care
Med. 2018;2(9).
20. Nogueria RG, Ashutosh PJ, Haussem DC, et al. Thormbectomy 6 to 24
hours after stroke with a mismatch between deficit and infarct. DAWN
Trial Investigators. N Engl J Med. 2018:378(1):11-21.
21. Powers WJ, Rabinstein AA, Ackerson T, et al. 2018 American Heart
Association/American Stroke Association guidelines for the early
management of patients with acute ischemic stroke: a guideline for
healthcare professionals from the American Heart
Association/American Stroke Association. Stroke. 2018;49(3):e46-
e110.
22. Rossetti AO, Bleck TP. What’s new in status epilepticus? Intensive
Care Med. 2014;40(9):1359-1362.
23. Shank CD, Walters BC, Hadley MN. Current topics in the
management of acute traumatic spinal cord injury. Neurocrit Care.
2019;30:261-271.
24. Shemie SD, Hornby L, Baker A, et al. International guideline
development for the determination of death. Intensive Care Med.
2014;40(6):788-797.
25. Silbergleit R, Durkalski V, Lowenstein D, et al. Intramuscular versus
intravenous therapy for prehospital status epilepticus. N Engl J Med.
2012;366:591-600.
26. Torbey MT, Bösel J, Rhoney DH, et al. Evidence-based guidelines for
the management of large hemispheric infarction: a statement for health
care professionals from the Neurocritical Care Society and the German
Society for Neurointensive Care and Emergency Medicine. Neurocrit
Care. 2015;22(1):146-164.
27. Vahedi K, Hofmeijer J, Juettler E, et al. Early decompressive surgery
in malignant infarction of the middle cerebral artery: a pooled analysis
of three randomised controlled trials. Lancet Neurol. 2007;6(3):215-
222.
28. Walters BC, Hadley MN, Hurlbert RJ, et al. Guidelines for the
management of acute cervical spine and spinal cord injuries: 2013
update. Neurosurgery. 2013;60(Suppl 1):82-91.
29. Wilson MH. Monro-Kellie 2/0: The dynamic vascular and venous
pathophysiological components of intracranial pressure. J Cereb Blood
Flow Metab. 2016;36(8):1338-1350.
Suggested Websites
1. Society of Critical Care Medicine/Guidelines. www.SCCM.org.

2. Brain Trauma Foundation. http://www.braintrauma.org.
3. Brain Attack Coalition. http://www.brainattackcoalition.org.
4. Neurocritical Care Society. http://www.neurocriticalcare.org.
Chapter 9
Basic Trauma and Burn Support
Objectives
Prioritize and initiate a timely assessment of the traumatized patient.

Initiate treatment of life-threatening traumatic injury.
Use radiography in identifying significant traumatic injury.
Identify and respond to significant changes in the patient’s status after
traumatic injury.
Initiate early burn management.
Review indications for initiating surgical consultation and/or
transferring the patient to a higher level of care.
Case Study
A 37-year-old man was working at a construction site when he fell

approximately 20 feet off of scaffolding. He was wearing his hard hat, but it
had come off during the fall. He is difficult to arouse and only groaning. He
has an open wrist fracture and bruising on his back and left flank. His vital
signs include a blood pressure of 86/68 mm Hg, heart rate of 100 beats/min,
and a respiratory rate of 32 breaths/min.
The patient is lethargic and only moves his upper extremities. His skin is
cool and clammy.
– What are the goals of the primary survey?
– What are the most urgent initial interventions?
I. INTRODUCTION
It is not the intention of the FCCS program to replace the Advanced Trauma
Life Support (ATLS) course provided by the American College of Surgeons
Committee on Trauma. Critical care is a component of caring for the
injured person. The material presented here is intended to highlight
evaluation and treatment issues for the provider confronted with a critically
injured patient. Those providers who regularly encounter patients with
traumatic injuries are encouraged to enroll in more formal trauma-specific
training, such as the ATLS course.
In the United States, traumatic injuries remain the leading cause of death in
individuals aged 1 to 44 years. Death as the result of injury occurs in one of
three periods. The first period is within seconds to minutes of injury, when
deaths generally result from severe brain or high spinal cord injury, loss of
the airway, or rupture of the heart, aorta, or other large blood vessels. Few
of these patients can be salvaged because of the severity of injury, and
prevention is the only way to reduce such trauma-related deaths. The
second period occurs within minutes to hours following injury; these deaths
are usually the result of subdural and epidural hematomas,
hemopneumothorax, solid organ rupture (spleen or liver), pelvic fractures,
or other injuries associated with blood loss. The “golden hour” after trauma
is characterized by the need for rapid assessment and resolution of these
injuries. The third period occurs days to weeks after the initial injury and is
most often caused by sepsis with associated multiple organ failure (Figure
9-1). Advances in critical care and multi-organ support have blunted the late
peak that occurred at the 3–4 week interval, creating a bimodal distribution
of mortality (immediate and early deaths). This is described in the work by
Gunst et al (see Suggested Readings). This flattening of the curve
emphasizes the importance of critical care in caring for the critically
injured.
Figure 9-1. The Trimodal Distribution of Trauma Deaths
Reproduced with permission Feliciano D, Mattox K, Moore E. Trauma. 6th ed. New York:
McGraw-Hill; 2008.
II. TRAUMA MANAGEMENT

The approach to the trauma patient follows a three-tiered approach:
1. Primary survey with simultaneous resuscitation – identify and treat

life-threatening injuries
2. Secondary survey – head-to-toe evaluation and treatment, and patient
history
3. Tertiary survey – all injuries are identified, catalogued, and treatment
plans initiated
This three-tiered approach is guided by the following principles:
1. Treat the greatest threat to life first.

2. It is not necessary to establish a definitive diagnosis before initiating
lifesaving treatment.
3. A detailed history is not essential to begin care.
Early management of the seriously injured patient requires simultaneous

evaluation and treatment. The first goal is to ensure adequate oxygen
delivery to vital organs by following an established sequence of priorities
that allows identification and treatment of injuries causing immediate
threats to life (primary assessment). Patient management should begin with
the rapid primary evaluation and simultaneous resuscitation of vital
functions, followed by a more detailed secondary assessment (head-to-toe
examination), and finally, the initiation of definitive care. This process
begins with the ABCDE of trauma care, which guides the identification of
life-threatening conditions through the initial assessment sequence of
airway, breathing, circulation, disability, and exposure (Table 9-1).
Table 9-1 Initial Assessment of Trauma
Airway: maintenance with restriction of cervical spine motion

Breathing: ventilation and oxygenation
Circulation: hemorrhage control
Disability: brief neurologic examination
Exposure/environment: clothing removed, avoiding hypothermia
A surgeon skilled in trauma management should be consulted early in the

course for all serious trauma patients. Routing trauma patients to a center
with trauma surgeons is crucial in the survival of these patients. When a
surgeon is not immediately available or when the patient’s injuries exceed
the capabilities of the institution, the transfer process to a definitive care
facility should be initiated without delay. While waiting for transfer to a
definitive care facility, life-threatening injuries should be addressed and the
patient’s response to these interventions should be monitored and
reassessed.
A. Primary Survey with Simultaneous Resuscitation
1. Airway
If the patient is able to communicate verbally, the airway is unlikely to be in
immediate jeopardy. In this situation, a definitive airway is unlikely to be
needed. A definitive airway is defined as a cuffed tube secured in the
airway with the cuff inflated below the vocal cords. During evaluation of
the airway, cervical spine motion should be restricted. Assessment of the
airway includes inspection for foreign bodies and facial, mandibular, or
tracheal/laryngeal fractures that may result in airway obstruction. Patients
can develop signs of airway obstruction after a benign initial presentation;
therefore, reassessment is paramount. Profuse bleeding from an
oropharyngeal injury may warrant placement of a definitive airway.
Airway patency should be

reassessed frequently, particularly
in patients with head injury, shock,
facial fractures, facial burns, and
potential inhalation injury.
The patient’s neurologic status (disability) is related to the airway. Patients

with a severe head injury, a Glasgow Coma Scale (GCS) score of 8 or less,
usually require placement of a definitive airway. Nonpurposeful motor
responses support the need for immediate airway management (Table 8-5).
Reassessment of airway patency and neurologic status throughout the
resuscitation is essential, and supplemental oxygen should be administered
to all severely injured trauma patients.
After blunt trauma, airway control should proceed on the assumption that
an unstable fracture or ligamentous injury of the cervical spine (C-spine)
exists. If active airway intervention is needed before evaluation for possible
C-spine fracture, the technique chosen for airway control (intubation,
adjunctive device, or surgical airway) should take into account the expertise
of available personnel, type of equipment available, patient factors, and
injuries. If the patient is apneic or deteriorating rapidly, effective bag-mask
ventilation can be lifesaving. Standard orotracheal intubation should be
attempted with the use of cervical spine motion restriction. Proper cervical
spine motion restriction may be accomplished from the front or the side of
the patient. One care provider supports the occiput and mandible with both
hands to maintain neck alignment without applying traction or distraction.
With secure stabilization, the anterior portion of the cervical collar may be
removed to allow airway interventions. Cervical spine motion restriction is
continued until the cervical collar is replaced and the definitive airway
device is secured.
If a definitive airway cannot otherwise be secured, adjunctive devices (eg,
laryngeal mask airway, esophageal-tracheal double lumen airway) can be
considered, but a surgical airway is indicated.
If the patient is combative and

needs an airway, a drug-assisted
intubation should be performed.
Other key issues in airway control deals with concomitant facial fractures.
Facial fractures are not an immediate priority unless heavy bleeding or
uncontrollable secretions are present. Similarly, facial fractures usually do
not require that the patient be intubated. Mandibular fractures, however, are
more likely to be associated with soft-tissue injury that may compromise
the airway. Orotracheal intubation or surgical airway should be performed if
a definitive airway is needed.
If unable to achieve orotracheal
intubation or adequately
oxygenate/ventilate a patient, an
emergent cricothyroidotomy is
indicated or tracheostomy, when
tracheal/laryngeal injury is
suspected.
Further details regarding advanced airway management can be found in

Chapter 2.
2. Breathing
Whereas many injuries can eventually affect the ability to ventilate and
oxygenate, several important injuries need to be identified and managed
urgently. These include: tension pneumothorax, open pneumothorax, and
massive hemothorax.
Tension pneumothorax – this is a clinical diagnosis resulting from air in the
pleural space affecting the patient’s physiology. Treatment (chest tube)
should be performed prior to obtaining a chest radiograph. Patients who are
breathing spontaneously have signs of tachypnea, air hunger, and absent
breath sounds on the affected side. Although hemodynamic collapse can
develop in any patient, it may be the presenting signs in patients receiving
positive pressure ventilation. Other findings include tracheal deviation away
from the side of injury and distended neck veins. See Chapter 5 for more
detailed information.
Open pneumothorax – is generally associated with chest wall soft-tissue
loss creating a “sucking chest wound”. Prehospital providers commonly
treat this injury at the scene with air-occlusive dressing secured on three
sides. Once at the hospital, a chest tube should be placed and definitive
wound closure should be performed in the operating room. Prior to
definitive wound closure, a sterile dressing should be applied to the wound.
Massive hemothorax – is suggested by the patient’s physiology, physical
examination, and chest radiograph. It is often defined as > 1,500 mL of
blood (which corresponds to Class III hemorrhagic shock) in the pleural
space, or ongoing blood loss of > 200 mL per hour for subsequent 2 to 4
hours. This amount of blood in the pleural space can compromise
oxygenation and ventilation. A chest tube should be placed and surgical
consultation obtained for possible thoracotomy. Auto-transfusion of the
scavenged blood from the pleural space can aid in the patient’s
resuscitation.
Other injuries associated with breathing problems include a simple
pneumothorax and rib fractures. Usually, a simple pneumothorax is
associated with rib fractures and may require chest tube placement. These
patients often present with chest wall tenderness. Subcutaneous emphysema
may be palpable. A chest radiograph with subcutaneous air is highly
suspicious for a pneumothorax and a chest tube should be placed. High
consideration should be given to placement of a chest tube in any patient
who has a pneumothorax on a chest radiograph and is receiving general
anesthesia and positive pressure ventilation.
Rib fractures are often missed on a chest radiograph; however, a fracture
may be suspected and documented when tenderness over the fracture is
identified during physical examination. Pain control may be required to
ensure adequate spontaneous ventilation. These patients can develop
hypercapnic respiratory failure from inadequate ventilation; therefore, their
ventilation and oxygenation should be continually monitored. Flail chest is
defined as two or more fractures in two or more consecutive ribs. This may
result in paradoxical chest movement (ie, inward movement of the flail
segment during inhalation). Flail chest is also associated with contusion of
the underlying lung, pain, and hypoxemia. These patients require aggressive
pain control and continuous monitoring of oxygenation and ventilation.
They may need to be intubated because of severe respiratory compromise.
Case Follow-up: A 37-year-old man was working at a construction site
when he fell approximately 20 feet off of scaffolding. He sustained a high-
grade splenic injury requiring splenectomy and a spinal cord contusion at
T10.
3. Circulation
Case Study
A 22-year-old woman presents to the emergency department with a gunshot

wound to the right thigh. Her initial blood pressure is 92/78 mm Hg and
heart rate is 130 beats/min. She has received 1 L of crystalloid fluid by
EMS with some improvement in blood pressure to 108/70 but returns to the
previous blood pressure reading. She is confused and thrashing about.
– Is this patient in shock?
– What is the primary concern?
– What therapy is recommended?
If the initial fluid bolus produces

only transient improvement or no
response, immediate surgical
consultation is required.
Transfusion of blood products
should be initiated as well.
The leading cause of shock in a trauma patient is hemorrhage. The primary

goal is to identify and stop the hemorrhage and restore tissue oxygenation
as soon as possible. Initial empiric treatment in adults consists of warmed
isotonic crystalloid infusion (1 L of lactated Ringer or normal saline
solution) via two large-bore (minimum 18-gauge) peripheral intravenous
catheters and control of external hemorrhage by means of manual
compression. Targets for empiric fluid therapy are normalization of blood
pressure, reversal of tachycardia, and maintenance of adequate organ
perfusion (Chapter 7). Patients with no traumatic brain injury, but
extensive hemorrhage that may require surgical intervention, are better
managed by resuscitation with permissive hypotension to a systolic blood
pressure of 90 to 100 mm Hg until surgical control of the hemorrhage can
be accomplished. This action supports control of vessels that may have
thrombosed and are not presently bleeding, but may rebleed if the blood
pressure is normalized. When hypoperfusion and vascular compensation
limit peripheral access, cannulation of a central vein (ideally with a 7F,
8.5F, or 9F introducer) is an alternative, as is intraosseous access.
Concomitant diagnostic studies for the source of bleeding can include chest
radiographs (hemothorax), pelvic radiograph (pelvic fracture, open-book or
vertical pelvic shear injury), focused assessment sonography in trauma
(FAST), or diagnostic peritoneal aspirate (DPA) or lavage (DPL)
[intraperitoneal hemorrhage]. If the patient is hemodynamically stable, a
computed tomography (CT) scan of the abdomen and pelvis ideally with
intravenous contrast may be performed to better delineate the injuries and
evaluate the retroperitoneum, unless a definitive indication to operate is
present. A patient who is hemodynamically unstable should not be moved
for CT scanning. Immediate control of external hemorrhage should proceed
simultaneously with rapid resuscitation. When trauma is present in an
extremity, direct pressure is recommended. This can be accompanied by a
hemostatic gauze dressing. If bleeding persists, a tourniquet should be
applied on the extremity above the injury. Blind clamping in a bleeding
wound is discouraged to avoid potential injury to adjacent structures.
It is critical not to equate the

absence of hypotension with the
absence of shock. Patients may
have significant blood loss (Class I
or II shock) without a change in
blood pressure.
As shown in Table 9-2, a patient’s systolic blood pressure, heart rate,
respiratory rate, and mental status can be used to assess blood loss. The
American College of Surgeons also validates a decrease in pulse pressure as
a sign of occult hypoperfusion. Circulating blood volume corresponds to
7% of normal body weight (70 mL/kg) in an adult. Blood loss up to 1,200
mL may occur in a normotensive adult (70 kg [154 lb]) with minimal
tachycardia. Class II hemorrhage is uncomplicated shock, but crystalloid
resuscitation may be sufficient. Class III hemorrhage requires crystalloid
resuscitation and often blood replacement. Class IV hemorrhage can be
considered preterminal and requires aggressive measures to restore
intravascular volume, oxygen-carrying capacity, and to control bleeding.
Treatment should be directed by the initial response to therapy rather than
by a classification scheme. Patients will respond to fluid resuscitation in
one of three ways. One group of patients, known as rapid responders, will
regain normal vital signs with small volumes of fluid. A second group of
patients, known as transient responders, will initially respond to the fluid
resuscitation, but then demonstrate signs of hemodynamic deterioration
with time or a decrease in the fluid resuscitation. These patients will require
additional fluids and focused evaluation of the etiology and treatment of the
injuries. This transient response is suggestive of ongoing hemorrhage. The
third group of patients, known as non-responders, will not show signs of
physiologic improvement despite volume resuscitation; these patients often
need immediate surgical intervention. They likely have ongoing major
hemorrhage. Without rapid and aggressive intervention, their mortality will
be high and they may ultimately receive massive transfusions (> 10 units of
packed red blood cells [PRBCs] in the first 24 hours of admission or more
than 4 units in 1 hour).
Table 9-2 Hemorrhage Classification Signs and Symptomsa
Parameter Class I Class II Class III Class IV (Severe)

(Mild) (Moderate)
Approximate blood <15% 15-30% 31-40% >40%
loss
Heart rate ↔ ↔/↑ ↑ ↑/↑↑
Blood pressure ↔ ↔ ↔/↓ ↓
Pulse pressure ↔ ↓ ↓ ↓
Respiratory rate ↔ ↔ ↔/↑ ↑
Urine output ↔ ↔ ↓ ↓↓
Glasgow Coma Scale ↔ ↔ ↓ ↓
score
Base deficita 0 to -2 -2 to -6 -6 to -10 mEq/L -10 mEq/L or less
mEq/L mEq/L
Need for blood Monitor Possible Yes Massive transfusion
products protocol
aBase excess is the quantity of base (HCO3-, in mEq/L) that is above or below the normal
range in the body. A negative number is called a base deficit and indicates metabolic
acidosis.
Reproduced with permission Mutschler M, Nienaber U, Brockamp T, et al. A critical
reappraisal of the ATLS classification of hypovolaemic shock: does it really reflect clinical
reality? Resuscitation. 2013;84(3):309-313.
Ionized calcium may need to be

followed and repleted ascitrate in
PRBCs may chelate calcium,
promoting a coagulation defect in
patients receiving massive
transfusions.
When beginning resuscitation for patients in shock, isotonic crystalloid can

be used. However, the volume should be controlled and minimized to no
more than 1 L. If there is an inadequate physiologic response, this therapy
should be followed by the early administration of blood products. Fully
crossmatched blood is rarely available for emergency trauma resuscitation.
Uncrossmatched type-specific blood can be safely administered and is
available in many hospitals within 15 to 20 minutes after a request is
received. If type-specific blood is not available and the patient is unstable,
O-negative PRBCs should be used. In most trauma centers, uncrossmatched
blood is almost immediately available in the trauma resuscitation area for
use in the unstable trauma patient. O-positive PRBCs are an option for men
and women beyond childbearing age.
In situations in which massive transfusion is anticipated or probably likely,
the early use of a balanced resuscitation using a combination of PRBCs,
fresh frozen plasma, platelets, and cryoprecipitate should be strongly
considered. In these situations, the most urgent priority is control of
ongoing hemorrhage. Typically, this involves surgical intervention.
However, with certain injuries, especially severe pelvic fractures with active
bleeding into a pelvic hematoma, other interventions, such as angiography
with embolization, can be lifesaving. Many trauma centers have a massive
transfusion protocol in place to allow the rapid procurement of blood
products for administration in the critically injured, unstable, massively
bleeding patient. Developing evidence suggests that the administration of
crystalloid solutions should be minimized, especially in this population.
There is also increasing evidence that the use of ratio-based blood product
resuscitation (PRBCs, fresh frozen plasma, and platelets close to a 1:1:1
ratio) improves outcomes and may decrease the physiologic insult to these
critically ill patients. Ratio-based resuscitation likely provides some of the
same benefits as the use of fresh whole blood and may be helpful in
minimizing the coagulopathy that can develop in patients who have massive
injuries. Whole blood is available in some facilities and part of the massive
transfusion protocol for patients in hemorrhagic shock. Investigations into
the benefits of whole blood are still ongoing. Tranexamic acid (TXA) may
also be considered as part of the resuscitation of these patients but some
evidence has shown increased thrombotic complications.
Thromboelastography (TEG) or rotational thromboelastometry (ROTEM)
may also be used to guide more precise replacement of product deficiency
during the resuscitation.
Patients with massive blood loss

require an early and aggressive
balanced resuscitation with PRBCs,
fresh frozen plasma, and platelets,
along with aggressive hemorrhage
control.
4. Disability (Neurologic Evaluation)

Rapid neurologic evaluation is performed as part of the primary survey and
includes determination of level of consciousness/GCS, pupillary size and
reactivity, lateralizing signs, and gross level of spinal cord injury, if present.
The GCS score is a quick, simple method for determining the level of
consciousness and is predictive of outcome (specifically the best motor
response). A decrease in the level of consciousness may reflect decreased
cerebral perfusion or may be the result of direct brain injury.
Hypoglycemia, ethanol, narcotics, and other drugs may also be involved.
An altered level of consciousness indicates the need for immediate
reevaluation of oxygenation, ventilation, and tissue perfusion. Changes in
consciousness should be assumed to be caused by intracerebral conditions
until proven otherwise. To improve patient outcomes, every effort should be
made to prevent secondary brain injury and to ensure adequate oxygenation,
ventilation, and blood pressure. If the patient’s condition permits, a
thorough examination prior to sedation and intubation may be performed to
determine the presence of any localizing intracranial or spinal cord injury.
Establishment of a definitive airway to control the airway and/or breathing
and ventilation should not be postponed for a detailed neurologic
examination. Once a neurologic injury is diagnosed, or even suspected, a
referral should be made to a definitive care facility prior to additional
imaging.
5. Exposure and Environmental Control

Throughout the initial resuscitation period, efforts should be made to
control and prevent hypothermia. Patients are often hypothermic after
environmental exposure, and the body temperature may fall further after
administration of room temperature resuscitation fluids and cold blood,
removal of clothing for examination purposes, loss of normal temperature-
regulating reflexes in shock, or the use of some medications.
Patients may lose heat through any of multiple mechanisms including
radiation, conduction (direct transfer), convection (air current), and
evaporation. It is imperative to remove wet clothing. For example, patients
with wet clothing lose heat faster because the thermal conductivity of water
is far greater than that of air. In addition, because hypothermia contributes
to coagulation abnormalities, cardiovascular collapse, and poor outcome, it
should be avoided and treated.
The most common treatment strategies can be characterized as passive
external rewarming and active rewarming (external and internal). Passive
external warming measures include warming the environment, removing
wet clothing, and providing insulating materials (eg, blankets). Additional
maneuvers, such as active external rewarming measures, include warming
blankets, heating pads, radiant energy, and force heated air systems. Active
internal methods include warmed intravenous fluid to approximately 39°C
(102°F) via a high-flow fluid warmer and warmed (40–45°C [104°F–
113°F]) humidified air via an endotracheal tube. More invasive
interventions include internal cavity lavage or extracorporeal blood
warming.
6. Monitoring
Parameters such as heart rate, blood pressure, pulse pressure, respiratory
rate, acid-base status, body temperature, and urinary output are used to
guide adequacy of resuscitation. Evaluation begins during the initial survey
and should be repeated frequently. Pulse oximetry is a valuable adjunct for
monitoring hemoglobin saturation with oxygen in injured patients, but it is
not useful for evaluating the adequacy of ventilation. Blood pressure, as the
sole marker of resuscitation, may be a poor measure of actual tissue
perfusion. Additional metabolic markers, such as serum lactate, base deficit,
and pH, will assist in the determination of the adequacy of resuscitation.
Perfusion of extremities may be evaluated by examining capillary refill as
well as the presence of the peripheral pulses.
A urinary catheter should be inserted as soon as is practical to monitor urine
output as a gauge of renal perfusion, although it must be used with caution
in male patients when urethral injury is suspected (eg, blood at the urethral
meatus, scrotal hematoma, or abnormal prostate on rectal examination). In
these patients, a retrograde urethrogram can be used to rapidly evaluate for
urethral injury.
7. Hemorrhagic Shock
As resuscitation proceeds, it is crucial to identify potential causes of
hypotension. A search for occult blood loss should be undertaken after any
external hemorrhage is controlled. The most frequent sites for such blood
loss are the chest, abdomen, pelvis/retroperitoneum, and the soft tissues
adjacent to long bone fractures.
a. Hemothorax
A chest radiograph (ideally with the patient in an upright or reverse
Trendelenburg position if hemodynamically stable) is a reliable screen
for intrathoracic bleeding. Ultrasonography of the chest also may
reliably detect a hemothorax or pericardial fluid.
A hemothorax should be drained promptly by chest tube placement,
with a subsequent radiograph to verify the location of the chest tube,
blood evacuation, and lung expansion. As noted earlier, rapid loss of
1,500 mL of blood on chest tube insertion or continued losses of > 200
mL/h for 2 to 4 hours may necessitate a thoracotomy. If available,
autotransfusion devices should be attached to any chest tube drainage
canister placed for massive hemothorax.
b. Intra-abdominal Hemorrhage
Abdominal examination is often misleading in the detection of acute
bleeding, especially in patients with lower chest trauma, rib fractures,
spinal cord injury, intoxication, or altered level of consciousness. Any
patient who has sustained significant blunt torso injury from a direct
blow or deceleration, or a penetrating torso injury must be considered
to have an abdominal visceral or vascular injury. Focused ultrasound
for trauma and DPA or DPL are the most expedient methods of
identifying significant intraperitoneal hemorrhage, although the FAST
examination has largely replaced the use of DPL in most institutions.
When readily available and used by trained individuals, FAST has the
sensitivity, specificity, and accuracy of DPL in detecting
hemoperitoneum requiring immediate surgical evaluation to determine
the need for a surgical intervention. In stable patients with a positive
FAST result, abdominal and pelvis CT scan with intravenous contrast
may be appropriate to identify the source of bleeding and determine
the need for any further intervention (eg, angiography for blunt solid
organ injury). Abdominal hemorrhage frequently comes from splenic
or liver laceration, other visceral injury, or retroperitoneal hematoma.
Patients who are in shock are not candidates for CT scanning and
require surgery to control bleeding.
c. Pelvic Hemorrhage
Assessment of bony stability by means of physical examination and
plain radiographs of the pelvis is crucial for early identification of
major pelvic fractures. Patients with pelvic fractures (particularly high-
grade anterior-posterior compression or vertical shear) are at high risk
for major bleeding, which is usually venous. Initial management
includes vigorous blood volume replacement and, possibly,
circumferential compression and mechanical tamponade with some
form of pelvic binder. External skeletal fixation may be helpful if the
fracture anatomy is appropriate, and an orthopedic surgeon should be
consulted early in the course of treatment. In patients with arterial
bleeding associated with pelvic injury, CT scanning will reveal a blush
of contrast. Pelvic angiography for embolization should be considered
in the hypotensive patient because of an increased likelihood for
arterial bleeding. Angiography may be required in approximately 10%
of patients with pelvic fractures. Recently, angiography has become
the treatment of choice for control of bleeding from pelvic fractures
and hematomas, even in the unstable patient.
A pelvic binder may be a

commercially available device or
a bedsheet wrapped tightly
around the pelvis. This maneuver
should center the compressive
forces at the level of the greater
trochanters.
d. Fractures
Patients with fractures will likely have associated hemorrhage in the
surrounding injured tissue. Estimates of blood loss from various
fractures are: rib 125 mL, radius or ulna 250–500 mL, humerus 500–
750 mL, tibia or fibula 500–1,000 mL, femur 1,000–2,000 mL, pelvis
1,000 mL to massive. Multi-injured patients can have severe blood
loss from their musculoskeletal injuries. This needs to be recognized
quickly and appropriate resuscitation initiated promptly. In patients
with long bone fractures, repeated physical examination for soft-tissue
swelling and development of compartment syndrome is imperative in
the management of these patients.
e. External Hemorrhage
External hemorrhage can be very dramatic, as with a lacerated major
artery or vein where direct pressure will decrease blood loss. Other
cases, such as scalp lacerations, may go unrecognized as a possible
source of significant blood loss. Rapid application of direct pressure
(with or without hemostatic gauze), temporizing suture repair, or
application of a tourniquet to a bleeding extremity may be lifesaving.
If a commercially available tourniquet is not available, an alternative
method employs a blood pressure cuff inflated to a pressure higher
than the patient’s systolic blood pressure. Tourniquet use should be
followed by surgical consultation because the tourniquet places the
extremity at risk for ischemic injury. The time the tourniquet is placed
should be written on the tourniquet and communicated to the receiving
facility if the patient is transferred. In some situations, including
military conflict and intentional mass casualty events, the early control
of hemorrhage along with the liberal use of tourniquets can be
lifesaving and may take priority in the initial evaluation and
management.
8. Nonhemorrhagic Shock
The differential diagnosis of nonhemorrhagic shock in the trauma patient
includes obstructive shock (tension pneumothorax, cardiac tamponade),
cardiogenic shock (blunt cardiac injury), and distributive shock (neurogenic
shock with acute spinal cord injury). Head injury is a rare cause of
hypotension, but when it occurs, it is usually a preterminal event.
a. Tension Pneumothorax
Tension pneumothorax causes hemodynamic compromise and
pulmonary dysfunction because of acute compression of the lung
parenchyma and a shift of the mediastinum away from the hemithorax
with the increased pressure. Do not wait for a chest radiograph to make
this diagnosis. Breath sounds will be absent, chest rise will be
asynchronous, and patients may develop respiratory distress, acute
desaturation, bradycardia, and occasionally, distended neck veins.
Classic venous distension may be absent in the setting of
pneumothorax complicated by hypovolemia. All but gross changes in
breath sounds may be difficult to detect in the resuscitation room.
Tracheal shift is a late sign and may not be a presenting finding. In
adults, needle chest decompression in the midclavicular second
intercostal space or finger thoracostomy at the fifth intercostal space
anterior axillary line is performed; this is a lifesaving intervention that
is followed by placement of a chest tube.
If tension pneumothorax is
suspected in an intubated
patient, disconnect the patient
from the ventilator and vent the
pleural space with a finger
thoracostomy or needle
decompression followed by a
tube thoracostomy. Manually
ventilating the patient may reveal
increased resistance.
b. Cardiac Tamponade
The classic signs of cardiac tamponade—hypotension, distant heart
sounds, jugular venous distension, and pulsus paradoxus—may be
obscured because of noise and hypovolemia (decreasing jugular
distension). Ultrasound (FAST) is a sensitive test for fluid in the
pericardial sac. A pericardial window should be performed for the
patient with refractory shock, persistent central venous hypertension,
and a high-risk penetrating wound (between the nipples, above the
costal margin, below the clavicles). When surgical expertise is not
available, a needle/catheter pericardiocentesis may be performed as a
temporizing measure. Occasionally, major blunt chest trauma ruptures
the cardiac surface. Most cases involve atrial tears and can be repaired
if diagnosed early.
c. Blunt Cardiac Injury
The diagnosis of blunt cardiac injury should be suspected in a patient
involved in a high-speed, frontal impact accident who has unexplained
hypotension or arrhythmia or, less commonly, cardiogenic shock.
Changes in the electrocardiograms (ECGs) are usually nonspecific and
can include premature ventricular contractions, bundle branch block,
atrial fibrillation, unexplained sinus tachycardia, and ST-segment
changes. If blunt cardiac injury is a possibility, a screening ECG
should be obtained in the emergency department. If the patient has new
abnormalities, the patient should be admitted for continuous ECG
monitoring. For patients with preexisting abnormalities, comparisons
with previous ECGs should be made. Hemodynamically stable patients
with no ECG abnormalities and negative cardiac troponin need no
further cardiac evaluation or observation. Echocardiography is
indicated in patients with unexplained hypotension or arrhythmias to
evaluate cardiac function and structural heart injury. Treatment
includes correction of acidosis, hypoxia, and electrolyte abnormalities;
judicious administration of fluid; and pharmacologic treatment of life-
threatening arrhythmias.
Inotropes may be indicated to support hemodynamic function. It is
important to ensure that refractory hypotension is not caused by
ongoing blood loss. Patients may present with acute myocardial
infarction secondary to cardiac injury, or an acute myocardial
infarction may have led to trauma (ie, fall, motor vehicle crash). At
times, these patients may need emergent cardiology consultation for
heart catheterization.
The right ventricle is most

frequently involved in blunt
cardiac injury, and volume
challenge is the initial therapy
for hypotension in the absence of
pulmonary edema.
d. Neurogenic Shock
Neurogenic shock, a physiologic state of shock, occurs when a cervical
or high thoracic spinal cord injury (above T6 level) causes
sympathectomy. Loss of vasomotor tone causes vasodilation of
visceral and peripheral blood vessels. It is characterized by
hypotension, frequently associated with relative or absolute
bradycardia. Flaccid paralysis, loss of extremity reflexes, and priapism
may be some of the initial associated neurologic findings. This is
usually followed by spasticity. This spectrum of neurologic findings
comprises spinal shock. Treatment for hypotension includes volume
resuscitation and vasopressors (phenylephrine or norepinephrine) if
volume loading does not reverse the hypotension. Atropine or
dopamine may be considered in the presence of bradycardia associated
with hemodynamic instability.
B. Secondary Survey: Diagnosis and Treatment of Other Injuries

Most patients with acute injuries can be resuscitated to a hemodynamically
stable state. The primary survey should immediately identify acute life-
threatening injuries. The next goal is to complete a secondary assessment to
identify and treat other injuries. This assessment is crucial to allow proper
triage to the operating room, radiology suite, or ICU. Keep in mind that
should the patient’s condition change, return to the primary survey and
repeat the process.
1. History
Essential components of a patient’s history include details of the
mechanism of injury, previous medical illness, past surgical history (eg,
inquiring about surgical scars), current medications, allergies, and tetanus
immunization.
2. Physical Examination
The patient should be examined from head to toe. The skull is carefully
inspected to identify occult injuries. Signs of basilar skull fracture include
hemotympanum, rhinorrhea, or otorrhea; Battle sign (ecchymosis of the
skin over the mastoid); and raccoon eyes. Facial bones, mandible, and neck
are palpated for tenderness and crepitus. The GCS score and limited
neurologic examination from the initial assessment are used to evaluate for
head trauma (Chapter 8). Extraocular eye movements are checked to
exclude muscle or nerve entrapment. The nares are inspected for blood and
septal hematoma. The neck is inspected for distended neck veins, the
position of the trachea, or subcutaneous emphysema. Neck pain or
tenderness over the cervical spine warrants additional radiographs (see later
section), CT, or magnetic resonance imaging. The chest is auscultated and
palpated for tenderness and crepitus. The patient is logrolled so that the
thoracic and lumbar spine can be palpated for tenderness and other injuries
can be detected. In penetrating trauma, exclude occult entrance or exit
wounds in the axillary, cervical, or inguinal regions. This may require a
second full log roll to the opposite side or quarter roll. The abdomen is
likewise inspected, auscultated, and palpated. The pelvic bones are assessed
for stability with lateral compression, anterior-posterior compression, and a
gentle translational motion; lack of pain with these motions in an awake
patient without competing pain issues is usually sufficient to rule out
significant pelvic bone fractures. Repeated examinations for pelvic stability
should be avoided and may cause further injury. The rectum is evaluated for
tone and the presence or absence of blood and to ensure that the prostate
gland is not displaced or difficult to palpate. The presence of
perineal/scrotal hematoma and blood at the urethral meatus implies
potential urogenital injury, which is a risk for urinary catheter insertion. The
extremities are inspected, palpated, and evaluated for range of motion and
neurovascular integrity.
3. Laboratory Studies
Minimal testing includes complete blood count, electrolyte measurements,
blood glucose level, blood alcohol level, and toxicology screening.
Viscoelastic assays (TEG or ROTEM), if available, can better depict
trauma-induced coagulopathy and provide guidance of massive transfusion
protocols. In any patient with evidence of hypovolemia, blood-group
typing, and a coagulation profile should be performed. Arterial blood gas
measurements should be analyzed in selected patients to confirm adequate
ventilation and perfusion (presence of acidosis). An elevated serum amylase
level may be an indicator of pancreatic or bowel injury in the patient with
blunt abdominal trauma, although it tends to increase several hours after
initial injury. Creatinine phosphokinase should be checked and followed if
rhabdomyolysis or compartment syndrome is suspected. The hematocrit
may not reflect the patient’s acute volume status; ongoing resuscitation
equilibration by transcapillary fluid shifts can take hours to be reflected as a
decrease in hematocrit. In general, a fall of 3% in the hematocrit is
equivalent to 1 unit of blood loss. Serum lactate level measurements and
follow-up to monitor clearance can help management and prognosis.
Reevaluate laboratory results after

initial resuscitation. Absolute
values may not be as important as
trends.
4. Radiologic Evaluation
a. General
In the evaluation of blunt multiple-system trauma, a supine chest
radiograph and supine view of the pelvis are generally obtained as the
primary survey is performed. This allows for interpretation of
completed radiographs as the secondary survey begins. Plain
radiographs of the pelvis are crucial for early identification of major
fractures and may allow for early placement of a pelvic binder to help
reduce ongoing blood loss
b. Head
CT scanning is essential for initial evaluation of a head-injured patient
or in any patient with a decreased or altered level of consciousness.
Special consideration should be given to patients sustaining a blunt
mechanism and are on anticoagulation and/or antiplatelet medications,
especially in the elderly population. Many centers will also obtain a
CT scan of the cervical spine when the head scan is obtained.
c. Spine
The initial lateral C-spine radiograph has been largely abandoned for
the diagnosis of cervical spine injury. Given the common issues in
obtaining adequate cervical spine images, including inadequate
visualization of the spine between C7 and T1 and poor definition of
the occiput, most centers now obtain a CT evaluation of any areas that
cannot be clinically cleared or have concerning results on physical
examination. In the patient with increased risk of C-spine injury,
cervical immobilization is crucial until these studies are reviewed and
correlated with a reliable physical examination for evidence of
tenderness. However, patients should be removed from a rigid spine
board expeditiously because of the risk of skin pressure injury with
extended immobilization. Magnetic resonance imaging is helpful for
disc, spinal cord, and ligament injuries. If a C-spine fracture is found,
radiographic screening of the entire spine is indicated because ~10% of
these patients will have a second, noncontiguous vertebral column
fracture. CT scans of the chest and abdomen often can be reformatted
to provide information on spine injury without the need for additional
plain radiographs or additional radiation exposure.
Neurologic examination alone does not exclude a C-spine injury. The
following considerations apply to patients at risk for C-spine injury:
Patients who are alert, awake, and have no changes in neurologic
status or neck pain may be considered to have a stable C-spine
and need no radiologic studies. Beware of injuries that could
distract the patient with C-spine injury.
Early CT scans may facilitate evaluation of the C-spine in any
head-injured or intubated patient. Adding CT evaluation of the C-
spine to the initial CT scan of the head is an appropriate strategy
after injury.
The presence of paraplegia or quadriplegia is presumptive
evidence of spinal instability.
Patients with neurologic deficits potentially the result of a C-spine
injury require spine surgery consultation.
Exclusion of any bony injury does not eliminate the possibility of
ligamentous disruption. Magnetic resonance imaging can
facilitate clearance of ligamentous injury if the examination is not
reliable.
d. Chest
Once the spine is cleared for fractures, an upright (or reverse
Trendelenburg) chest radiograph is indicated to better define or
identify pneumothorax, hemothorax, mediastinal widening or
irregularity (concern for aortic transection), or fractures, as well as to
confirm the position of various tubes. Chest radiographs are
inadequate to rule out aortic injury. When a significant lateral impact
or deceleration injury occurs, an aortic injury should be suspected in a
patient with a chest radiograph demonstrating a widened mediastinum.
CT angiography provides an excellent method to screen for aortic
injury and define other thoracic injuries. Its use has largely replaced
traditional angiography in the initial diagnosis of thoracic aortic
injuries.
Persistent pneumothorax despite

a functioning chest tube or
persistent air loss through the
chest tube system may indicate a
tracheobronchial injury.
e. Abdomen
Plain abdominal radiographs in blunt trauma are not usually helpful. In
the hemo-dynamically stable patient, a CT scan of the abdomen and
pelvis and the FAST examination are the mainstays of abdominal
evaluation in a trauma patient. FAST can be followed up with a CT
scan of the abdomen if free peritoneal fluid is identified in the stable
patient. DPL may still be used in certain circumstances, but has
generally been replaced by CT imaging and the FAST examination.
A nasogastric tube serves to decompress the stomach and may reduce
the risk of pulmonary aspiration; however, it should be placed orally in
patients with midfacial fractures or possible basilar skull fractures.
Blood in the gastric aspirate may be the only sign of an otherwise
occult injury to the stomach or duodenum, and further investigation
may be indicated
f. Genitourinary Tract
Hematuria should be evaluated with a CT scan or other contrast
studies. It provides anatomic detail about abdominal and
retroperitoneal structures and any direct injury to the kidney(s). If
physical examination suggests that a urethral injury is present, a
urethrogram should be obtained before urinary catheterization. A
cystogram may be indicated if bladder injury is suspected. Intravenous
pyelograms are not overly valuable during the initial assessment.
g. Skeletal Fractures
Films of the extremities (anterior posterior and lateral views) should be
obtained on the basis of physical examination or patient complaint.
Films should include the joint above and below the site of fracture.
Evaluation of the head and central injuries take precedence. In stable
patient with no signs of vascular compromise secondary to their
skeletal injuries deferring extremity radiographs is advisable to avoid
delay in proceeding to CT.
5. Other Issues
Systemic antibiotics should usually be withheld until a specific indication is
determined, but they are employed in three situations: (1) patients
undergoing intracranial pressure monitoring or chest tube placement
frequently receive gram-positive coverage when the device is inserted; (2)
patients with penetrating abdominal trauma may be given coverage for
gram-negative aerobic and anaerobic organisms for the first 24 hours after
injury; and (3) patients with low-grade open fractures are given gram-
positive coverage for 24 hours while high-grade open fractures require
broad-spectrum coverage for 48 hours as orthopedic evaluation is arranged.
Remember to consult specialty

services early so that they can offer
input into treatment decisions.
Another important issue is the need for adequate tetanus prophylaxis in

patients with open wounds. The patient’s current vaccination status must be
verified and updated if needed. In those patients who have an unclear
immunization status or with especially contaminated tetanus-prone wounds,
the use of tetanus immune globulin should be considered (Table 9-3).
Table 9-3 Guide to Tetanus Prophylaxis in Routine Wound

Managementa
History of Absorbed Clean Minor Wounds All Other Woundsb
Tetanus Toxoid (Not prone to tetanusb) (Tetanus-pronec)
Tdap or Tdb TIGd Tdap or Tdb TIGd
Unknown or <3 doses Yes No Yes Yes
≥3 dosese Nof No Nog No
Abbreviations: Tdap, tetanus toxoid, reduced diphtheria toxoid, acellular pertussis vaccine;
Td, tetanus toxoid and reduced diphtheria toxoid — for adult use (dose = 0.5 mL); TIG,
tetanus immune globulin — human (dose 250 IU).
aPatients who have completed a three-dose primary tetanus vaccination series and have
received a tetanus toxoid-containing vaccine <5 years before the injury do not require a
tetanus toxoid-containing vaccine for wound management.
bChildren <7 years – Tdap is recommended; if pertussis vaccine is contraindicated, Td is
given. Children 7-9 years or adults >65 years = Td is recommended. Children and adults
10-64 years = Tdap is preferred to Td if the patient has never received Tdap and has no
contraindication to pertussis vaccine. For patients >7 years of age, if Tdap is not available
or not indicated because of age, Td is preferred to tetanus toxoid.
cSuch as (but not limited to) wounds contaminated with dirt, feces, soil, and saliva; puncture
wounds; avulsions; and wounds resulting from missiles, crushing burns, and frostbite.
dEquine tetanus antitoxin should be used when TIG is not available.
eIf only three doses of fluid toxoid have been received, a fourth dose = preferably an
adsorbed toxoid – should be given. Although licensed, fluid tetanus toxoid is rarely used.
fYes, if ≥10 years since the last tetanus toxoid-containing dose.
gYes, if ≥5 years since the last tetanus toxoid-containing dose; more frequent boosters are
not needed and can accentuate adverse effects.
Female patients of childbearing age should be questioned about the

possibility of pregnancy or be checked with a β-human chorionic
gonadotropin test before extensive radiographic evaluation is performed
unless significant hemodynamic instability is present. The priority with the
unstable pregnant patient always has to be maternal resuscitation and
stabilization. Any female in her second or third trimester should be
positioned with a wedge under her back to elevate the right side, avoiding
compression of the vena cava. This is done only after examination of the
spine and pelvis does not reveal any pain or tenderness, which may indicate
a fracture. Remember that the optimal care of the mother yields optimal
care for the fetus. Obstetrical consultation should be considered (Chapter
14).
Case Follow-up: A 22-year-old woman presents to the emergency
department with a gunshot wound to the right thigh. She sustained a
femoral shaft fracture and superficial femoral artery laceration. She initially
underwent external fixation of the femur fracture and femoral artery
reconstruction using contralateral vein graft. Definitive fixation is
performed with an intramedullary nail.
C. Tertiary Survey: Ongoing Evaluation
Case Study
An 18-year-old man is in the ICU after sustaining a gunshot wound to the

left chest traversing the diaphragm, left lobe of the liver, and spleen. In the
operating room he underwent a left diaphragmatic repair after confirmation
of no active bleeding coming from the thoracic cavity, left hepatic lobe
repair, and splenectomy. Urine output was initially adequate along with
blood pressure; however, it has been steadily decreasing along with
increasing bloody drainage from the nasogastric tube. A viscoelastic assay
obtained prior to the decline revealed no abnormalities.
– What is the possible cause of the bleeding?
– What should be the most appropriate first step in resuscitation?
After life- and limb-threatening injuries have been addressed and metabolic
derangements have been corrected, periodic systematic assessment is
performed to identify occult injuries not evident at presentation. In addition,
healthcare personnel must be prepared to return to the resuscitation phases
and/or when conditions change. In the immediate period of the patient’s
course, these changes must not be viewed as a failure or “something was
done wrong.” This type of thinking or judgment will invariably lead to
delays and potential adverse outcomes.
Go back to the primary and
secondary survey when a patient
has a negative change to provide a
framework to help organize the
critical thinking process.
The administration of atropine or

dopamine, as well as mydriatic
agents, may dilate the pupils and
lead to a false diagnosis of a more
severe head injury.
1. Head Injury
Evaluation of the head-injured patient is an ongoing process requiring early
neurosurgical consultation. Serial assessment of the GCS scores, pupil size
and response, and the presence or absence of lateralizing neurologic signs is
crucial. Any changes in examination results are noted and acted on as they
are discovered. Typically any change in the neurologic examination for the
worse warrants a repeat head CT.
Serial CT scans of the head may offer clinically useful information, but the
key to patient management is detection of changes in the physical
examination. Repeat scheduled head CT is not uncommon for patients on
blood thinners, such as warfarin or direct-acting oral anticoagulants
(DOACs). Continued resuscitation is imperative to avoid secondary brain
injury, which typically occurs when a patient becomes hypoxic or
hypotensive during acute care. These secondary insults increase the
likelihood of a poor outcome (Chapter 8).
2. Pulmonary Injury
Trauma patients often have a full stomach at the time of injury and
experience aspiration. Aspiration of the acidic gastric contents may cause a
chemical pneumonitis initially and predispose patients to an infective
pneumonia or acute respiratory distress syndrome later. Antibiotics are not
indicated in initial management. Early antibiotics can also make the patient
more susceptible to resistant organisms. Bronchoscopy may be needed for
removal of large particulate matter.
Delayed onset of pneumothorax or hemothorax may follow chest trauma. In
addition, pulmonary contusions and resulting acute respiratory distress
syndrome may not become obvious until later (12 to 48 hours). Continued
assessment includes physical examination, oximetry and/or arterial blood
gas measurements, chest radiographs, and ventilatory mechanics.
3. Cardiac Injury
Continuous ECG monitoring and frequent measurements of blood pressure
are mandatory in the emergency department and ICU. Continuous arterial
blood pressure monitoring may be indicated (Chapter 6). Electrolyte
disturbances may lead to cardiac contractile dysfunction or arrhythmias in
the aggressively resuscitated trauma patient. Common electrolyte
disturbances include hyperchloremia, hypokalemia and hyperkalemia,
hypomagnesemia, and hypocalcemia.
4. Abdominal Injury
Substance abuse or neurologic injury may not allow for a reliable initial
abdominal examination. Perforation of a hollow viscus in blunt trauma is
sometimes difficult to diagnose. Free air under the diaphragm on an upright
chest radiograph, over the liver on a left lateral decubitus radiograph, or on
an abdominal CT necessitates the need for surgical exploration. CT
scanning also provides information about the retroperitoneum. In the head-
injured patient who is undergoing a head CT scan and has a nonsurgical
neurologic injury, abdominal scanning should be considered because
physical examination may be unreliable. However, caution must be used in
the clinical interpretation of CT imaging for a hollow viscus injury; a
negative scan does not absolutely rule out the possibility of an occult injury.
An underdiagnosed condition is abdominal compartment syndrome. This
condition occurs when intra-abdominal pressure increases because of
intraperitoneal or retroperitoneal hemorrhage, ascitic fluid accumulation,
edema secondary to massive fluid resuscitation, or intraoperative surgical
closure of the abdomen under tension. Increased intra-abdominal pressure
decreases cardiac output and compresses the vascular bed and kidneys. The
diaphragm is displaced upward by increased intra-abdominal pressure,
which results in decreased thoracic volume and compliance. Decreased
volume within the pleural cavity predisposes to atelectasis, and ventilated
patients with intra-abdominal hypertension require increased airway
pressure to deliver a fixed tidal volume. Vascular compression can decrease
blood flow to the liver and kidneys with resultant dysfunction. Finally,
intra-abdominal hypertension significantly increases intracranial pressure
(Chapter 13). Typically, abdominal hypertension is manifested with
decreased urine output, increasing peak airway pressures, hypotension, and
an expanding tense abdomen.
5. Musculoskeletal Injury
The neurologic and vascular evaluation of the extremities is an ongoing
process. A swollen and tense extremity should be watched closely for the
development of a compartment syndrome, particularly in patients with
decreased responsiveness. In alert patients, serial physical examination is
the best monitoring method. Classic signs include pain, pallor,
pulselessness, paresthesia, and/or paralysis. The most helpful early signs are
reports of pain out of proportion to physical findings and severe pain on
passive stretch of the involved muscle groups. In the unconscious patient or
when the examination is unreliable, compartment pressure may be
monitored using a needle with a pressure transducer. Pressures > 30 mm Hg
warrant consideration of fasciotomy.
In compartment syndrome, urgent
fasciotomy is required with loss of
pulse being a very late finding
Musculoskeletal examination should be repeated, either as patients recover

from other injuries or as their mental status clears, to identify new pain or
tenderness. Plain radiographs should then be obtained to identify occult
fractures. Orthopedic injuries commonly identified in a delayed fashion
include fractures of the scapula, thoracic and lumbar spine, pelvis, ankle,
and wrist.
Crush syndrome should be considered when patients have been trapped,
injury to large muscle mass is involved, prolonged compression has
occurred with protracted immobilization, or vascular compromise is present
(such as tourniquet use or compartment syndrome). Crush syndrome
develops when damaged myocytes lyse, releasing myoglobin, potassium,
phosphorus, and calcium. Manifestations of this syndrome include cardiac
dysrhythmias, renal failure, metabolic acidosis, and hypovolemia.
Preemptive hydration before reperfusion of crushed muscle mass usually is
accomplished before arrival at the hospital. Revascularization of ischemic
extremities, fasciotomy for compartment syndrome, or release of
tourniquets can mimic this situation. Before reperfusion, normal saline
should be administered (1- to 2-L bolus or 10–15 mL/kg/h). Careful
monitoring for cardiac signs of hyperkalemia should be instituted. After
reperfusion, aggressive hydration to maintain urine output above 3 to 4
mL/kg/h helps prevent heme pigment-associated renal injury. Adjuvants,
such as bicarbonate and mannitol, have been used.
The use of extremity tourniquets has become more frequent in the field. The
length of time the tourniquet was in place and whether it was effective
should be noted. Attention should be directed to the extremity(s) if effective
tourniquet time exceeded 90 to 120 minutes because of the increased risk
for complications such as compartment syndrome, rhabdomyolysis,
reperfusion injury, and nerve damage.
6. Other Considerations
Resuscitation is an ongoing process. Traditional end points, such as
normalization of blood pressure, heart rate, and urine output, may not
always reflect complete correction of the shock state. The attainment of
normal vital signs can occur even in the setting of tissue hypoperfusion,
resulting in a compensated state of shock. Lactate concentration and
resolution of metabolic acidosis may provide more definitive end points for
adequacy of resuscitation. Because the time to normalization of these
parameters is predictive of survival, additional resuscitation in the form of
volume replacement, blood product transfusion, or support with vasoactive
agents may be indicated within the first 24 hours following injury despite
normal or near-normal vital signs. Persistence of a metabolic acidosis or
elevated lactate concentration may be an early indicator of complications,
including ongoing hemorrhage or abdominal compartment syndrome.
Damage control surgery (abbreviated to control of bleeding and
decontamination of hollow organ ruptures with spillage) may be needed in
the first 24 to 48 hours, before definitive surgery is performed. Many
trauma patients benefit from delayed definitive surgery, particularly the
repair of fractures, during this period of ongoing stabilization. Decisions to
proceed with surgery should be made after appropriate consultation with the
primary surgical service, a critical care physician, and other consultants as
indicated.
In the immediate resuscitation period, periodic reassessments are important.
Once a patient is stabilized, all intravenous access sites should be
reassessed. Because full sterile precautions to prevent line-related infections
may not be feasible during emergency vascular access, many lines will need
to be replaced. If central venous access is no longer indicated, it should be
discontinued.
Some patients will benefit by

undergoing stabilizing procedures
such as washout, debridement, and
placement of external fixation for
open fractures followed by delayed
definitive repair.
Case Follow-up: An 18-year-old man is in the ICU after sustaining a

gunshot wound to the left chest traversing the diaphragm, left lobe of the
liver, and spleen. He underwent hemostatic resuscitation including packed
red blood cells, fresh frozen plasma, and platelet transfusions. Urine output
improved as did nasogastric drainage.
III. BURN INJURY: INITIAL EVALUATION AND

STABILIZATION
Case Study
A 56-year-old woman is brought to the emergency department after

sustaining injuries in a house fire with an explosion. The patient was found
outside the house, awake, alert, and reporting abdominal pain. On
examination, she has blistering of her cheeks, soot around her nares, and
blistering over her bilateral forearms and chest. You are asked to see the
patient in the emergency department to assist during her initial care.
– What are the initial evaluation priorities?
– What is the greatest risk to this patient?
A. General
Burn injuries represent a significant cause of morbidity and mortality. Near
a half million cases of burn injury occur each year with approximately
40,000 requiring hospitalization. Deaths from burn injury occur with
greatest frequency as a result of residential fires with smoke inhalation.
Like other forms of injury, burns tend to be frequent in the young and the
elderly. Scalds are the most common form of childhood injury, whereas
electrical and chemical injuries affect adults in the workplace. In 1975,
mortality was approximately 25% for severe burns; however, with
improvements in burn care, mortality is now around 4%. Factors that affect
burn mortality include size of cutaneous injury, patient age, and presence or
absence of inhalation injury. Burn injuries should not distract providers
from seeking other potential traumatic injuries. The initial evaluation and
treatment of a serious burn injury follows the same pathway as trauma,
including the primary and secondary surveys.
B. Airway/Breathing
The initial evaluation of the airway is directed, in part, by the history of the
injury. Patients who are at the greatest risk of smoke inhalation injury
typically have a history of being in a closed space with flame and smoke.
With increased exposure time, the likelihood of injury increases. Smoke
inhalation injury can be described by three mechanisms. These include
particulate injury, toxic byproducts of combustion injury, and direct thermal
injury. Particulates found in the soot and smoke of the fire are responsible
for a reactive airway injury that may result in bronchospasm. Toxic
exposure may have a direct cytotoxic effect on alveolar tissue or affect
energy-generating pathways, or bind hemoglobin and reduce the availability
of oxygen for intracellular use. Direct thermal injury can result in oral,
nasal, and upper respiratory injury with airway swelling.
Inhalation injury, the leading cause of death in burns, is generally diagnosed
by a combination of clinical signs and symptoms confirmed by
bronchoscopy. Clinical findings include facial burns, parched oral mucosa,
nasal singeing, soot in the oral and nasal passages, and symptoms of
reactive airway exacerbation. Bronchoscopic findings include mucosal
edema, ulceration, sloughing, and mucus plugging. Chest radiographs are
frequently normal at admission, and hypoxemia often is not appreciated.
Additional diagnostic studies to consider are serial arterial blood gases,
peak expiratory flow rates, pulse oximetry, end-tidal CO2, serum lactate,
and carboxyhemoglobin.
At room air, the half-life of carbon
monoxide in association with
hemoglobin is 3 to 4 hours;
breathing 100% oxygen, the half-
life is only 30 to 90 minutes.
Three stages of inhalation injury have been identified:
1. Acute hypoxia with asphyxia typically occurs at the scene of the fire.
2. Upper airway and pulmonary edema may evolve during the first hours
to days after injury.
3. Infectious complications that stem from exposure to heat and chemical
irritants may appear later (eg, pneumonia).
Treatment of inhalation injury may include supplemental oxygenation and

bronchodilators. If exposure to carbon monoxide is suspected, 100%
oxygen should be provided. Early intubation is advocated, especially if the
patient will be transferred, because pulmonary and laryngeal injury may
quickly evolve even though the initial airway assessment is satisfactory.
Humidification of inhaled gases helps in secretion control and reduces
desiccation injury to the airway. In those patients with potential inhalation
injuries sustained in enclosed spaces, consideration should be given to the
potential for cyanide toxicity in which administration of methemoglobin
generators (eg, amyl nitrate, cyanocobalamin) is indicated.
C. Circulation
Patients with larger burns (> 20% total body surface area [TBSA]) may
develop burn shock. This is the result of a diffuse capillary leak syndrome
resulting from the release of cytokines, interleukins, and vasoactive amines
and causing third spacing of fluid. The combined loss of fluid from the
burned surface area and the interstitial edema may result in the loss of
circulating volume. Systemic hypotension may ensue. Resuscitation
following the American Burn Association recommendations (discussed
later) should be followed because it permits large volumes of fluid to be
administered over an extended period. Large-bore peripheral intravenous
catheters should be placed (through the burn, if necessary). The preferred
resuscitation fluid is lactated Ringer solution. Intravascular resuscitation
should not be delayed or withheld, especially in patients with inhalation
injury, because this increases resuscitation fluid requirements.
D. Assessment of Injury
The approach to the initial assessment is the same as in trauma. An initial
primary survey (ABCDE) is performed, followed by a head-to-toe
examination. All nonadherent clothing must be removed to determine burn
size, and the patient must be covered with blankets because heat is lost
quickly. Depending on the history, the patient may have other injuries and
should be assessed for trauma in accordance with the guidelines outlined.
1. Depth of Burns
There are classically three burn depths. However, some describe up to six
degrees of burn injury depending on the involvement of underlying
subcutaneous tissue, muscle, and bone. For this course we will use four
burn depths:
1. Superficial (first-degree): erythematous, painful

2. Partial thickness (second-degree)
a. Superficial: painful, pink, edematous, and blistered
b. Deep: red or mottled red and white, pinprick perceived as
pressure as opposed to pain, +/- blisters
3. Full thickness (third-degree): white, leathery, painless
4. Fourth-degree: all layers of skin, fat, muscle, and bone
Full-thickness injuries and deeper usually require surgical intervention.
2. Burn Area (Rule of Nines)

The rule of nines is commonly used to estimate the surface area that has
been burned (Figure 9-2). The head and upper extremities each represent
9% of the TBSA. The anterior and posterior trunk and the lower extremities
each represent 18%, and the perineum represents 1% of the TBSA. In
children, the head is proportionally larger, leading to a relative decrease in
the area of other body segments. Alternatively, the patient’s palm, which
equals roughly 1% of TBSA, may be used to estimate the size of a small or
irregular burn. An often-used tool to estimate the TBSA in children younger
than 15 years is the Lund-Browder Chart (Figure 9-3).
Figure 9-2. Rule of Nines
Most appropriate for adults and children over 15 years of age.

Figure 9-3. Lund-Browder Chart
LUND-BROWDER CHART
Relative Percentage of Body Surface Area Affected by Growth
Age in years 0 1 5 10 15 Adult
A-head (back or front) 9½ 8½ 6½ 5½ 4½ 3½
B-1 thigh (back or front) 2¾ 3¼ 4 4¼ 4½ 4¾
C-1 leg (back or front) 2½ 2½ 2¾ 3 3¼ 3½
The Lund-Browder chart is the most accurate method for estimating burn extent and must
be used in the evaluation of pediatric patients under 15 years of age.
E. Resuscitation
Burn shock presents during the first 24 to 48 hours with profound
hypovolemia, which has both interstitial and intracellular components.
Increased capillary permeability is one of the key components of the burn
shock response. In small burns, maximal edema is seen 8 to 12 hours after
injury; larger burns at 12 to 24 hours. Plasma volume loss coincides with
edema formation and increased extracellular fluid. Edema is affected by
fluid administration during resuscitation. Fluid and electrolytes should be
replaced as dictated by organ perfusion indicators and electrolyte
imbalance. Because fluid and electrolyte losses in burns are primarily
insensible, fluid lost cannot be quantified adequately. Venous access should
be obtained and a urinary catheter placed. In the 2018 update to Advanced
Burn Life Support, the American Burn Association recommends fluids in
patients older than 14 years of age initiated at 500 mL/h with rapid titration
to weight-based fluid infusion rates. For scald or flame burns, infants and
young children weighing less than or equal to 30 kg should receive 3 mL
lactated Ringer per kg per %TBSA and D5LR at maintenance rate. Children
younger than 14 years of age should receive 3 mL per kg per % TBSA;
adult and older children should receive 2 mL per kg per %TBSA. The rates
are increased for electrical burns. All patients with electrical burns should
receive 4 mL lactated Ringer per kg per %TBSA; however, infants and
children should receive additional D5LR at maintenance rate.
Beginning at the low end may reduce edema and extravascular
complications such as abdominal compartment syndrome. The TBSA is
calculated only for second- or third-degree burns. Resuscitation is carried
out with lactated Ringer solution. Half of the crystalloid resuscitation
should be administered in the first 8 hours after time of injury, the
remaining over the next 16 hours. Confirming adequacy of resuscitation is
more important than strict adherence to formulas. Surrogate markers of
adequate resuscitation include normalization of blood pressure, heart rate,
and urine output. Appropriate urine output in adults is 0.5 to 1 mL/kg/h and
in children > 30 kg up to age 17 is 0.5mL/kg/h and young children < 30 kg
is 1mL/kg/h. An arterial blood gas measurement to monitor the pH and base
deficit and serum lactate levels are also good markers of adequate
resuscitation. Although appropriate resuscitation is critical to maintain
physiology, care must be taken to avoid over-resuscitation because this can
lead to significant increases in peripheral edema, pulmonary edema,
compartment syndromes, and result in increased morbidity of the burn
injury. Once target urine output is reached, a gradual reduction of IV fluid
administration is advised to prevent over-resuscitation.
Although volume resuscitation

formulas give a good estimate of
the initial volume requirements for
resuscitation in the critically
burned patient, the most important
indicator of appropriate
resuscitation is adequate urine
output.
F. Escharotomy
A circumferential burn to an extremity may develop significant edema that
the underlying tissue cannot accommodate because of the constrictive
nature of the burn wound. Impaired limb and tissue perfusion may ensue
that can only be managed by performing an escharotomy to the extremity
and/or digits. In larger burns of the abdomen and chest wall, a compartment
syndrome may develop whereby cardiovascular and respiratory
compromise may mandate torso escharotomies or abdominal
decompression. Surgical consultation should be sought immediately for any
of these problems.
G. Carbon Monoxide Exposure

A fire in an enclosed space mandates consideration of carbon monoxide
poisoning in addition to the worry for inhalation injury. The typical oxygen
saturation monitor will not detect carbon monoxide and can give artificially
elevated oxygen saturation levels; therefore, if carbon monoxide poisoning
is suspected, an arterial blood gas with a carboxyhemoglobin level will
clarify the clinical picture. High-flow 100% oxygen will reduce the half-life
of carbon monoxide in the plasma and is the primary treatment. Early use of
hyperbaric oxygen for patients with high carboxyhemoglobin levels (>
25%) or evidence of significant neurologic or cardiovascular toxicity has
been recommended, but data supporting this recommendation are limited.
H. Burn Wound
Local wound care begins with serial debridement of nonviable tissue and
blisters by appropriate surgical consultants. Little care, other than covering
with a dry clean dressing to prevent hypothermia, is required for the burn
wound before transfer to the burn center or surgical consultation. If gross
contamination is present, a gentle washing and coverage with clean linen
may be appropriate. If the patient cannot be transferred to a burn center
within 24 hours, it may be necessary to cleanse the burns with a cleansing
agent and apply appropriate topical antibiotic ointment (ie, silver
sulfadiazine or bacitracin) and occlusive dressings to help prevent
evaporative heat loss.
I. Other Considerations
Placement of a nasogastric tube and gastrointestinal stress ulcer prophylaxis
are indicated if the patient vomits, requires intubation, or has a burn > 20%
of TBSA. This may also prove beneficial to provide nutritional support for
large burns, given the high nutritional requirements. Intravenous opiates
should be given for pain. Rings and bracelets should be removed because
they may cause constriction early in resuscitation. Burns are tetanus-prone
injuries, and tetanus prophylaxis should be reviewed (Table 9-3).
J. Special Considerations
1. Chemical Burns
Chemical burns may be caused by acid (eg, cleaning products, industrial
applications), alkali (eg, hydrides of sodium, potassium, and sodas of
ammonia), or organic compounds (eg, petroleum products). Severity of
injury relates to the agent involved, its concentration, and the duration of
contact. Initial care requires removing the patient from the source of
chemical injury immediately. In general, removal of clothing is essential.
Dry substances should be brushed off and the area irrigated copiously with
water. Do not use neutralizing agents because they may increase the
severity of burn.
Hydrofluoric (HF) acid burns can

be particularly destructive,
coagulating the skin on exposure as
a result of fluoride ions penetrating
the skin combining with cellular
calcium and magnesium, requiring
urgent wound excision. HF acid is
commonly used in circuit boards,
cleaning solvents, and paint
removers.
Contact with petroleum products (such as spilled gasoline at the scene of a

motor vehicle crash) is associated with rapid skin penetration and late
multiple-organ failure. Again, rapid removal of the patient from the source
and vigorous irrigation of exposed surfaces are warranted. Advice regarding
chemical burns is available from regional burn centers.
2. Electrical Injury
Electrical injury is a syndrome with a variety of presentations. Exposure to
an electrical source of < 440 volts produces a low voltage injury similar to
other cutaneous burns. When exposure exceeds 1,000 volts, a greater
potential for deep as well as cutaneous injury exists.
Three types of skin injury can occur with electrocution:
1. Entrance and exit wounds, typically circumscribed, deep lesions, occur
at points of contact with the electrical source or ground (usually hands
and feet).
2. Cutaneous burns may be caused by arc injury from the primary site to
the patient, a flash injury, or an actual flame injury if clothing catches
fire.
3. Deep soft-tissue injuries involve muscle, nerve, or the vascular bed as
current passes through the tissue.
Beware of pneumothorax, airway compromise, cardiac arrest, and blunt

injury secondary to falls and violent muscle contraction. Muscle
compartment pressures may increase, necessitating fasciotomy, not just
escharotomy. If myoglobin is present in the urine or creatine kinase
concentrations are elevated, provide adequate intravascular fluid to increase
the urine output to 3 to 4 mL/kg/h until resolution of the rhabdomyolysis.
Patients may develop ileus after electrocution. The ECG should be
reviewed in electrical injury.
The initial priority in the management of electrocution is removal of
necrotic tissue and decompression of compromised deep tissue
compartments, particularly muscle. Resuscitation is begun at 4 mL/kg/%
TBSA cutaneous injury and titrated to maintain a urine output of 0.5 to 1
mL/kg/h unless rhabdomyolysis is present and higher urine output is
desirable. Aggressive fluid resuscitation potentiates filtering of pigment and
dilution of iron (nephrotoxic). Alkalinization of the urine may be
considered to decrease the nephrotoxic potential despite lack of supportive
evidence. If large areas of soft-tissue injury are present, surgical
consultation should be requested.
As with other burns, infection is the chief risk, but other potential problems
are myocardial and vascular injury, encephalopathy, cataracts, and bowel
perforation.
Lightning injury may be thought of as massive exposure to direct current.
Most injury is topical because exposure times are extremely brief. Mortality
rates associated with lightning relate to early cardiac and respiratory arrest.
Aggressive basic and advanced life support may be lifesaving for these
patients.
IV. REFERRAL AND TRANSFER CONSIDERATIONS

Early involvement of surgical expertise is important in the care of the
injured patient. A surgeon should be summoned as soon as it is known that
a seriously injured patient is arriving. Early neurosurgical consultation is
advised for patients with head injury.
General guidelines for field triage and interfacility transfer have used
physiologic, anatomic, and high-risk mechanistic criteria to suggest triggers
for triage and transfer. One may extrapolate that these parameters can be
used to initiate involvement of a trauma surgeon as well. The criteria for
transfer of patients to burn centers according to the American Burn
Association:
Partial-thickness burns on greater than 10% TBSA

Burns involving the face, hands, feet, genitalia, perineum, and major
joints
Third-degree burns in any age group
Electrical burns, including lightning injury
Chemical burns
Inhalation injury
Significant burns in patients at the extremes of age or with significant
comorbid disease
Patients with combined trauma and burn injury whose burn care
supersedes the trauma care*
Children at hospitals without qualified personnel or equipment to care
for pediatric burn patients
Burn injury in patients who will require special social, emotional, or
rehabilitative intervention
*Patients with severe trauma with burns should be addressed at the nearest
trauma center prior to consideration for transfer to burn center. For
additional information on burn transfer criteria, see
https://ameriburn.org/public-resources/burn-centerreferral-criteria/. Some
additional triggers are suggested in Table 9-4.
Table 9-4 Indications for Field Triage and Interfacility Transfera
Physiologic Criteria
Glasgow Coma Scale score of <13

Systolic blood pressure <90 mm Hg
Respiratory rate <10 breaths/min or >29 breaths/min (<20 breaths/min in infant <1
year)
Anatomic/Injury Triggers
Penetrating injuries to head, neck, torso, and extremities proximal elbow or knee
Chest wall instability or deformity
Amputation proximal to the wrist or ankle
Two or more proximal long bone fractures
Crushed, degloved, mangled, or pulseless extremity
Pelvic fracture
Open or depressed skull fracture
Paralysis
Mechanism of Injury Triggers
Adult: falls >20 feet

Children: falls >10 feet
High-risk automobile crash
Intrusion: >12 inches occupant side; >18 inches any side (including roof)
Ejection (partial or complete) from automobile
Death in same passenger compartment
Vehicle telemetry data consistent with high risk of injury
Auto vs. pedestrian/bicyclist: thrown, run over, or with significant (>20 mph) impact
Motorcycle crash >20 mph
Patient Triggers
Age >55 years

Systolic blood pressure <110 mm Hg in persons aged >65 years
Falls in older adults (including ground level falls)
Pediatric trauma transport
Anticoagulant use or bleeding disorders
Burns
Pregnancy >20 weeks
Judgment of emergency medical services provider
Adapted from Centers for Disease and Prevention. Guidelines for field triage of injured
patients: Recommendations of the National Expert Panel on Field Triage, 2011. MMWR
Recomm Rep. 2012;61(1):1-21.
If appropriate surgical services are unavailable, early transfer to the closest

trauma or burn center should be initiated. This should not be delayed for
additional radiologic studies if surgical resources are unavailable unless
those studies are requested by the accepting physician. The trauma center
should be contacted for advice and to discuss potential problems or
concerns with transport personnel.
Common pitfalls in the transfer of seriously ill patients include failure to
intubate before transfer, failure to recognize the need for transfer to a higher
level of care, and a general failure to stabilize the patient adequately before
transport. Unrecognized ongoing hemorrhage, delayed onset of tension
pneumothorax, and reversible/preventable causes of secondary brain injury
must be considered.
Case Follow-up: A 56-year-old woman is brought to the emergency
department after sustaining injuries in a house fire with an explosion. She
was intubated and placed on mechanical ventilation while her inhalation
burns improved. She sustained a pneumothorax that required tube
thoracostomy placement. The woman also underwent angioembolization of
a splenic laceration with active extravasation of intravenous contrast.
Key Points
Basic Trauma and Burn Support

The first goal in trauma management is to identify and treat
immediately life-threatening injuries by following the ABCDE
sequence of priorities.
After blunt trauma, airway control should proceed on the assumption
that an unstable cervical spine injury exists.
A diagnosis of tension pneumothorax should be based on clinical
criteria and not on a chest radiograph.
Hemorrhage is the most likely cause of shock after injury, and initial
empiric treatment consists of crystalloid infusion to normalize blood
pressure, reverse tachycardia, and maintain adequate organ perfusion.
In general, blood should be added to resuscitation early if the response
is inadequate or if continued ongoing hemorrhage is suspected.
Uncrossmatched, type-specific blood can be administered safely.
A secondary assessment includes a head-to-toe examination to identify
and treat potentially life-threatening injuries.
Computed tomographic scanning is essential for the initial evaluation
of head-injured patients with a depressed level of consciousness.
Burn resuscitation is proportional to the area sustaining second- and
third-degree burns and is titrated to signs of perfusion. Adequate urine
output is one of the key indicators of adequate resuscitation.
Closed-space smoke inhalation injury places the patient at high risk for
upper airway and inhalation injury that may not be obvious at the
initial presentation.
Surgical expertise should be secured early and transfer considered for
those patients who require a higher level of care.
Transfer to a specialized care setting should not be delayed for
additional radiologic studies unless the accepting physician requests
the studies.
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21. Sarrafzadeh AS, Peltonen EE, Kaisers U, et al. Secondary insults in
severe head injury: Do multiply injured patients do worse? Crit Care
Med. 2001;29(6):1116-1123.
22. Sasser SM, Hunt RC, Faul M, et al; Centers for Disease Control and
Prevention. Guidelines for field triage of injured patients:
Recommendations of the National Expert Panel on Field Triage, 2011.
MMWR Recomm Rep. 2012;61(1):1-21.
23. Society of Critical Care Medicine. Fundamental Disaster
Management. 3rd ed. Mount Prospect, IL: Society of Critical Care
Medicine; 2009.
24. Stengel D, Bauwens K, Sehouli J, et al. Emergency ultrasound-based
algorithms for diagnosing blunt abdominal trauma. Cochrane
Database of Syst Rev. 2005;(2):CD004446. doi:
10.1002/14651858.CD004446.pub2.
Suggested Websites
1. Society of Critical Care Medicine. www.sccm.org

2. American Burn Association. www.ameriburn.org
3. Burn Surgery. www.burnsurgery.org.
4. Brain Trauma Foundation. www.braintrauma.org
5. American Association for the Surgery of Trauma. www.aast.org
6. Eastern Association for the Surgery of Trauma. www.east.org
7. World Society of the Abdominal Compartment Syndrome.
www.wsacs.org
8. American College of Surgeons. www.facs.org/quality-
programs/trauma/atls
Chapter 10
ACUTE CORONARY SYNDROMES
Objectives
Identify patients who have acute coronary syndromes with various

electrocardiographic and clinical presentations.
Outline diagnostic procedures and the acute management of non–ST-
elevation acute coronary syndrome (NSTE-ACS) and ST-elevation
myocardial infarction (STEMI).
Identify appropriate reperfusion interventions for patients with STEMI
and high-risk patients with NSTE-ACS.
Recognize the complications of myocardial infarction and outline the
appropriate management.
Case Study
A 58-year-old man with a long-standing history of type 2 diabetes mellitus

and hyperlipidemia develops sudden-onset severe chest pain while mowing
grass. It was associated with dyspnea, nausea, and diaphoresis. His vital
signs on arrival in the emergency department are as follows: blood pressure
of 148/84 mm Hg, heart rate of 94 beats/min, respiratory rate of 26
breaths/min, and oxygen saturation measured by pulse oximetry of 97% on
room air. His physical examination is remarkable only for dyspnea and mild
diaphoresis.
– What features make acute coronary syndrome more likely to have
occurred?
– What information is needed to determine whether this patient has an
acute coronary syndrome?
– What are the recommended immediate management/interventions?
I. INTRODUCTION
Acute coronary syndrome (ACS) refers to a group of conditions
characterized by acute myocardial ischemia resulting from reduction in
myocardial blood flow. An important distinction is made clinically on the
basis of an electrocardiogram (ECG) between patients with ACS who have
ST-elevation myocardial infarction (STEMI), who should be considered for
immediate revascularization, and those who do not (non–ST-elevation acute
coronary syndrome [NSTE-ACS]). ACSs account for nearly 2 million
hospitalizations annually in the United States, and, if patients who die
before reaching the hospital are included, mortality may be as high as 25%.
ACSs share similar pathogenic mechanisms and represent different points
along a common continuum. ACSs are usually precipitated by rupture of an
atherosclerotic plaque, leading to a complex process of inflammation,
platelet activation and aggregation, thrombus formation, and
microembolization to the distal vasculature that results in decreased
myocardial oxygen supply. Plaque erosion may play a role in some patients
with NSTE-ACS. Possible sequelae of plaque rupture include thrombus
formation with total occlusion, with ST-elevation myocardial infarction;
dissolution of thrombus and healing of the fissure, with clinical
stabilization; and subtotal occlusion, which can lead to either NSTE-ACS or
unstable angina.
The distinction between NSTE-ACS and unstable angina is made on the
basis of biochemical evidence of myocardial injury manifested as elevation
of cardiac troponin. Such injury confers a higher risk and is usually an
indication for coronary revascularization. Patients without elevated
troponins are said to have unstable angina. The spectrum of ACS is shown
in Figure 10-1.
Figure 10-1. Overlapping Spectrum of Acute Coronary Syndromes
Abbreviations: ECG, electrocardiogram; MI, myocardial infarction; NSTE-ACS, non–ST-

elevation acute coronary syndrome
Acute coronary syndromes are distinguished by initial ECG findings and cardiac markers.
The term NSTE-ACS is preferred to non-ST elevation MI because the latter does not
distinguish between Type 1 and Type 2 myocardial infarction (see text).
Be aware of changes in the

management of ACS as new
evidence becomes available.
It is important to recognize that other conditions can increase cardiac

troponin. The Universal Definition of Myocardial Infarction makes a
distinction between troponin elevation consequent to plaque rupture or
erosion (Type 1 MI) and troponin elevation that is the result of an
imbalance between myocardial demand and supply (Type 2 MI), which is
treated differently, usually by addressing the underlying hemodynamic
precipitant. Inflammatory, infectious, renal failure, and other conditions can
lead to elevated troponin levels not related to myocardial ischemia.
A multidisciplinary team approach

is important in the recognition and
management of patients with ACS.
Patients presenting with chest discomfort should be evaluated expeditiously

for life-threatening conditions, including not only ACS but also other
conditions such as pulmonary embolism and aortic dissection; those
conditions should be treated promptly when diagnosed. An ECG should be
obtained and interpreted within 10 minutes of presentation. Results are best
when an organized approach to triage and diagnosis of suspected ACS is
employed. Hospitals should establish multidisciplinary teams (including
primary care physicians, emergency medicine physicians, cardiologists,
nurses, and others) to develop evidence-based protocols for triaging and
managing patients with symptoms suggestive of ACS. These protocols must
be updated periodically based on the best current evidence.
The consequences of ACS are often

so severe that therapy is indicated
even when the diagnosis is
presumptive.
Patients with other critical illness or injury have an increased risk for ACS
and frequently have atypical presentations. Definitive diagnosis of ACS
may not be possible on initial evaluation and requires continuous
observation, ECG monitoring, and/or laboratory evaluations. The initial
physical examination should include vital signs and general observation,
assessment of jugular venous distension, auscultation of the lungs and heart,
evaluation of the peripheral pulses, detection of neurologic deficits, and
assessment for evidence of systemic hypoperfusion.
II. NON—ST-ELEVATION ACUTE CORONARY

SYNDROME
If ST elevation is not present on the presenting ECG, the likelihood that
symptoms represent ACS can be evaluated based on an assessment of risk
factors for coronary artery disease (Table 10-1), the history and presenting
symptoms, physical examination, the ECG, and biochemical markers.
Accelerated diagnostic pathways using validated risk scores can augment
the accuracy of clinical judgment and can be beneficial to assess prognosis.
Table 10-1 Risk Factors for Coronary Artery Disease
Family history of myocardial infarction Obesity

Hypertension Diabetes mellitus
Smoking history Other vascular disease
Hyperlipidemia Sedentary lifestyle
Increasing age Cocaine/amphetamine use
Postmenopausal state
At presentation, patients with ischemic-type chest pain and an ECG with no

ST-segment elevation are presumed to have NSTE-ACS. Other causes of
prolonged chest pain (Table 10-2) should also be considered. Myocardial
damage is assessed using biochemical markers of cardiac injury.
Table 10-2 Differential Diagnosis of Prolonged Chest Pain
Acute myocardial ischemia

Aortic dissection/aortic aneurysm
Myocarditis
Pericarditis
Pain associated with hypertrophic cardiomyopathy or esophageal and gastrointestinal
disorders
Pulmonary diseases such as pneumothorax, pulmonary embolism, and pleuritis
Hyperventilation syndrome
Aortic stenosis
Musculoskeletal or chest wall diseases, costochondral pain
Psychogenic pain
Data taken from the Agency for Healthcare Research and Quality. Braunwald E, Mark DB,
Jones RH, et al. Unstable angina: diagnosis and management. AHCPR Publication 94-
0602. Rockville, MD: Agency for Health Care Policy and Research and National Heart,
Lung, and Blood Institute; 1994.
A. Diagnosis
The most important factors that suggest the likelihood of myocardial

ischemia are the character of the pain, prior history of coronary artery
disease, age, and number of risk factors. Results of the physical
examination may be normal, although a fourth heart sound (S4) may be
heard during episodes of pain. A 12-lead ECG is most helpful if it shows
ST-segment depression (Figure 10-2) during anginal episodes, especially if
those changes are dynamic and relieved by nitrates, but the ECG may be
normal or may reveal nondiagnostic T-wave inversions or peaked T waves.
Some patients may not have classic features of ACS. Patients with diabetes
mellitus may not feel chest discomfort but rather present with dyspnea or
other atypical symptoms. Elderly patients with ACS may present only with
lethargy, irritability, or altered mental status.
Figure 10-2 . Electrocardiogram of a Patient With NSTE-ACS
The ST-segment depression is characteristic of non–ST-elevation acute coronary
syndrome.
Courtesy of Kehllee Popovich, ACPN, MSN
Some women may not present with typical left-sided pressure or squeezing-
type chest pain but may have nonspecific symptoms often described more
as discomfort rather than pain. Women also have a greater prevalence of
other features such as nausea, shortness of breath, palpitations, jaw and
neck pain, as well as back pain. Nonetheless, chest pain remains the
predominant symptom reported in those ultimately diagnosed with ACS,
with the frequency in women equal to men.
If equipment and expertise are available, the use of transthoracic
echocardiography allows bedside assessment of wall motion abnormalities
as a marker for current or past ischemia and the detection and follow-up of
new abnormalities. It also provides an estimate of left ventricular (LV)
function and identification of valvular dysfunction and/or pericardial fluid.
The differential diagnosis of chest pain is broad and includes aortic
dissection or aneurysm, myocarditis, pericarditis, aortic stenosis, pulmonary
embolism, pneumothorax, esophageal and gastrointestinal disorders,
pneumonia, pleuritic pain, musculoskeletal or chest wall diseases,
hyperventilation, and other causes. Additional tests, such as
hemoglobin/hematocrit, electrolytes, thyroid function, and arterial oxygen
saturation, may be helpful in identifying precipitating factors for demand
ischemia or ACS, or may identify alternate diagnoses. Other imaging tests
may be indicated as warranted by the clinical presentation.
New-onset shortness of breath
and/or new left bundle branch
block should be considered possible
evidence of ACS, particularly in
women and patients with diabetes
mellitus, who may have atypical
presentations.
Several risk-stratification scores have been developed and validated to

assist in predicting the risk of death and ischemic events in NSTE-ACS.
The GRACE 2.0 (Global Registry for Acute Cardiac Events) score
(https://www.outcomes-umassmed.org/risk_models_grace_orig.aspx)
requires an app or a web-based calculator, whereas the TIMI (Thrombolysis
in Myocardial Infarction) risk score can be easily determined at the bedside
(Table 10-3). High-risk patients are considered to have a greater than 6%
risk of dying within 6 months, and intermediate-risk patients have a 6-
month mortality rate of 3% to 6%. Risk assessment has implications for the
location of care, selection of medical therapy, and use of reperfusion
interventions.
Table 10-3 TIMI Risk Score for Adverse Cardiac Events
1 point for each:

Age ≥65 y
Known coronary artery disease (coronary stenosis ≥50%)
ST-segment deviation of at least 0.5 mm
At least 2 angina events in prior 24 hours
Use of aspirin in prior 7 days
At least 3 risk factors for coronary artery disease (family history of premature
coronary artery disease, hypertension, hyperlipidemia, diabetes mellitus, smoking)
Elevated serum cardiac markers
Risk Factors Score Risk of Adverse Cardiac Event

Low 0-2 5% to 8%
Intermediate 3-4 13% to 20%
High 5-7 26% to 41%
Abbreviation: TIMI, thrombolysis in myocardial infarction
B. Management
Reversing myocardial ischemia and confirming the diagnosis of NSTE-

ACS are the initial priorities. Patients with NSTE-ACS should be admitted
to a unit with cardiac monitoring and placed on bed or chair rest (Figure
10-3). Emerging data suggest that routine use of supplemental oxygen in
cardiac patients with normal oxygenation may have untoward effects, but
patients with hypoxemia (oxygen saturation measured by pulse oximetry <
90% on room air), respiratory distress, heart failure, or shock should receive
oxygen by nasal cannula. If precipitating, reversible causes, such as fever,
anemia, hypoxemia, infection, hypertension, anxiety, hyperthyroidism,
arrhythmias, or sympathomimetic drug ingestion (eg, cocaine,
amphetamines) can be identified, they should be treated aggressively.
Further management includes anti-ischemic therapy, therapy for platelet
aggregation/thrombosis, ongoing risk stratification, and consideration of
invasive reperfusion procedures.
Figure 10-3. Evaluation and Treatment of Acute Coronary Syndromes
*Intervention by emergency medical services or in the emergency department
1sildanefil, vardenafil, tadalafil
Abbreviations: ABCs, airway, breathing, circulation; ACE, angiotensin converting enzyme
inhibitor;
ARB, angiotensin receptor blocker; ECG, electrocardiogram; LBBB, left bundle branch
block;
LMWH, low-molecular-weight heparin; NSTE-ACS, non–ST-elevation acute coronary
syndrome;
STEMI, ST-elevation myocardial infarction; UFH, unfractionated heparin
1. Anti-ischemic Therapy
Immediate control of ischemic pain is typically accomplished with a
combination of nitrates, β-blockers, and opiates. Antianginal medications
that are effective in stabilizing patients with unstable angina are listed in
Table 10-4. The goal is to reduce ischemia without causing hypotension or
reflex tachycardia. Patients with ongoing ischemic discomfort should
receive up to three doses of sublingual or spray nitroglycerin. Nitrates
should not be administered if the systolic blood pressure measures < 90 mm
Hg or ≥ 30 mm Hg below the patient’s baseline blood pressure. Additional
contraindications to nitrate administration are a heart rate of < 50 beats/min,
tachycardia > 100 beats/min in the absence of heart failure symptoms, and
in suspected right ventricular infarction or severe aortic stenosis. Nitrates
are also contraindicated in patients who have received a phosphodiesterase
inhibitor for erectile dysfunction in the previous 24 hours (48 hours for
tadalafil).
Table 10-4 Anti-ischemic Therapy
Agent Oral Dose Spray Dose Intravenous Dose

Nitroglycerin 0.4–mg tablet 0.4 mg every 5 Initial infusion rate 10 μg/min;
sublingually to a min to a increases of 10 μg/min every 3–5
maximum of 3 maximum of 3 min as needed to control pain;
doses; doses; discontinue rate increases for
contraindicated contraindicated significant drops in blood
when systolic when systolic pressure or maximum of 200
blood pressure <90 blood pressure μg/min
mm Hg <90 mm Hg
Morphine 1–5 mg every 5–30 min as
sulfate needed for pain
Metoprolol 50-200 mg every 5 mg every 5 min to a total dose
24 h of 15 mg
Carvedilol 6.25 mg every 12 h
titrated to
maximum 25 mg
every 12 h
Propranolol 20-80 mg every 6- 0.5–1 mg as single dose
8h 5 mg every 5 min to total dose of
40–100 mg every 15 mg
12 h
Diltiazem 30–60 mg every 6–
8h
If sublingual or spray nitroglycerin does not relieve pain, an assessment

should be made about the need for IV nitroglycerin for persistent ischemia.
Decreases in blood pressure with nitroglycerin are predominantly the result
of increased venous capacitance and can often be treated with careful IV
crystalloid infusion, but if the systolic pressure falls below 110 mm Hg in
normotensive patients, the nitroglycerin dose should not be increased.
Tolerance to the hemodynamic effects of nitroglycerin becomes important
after 24 hours of continuous infusion, and efforts should be made to switch
to other dosing regimens. The dose of IV nitrates should be tapered and
discontinued when ischemic manifestations have resolved for 12 to 24
hours.
Prominent hypotension with

administration of nitroglycerin
should raise the suspicion of right
ventricular infarction.
Morphine sulfate is a reasonable analgesic for management of pain

refractory to initial antianginal therapy. Nonsteroidal anti-inflammatory
drugs other than aspirin should be discontinued during hospitalization.
Routine use of IV β-blockers in the initial management of patients with
suspected NSTE-ACS is not supported by current evidence, but may be
considered in patients with ongoing chest pain, especially with concomitant
hypertension or tachycardia; IV dosing should be followed by oral
administration. IV β-blockers are contraindicated in patients with shock,
heart rate < 50 beats/min, decompensated heart failure, advanced heart
block (type II second-degree or third-degree), hypotension, or active
bronchospastic disease. Caution is advised with the use of β-blockers in
patients with risk factors for shock (age > 70 years, heart rate > 110
beats/min, systolic blood pressure < 120 mm Hg, or late presentation).
Aspirin improves survival and

reduces the incidence of MI.
Oral β-blockers should be initiated within the first 24 hours in patients

when possible; an attempt should be made to start even in patients with
initial contraindications to their use.
Avoid use of diltiazem in cases of

reduced left ventricular function.
Non-dihydropyridine calcium channel blockers (eg, diltiazem, verapamil)

do not reduce mortality risk in myocardial infarction (MI). In the absence of
contraindications (such as significant LV dysfunction), they may be
considered only if patients cannot tolerate a β-blocker or symptoms are not
controlled with nitroglycerin and β-blockers together.
2. Antiplatelet Therapy
The use of antiplatelet and anticoagulant agents (Table 10-5) is important in
patients with NSTE-ACS because of the contributions of platelet
activation/aggregation and the coagulation system to platelet-rich thrombus
formation. Dual antiplatelet therapy is indicated in patients undergoing
revascularization with percutaneous coronary intervention (PCI). The
intensity of therapy with these agents is often tailored to the patient’s risk
assessment and to plans for early invasive procedures. Non−enteric-coated
aspirin at a dose of 162 to 325 mg should be administered (and chewed) as
soon as possible to all patients with NSTE-ACS (including those in the
prehospital setting) if no aspirin allergy is suspected. Aspirin should be
administered indefinitely. Clopidogrel or ticagrelor should be considered as
an alternative antiplatelet agent if aspirin is contraindicated.
Table 10-5 Antiplatelet Drugs Used in Acute Coronary Syndromes
Antiplatelet Agents
Aspirin 162-325 mg chewed and swallowed initially, then 81-325 mg as a
minimum oral dose daily
Adenosine diphosphate inhibitors (thienopyridines)
Clopidogrel Loading dose of *75–300 mg orally can be used with a noninvasive
approach or fibrinolysis; loading dose of 300 to 600 mg orally with PCI;
maintenance dose of 75 mg orally daily
Prasugrel Loading dose of 60 mg orally may substitute for clopidogrel in patients with
STEMI managed with early PCI who are not at high risk of bleeding;
maintenance dose of 10 mg daily (consider 5 mg daily if weight <60 kg);
not studied for STEMI treated with fibrinolysis
Ticagrelor Loading dose of 180 mg orally may be an option instead of clopidogrel in
NSTE-ACS or STEMI managed with early PCI; maintenance dose of 90
mg twice daily; not studied for STEMI treated with fibrinolysis
Abbreviations: P2Y12, The P2Y12 receptor is the predominant receptor involved in the ADP-
stimulated platelet activation; PCI, percutaneous coronary intervention; STEMI, ST-
elevation myocardial infarction; NSTE-ACS, non–ST-elevation acute coronary syndrome
*Individuals >75 years of age, and those receiving fibrinolysis, should receive a loading
dose of 75 mg because of increased bleeding risk
If an early invasive strategy (angiography within 24–48 hours with

revascularization if appropriate) or noninterventional conservative approach
is planned, clopidogrel or ticagrelor should be added to aspirin to decrease
the risk of cardiovascular death, MI, and stroke. Clopidogrel, prasugrel, or
ticagrelor should be administered in patients undergoing PCI, but prasugrel
is contraindicated in those with a history of stroke or transient ischemic
attack and is associated with an increased risk of bleeding. The choice of a
specific adenosine diphosphate inhibitor should be discussed with the
cardiologist when possible.
3. Anticoagulant Therapy
The combination of aspirin and an anticoagulant agent is more beneficial
than aspirin alone in NSTE-ACS. The selection of a specific agent should
take into account the risks of ischemia and bleeding complications, as well
as the presence of renal dysfunction. In patients with ACS treated with a
conservative ischemia-guided approach, low-molecular-weight heparin,
unfractionated heparin, bivalirudin, or fondaparinux should administered as
soon as possible unless there are significant contraindications. Patients
managed with fondaparinux require an additional anticoagulant to prevent
catheter thrombosis if a PCI is subsequently performed. Unfractionated
heparin is continued for at least 48 hours, and enoxaparin or fondaparinux
for the duration of the hospital stay (up to 8 days) in patients managed with
medical therapy or until PCI is performed. If an early invasive strategy is
planned, unfractionated heparin, enoxaparin, or bivalirudin should be
initiated as soon as possible. Serial platelet counts are required to monitor
for heparin-induced thrombocytopenia (HIT). Argatroban is an alternative
anticoagulant in patients with known HIT. Patients who are adequately
anticoagulated with warfarin still require antiplatelet therapy, but
anticoagulation with heparin or alternative agents is generally not needed
unless the international normalized ratio is less than 2.0.
4. Reperfusion Interventions
Fibrinolytic agents have no proven efficacy in NSTE-ACS. Patients with
NSTE-ACS and shock benefit from early reperfusion with PCI or coronary
artery bypass graft and should be triaged to the catheterization laboratory as
soon as possible. An early invasive approach is clearly indicated in patients
who have hemodynamic or electric instability, or refractory angina, and
who lack serious comorbidities such as bleeding, advanced liver or renal
failure, or end-stage disease such that the risk of PCI outweighs the benefit.
In other patients with NSTE-ACS, risk stratification is the key to the
decision about an invasive strategy; cardiology consultation is usually
warranted to help with the decision. An initial strategy of medical
management with attempts at stabilization is warranted in patients with
lower risk, but patients at higher risk should be considered for cardiac
catheterization. Calculation of a GRACE risk score can be helpful with
respect to timing; patients with a score > 140 benefited from early
revascularization (< 24 hours) in the Timing of Intervention in Acute
Coronary Syndromes (TIMACS) trial.
5. Other Interventions
High-dose statins are indicated for all patients with ACS. Echocardiography
should be performed to evaluate LV performance because an angiotensin-
converting enzyme (ACE) inhibitor or angiotensin receptor blocker should
be administered to patients with NSTE-ACS and evidence of pulmonary
congestion or LV ejection fraction < 40% unless contraindications are
present. Aldosterone antagonist is an option in patients receiving an ACE
inhibitor and β-blocker who have an ejection fraction < 40%, diabetes
mellitus or heart failure, and no contraindications. Risk factor modification,
including exercise, weight reduction, and smoking cessation, is
recommended for all patients with ACS. Patients should be evaluated for
diabetes mellitus even if not previously diagnosed.
An echocardiogram should be part

of the workup in ACS.
III. ST-ELEVATION MYOCARDIAL INFARCTION

Patients with STEMI usually have plaque rupture with an occlusive
coronary thrombus, resulting in a wave front of myocardial necrosis that
begins at the endocardial surface within 15 minutes. The infarction
progresses outward to the epicardium over approximately 6 hours unless
collateral flow, spontaneous reperfusion, or reperfusion via an intervention
is established. This progression may be modulated by the extent of
collateral flow and determinants of myocardial oxygen consumption, which
affords an opportunity for myocardial salvage. As with the patient with
NSTE-ACS, prompt diagnosis and early treatment of the patient with
STEMI is vital to optimize outcomes.
A. Diagnosis
Patients with STEMI typically present with prolonged chest pain and
associated symptoms, but some patients have MIs that are painless (silent
infarction/ischemia) or have other related symptoms, such as dyspnea and
fatigue. In the critically ill patient population, STEMIs may not be
associated with classic symptoms and are often suspected when
complications occur, new arrhythmias develop, or ECG changes are noted.
The physical examination findings are nonspecific.
The most common finding in patients with normal sinus rhythm is the S4
heart sound, indicating decreased left ventricular compliance at the end of
ventricular filling. Bibasilar crackles as a result of pulmonary edema may
be present and are helpful in assessing hemodynamic status. A brief focused
physical examination aids in the diagnosis and assessment of possible
complications of STEMI. A limited neurologic examination for evidence of
prior stroke or cognitive deficits also should be conducted.
When possible, a prehospital 12-lead ECG should be obtained and
interpreted to facilitate diagnosis, triage, and treatment on arrival at the
medical facility. Otherwise, a patient with chest discomfort or symptoms
suggestive of ACS should have this ECG performed and read within 10
minutes of arrival or detection of symptoms. The ECG is diagnostic of
STEMI in the absence of QRS confounders (ie, bundle branch block,
pacing, LV hypertrophy, Wolff-Parkinson-White syndrome) if it shows ≥ 2
mm of ST-segment elevation in two or more contiguous leads in men or ≥
1.5 mm of ST-segment elevation in women in leads V2-V3 and/or ≥ 1 mm in
other contiguous leads (Figure 10-4).
Figure 10-4 . ECG Indicating an Inferolateral STEMI
This electrocardiogram (ECG) shows classic findings of ST elevation in the inferior (II, III,
and aVF) and lateral (V4, V5, V6) leads, indicating an inferolateral ST-elevation myocardial
infarction (STEMI).
Patients with ECG findings of new or undiagnosed left bundle branch block
and chest pain compatible with myocardial ischemia are treated similarly to
those patients with ST-segment elevation. If the initial ECG is not
diagnostic but the patient remains symptomatic with a high clinical
suspicion for ischemia, serial ECGs at 5- to 10-minute intervals may be
performed to detect the development of ST-segment elevation. A right-sided
ECG showing ST elevation in right-sided V leads may suggest right
ventricular infarction is present.
Cardiac catheterization in STEMI

should not be delayed waiting for
troponin results.
If the diagnosis is in doubt, echocardiography may add helpful information

by showing focal wall motion abnormalities. The diagnosis is confirmed by
elevated serum levels of cardiac-specific troponin, but reperfusion should
not be delayed or deferred pending troponin levels.
B. General Management
Once STEMI is suspected or diagnosed, the immediate concerns are to

ensure hemodynamic stability and to limit infarct size by restoring blood
flow to the affected artery as soon as possible (Figure 10-5). Cardiology
expertise should be sought promptly. Treatment of STEMI in the patient
with other critical illness requires careful individualization. Absolute and
relative contraindications to therapies must be considered and relative risk
assessed. Choices may be limited by significant comorbidities, bleeding
risk, the availability of specialized procedures, and the underlying
prognosis.
1. Early Therapy
Immediate 12-lead ECG, cardiac-specific troponin measurement, and
related laboratory tests should be completed. Aspirin should be
administered immediately, and supplemental oxygen should be given in the
presence of dyspnea, hypoxemia, heart failure, or shock.
Early restoration of flow in the infarct-related coronary artery is associated
with improved survival in patients with STEMI; therefore, some type of
reperfusion should be chosen as soon as possible. Primary PCI with stent
placement is the preferred method if it can be performed quickly by
experienced personnel; patients should be transferred directly to the
catheterization laboratory in preference to other intensive care units when
this is feasible. The door-to-balloon time goal is 90 minutes, but 60 minutes
is preferable. Recent studies suggest that first medical contact to balloon
time is a more relevant measure, with a goal set at 90 minutes. Activating
the catheterization laboratory by obtaining and transmitting a prehospital
ECG and taking appropriate patients directly to PCI-capable centers are
strategies that can reduce time to revascularization.
The addition of a loading dose and subsequent maintenance doses of
clopidogrel or ticagrelor as part of dual antiplatelet therapy may improve
outcomes prior to PCI for STEMI, but consultation with the cardiology
team is advisable because other options, such as short-acting intravenous
platelet inhibition, may be advisable in some situations, especially if
surgical intervention may be needed. An anticoagulant agent, unfractionated
heparin or bivalirudin, should also be administered to patients undergoing
PCI. Intravenous nitroglycerin may be useful in patients with STEMI and
ongoing chest pain, hypertension, or heart failure, unless the systolic blood
pressure is below 90 mm Hg. Intravenous β-blockers are not routinely
administered but may be considered at presentation if hypertension or
ongoing ischemia is present and there are no contraindications.
2. Acute Reperfusion Therapy

A plan for early reperfusion in patients with STEMI should be developed
based on the resources available in the facility and community.
a. Percutaneous Coronary Intervention (PCI)
PCI involves deployment of an intracoronary drug-eluting stent, along with
pharmacologic measures to prevent thrombosis. Primary PCI results in
higher patency rates of the infarct-related coronary artery and lower rates of
recurrent ischemia, reinfarction, and death. Primary PCI is the preferred
reperfusion technique if the procedure can be performed by experienced
personnel within 90 minutes of hospital presentation being preferred with
clinical or electrocardiographic evidence of ongoing ischemia, even if more
than 12 hours have elapsed since symptom onset.
If primary PCI is not available, and transfer to a facility with invasive
reperfusion capability can be accomplished within 30 minutes, for a door-
to-balloon time of less than 120 minutes, then this is the preferable option.
If this is not an option because of logistic or other challenges, then
fibrinolytic therapy is recommended, and this should be initiated within 30
minutes of hospital presentation.
Potential complications of an invasive strategy for treating STEMI include
problems with the arterial access site, dye allergy, contrast nephropathy,
complications of antithrombotic medications, technical complications, and
reperfusion events.
Recent data indicate that a radial artery approach for primary PCI reduces
major bleeding and access site complications and is associated with
improved outcomes. This may shift the risk-benefit calculation in some
patients prone to bleeding complications.
b. Fibrinolysis
If PCI is not available or cannot be performed within 120 minutes of
arrival, fibrinolytic therapy should be considered. Limitation of infarct size
is optimized when fibrinolytics are administered within 6 hours of symptom
onset. The physician must weigh the potential risks against the benefits of
fibrinolysis for each patient. If the decision to proceed is made and no
absolute contraindications exist (Table 10-6), fibrinolytic therapy should be
administered expeditiously. Several agents are available, including
alteplase, reteplase, and tenectaplase, and all are effective. Doses are listed
in Table 10-7. Findings that suggest reperfusion include relief of symptoms,
maintenance or restoration of hemodynamic and/or electrical stability, and
reduction of at least 50% of the initial ST-segment elevation injury pattern
on a follow-up ECG performed 60 to 90 minutes after the initiation of
therapy.
Table 10-6 Contraindications for Fibrinolytic Therapy
Absolute Contraindications
Prior intracranial hemorrhage
Known cerebral vascular lesion
Ischemic stroke within past 3 months
Allergy to the agent
Significant head or facial trauma within past 3 months
Known intracranial neoplasm
Suspected aortic dissection
Active internal bleeding or bleeding diathesis (except menstruation)
Intracranial or intraspinal surgery within past 2 months
Severe uncontrolled hypertension (unresponsive to urgent therapy)
Relative Contraindications
Severe uncontrolled hypertension on presentation (blood pressure >180/110 mm Hg)
History of chronic, severe, poorly controlled hypertension
Ischemic stroke >3 months ago or intracerebral pathology
Current use of oral anticoagulants
Traumatic or prolonged (>10 min) cardiopulmonary resuscitation
Major surgery within past 3 weeks
Previous use of streptokinase/anistreplase: allergy or prior exposure (>5 days ago)
Active peptic ulcer disease
Recent internal bleeding (within past 2–4 weeks)
Noncompressible arterial or central venous puncture
Pregnancy
Table 10-7 Fibrinolytic Agents Used in ST-Elevation Myocardial
Infarction
Streptokinase 1.5 million units intravenously over 30-60 min
Alteplase 15 mg intravenous bolus, then 0.75 mg/kg (maximum 50 mg)
intravenously over 30 min, then 0.50 mg/kg (maximum 35 mg)
intravenously over 60 min
Reteplase 10 units intravenously over 2 min followed in 30 min by 10 units
intravenously over 2 min
Tenecteplase Intravenous bolus adjusted for weight (30 mg if <60 kg; 35 mg if 60-70
kg; 40 mg if 70-80 kg; 45 mg if 80-90 kg; 50 mg if >90 kg)
After fibrinolysis with a plasminogen activator, heparin should be used to

maintain vessel patency for at least 48 hours. Aspirin should be continued.
Routine use of PCI in the first 2 to 3 hours after fibrinolytic therapy
(“facilitated angioplasty”) is not recommended.
STEMI patients who develop cardiogenic shock or severe heart failure, or
who have evidence of reperfusion failure or re-occlusion after fibrinolytic
therapy, should be transferred to PCI-capable facilities as soon as possible.
Patients with STEMI who are hemodynamically stable and achieve
successful reperfusion also should be considered for transfer to a PCI-
capable facility. Antiplatelet and anticoagulant therapy is continued after
fibrinolysis and before transfer. The algorithm for triage and transfer of
patients for reperfusion therapy in STEMI is found in Figure 10-5. For
specific American Heart Association guidelines, see
https://professional.heart.org/en/guidelines-and-statements.
Time to open the infarct-related

coronary artery is the most
important determining factor when
choosing options for reperfusion.
Figure 10-5 . Reperfusion Therapy for Patients with STEMI

c. Coronary Artery Bypass Graft (CABG) Surgery in Patients with STEMI
Subsets of patients who present with STEMI may be better served with
CABG. Patients with failed PCI or whose coronary anatomy is not
amenable to PCI but who have ongoing symptoms of ischemia, cardiogenic
shock, severe heart failure, or other high-risk features should be considered
for CABG. CABG is also recommended in patients who require not only
revascularization but also repair of a mechanical defect such as ventricular
septal defect, free wall rupture, or papillary muscle rupture. The previously
reported increased mortality in CABG patients who recently had a STEMI,
and the increased bleeding in patients given recent dual antiplatelet therapy
needs to be balanced against the need for revascularization.
PCI is not contraindicated by the
presence of coma or a need for
targeted temperature management
after cardiac arrest.
3. Adjunctive Therapy
a. Antiplatelet Therapy
Dual antiplatelet therapy with aspirin and P2Y12 inhibition is given to all
patients undergoing PCI, as described previously. However, data suggest
that even patients not undergoing PCI benefit from the addition of
clopidogrel or ticagrelor to aspirin.
Glycoprotein IIb/IIIa receptor antagonists inhibit the final common pathway
of platelet aggregation, blocking crosslinking of activated platelets, but in
the era of dual antiplatelet therapy, the role of addition of a glycoprotein
IIb/IIIa inhibitor in primary angioplasty for STEMI is uncertain.
“Upstream” (prior to PCI) use of GP IIb/IIIa receptor antagonists has failed
to show benefit and is no longer recommended. They may be considered on
an individual patient basis, if a patient has a large thrombus burden at PCI
or if there was insufficient loading with a P2Y12 receptor antagonist.
Ideally, thrombolytic therapy

should be initiated within 30
minutes of the patient’s arrival to
the hospital.
b. Anticoagulant Therapy
After fibrinolysis with a plasminogen activator, heparin should be used to
maintain vessel patency for 48 hours, adjusted to keep the partial
thromboplastin time at 1.5 to 2 times the control value. Heparin
anticoagulation after use of streptokinase is not necessary. Patients who
have intramural thrombus detected or suspected on echocardiography
should receive heparin, and heparin should be considered in patients with
large anterior infarctions who do not receive PCI or fibrinolysis.
If PCI is not possible within 120

minutes, then fibrinolysis should be
considered.
c. β-Blockers
β-blockers are beneficial both in the early management of MI and as long-
term therapy. Oral β-blockers should be initiated after the patient with
STEMI has stabilized, ideally in the first 24 hours. Long-term use of these
agents is helpful in all patients who are at risk for recurrent cardiovascular
events and who have no contraindications to their use.
d. Renin-Angiotensin System Inhibitors
Inhibitors of angiotensin-converting enzyme (ACE) decrease circulating
angiotensin II levels and increase levels of bradykinin, which in turn
stimulates production of nitric oxide. ACE inhibitors have been shown to
improve hemodynamics, functional capacity, and symptoms. They also
improve survival in patients with chronic congestive heart failure and
prevent the development of congestive heart failure in patients with
asymptomatic LV dysfunction. Patients treated with ACE inhibitors after
MI showed improved survival, with particular benefit in patients with LV
dysfunction (ejection fraction < 40%), anterior infarction, or pulmonary
congestion. This improved survival was additive to the benefits of aspirin
and ß-blockers. The mechanisms responsible for the benefits of ACE
inhibitors most likely include limitation in the progressive LV dysfunction
and enlargement (remodeling) that often occur after infarction, but a
reduction in ischemic events was also seen. Immediate intravenous ACE
inhibition with enalaprilat has not been shown to be beneficial, but oral
ACE inhibition should be started early in the hospital course. An ACE-I
should be administered within the first 24 hours to all patients with STEMI
and LV dysfunction or heart failure unless hypotension (systolic blood
pressure < 100 mm Hg) or other contraindications, most prominently a
history of angioedema, are present. Baseline renal function should be taken
into consideration when initiating an ACE inhibitor or an angiotensin
receptor blocker (ARB), but renal failure is not an absolute contraindication
to their use. Patients should be started on low doses of oral agents and
titrated to maximally tolerated doses. STEMI patients that are intolerant to
an ACE-I should be given an ARB. ARBs have been shown to be non-
inferior to ACE inhibitors in this setting.
e. Statins
Multiple studies have shown that statin use in patients after ACS can
prevent death, recurrent MI, and stroke. Use of a high-intensity statin is
preferred and should be initiated before discharge. In patients with ACS,
high-intensity statin therapy should be given regardless of the LDL level.
Contraindications to statin use include a history of statin-induced
rhabdomyolysis or significant myopathy and/or acute liver injury, but often
patients who did not tolerate one statin will tolerate another.
f. Calcium Channel Blockers
Long-acting calcium channel blockers may be a useful secondary therapy
for recurrent myocardial ischemia but are not appropriate for first-line
treatment. Randomized clinical trials have not demonstrated that routine use
of calcium channel blockers improves survival after MI. Immediate-release
nifedipine is contraindicated in the treatment of an acute MI. Diltiazem and
verapamil are contraindicated in patients with STEMI and LV dysfunction
and heart failure.
Transfer to a facility providing a higher level of care is indicated for
patients who have persistent ischemic symptoms after MI, who develop
cardiogenic shock, who have heart failure despite aggressive therapy, or
who have recurrent ventricular fibrillation or tachycardia despite aggressive
antiarrhythmic therapy.
C. Complications
Common early complications of MI are heart failure and cardiogenic shock,
recurrent ischemia and/or infarction, and arrhythmias. Urgent cardiology
consultation should be obtained as soon as possible to assist with
management and decisions regarding advanced interventions in all patients
with complications of ACS.
1. Heart Failure and Cardiogenic Shock

Heart failure after ACS generally results from LV pump failure.
Echocardiography should be performed to evaluate LV function and to rule
out mechanical complications, and expert consultation should be sought.
Consideration should be given to evaluation for residual ischemia or
restenosis or thrombosis of a recently placed stent.
Pharmacologic treatment of heart failure should be tailored to the patient’s
clinical and hemodynamic state. Clinical evaluation can assess perfusion
and intravascular volume by characterizing patients as wet or dry and warm
or cold, but hemodynamic monitoring can be useful, especially if patients
do not respond promptly to empiric therapy because clinical assessment of
cardiac output is difficult unless patients are in frank shock. Patients with a
systolic arterial pressure >100 mm Hg and low cardiac output should be
treated initially with a vasodilator, usually IV nitroglycerin (doses of 0.3 to
1 μg/kg/min, titrated up in increments of 0.5 μg/kg/min every 10 minutes).
If arterial pressure decreases or cardiac output remains inadequate,
inotropic support with dobutamine may be initiated (5 μg/kg/min) and
titrated as needed. Milrinone is an alternative inotropic agent with less
arrhythmogenic effect than dobutamine, although it is often associated with
hypotension. In countries where it is available, levosimendan has shown
favorable inotropic and hemodynamic benefits, although improved
outcomes have not been demonstrated in cardiogenic shock. Intravenous
loop diuretics, such as furosemide and bumetanide should be used to reduce
pulmonary congestion. Hypotension is rarely attributable to diuretic-
induced hypovolemia in this setting.
Cardiogenic shock represents the leading cause of in-hospital death after
MI. Cardiogenic shock is diagnosed clinically by hypoperfusion and
hypervolemia (wet and cold) and hemodynamically by persistent
hypotension with reduced cardiac index. Cardiac dysfunction in patients
with cardiogenic shock is usually initiated by MI or ischemia, which can
then be exacerbated by hypotension. Compensatory mechanisms that retain
fluid in an attempt to maintain cardiac output may add to the vicious cycle
and further increase diastolic filling pressures. The interruption of this cycle
of myocardial dysfunction and ischemia forms the basis for the therapeutic
regimens for cardiogenic shock. Early recognition of cardiogenic shock and
timely management with revascularization is paramount to improve
outcomes.
Echocardiography provides information about overall and regional systolic
function, diastolic function, and valvular disease, and can rapidly diagnose
mechanical causes of shock. Right-heart catheterization is useful to
characterize hemodynamics and to optimize therapy in unstable patients in
whom clinical estimates of filling pressures can be unreliable, and optimal
filling pressures may be higher than expected in those with LV diastolic
dysfunction. Concomitant right ventricular dysfunction is often
underrecognized in patients with cardiogenic shock, and its importance is
underappreciated; right-heart catheterization is the best and most
expeditious way to assess right-sided hemodynamics and its response to
therapy in these patients. Measurement of cardiac output and mixed venous
saturation can speak to the adequacy of cardiac performance and help select
patients for inotropic and or mechanical circulatory support.
Prompt revascularization is the only intervention that consistently reduces
mortality rates in patients with cardiogenic shock. In a randomized trial of
patients with LV failure complicating STEMI, coronary revascularization
with PCI or CABG within 48 hours of presentation reduced all-cause
mortality compared with optimal medical management. As such, urgent
cardiac catheterization, with transfer to a PCI-capable institution if needed,
is warranted in patients with cardiogenic shock.
Cardiogenic shock in the setting of
acute MI is an indication for
emergent revascularization (either
percutaneous intervention or
coronary artery bypass grafting).
Therapy with vasopressor agents may be required to maintain coronary

perfusion pressure, to break the vicious cycle of progressive hypotension
with further myocardial ischemia. Norepinephrine is the preferred first-line
agent in this setting. Inotropic agents, such as dobutamine, may be added to
raise cardiac output as a supporting measure.
Percutaneous Mechanical Circulatory Support
Percutaneous mechanical
circulatory support should be
considered in patients with ACS
and shock or impending shock,
based on hemodynamic assessment.
Percutaneous mechanical circulatory support devices can increase arterial

pressure and cardiac output, reduce LV filling pressures and afterload, and
support coronary perfusion. They can provide short-term support as a
bridge to recovery or to transplantation. Mechanical therapy may be
preferable to vasoactive agents in this regard because those agents can
increase myocardial oxygen demand and decrease microvascular flow.
Choices include intra-aortic balloon pumping, implantable centrifugal
pump, the axial flow pump, and extracorporeal membrane oxygenation. A
key issue in choosing among mechanical support options is right ventricular
function; some patients with both right- and left-heart failure might benefit
from initial biventricular support with the addition of right ventricular
support. Invasively derived parameters that have been shown to be useful in
selecting among mechanical support devices include the cardiac power
index (CO × MAP/456) an index of LV contractile function, and pulmonary
artery pulsatility index (PAPI: pulmonary artery pulse pressure/right atrial
pressure). Trials have not shown that an intra-aortic balloon pump can
improve outcomes in patients with cardiogenic shock. Percutaneous left
ventricular assist devices provide better hemodynamics compared with the
intra-aortic balloon pump, with higher cardiac indices and mean arterial
pressures as well as lower filling pressures, but they have not been shown to
improve mortality.
2. Right Ventricular Infarction

Right ventricular infarction results in elevation of right atrial and right
ventricular filling pressures and low cardiac output. These hemodynamic
abnormalities result in characteristic clinical findings of hypotension, clear
lung fields, and distended internal jugular veins. The ECG usually reveals
an inferior infarction, and an ECG tracing of the right precordial leads
should be obtained and may reveal ST-segment elevation, especially in V4R.
Initial therapy includes maintenance of right ventricular preload with
volume expansion until the blood pressure is stabilized. Associated
bradycardia or high-degree heart block may require chemical or electrical
intervention. Agents that reduce preload should be avoided, such as
morphine, nitrates, ACE inhibitors/angiotensin receptor blockers, and
diuretics. If volume expansion is inadequate to stabilize the patient,
inotropic support with dobutamine should be considered.
3. Mechanical Complications
Mechanical complications following MI include ventricular free wall
rupture, ventricular septal rupture, and acute mitral regurgitation, all of
which typically occur during the first week after infarction.
Ventricular free wall rupture is often lethal although its incidence is low (<
1%). Risk factors include the absence of collateral flow, anterior location of
the infarct, use of corticosteroids or nonsteroidal anti-inflammatory agents,
age > 70 years, and female sex. Pseudoaneurysm with leakage may be
heralded by chest pain, nausea, and restlessness, but frank free wall rupture
presents as a catastrophic event with shock and electromechanical
dissociation. Echocardiography reveals pericardial effusion, and salvage is
only possible following prompt recognition and thoracotomy for repair.
Ventricular septal rupture presents as hypotension, severe biventricular
heart failure, and cardiogenic shock with physical findings of a pansystolic
murmur and parasternal thrill. The hallmark finding is a left-to-right
intracardiac shunt (“step-up” in oxygen saturation from right atrium to right
ventricle), but the diagnosis is most easily made with echocardiography.
Rapid institution of supportive pharmacologic measures and mechanical
support is necessary. Surgical repair is the only viable option for long-term
survival, but even if done in a timely manner, mortality remains high,
ranging from 20% to 80%.
Ischemic mitral regurgitation may be seen following an inferior MI because
of compromised blood flow to the posterior papillary muscle. The typical
presentation is that of acute-onset pulmonary edema and cardiogenic shock.
The murmur of acute mitral regurgitation may be limited to early systole
because of rapid equalization of pressures in the left atrium and left
ventricle or may be soft or inaudible when cardiac output is low. Diagnosis
is made by echocardiography. Afterload reduction inotropic or vasopressor
therapy may temporize by supporting cardiac output and blood pressure, but
definitive therapy is surgical valve repair or replacement, which should be
undertaken as soon as possible because clinical deterioration can be sudden.
4. Recurrent Ischemia or Infarction

Recurrent ischemia or infarction occurs in up to 20% of patients treated
with fibrinolytic therapy for MI, whereas patients receiving primary PCI
have a lower incidence of recurrent ischemia. Ischemia after MI can be
caused by residual stenosis in the infarct-related artery, by disease in
another coronary artery, or by occlusion of a new stent. An ECG recorded
during recurrent pain should be compared with those from the index MI
event. Reinfarction may be difficult to diagnose because cardiac troponins
are unreliable since levels can be elevated for 5 to 14 days and because the
ECG may be evolving. If there is high suspicion for reinfarction, cardiac
catheterization should be considered regardless of cardiac biomarker values
or ECG findings. Nonischemic etiologies, such as pericarditis and
pulmonary embolism, should also be considered as potential causes of
recurrent chest pain.
Detection of reinfarction is
clinically important because it
carries incremental risk for the
patient.
Treatment of post-MI ischemia is similar to management of the initial MI

but also includes cardiac catheterization and reperfusion, if possible. Acute
reperfusion with PCI or coronary artery bypass graft may be required for
stabilization.
3. Arrhythmias
Arrhythmias associated with ACS and reperfusion include atrial
bradycardias, atrial tachycardias, atrioventricular (AV) blocks, ventricular
tachyarrhythmias, and asystole. Hemodynamically significant atrial
bradycardia or AV block in the setting of inferior MI can be treated initially
with IV atropine in a dose of 0.5 mg every 3–5 minutes to a total dose of 3
mg while preparing for transcutaneous pacing. Atropine rarely corrects
complete heart block or type II second-degree AV block, especially when
this occurs in the course of an anterior MI. Temporary transvenous pacing is
indicated for complete heart block, bilateral bundle branch block, new or
indeterminate-age bifascicular block with first-degree AV block, type II
second-degree AV block, and symptomatic sinus bradycardia that is
unresponsive to atropine. Transcutaneous pacing should be initiated for
patients who have indications for emergent temporary pacing until
transvenous pacing can be instituted.
Acute onset of chest pain,

dysrhythmias, or pulmonary edema
– shortly after PCI – should raise
concern for acute occlusion of a
new stent.
Atrial tachycardias, such as atrial fibrillation, may cause hemodynamic

instability and precipitate myocardial ischemia, or they may be clinically
insignificant and transient. Immediate cardioversion is indicated in unstable
patients. Depending on the specific arrhythmia, IV adenosine, β-blockers,
diltiazem, digoxin, or amiodarone may be effective. Careful attention must
be given to contraindications for any of these agents.
Ventricular tachycardia and ventricular fibrillation should be treated
according to current advanced cardiac life support guidelines. After
defibrillation and if indicated, amiodarone is the drug of choice in patients
with an acute MI. Antiarrhythmic drugs are not recommended as
prophylaxis for ventricular arrhythmias in the setting of acute MI. To aid in
the prevention of postinfarction arrhythmias, prompt recognition and
correction of systemic precipitants (including hypoxemia, acid-base
abnormalities, and electrolyte disturbances) is recommended.
D. Special Considerations
1. Perioperative MI
Perioperative MI can occur before surgery, intraoperatively, and during the
postoperative period. The last is the most common, with the peak incidence
on the third postoperative day. Perioperative MI is often associated with
atypical presentations and may be painless; patients rarely experience
classic symptoms and signs of acute coronary syndromes, or symptoms may
be masked by analgesics and/or sedatives. New-onset or increased atrial or
ventricular arrhythmia is often the presenting finding, as is postoperative
pulmonary edema. Other possible presentations may include hemodynamic
instability and respiratory distress. The diagnosis can be sometimes
confirmed with serial ECG and cardiac marker determinations, but
echocardiography can be particularly useful to identify new wall motion
abnormalities in cases with diagnostic uncertainty. Medical therapy to
decrease myocardial oxygen demand is usually the first line of therapy.
Catheterization with potential PCI should be considered as long as dual
antiplatelet therapy is feasible; fibrinolytic therapy is often contraindicated.
2. Effects of Coexisting Diseases

Many critically ill patients have more than one medical condition that may
require significant alterations in the standard therapeutic approach. Some
have relative or absolute contraindications to standard medications or
procedures. Patients with stress ulceration or gastritis may not be candidates
for aspirin therapy. Postoperative patients or those with a bleeding diathesis
may not be candidates for clopidogrel, heparin, fibrinolytic therapy, or
aspirin. β-blockers should be avoided in patients with significant ongoing
bronchospasm or decompensated heart failure. Many drugs will need dose
adjustments for renal or hepatic dysfunction. Critical illness of a non-
cardiac origin may result in decreased oxygen delivery to the myocardium
and subsequent myocardial dysfunction. Recommended management of
multiple organ failure in critical illness focuses on supportive care and
treatment of the underlying disease.
3. Targeted Temperature Management After Cardiac Arrest

Neurologic injury is the most common cause of death in patients with out-
of-hospital cardiac arrest. Patients who do not follow commands or have
purposeful movements should receive targeted temperature management.
Lowering the core body temperature to between 32°C and 36°C (89.6°F and
96.8°F) for 24 hours after cardiac arrest with appropriate supportive care
can improve neurologic outcome. Targeted temperature management is
associated with an increased risk of coagulopathy and infection.
Key Points
Acute Coronary Syndromes

The preliminary diagnosis of NSTE-ACS is based on the clinical
symptoms, assessment of risk factors for coronary artery disease, and
ECG interpretation.
A 12-lead ECG should be obtained and interpreted within 10 minutes
in patients with possible ACS.
For patients with suspected NSTE-ACS, perform risk stratification,
select an initial management strategy, complete the diagnostic
evaluation, and use medical therapy and revascularization as
appropriate.
Non–enteric-coated aspirin at a dose of 162 to 325 mg should be
administered (and chewed) as soon as possible in all patients with
suspected or diagnosed ACS.
Antiplatelet and anticoagulant agents are important interventions in all
patients with ACS.
High-risk patients (continuing ischemia, elevated troponin levels) with
NSTE-ACS may be candidates for additional therapy with an early
invasive strategy.
Oral β-blockers should be initiated in the first 24 hours for all patients
with ACS unless strong contraindications are present.
A plan for early reperfusion of patients with STEMI should be
developed based on resources available in the facility and community.
Primary PCI is the preferred reperfusion technique if it can be
performed expeditiously by experienced personnel. Fibrinolytic
therapy for reperfusion in STEMI ideally should be initiated within 30
minutes of the patient’s arrival to the hospital if timely PCI cannot be
performed.
All patients with acute MI, whether they undergo reperfusion therapy
or not, should be treated with aspirin and another antiplatelet agent,
such as clopidogrel, prasugrel, or ticagrelor.
Use of ACE inhibitors decreases the mortality rate in patients with
STEMI.
PCI is not contraindicated in patients with coma or a need for targeted
temperature management after cardiac arrest.
Patients with cardiogenic shock in the setting of acute MI should
undergo emergent revascularization.
Suggested Readings
1. Albanez B, James S, Agewall S, et al. 2017 ESC Guidelines for the

management of acute myocardial infarction in patients presenting with
ST-segment elevation: The Task Force for the management of acute
myocardial infarction in patients presenting with ST-segment elevation
of the European Society of Cardiology (ESC). Eur Heart J.
2018;39:119-177.
2. Amsterdam EA, Wenger NA, Brindis RG, et al. 2014 ACC/AHA
guideline for the management of patients with non-ST-elevation acute
coronary syndromes: a report of the American College of
Cardiology/American Heart Association Task Force on Practice
Guidelines. Circulation. 2014;130(25):2354-2394.
3. Hollenberg SM. Myocardial ischemia. In: Hall J, Schmidt G, Kress J.
Principles of Critical Care. 4th ed. New York, NY: McGraw-Hill
Education; 2015:1108-1151.
4. Nikolaou NI, Welsford M, Beygui F, et al. Part 5: Acute coronary
syndromes: 2015 International Consensus on Cardiopulmonary
Resuscitation and Emergency Cardiovascular Care Science with
Treatment Recommendations. Resuscitation. 2015;95:e121-e146.
5. O’Gara PT, Kushner FG, Ascheim DD, et al. 2013 ACCF/AHA
guideline for the management of ST-elevation myocardial infarction: a
report of the American College of Cardiology Foundation/American
Heart Association Task Force on Practice Guidelines. Circulation
2013;127(4):e362-e425.
6. Roffi M, Patrono C, Collet JP, et al. 2015 ESC guidelines for the
management of acute coronary syndromes in patients presenting
without persistent ST-segment elevation. Task Force for the
Management of Acute Coronary Syndromes in Patients Presenting
without Persistent ST-Segment Elevation of the European Society of
Cardiology (ESC). Eur Heart J. 2016;37(3):267-315.
7. Thygesen K, Alpert JS, Jaffe AS, et al. Fourth universal definition of
myocardial infarction (2018). J Am Coll Cardiol. 2018;72(18):2231-
2264.
Suggested Websites
1. American College of Cardiology. http://www.acc.org.

2. American Heart Association. http://www.americanheart.org.
3. European Society of Cardiology. http://www.escardio.org.
4. Global Registry of Acute Cardiac Events (GRACE).
http://www.outcomes-umassmed.org/GRACE/default.aspx.
5. National Institute for Health and Clinical Excellence.
http://www.nice.org.uk.
6. Thrombolysis Myocardial Infarction (TIMI) Study Group.
http://www.timi.org.<
Chapter 11
LIFE-THREATENING INFECTIONS:
DIAGNOSIS AND ANTIMICROBIAL
THERAPY SELECTION
Objectives
Understand and apply the terminology specific to life-threatening

infections.
List the risk factors for the development of infection.
Identify systemic and site-specific clinical manifestations of life-
threatening infections, and understand the diagnostic use of clinical
laboratory testing.
Describe the different clinical and epidemiologic variables used to
guide the selection of antimicrobial therapy.
Outline antimicrobial empiric therapy and treatment of specific
infections.
Case Study
A 55-year-old man with diabetes mellitus was transported to the emergency

department because of a change in mental status and right arm pain. The
wife reported that the patient has been having increasing arm pain with a
spreading reddish-colored rash over the arm in the last 24 hours. On
awakening, he was found to have a change in mental status with confusion
and lethargy. His vital signs at the emergency department show a blood
pressure of 90/60 mm Hg, heart rate of 120 beats/min, temperature of 39°C
(102.2°F), respiratory rate of 24 breaths/min, and pulse oximetry of 99% on
2-L nasal cannula. The arm is diffusely edematous and erythematous with
some areas appearing bruised. You are the responsible caregiver for the
patient, and you are admitting the patient to the hospital.
– Does this patient have sepsis?
– What level of care is needed for this patient?
– What initial immediate interventions should be instituted?
I. INTRODUCTION
Life-threatening infections are both a cause and a consequence of critical
illness. The incidence of life-threatening infections or sepsis is increasing as
a reflection of the growing population of patients at risk: the elderly,
immunocompromised patients, and those with malignancy, chronic illness,
or multiple trauma. Septic shock, the most severe form of systemic response
to infection, is a common cause of death in critically ill adults and children.
Early recognition and appropriate management of infections and their
sequelae can decrease the mortality rate.
Sepsis is defined as life-threatening organ dysfunction caused by a
dysregulated host response to infection. Abnormalities that suggest organ
dysfunction may include, but are not limited to, lactic acidosis, oliguria,
coagulation disorders, acute alteration in mental status, and an elevated
sequential organ failure assessment (SOFA) score. Septic shock is a subset
of sepsis with circulatory and metabolic/cellular dysfunction associated
with a higher risk of mortality. In the clinical setting, septic shock is
characterized by hypotension requiring vasoactive drugs to maintain a mean
arterial pressure of greater than 65 mm Hg along with a serum lactate level
of greater than 2 mmol/L despite adequate fluid resuscitation. Patients with
suspected infection who are likely to have a prolonged ICU stay or die in
the hospital can be identified at the bedside using the quickSOFA (qSOFA)
score which is positive if a patient has two or more of the following:
alteration in mental status, systolic blood pressure of less than 100 mm Hg,
and a respiratory rate greater than 22 breaths/min.
Given heterogenicity in patient

presentation, formal definitions
should not be the sole criteria for
diagnosis of sepsis and septic
shock.
Sepsis definitions were primarily developed for research and quality

improvement purposes. Consequently, definitions of sepsis may be difficult
to apply to an individual patient. Attempts to use the definitions for
individual patients can result in a delayed or missed diagnosis and therapy.
There can be no substitute for clinical evaluation by a competent physician
to diagnose and initiate management of sepsis and septic shock.
Initial considerations in resuscitation and infection management are
described in Chapters 6 and 7.
II. DIAGNOSIS OF INFECTION

The diagnosis of serious or life-threatening infection is based on a careful
and complete assessment of the patient’s history, including risk factors, and
the presence of characteristic clinical manifestations. Atypical presentations
that may occur, particularly in the elderly and in immunocompromised
patients, must also be considered. Laboratory, microbiologic, and imaging
results also support the diagnosis of documented or suspected infection.
A. Evaluation of New Fever in Critically Ill Adult Patients
In an era when use of hospital and patient resources is under intensive
scrutiny, fevers should be evaluated in a prudent and cost-effective manner.
A new fever in a patient in the ICU should trigger a careful clinical
assessment rather than automatic orders for laboratory and radiologic tests.
Although some literature defines fever differently, the Surviving Sepsis
Campaign has recommend using a value of >38°C (>100.4°F). It is often
difficult to determine whether an abnormal temperature is a reflection of a
physiologic process, a drug, or an environmental influence. When
evaluating a new fever, an attempt should be made to rule out causes other
than infection before subjecting the patient to a barrage of investigations. A
broad range of medical conditions commonly seen in the ICU can cause
fever (usually low grade). These include but are not limited to alcohol or
drug withdrawal, transfusion reaction, postoperative fever, adrenal
insufficiency, pancreatitis, stroke, pulmonary emboli, and neoplasm. In
addition, not all infected patients are febrile. Evaluation should include a
review of the patient’s chart, a thorough examination and review of all
environmental factors as well as drugs (Table 11-1) that the patient has
received recently, and consideration of physiologic fever that can occur in
patients in the ICU, such as postoperative fever. The development of a
temperature ≥ 38°C (≥100.4°F) without a clear alternate cause or ≤ 36°C (≤
96.8°F) in the absence of a known cause of hypothermia (eg,
hypothyroidism, cooling blanket) is a reasonable trigger for a clinical
assessment. Clinical evaluation of the patient with fever should guide the
requisition of additional laboratory or radiologic studies.
Fever alone should not routinely

trigger blood cultures.
Table 11-1 Medications Associated With Fever

Common Causes Uncommon Rare Causes
Causes
Antibiotics Any other Antibiotics
Beta-lactams medication Aminoglycosides
Sulfonamides Tetracyclines
Nonantibiotics Macrolides
Sulfa-containing drugs Clindamycin
Stool softeners Chloramphenicol
Diuretics Vancomycin
Sleep medications Aztreonam
Antiseizure medications Quinolones
Antidepressants/tranquilizers Carbapenems
Antiarrhythmics Tigecycline
NSAIDs (nonsteroidal anti-inflammatory Daptomycin
drugs) Quinupristin/dalfopristin
Opiates Linezolid
Nonantibiotics
Digoxin
Steroids
Diphenhydramine
Aspirin
Vitamins
Reproduced with permission Cunha BA. Clinical approach to fever in the neurosurgical
intensive care unit: Focus on drug fever. Surg Neurol Int. 2013;4(Suppl 5):S318-S322.
Copyright 2013 Cunha BA.
In the ICU, body temperature is most accurately measured by an

intravascular, esophageal, or bladder thermistor, followed by rectal, oral,
and tympanic membrane measurements. Axillary measurements, temporal
artery estimates, and chemical dot thermometers should not be used in the
ICU. Rectal thermometers should be avoided in neutropenic patients.
The diagnosis of drug-induced fever is usually established by the temporal
relationship of the fever to starting and stopping the drug. Patients can be
rechallenged with the drug to confirm the diagnosis, but this is rarely done
unless the drug in question is essential and alternatives are not available.
Patients developing anaphylaxis or toxic epidermal necrolysis as a result of
drug exposure should not be rechallenged.
Fever is a common phenomenon during the initial 48 hours after surgery.
Fever in this early postoperative period is usually noninfectious in origin,
presuming that unusual breaks in sterile technique or pulmonary aspiration
did not occur. However, 96 hours after surgery, fever is more likely to
represent infection.
Surgical site infections alone account for approximately 25% of overall
costs related to treatment of nosocomial infections. The rate of surgical site
infection is approximately 3%. This rate varies based on the degree of
contamination of the incision, the patient’s medical comorbidities (eg,
diabetes mellitus and obesity increase risk), whether surgery is prolonged or
an emergency, and whether any antimicrobial prophylaxis is administered
correctly (eg, appropriate narrow spectrum of activity, administration just
before incision, and discontinuation within 24 hours [48 hours for cardiac
surgery]).
B. Epidemiologic Factors
Serious or life-threatening infections may occur in patients from the
community, long-term care facilities (ie, nursing homes), or hospital
settings. Serious or life-threatening community-acquired infections include
bacterial pneumonia, central nervous system (CNS) infections or
meningitis, urosepsis, intra-abdominal sepsis caused by a ruptured or
obstructed viscus, or sporadic uncommon infections, such as necrotizing
fasciitis. Patients from long-term care facilities share this spectrum but
often have infections with more resistant pathogens. Patients from long-
term care facilities have an increased risk of developing device-related
infections and/or infected decubitus ulcers. Finally, hospitalized patients are
exposed to antimicrobial-resistant flora and numerous invasive devices, in
addition to having more comorbidities and greater severity of illness than
the other populations, making them prone for the development of sepsis.
Healthcare-associated infections are acquired while the patient is receiving
treatment for other conditions within a healthcare setting. They are of
particular importance because of the higher risk of resistant pathogens. It is
estimated that healthcare-associated infections result in almost 100,000
deaths annually in the United States. Infection can be acquired during the
current hospitalization or may be associated with an admission in the
preceding 60 days. In addition, other forms of healthcare-associated
infection include the development of infection in residents in a nursing
home or extended-care facility and patients receiving home intravenous
antibiotic therapy or chemotherapy, chronic dialysis, and/or home wound
care.
C. Predisposing Conditions
The presence of predisposing conditions should alert the care team to

patients at higher risk of developing infections, including some infections
that may be associated with a particular predisposing condition (Table 11-
2). Permanent prosthetic implants, such as heart valves, intravascular grafts,
or orthopedic devices, may become infected in either the early or late
postoperative period. Invasive procedures (eg, surgery, vascular
catheterization, placement of urinary catheters, and endotracheal intubation)
breech the normal mucosal defense barriers and predispose patients to
infection. Healthcare providers need to remember that the lack of
predisposing conditions does not eliminate the possibility that a serious
infection is present.
Table 11-2 Conditions Predisposing to Infection
Extremes of age Diabetes

Transplant recipients Hepatic failure
Multiple trauma Malnutrition
Alcoholism Malignancy
HIV Corticosteroid use
Chemotherapy/radiotherapy Burns
Absence of spleen Prosthetic implants
Invasive procedures Neutropenia
D. Clinical Manifestations
The clinical manifestations of life-threatening infections are diverse, and

they may be subtle or overt, and localized or systemic. An awareness of the
signs and symptoms associated with specific infections allows early
recognition and prompt institution of appropriate empiric antimicrobial and
supportive management. However, most of the clinical manifestations are
not specific.
Hypothermia predicts poor

outcome in serious infections.
1. Systemic Signs and Symptoms

Fever is the most frequent systemic manifestation of infection, but patients
with serious infections may be normothermic or even hypothermic.
Hypothermia is more frequently seen in the elderly; those with physical
debilitation/nutritional impairment, alcoholism, and hepatic or renal failure;
and with the use of antipyretic medications/steroids. Severe or prolonged
septic shock will often present with marked hypothermia. Temperature
probes on a urinary catheter, when available, are the most reliable methods
to measure the core temperature. Temperature measurement is most
practically obtained via the oral or rectal routes, although the limitations of
each method should be considered.
Other systemic manifestations include chills, rigors, hypotension,
tachypnea, dyspnea, tachycardia, and nausea and vomiting. Tachycardia is
almost always present but may be absent in the presence of cardiac
conduction disturbances, autonomic dysfunction, β-blockers or calcium
channel blockers, and drug fever. Hypotension may be the result of
dehydration and hypovolemia but may also indicate septic shock,
particularly if the blood pressure does not respond well to volume
resuscitation. Hypoperfusion of the kidneys may result in oliguria or anuria.
Encephalopathy is a common clinical manifestation and ranges from
lethargy/irritability to delirium and coma. Petechiae and/or ecchymosis may
be present, particularly on distal extremities.
2. Site-Specific Signs and Symptoms
Some signs and symptoms of infection could be associated with the specific
source of infection:
Infections of the CNS may be associated with headache, seizures,

meningismus, or focal neurologic findings. Altered mental status is
often present but not specific for CNS infections.
Diffuse or localized respiratory tract infections may be associated with
dyspnea, tachypnea, cough, sputum production, or (rarely) hemoptysis.
Chest auscultation findings, such as crackles, rhonchi, or tubular
breath sounds, indicate whether the process is localized or diffuse.
Diminished breath sounds and dullness on percussion are suggestive of
a pleural effusion.
Intra-abdominal infections may cause abdominal pain, abdominal
distension, nausea and/or vomiting, diarrhea, and anorexia.
Diaphragmatic irritation can be perceived as pain in the side of the
neck and proximal shoulder area or may cause hiccups. Findings on
examination may include diffuse or local tenderness, rebound
tenderness, ileus, or guaiac-positive stool. A wound infection with
evidence of fascial disruption may signal an intra-abdominal infection
below the fascia.
Urinary tract infections may produce flank pain or abdominal pain,
tenderness, dysuria, hematuria, and oliguria. Typically, a urinary
catheter–associated infection does not produce localized symptoms.
Cutaneous manifestations may result from a primary infection of the
skin or skin structures (eg, pain, erythema, and induration as a result of
cellulitis; wound margin erythema; tenderness or purulent discharge;
vesicular lesions caused by herpes infection) or be a consequence of
disseminated systemic infection (eg, erythematous indurated papules
or nodules of ecthyma gangrenosum caused by bacteremia, septic
emboli caused by infective endocarditis, diffuse macular erythema
caused by toxic shock syndrome, distal symmetric purpura fulminans
caused by meningococcemia). Necrotizing soft-tissue infections can
exhibit skin discoloration (progressing from red to purple on to almost
black), bullae with hemorrhagic or dark fluid, and crepitus.
E. Laboratory Manifestations
Routine laboratory tests are not specific in the diagnosis of life-threatening

infections but may be suggestive and allow assessment of organ function.
The white blood cell (WBC) count is usually elevated with a shift of
neutrophils to more immature forms (called a left shift). Toxic granulation
and Dohle bodies are often observed in such neutrophils during severe
infections, particularly with septic shock. Leukocytosis is commonly seen
in noninfectious processes, such as the early postoperative period,
corticosteroid therapy, massive transfusions, and polytrauma. Conversely, a
normal leukocyte count may be observed despite active infection in the
elderly and in patients with hypersplenism or chronic myelosuppressive
disorders. Neutropenia may result from overwhelming bacterial or fungal
infection and septic shock (especially in the nutritionally deficient,
alcoholics, and AIDS patients), severe viral infection, typhoid fever,
brucellosis, and other infections. Like an altered WBC count, elevated
procalcitonin and C-reactive protein typically indicate ongoing
inflammation/infection.
One of the most common coagulation abnormalities in sepsis is isolated
thrombocytopenia. A modest decline in platelet count may be a subtle, early
clue to the presence of infection. Platelet count nadir usually occurs within
4–7 days of septic shock presentation. Prothrombin time is often elevated at
admission with severe infections, including septic shock. Overt
disseminated intravascular coagulation is a less common finding but is a
poor prognostic sign. It is characterized by elevations in prothrombin time,
partial thromboplastin time, fibrin split products, and/or D-dimer, and
decreased fibrinogen.
F. Clinical Manifestations
Sepsis is often associated with organ dysfunction at presentation. Apart

from cardiovascular collapse associated with septic shock, overt organ
dysfunction can involve the brain, kidneys, and liver among other organs.
The cardiovascular collapse results in an elevated serum lactate level as a
consequence of compromised oxygen delivery to the tissues. Tachycardia to
increase cardiac output is one of the first compensatory mechanisms noted
in clinical examination. Skin will be warm and flushed during early stages
of septic shock but can progress to cold/clammy if source control is not
obtained. Vasodilation, in addition to capillary leak from immunologic
response, results in intravascular volume depletion which contributes to
hypoperfusion associated with septic shock.
Hypoperfusion of the kidneys results in an elevated serum creatinine and
urea with decreased urine output. If perfusion is not restored in a timely
manner, the patient can progress to an acute tubular necrosis resulting in the
need for renal replacement therapy. Strict measurement of urine output with
a goal of 0.5 mL/kg/h should be completed along with trending of serum
urea/creatinine levels.
Early liver injury caused by sepsis-associated hypoperfusion will typically
manifest as modest elevations of transaminases. Severe shock, however, is
often associated with markedly elevated transaminases and hepatic necrosis
as a result of shock liver or ischemic hepatitis. With respect to the liver,
persistence of sepsis will usually result in a cholestatic picture with elevated
bilirubin with or without a mild elevation of transaminases by the second
week.
Initial arterial blood gas measurements usually reflect a respiratory alkalosis
as a result of inflammatory stress-related tachypnea attempting to
compensate the metabolic acidosis produced by the elevated tissue lactate
levels. Persistence of sepsis can ultimately lead to adult respiratory distress
syndrome (ARDS).
A relatively underappreciated early marker of sepsis is hyperglycemia
resulting from inflammatory cytokine-driven insulin resistance. In contrast,
prolonged severe septic shock may demonstrate hypoglycemia because of
depletion of hepatic glycogen stores.
G. Microbiologic Studies
Microbiologic studies are divided into those with immediately available
results (minutes to a few hours) and those requiring a period for incubation
or laboratory determinations. Among the studies with quickly available
results is Gram stain of body fluids. Special stains (such as fungal and acid-
fast stains), immunoassays (such as urine Legionella antigen and
Clostridioides difficile toxins), and immunoelectrophoresis panels require
time to process.
Ideally, all cultures should be obtained before initiation or modification of
antimicrobial therapy, but this may not be possible in a patient who is
rapidly deteriorating. The selection of culture site(s) should be guided by
clinical manifestations. Indiscriminate sampling from many sites not only
may yield misleading results because of culture contamination or site
colonization, but is also not cost-effective and may pose additional risks to
the patient. Repeat cultures may be appropriate to assess for changes in the
type of organism or resistance patterns.
Empiric antimicrobial therapy for

the patient with a presumptive life-
threatening infection should be
initiated based on clinical and
epidemiologic clues.
At least two sets of peripheral blood cultures (aerobic and anaerobic bottles)
should be obtained from at least two, preferably three, different anatomic
sites. A blood volume of 10 to 15 mL per culture set is optimal in adults.
The volume of blood, number of cultures, and technique are more important
factors for detection of bacteremia than timing of culture collection. Fever
at the time of blood culture collection is neither sensitive nor specific for
the presence of bacteremia. Obtaining blood cultures from indwelling
peripheral or central intravascular catheters may yield false-positive results
because of microbial contamination of the catheter hub. Isolator blood
cultures may improve the diagnostic yield for some organisms (eg,
Candida, Mycobacterium) or in patients already receiving antimicrobial
therapy; cost-effectiveness, however, is unclear.
Respiratory tract cultures require expectorated sputum from the
nonintubated patient and tracheal suction or bronchoscopy specimens from
an intubated patient. Many microbiology laboratories will screen the
specimen for the number of epithelial cells and neutrophils to determine
adequacy for culture. Expectorated sputum samples can be unreliable for
help in identifying bacterial or fungal infections because oftentimes they are
not a good sample. Quantitative cultures of lower respiratory tract
secretions obtained by bronchoscopy can assist with discriminating between
colonizing and pathogenic bacteria.
In the absence of catheterization, urine cultures should be clean-catch
voided specimens; in catheterized patients, specimens should be aspirated
from the urinary catheter tubing. If the catheter has been in place for few
days, replacement is recommended and the culture should be obtained from
the new catheter. Thresholds for significance differ for clean-catch urine
(>105 organisms/mL) and catheter-obtained urine (>103 organisms/mL).
Urinalysis for the detection of pyuria will help to discriminate bacteriuria
from cystitis or upper tract infection. It is not recommended to send
endotracheal tube tip or Foley catheter tip for culture.
Do not send endotracheal tube tip

or Foley catheter tip for culture.
If there is a suspicion of intravascular catheter infection, the catheter should

be removed in an aseptic fashion (by applying chlorhexidine to the
surrounding skin and external part of the catheter adjacent to the skin exit).
Do not routinely send catheter tip for culture. Clinical correlation between
blood culture(s) and appearance of the catheter exit site is required to
discriminate between catheter-related bacteremia and local catheter-related
infections. The most reliable method for diagnosis of intravascular catheter-
related bloodstream infections is the quantitative assay of paired cultures
from peripheral and catheter blood samples. Few institutions perform this
routinely because of resource requirements. An alternate approach is to
examine the difference in time to culture positivity between the paired
cultures with a more rapid positivity being seen in samples drawn from an
infected catheter.
III. ANTIMICROBIAL THERAPY
Case Study
A 65-year-old man was admitted for altered mental status. He was found
down at home by his wife. He was in his normal state of health the day
prior. On physical examination, the physician noted a fever, nuchal rigidity,
and photophobia. A lumbar puncture is performed and his laboratory
studies confirm meningitis. You are asked to evaluate him.
– What is the likely source of this patient’s infection?
– What factors would influence your choice of antimicrobial agent?
A quick, highly targeted initial assessment, immediate resuscitation, and
rapid initiation of empiric antimicrobial therapy are co-priorities in the
management of hemodynamically unstable patients with a severe, life-
threatening infection. Refinements to therapy can be implemented
following a more detailed evaluation of the patient’s history, physical
examination, and auxiliary test results (laboratory and imaging studies).
Early source control (suspected source of infection) is paramount to
favorable outcomes and is an essential adjunct to adequate antimicrobial
therapy. Examples of source control include wound debridement,
percutaneous or surgical drainage of a closed-space infection, foreign body
removal, and surgery. The antimicrobial therapy recommendations found in
this chapter are general guidelines only. For each clinical scenario,
antimicrobial choices must be individualized to match the clinical
manifestations, patient history of previous antibiotic exposure, patient
history of infection along with organism/susceptibilities, and the available
epidemiologic and microbiologic information, including the patterns of
microbial prevalence and resistance in the institution or local community.
Early use of appropriate empiric

antimicrobial therapy reduces
infection-associated mortality.
The selection of appropriate antimicrobial therapy depends on the following

factors:
1. The suspected microbial pathogen(s) and site of infection: The most
common sites for life-threatening infections in adult patients involve the
lower respiratory tract, the intra-abdominal cavity, and the bloodstream.
Rapidly progressive soft-tissue infections and CNS infections should also
be considered and are often clinically obvious. Antimicrobial penetration to
the site of infection should also be considered. The CNS and lungs are two
sites that allow limited penetration of certain antimicrobials; therefore, the
pharmacokinetic characteristics of the selected agents must be understood
to ensure maximal antimicrobial activity at those sites.
2. Gram stain results of available specimens from the suspected site: The
description of early stain results may help direct the clinician to the broad
categories of organism(s) that should be covered. Examples include gram-
positive cocci in clusters (staphylococci) or pairs and chains (enterococci,
streptococci), lancet-shaped diplococci (pneumococcus), gram-positive
bacilli (Corynebacterium, Nocardia), gram-negative bacilli
(Enterobacteriaceae, Escherichia coli, Klebsiella, Pseudomonas), small
pleomorphic gram-negative bacilli (Bacteroides spp), gram-negative
coccobacilli (Haemophilus spp, Moraxella, Acinetobacter), and yeast
(Candida). However, the clinician should wait for final culture and
sensitivity results before de-escalating to narrowly targeted antimicrobial
therapy.
If the source of infection is not

obvious on initial examination,
reconsider the possibility of the
lungs or abdomen as the source.
3. Assessment for antimicrobial resistance: Factors predicting that a

particular bacterial pathogen may be resistant to a wider range of
antimicrobials include the following:
– Prior isolation of resistant strains from the same patient
– Prior antimicrobial therapy (broad-spectrum antimicrobial therapy such
as antipseudomonal penicillin/β-lactamase inhibitor combinations,
third- and fourth-generation cephalosporins, fluoroquinolones,
carbapenems, vancomycin)
– Extended hospital or ICU stay
– High endemic rate of multidrug-resistant bacteria in the institution or
ICU (eg, methicillin-resistant Staphylococcus aureus, vancomycin-
resistant Enterococcus, multidrug-resistant Pseudomonas,
Stenotrophomonas, carbapenem-resistant enterobacteriae (CRE) ,
extended-spectrum β-lactamase (ESBL) enterobacteriae)
– Ongoing epidemic outbreak in the hospital or ICU
– Long-term dialysis
– Residence in a nursing home or extended-care facility
– Immunosuppressive diseases or therapy
Certain common organisms have become increasingly resistant to formerly
effective antimicrobials. This category includes Streptococcus pneumoniae
with intermediate- and high-level resistance to penicillin and ceftriaxone,
Enterococcus faecium strains resistant to ampicillin and vancomycin, S
aureus resistant to oxacillin/methicillin (methicillin-resistant S aureus
[MRSA]), gram-negative bacilli (E coli, Klebsiella pneumoniae) with
extended-spectrum β-lactamase or chromosomal-mediated β-lactamase
production observed in strains of Pseudomonas aeruginosa,
carbapenemase-producing Enterobacteriaceae or other mechanisms of
multiple resistance to broad-spectrum antimicrobial therapy. It is vital to
know and update the resistance pattern of the different bacterial pathogens
in each institution and each ICU. Most institutions will have an antibiogram
that shows the resistance patterns in the institution.
4. Comorbid conditions: Less nephrotoxic antimicrobials may be preferable
in patients with diminished renal function or patients at risk for renal failure
unless the benefit of use outweighs the risk of renal dysfunction. Other
comorbidities to consider include bone marrow suppression, chronic or
acute liver failure, prior hearing deficits, pregnancy, and a history of major
hypersensitivity or other strong adverse reactions to a specific
antimicrobial.
IV. RECOMMENDED ANTIMICROBIAL THERAPY
Prudent antimicrobial therapy

involves early initiation as well as
suitable de-escalation.
The use of the antimicrobial therapies recommended here is based on the

suspected site of infection in the absence of culture results. The clinician
should always consider the dose, dose adjustments, possible interactions,
and adverse effects of selected agents. Antimicrobial therapy should be
given in maximum appropriate therapeutic doses. The celerity on the
administration of the appropriate antimicrobials following clinical diagnosis
has been shown to be a critical determinant of outcome in a variety of
severe infections including meningitis, community-acquired pneumonia,
and septic shock. In critically ill patients, intravenous administration is
preferred to intramuscular or oral routes. Oral dosing of antimicrobials with
similar bioequivalence (eg, fluoroquinolones) and adequate gastrointestinal
absorption may be substituted after the patient stabilizes and is able to take
medication by mouth or via feeding tube. Dosage adjustments must be
made for the elderly, neonates, children, and patients with renal or hepatic
dysfunction. Antimicrobial de-escalation should be implemented in
appropriate clinical situations once cultures are negative or a specific
organism and antibiotic susceptibilities are identified. In the treatment of
infection, antimicrobial agents must be used appropriately and responsibly.
A list of selected site infections with empiric antibiotic therapy is found in
Table 11-3. Source control is a critical element of treatment for a variety of
severe infections found in the ICU, including empyema, abdominal sepsis
(eg, ischemic bowel, bowel perforation, volvulus, ascending cholangitis,
and cholecystitis), pyelonephritis associated with ureteral obstruction,
necrotizing soft-tissue infections, wound infections, decubitus ulcers, and
vascular central line-associated blood stream infections (CLABSI).
Table 11-3 Site Infections and Empiric Antibiotic Therapies
Suspected Site of Possible Organism Initial Empiric Dose

Infection Antibiotics
Severe intra- Pseudomonas, Imipenem-cilastatin, Imipenem-cilastatin,
abdominal infection extended spectrum meropenem, or 500 mg IV q6h
(non-biliary) β- lactamase- piperacillin- Meropenem, 1 g IV
producing tazobactam or q8h
Enterobacteriaceae, combination of Piperacillin-
Acinetobacter, cefepime and tazobactam, 4.5 g IV
multidrug-resistant metronidazole q6h
GNB, Bacteroides Cefepime, 2 g IV
spp q12h
Metronidazole, 500
mg IV q8h
Urinary infection Escherichia coli, Ceftriaxone or Ceftriaxone, 1 g IV

Pseudomonas piperacillin- daily
aeruginosa, and tazobactam Piperacillin-
other GNB tazobactam, 4.5 g IV
q6h
Lower respiratory P aeruginosa, E coli, Cefepime or Cefepime, 2 g IV
infection Klebsiella carbapenem; q12h
pneumoniae, vancomycin added Meropenem, 1 g IV
Acinetobacter and whenever MRSA is q8h
other GNB spp, GPC considered Vancomycin, 1 g IV
like MRSA q12h
Necrotizing soft Usually multi- Vancomycin plus Cefepime, 2 g IV
tissue infection microbial, GPC, cefepime or q12h
GNB, and anaerobes carbapenem, and Meropenem, 1 g IV
clindamycin q8h
Clindamycin, 600 mg
IV q8h
Vancomycin, 1 g IV
q12h
Gastrointestinal tract Clostridium difficile Metronidazole PO or Cefepime, 2 g IV
IV, and vancomycin every 12 h
PO or rectally (if Meropenem, 1 g IV
ileus) every 8 h
Clindamycin, 600 mg
IV every 8 h
Vancomycin, 1 g IV
every 12 h
Vancomycin, 125 mg
by mouth every 6 h
Fidaxomicin, 200 mg
by mouth twice a day
Meninges, bacterial Streptococcus Ceftriaxone for S Ceftriaxone, 1 g IV
infection pneumoniae, pneumoniae, daily
Neisseria ampicillin for Listeria, Ampicillin, 2 g IV q4h
meningitidis, Listeria, cefepime and Cefepime, 2 g IV q8h
Staphylococcus vancomycin for Vancomycin, 1 g IV
aureus, and GNB others q12h
following procedures
(eg, shunt
placement)
Abbreviations: GNB, gram-negative bacilli; GPC, gram-positive cocci;

MRSA, methicillin-resistant S aureus.
PO, by mouth.
Data taken from Lexi-Comp. Wolters Kluwer. 2020.
A. Central Nervous System

1. Meningitis
Bacterial meningitis causes one of the crucial emergencies. When it is
suspected clinically, antimicrobial therapy should be instituted immediately,
within 60 minutes, without waiting for the results of a lumbar puncture.
Community-acquired acute bacterial meningitis in adults is most commonly
caused by S pneumoniae or Neisseria meningitidis, and initial empiric
therapy with a third-generation cephalosporin (ceftriaxone or cefotaxime)
provides adequate empiric coverage, with vancomycin added if penicillin-
resistant S pneumoniae is suspected or confirmed. If S pneumoniae is
isolated, a third-generation cephalosporin should be continued until
penicillin sensitivity is confirmed, at which point the patient should be
switched to high-dose penicillin G. N meningitidis in cerebrospinal fluid
(CSF) or blood culture should be treated with high-dose parenteral
penicillin G. If N meningitidis is isolated, healthcare workers with
significant exposure require antimicrobial prophylaxis. In addition to
antimicrobial therapy, adjunctive dexamethasone (0.15 mg/kg intravenously
every 6 hours for 2–4 days) is also recommended to decrease the risk of
morbidity and mortality, particularly in pneumococcal meningitis.
Special circumstances require different empiric antimicrobial coverage.
Listeria monocytogenes may be a cause of bacterial meningitis in extremes
of age (neonates, infants, and the elderly) and in patients with T-lymphocyte
defects, usually associated with diabetes mellitus, corticosteroid use, and
immunosuppressive therapy (eg, organ recipients and patients with
autoimmune disease). Patients with suspected Listeria meningitis should
receive ampicillin (trimethoprim-sulfamethoxazole in the patient with
penicillin allergy). Those patients who have undergone recent neurosurgical
procedures or placement of CSF shunts are at increased risk for S aureus,
coagulase-negative staphylococci, and gram-negative bacilli (Pseudomonas,
Klebsiella). Therefore, such patients require initial empiric antimicrobial
coverage with high-dose vancomycin and a third- or fourth-generation
cephalosporin. If methicillin-susceptible S aureus (MSSA) is confirmed,
nafcillin is the drug of choice.
Meningitis presenting in a subacute fashion over several weeks or longer,
with predominance of CSF lymphocytes, is more likely to occur in
immunocompromised patients. Pathogens such as Mycobacterium
tuberculosis, Toxoplasma gondii, and Cryptococcus neoformans should be
considered in this setting.
2. Encephalitis or Meningoencephalitis
Many viral agents can cause encephalitis or meningoencephalitis, but only
herpes simplex (HSV) and cytomegalovirus (CMV) encephalitis are
amenable to therapy. Herpes simplex encephalitis usually occurs in
immunocompetent individuals presenting from the community. This is
considered an emergency. Fever, lethargy, confusion, and seizures are the
most common presenting signs and symptoms. Hemorrhagic CSF and
temporal lobe involvement on imaging studies (computed tomography or
magnetic resonance imaging) or electroencephalography are suggestive of
HSV encephalitis. Polymerase chain reaction testing of CSF is sensitive for
diagnosis of this infection. If HSV encephalitis is suspected or confirmed, a
14- to 21-day course of parenteral acyclovir should be initiated promptly,
pending further studies. CMV encephalitis usually occurs in patients with
suppressed immune status (HIV and transplant patients) and could have the
same clinical manifestations as HSV encephalitis. Polymerase chain
reaction testing of CSF for CMV is also highly sensitive, and therapy
should include ganciclovir or foscarnet.
3. Brain Abscess
Brain abscess is an uncommon infection but should be suspected in patients
with chronic infections of parameningeal structures, left-sided endocarditis,
or congenital cyanotic heart disease. Brain abscesses also have been
associated with immunosuppression, as in patients with AIDS, intravenous
drug abusers, or transplant recipients. Infections are often polymicrobial,
and etiologic organisms include aerobic and anaerobic streptococci,
staphylococci, gram-negative bacteria, and anaerobes. Initial antimicrobial
therapy should include vancomycin, high-dose metronidazole, and a third-
generation cephalosporin (ceftriaxone). In patients at high risk for
toxoplasmosis (eg, those with AIDS, cardiac transplant recipients),
pyrimethamine/sulfadiazine should be part of the initial antimicrobial
regimen. Less common causes of brain abscess include tuberculosis,
nocardiosis, syphilis, amoeba, and other parasites. The diagnostic yield of
CSF cultures for brain abscess is extremely low, and brain biopsy may be
needed in patients who fail to respond to empiric therapy.
B. Respiratory Tract
1. Severe Community-Acquired Pneumonia (Immunocompetent Host)

The most common organism resulting in hospitalization for community-
acquired pneumonia is S pneumoniae, but other causative organisms include
Legionella, Mycoplasma, and Chlamydia. Haemophilus influenzae is an
uncommon pathogen in the United States because of the introduction of the
vaccine against H influenzae type B in children. A β-lactam (ceftriaxone,
cefotaxime, ampicillin-sulbactam) plus either a macrolide (azithromycin) or
a respiratory fluoroquinolone (moxifloxacin, gemifloxacin, or levofloxacin)
are recommended in patients admitted to the ICU. The CURB-65 Score can
be used to determine the need for hospitalization as well as placement in the
ICU. If the patient is allergic to penicillin, a respiratory fluoroquinolone and
aztreonam are recommended. If aspiration pneumonia is suspected
(alcoholic patients, presence of poor dentition), the addition of clindamycin
is warranted unless a β-lactam/β-lactamase inhibitor combination is used. If
Pseudomonas is a consideration, an antipseudomonal β-lactam
(piperacillin-tazobactam, cefepime, imipenem, or meropenem) should be
used. Vancomycin or linezolid may be added if community-acquired MRSA
is suspected.
2. Community-Acquired Pneumonia (Immunocompromised Host)

Immunocompromised patients with pneumonia may have the same
pathogens as an immunocompetent host but with more severe infection.
Radiographic evidence of interstitial pneumonia or a normal chest
radiograph in a patient with prominent respiratory symptoms who has T-cell
deficiency (AIDS, chronic steroid use) should prompt the addition of
trimethoprim-sulfamethoxazole in appropriate doses for possible
Pneumocystis jirovecii (formerly carinii). Consider the addition of steroids
in P jirovecii pneumonia associated with significant hypoxemia. Focal
lesions (eg, abscess, nodules) are suggestive of fungal infections, M
tuberculosis, or Nocardia; empiric coverage with antifungal agents, anti-
mycobacterial agents, and trimethoprim-sulfamethoxazole may be
warranted in these circumstances. Patients with suspected M tuberculosis
infection also require respiratory isolation. CMV or other viral infection
also should be considered in the differential of an interstitial pneumonitis.
3. Nosocomial and Ventilator-Associated Pneumonia

Gram-negative organisms and S aureus are frequent causes of pneumonia in
hospitalized patients or those who require mechanical ventilation.
Nosocomial organisms tend to be more resistant and are more likely to be
present in patients with extended hospital stays, prior antimicrobial therapy,
and comorbidities. If possible, attempts should be made to obtain lower
respiratory tract samples for quantitative microbiologic evaluation in
mechanically ventilated patients. Adequate antimicrobial coverage can
usually be provided with a third- or fourth-generation cephalosporin, β-
lactam/β-lactamase inhibitor combinations, or a carbapenem, plus an anti-
pseudomonal fluoroquinolone (ciprofloxacin, moxifloxacin, or
levofloxacin) or an aminoglycoside. If Pseudomonas is a consideration, an
antipseudomonal β-lactam (piperacillin-tazobactam, cefepime, imipenem,
or meropenem) should be used. Therapy with trimethoprim-
sulfamethoxazole should be included if the possibility of Stenotrophomonas
maltophilia is suspected or confirmed. Vancomycin should be considered if
methicillin-resistant S aureus is a possible pathogen. Pneumonia caused by
methicillin-sensitive strains of S aureus should be treated with an anti-
staphylococcal penicillin because these agents are superior to vancomycin.
Patients with methicillin-resistant S aureus who are vancomycin-intolerant
or are not responding to vancomycin may be treated with linezolid. If
vancomycin is used, serum trough levels should be maintained no lower
than 15 to 20 μg/mL because lung penetration of this agent is limited.
Shorter courses (8 days) of therapy may be appropriate as long as non-
lactose fermenting organisms are not isolated. Consideration may be given
to stop the antibiotic therapy if the lower respiratory tract cultures are
negative.
Use short courses of antimicrobial

therapy when appropriate.
C. Heart
Infections of the heart are usually severe and life-threatening and require
coordinated medical care with a cardiologist and sometimes with a
cardiovascular surgeon. Microbiologic studies and echocardiography
(transthoracic or transesophageal) are the cornerstones for the diagnosis and
management of any infection in the heart.
Infective endocarditis, or infection of the endocardial surface of the heart,
most frequently involves the heart valves. Intravenous drug abuse,
prosthetic valves, sclerosing of natural valves as a result of aging, hospital-
acquired infections, and newly identified pathogens (Bartonella spp,
Coxiella burnetii, Tropheryma whipplei, fungi) are the main risk factors for
this condition. Demonstration of bloodstream infection and positive
echocardiographic evidence of valvular vegetations are key to making the
diagnosis, although peripheral embolic phenomena and other findings are
strongly suggestive. Gram-positive cocci, mainly Staphylococcus and
Streptococcus, but also Enterococcus, are the most common
microorganisms isolated in infective endocarditis in the general population
and in specific risk groups (intravenous drug users and prosthetic valve
endocarditis), but gram-negative, polymicrobial, fungal, and culture-
negative cases of endocarditis are becoming more common. Bactericidal
antimicrobial therapy (eg, penicillins/third-generation cephalosporins,
daptomycin with or without an aminoglycoside, glycopeptides, linezolid),
high drug concentrations, knowledge of resistance pattern of the
microorganism, and long-term therapy are the cornerstones of treatment.
D. Intravascular Catheters
Because of the increasing incidence
of vancomycin-resistant organisms,
attempt to limit the indiscriminate
use of vancomycin.
In patients with confirmed or suspected intravascular catheter infection

associated with organ dysfunction, systemic emboli, or cardiovascular
instability, the intravascular catheter should be removed promptly. In
addition, local changes at the catheter site (purulence, erythema) mandate
catheter removal. Coagulase-negative Staphylococcus and S aureus are the
most common pathogens in catheter-related bloodstream infections. In the
immunocompetent patient who has a coagulase-negative staphylococcal
line infection but no systemic symptoms, the removal of the infected
catheter line may be sufficient. Vancomycin is recommended in
immunocompromised patients with coagulase-negative staphylococcal line
infections, patients with systemic manifestations, or those with prosthetic
devices at risk for becoming secondarily infected. If S aureus is the
infecting organism, nafcillin is recommended; however, if there is a high
rate of MRSA in the hospital or MRSA is confirmed, vancomycin should be
used. Daptomycin can also be used; linezolid is less likely to be helpful but
is sometimes used as part of a combination therapy or salvage therapy. A
third- or fourth-generation cephalosporin or fluoroquinolone should be
added if a nosocomial gram-negative organism is suspected.
Candida is occasionally isolated from catheter tips and should increase the
suspicion that occult candidemia may have been recently present. The
treatment of choice is fluconazole; if there is a possibility of resistant
Candida, such as Candida glabrata or Candida krusei, an echinocandin
(caspofungin/micafungin/anidulafungin) should be used. When a fungal
microorganism is identified in an intravascular catheter-related bloodstream
infection, a non-tunneled catheter always should be removed, whereas the
removal of a tunneled catheter should be based on the likelihood of
catheter-related candidemia rather than candidemia from another source.
Antimicrobial-impregnated catheters appear to have a lower rate of
bloodstream infection, but the maximum longevity of such catheters is still
under investigation.
E. Abdomen
When an intra-abdominal infection is suspected, a surgeon must be
involved in the evaluation of the patient. Definitive source control of intra-
abdominal process may require surgical intervention or interventional
radiology drainage. Both the infecting flora and the antimicrobial therapy
are related to whether the infection was acquired in the community or
healthcare setting. For community-acquired infections, location of a
possible perforation determines the probable organism, with gram-positive,
facultative, and aerobic gram-negative bacteria beyond the proximal small
bowel and anaerobes beyond the proximal ileum. Recommended therapies
include β-lactam/β-lactamase inhibitor combinations and carbapenems as
monotherapy or cephalosporins/fluoroquinolones with metronidazole.
Antimicrobial therapy should be continued until clinical resolution, which
typically occurs in 5 to 7 days. Further diagnostic workup should be
pursued in patients with persistent or recurrent symptoms. Flora isolated
from healthcare-associated intra-abdominal infections resembles that of
other nosocomial infections. Antimicrobial therapy should be based on
knowledge of the flora and antimicrobial susceptibilities of the institution.
Anti-enterococcal therapy is indicated only when enterococci are isolated
from patients with healthcare-associated infections. Antifungal therapy is
indicated only in those who have isolated fungi and comorbid conditions,
such as recent immunosuppressive therapy for neoplasms, transplantation,
and inflammatory disease, or who have postoperative or recurrent
infections.
F. Urinary Tract
The most common pathogens in urinary tract infections are gram-negative

enteric bacteria. Hospitalized patients with urinary catheters in place
commonly have bacteriuria yet exhibit no pyuria or localized symptoms,
classified as asymptomatic bacteriuria (ASB). Such patients (in the absence
of urologic obstruction) rarely develop sepsis or bacteremia arising from the
urinary tract, and removal of the catheter may allow resolution of the
bacteriuria. For this reason, in patients with a short-term indwelling urethral
catheter (less than 30 days), it is recommended to avoid screening or
treating ASB. The Infectious Disease Society of America (IDSA) now only
recommends screening for and treating ASB in pregnant women and those
patients undergoing invasive urologic procedures. Patients who develop
upper urinary tract infection always merit antimicrobial therapy. More
serious complications may be seen in patients with diabetes mellitus or
patients who are immunocompromised, including those with
emphysematous pyelonephritis, papillary necrosis, or perinephric abscess,
which may require surgical intervention. Empiric antimicrobial options for
gram-negative urinary tract infections are dictated by susceptibility testing
and include the following:
Third-generation cephalosporins
Aminoglycosides
Piperacillin-tazobactam
Trimethoprim-sulfamethoxazole
Enterococcal infection in the urinary system should be suspected in patients

who have had urinary catheters in place for long periods or who have had
recent manipulation of the urinary tract. Therapy should include ampicillin,
piperacillin, or vancomycin. Narrowing of antibiotic therapy should be
dictated by susceptibility testing.
Candiduria is not uncommon and usually occurs in patients who have long
periods of urinary catheterization and are receiving broad-spectrum
antimicrobial therapy or patients with glycosuria. For asymptomatic
candiduria, therapy is not usually indicated unless the patient is at high risk
(eg, neonates, unstable or neutropenic adults) or is undergoing urologic
procedures. Therapeutic options include a short course of fluconazole (not
effective against C glabrata or C krusei) or continuous amphotericin
bladder irrigation; however, relapse rates are significant with either
treatment. If candiduria is treated in a patient with an indwelling catheter,
the catheter should be changed or removed during the treatment course.
G. Cutaneous Infection
S aureus or group A β-hemolytic streptococci are the most likely etiologic

organisms in cellulitis or cutaneous abscess. H influenzae must also be
considered in facial or orbital cellulitis. Onset of postoperative wound
infections usually occurs 5 to 7 days after surgery. However, rapidly
progressive wound infections occurring within 24 to 48 hours after surgery
should prompt the consideration of Clostridium perfringens or group A β-
hemolytic streptococci (Streptococcus pyogenes). This type of infection
warrants surgical debridement and prompt antimicrobial therapy directed by
Gram stain and culture results. Antimicrobial choices include the following:
Cefazolin or nafcillin if methicillin-resistant S aureus is unlikely

Vancomycin or linezolid if there is a possibility of methicillin-resistant
S aureus
Daptomycin because of its bactericidal properties
Penicillin G with or without clindamycin for wound infections
developing within 48 hours of surgery to cover C perfringens and β-
hemolytic streptococci
Wound toxic shock syndrome is a rare condition that can occur within 48
hours of a wound or surgical incision. The causes are toxin-producing S
aureus or β-hemolytic streptococci. Often, the wound does not appear
infected because of a diminished inflammatory response. Diagnosis can be
made based on presenting symptoms such as fever, diarrhea, vomiting,
hypotension, and uremia. Erythroderma and subsequent desquamation are
characteristic signs but may be delayed for several days. Treatment involves
debridement, drainage, and prompt use of specific antimicrobial therapy.
H. Necrotizing Soft-Tissue Infection
Infection of the subcutaneous tissue, fascia, and muscle can occur in any
patient but may be more common in immunocompromised patients,
particularly individuals with diabetes mellitus. If gas is present in the tissue,
cutaneous gangrene or bullae are noted, or infection progresses rapidly, a
necrotizing soft-tissue infection must be considered. This condition requires
prompt surgical debridement in addition to broad-spectrum antimicrobial
therapy. These infections are usually polymicrobial, involving aerobic and
anaerobic gram-positive and gram-negative organisms.
Antibiotics are adjuvant therapy to

early and repeated debridement in
necrotizing soft-tissue infection.
Adequate empiric therapy should include vancomycin and a β-lactam/β-

lactamase inhibitor, a carbapenem and a fluoroquinolone, or an
aminoglycoside and clindamycin (the latter to reduce the amount of toxins).
Antimicrobial administration should be continued until no further
debridement is needed and the patient’s clinical status has improved.
Prolonged courses of antibiotics can lead to wound colonization with drug-
resistant organisms.
I. Immunocompromised or Neutropenic Patients

In the absence of a specific source, pending culture results, broad-spectrum
antimicrobial therapy is indicated in the immunocompromised or
neutropenic patient with fever. Initiation of monotherapy with an
antipseudomonal beta-lactam agent, such as cefepime, a carbapenem, or
piperacillin-tazobactam, is initially recommended. Additional agents such
as aminoglycosides, fluoroquinolones, and/or vancomycin can be added to
this regimen in patients with complicated presentations. Initial antibiotic
therapy should be based on colonization or prior infection with a multidrug-
resistant organism, site of infection, local antibiotic susceptibility patterns,
presence of organ dysfunction, and previous antibiotic therapy.
The use of white cell growth factors (ie, granulocyte colony-stimulating
factor, granulocyte-macrophage colony-stimulating factor) may improve the
outcome by shortening the duration of neutropenia. These progenitor cell
stimulants should be targeted for patients with an anticipated duration of
neutropenia of 5 to 7 days and a high risk for serious infection.
J. Clostridioides difficile (Cdiff) Infection

Antibiotic-associated diarrhea and colitis resulting from Clostridioides
(formerly Clostridium) difficile infection can complicate the course of
treatment for many patients. The antimicrobials most commonly involved
include clindamycin, penicillins, cephalosporins, and fluoroquinolones,
although C difficile has been described in association with almost all
antimicrobials. Patients do not need to receive antimicrobial therapy to
develop this condition.
C difficile is also recognized as an important nosocomial pathogen capable
of cross transmission to patients in adjacent areas. Diagnosis is usually
based on identification of C difficile toxins and detection of cytotoxic
activity in tissue culture. Toxin testing is hampered by lack of sensitivity,
and the polymerase chain reaction testing appears to be rapid, sensitive, and
specific, and ultimately addresses testing errors. Repeat testing is not
recommended within 7 days during the same episode of diarrhea. In those
patients recently treated for C difficile, testing can remain positive even if
symptoms have resolved.
Treatment begins with discontinuation of the implicated antimicrobial
therapy (if possible) and initiation of specific antimicrobial therapy against
C difficile if symptoms are moderate, severe, or persistent. The preferred
regimen is oral vancomycin, 125 mg four times daily for 10 to 14 days or
fidaxomicin for an initial episode. Metronidazole can be used for a non-
severe initial episode if access to both vancomycin and fidaxomicin is
limited or the patient is intolerant to these first-line options. For patients
who are unable to take oral medications, intraluminal vancomycin with or
without intravenous metronidazole is recommended. Fidaxomicin is a first-
in-class, narrow-spectrum macrocyclic antibiotic that acts by eradicating C
difficile with minimal disruption of the normal intestinal flora. High cost
limits its use and in practice, fidaxomicin is used for recurrent C difficile
infections or as a bridge to fecal microbiota transplant (FMT). A trial of
treatment with either a vancomycin or fidaxomicin taper is recommended
before pursuing FMT. Fidaxomicin is recommended along with oral
vancomycin as a first-line option for treatment of an initial C difficile
episode. Fulminant C difficile infection is present if the patient has any of
the following: hypotension, ileus, or shock, and it is recommended to add
IV metronidazole and increase the dose of vancomycin to 500 mg four
times daily. Fulminant colitis unresponsive to these measures or progressing
to toxic megacolon may require total colectomy.
Proper infection control is

important in the management of C
difficile infections, including the
use of soap and water for hand
washing and not alcohol-based
hand sanitizers.
K. Fungal Diseases
Life-threatening infections caused by fungi may be extremely difficult to
diagnose by routine physical examination or routine cultures. Candida
albicans is the most common etiologic organism in critically ill patients.
Non-albicans species of Candida and other fungi have increased
significantly in recent years. Fungal infection should be considered in
certain geographic regions and in the presence of predisposing factors, such
as HIV, malignancy, neutropenia, long-term use of steroids, broad-spectrum
antimicrobial therapy, parenteral nutrition, severe burns, organ
transplantation, or central venous vascular catheters.
The polyenes (amphotericin B and lipid preparations of amphotericin B)
have been the most commonly used antifungal agents for serious infections.
Newer agents (echinocandins, voriconazole) have shown comparable or
superior clinical outcomes compared with the polyenes and have much less
toxicity than usually associated with amphotericin B. All lipid formulations
have less nephrotoxicity, and their efficacy against Candida is equivalent to
conventional amphotericin B. Fluconazole is still active against most
Candida species and Cryptococcus, and itraconazole may be used for some
of the mold infections. Both agents have an important role in primary or
secondary prophylaxis. The newer agents, such as voriconazole,
posaconazole, and echinocandins, have activity against resistant Candida
strains and some of the mold infections resistant to other regimens.
Voriconazole is the drug of choice for Aspergillus infection.
L. Other Therapy
In addition to antimicrobial therapy, surgical intervention must be
considered in patients with life-threatening infections. Any abscess must be
drained and injured or ischemic organs must be repaired or removed.
Vascular catheters that may be a source of infection should be removed.
Early surgical consultation should be sought when the abdomen may be a
source of infection in the critically ill patient. Guidelines for tetanus
prophylaxis are found in Chapter 9. Further management of the patient
with septic shock is discussed in Chapter 7.
M. Healthcare-Associated Infection Control

Patients can acquire healthcare-associated infections (HAIs) during the
course of receiving treatment for other conditions within a healthcare
setting. For example, pneumonia would meet the healthcare-associated
criteria if the patient was hospitalized for at least 2 of the preceding 90
days, was a resident in a nursing home or extended-care facility, received
home intravenous (antibiotics or chemotherapy) therapy, or received
chronic dialysis or home wound care (or both) during the preceding 30
days.
Recent data estimate that one in every 25 hospitalized patients experience a
HAI each year. Pneumonia and surgical site infection from any inpatient
surgery were the most common HAIs. Many studies show that HAI
increases hospital length of stay and morbidity and mortality rates.
Strategies have been proposed to prevent HAI. Most important is proper
hand hygiene and use of personal protective equipment (PPE). More details
are available in the websites listed at the conclusion of this chapter.
Guidelines cannot always account for variations among patients and are not
intended to supplant physician judgment with respect to individual patients
or special clinical situations.
Key Points
Life-Threatening Infections
Fever is the most frequent systemic manifestation that raises the
suspicion of infection.
Ideally, appropriate cultures should be obtained before initiation of
antibiotics in patients with suspected infection.
Selection of appropriate empiric antimicrobial therapy depends on the
suspected pathogen(s) and site of infection, Gram stain results of
available specimens from the suspected site, assessment for
antimicrobial resistance, and comorbid conditions.
Rapid administration of appropriate antimicrobials has been shown to
be a critical determinant of outcome in a variety of severe infections
including meningitis, community-acquired pneumonia, and septic
shock.
When bacterial meningitis is suspected clinically, antimicrobial
therapy should be instituted immediately, without waiting for the
results of lumbar puncture.
For suspected septic shock, available evidence suggests that
administration of appropriate antimicrobials within an hour is
recommended because it has been associated with improved survival.
The most common organism resulting in community-acquired, life-
threatening pneumonia is Streptococcus pneumoniae.
Resistant gram-negative organisms and Staphylococcus aureus are
frequent causes of pneumonia in hospitalized patients or in those who
require mechanical ventilation.
Bactericidal antimicrobial therapy, high concentrations of the
antimicrobial agent, the resistance pattern of the microorganism, and
long-term therapy are the cornerstones of therapy for infective
endocarditis.
When source control is an option for infection management, it should
be implemented early, particularly for septic shock.
Suspicion of intra-abdominal infection requires the prompt
involvement of a surgeon.
Necrotizing soft-tissue infection requires prompt surgical debridement
in addition to broad-spectrum antimicrobial therapy.
In the absence of a specific source and pending culture results, broad-
spectrum antimicrobial therapy is indicated in the
immunocompromised or neutropenic patient with fever.
Fungal infection should be considered in the presence of predisposing
factors, such as malignancy, neutropenia, broad-spectrum
antimicrobial therapy, parenteral nutrition, severe burns, or organ
transplantation, or if central venous vascular catheters are in place.
Suggested Readings
1. Ferrer R, Martin-Lochese I, Phillips G, et al. Empiric antibiotic

treatment reduces mortality in severe sepsis and septic shock for the
first hour: results from a guideline based performance improvement
program. Crit Care Med. 2014;42(8):1749-1755.
2. Funk D, Kethireddy S, Kumar A. Improving outcomes in sepsis and
septic shock: Getting it right the first time. In: Rello J, Lipman J,
Lisboa T, eds. Sepsis Management: PIRO and MODS. Springer-
Verlag; 2010.
3. Kalil AC, Metersky ML, Klompas M, et al. Management of adults
with hospital-acquired and ventilator-associated pneumonia: 2016
clinical practice guidelines by the Infectious Diseases Society of
America and the American Thoracic Society. Clin Infect Dis.
2016:63(5):e61-111.
4. Kumar A, Ellis P, Arabi Y, et al. Initiation of inappropriate
antimicrobial therapy results in a 5-fold reduction of survival in human
septic shock. Chest. 2009;136(5):1237-1248.
5. Kumar A, Roberts D, Wood KE, et al. Duration of hypotension before
initiation of effective antimicrobial therapy is the critical determinant
of survival in human septic shock. Crit Care Med. 2006;34(6):1589-
1596.
6. Lim WS, van der Eerden MM, Laing R, et al. Defining community
acquired pneumonia severity on presentation to hospital: an
international derivation and validation study. Thorax 2003;58:377-382.
7. McDonald LC, Gerding DN, Johnson S, et al. Clinical practice
guidelines for the Clostridium difficile infection in adults and children:
2017 update by the IDSA and SHEA. Clin Infect Dis. 2018;66(7):e1-
e48.
8. Mermel LA, Allon M, Bouza E, et al. Clinical practice guidelines for
the diagnosis and management of intravascular catheter-related
infection: 2009 update by the Infectious Diseases Society of America.
Clin Infect Dis. 2009;49(1):1-45.
9. Metlay JP, Waterer GW, Long AC, et al. Diagnosis and treatment of
adults with community-acquired pneumonia: An official clinical
practice guideline of the American Thoracic Society and Infectious
Diseases Society of America. Am J Respir Crit Care Med.
2019;200(7):e45–e67.
10. Nicole LE, Gupta K, Bradlye SF, et al. Clinical practice guideline for
the management of asymptomatic bacteriuria: 2019 update by the
Infectious Diseases Society of America. Clin Infect Dis.
2019;68(10):e83-e110.
11. O’Grady NP, Barie PS, Bartlett JG, et al. Guidelines for evaluation of
new fever in critically ill adult patients: 2008 update from the
American College of Critical Care Medicine and the Infectious
Diseases Society of America. Crit Care Med. 2008;36(4):1330-1349.
12. Pappas PG, Kaufman C, Andes D, et al. Clinical practice guidelines
for the management of candidiasis: 2016 update by the Infectious
Diseases Society of America. Clin Infect Dis. 2016;62(4):e1-e50.
13. Rhodes A, Evans LE, Alhazzani W, et al. Surviving Sepsis Campaign:
International Guidelines for Management of Sepsis and Septic Shock:
2016. Intensive Care Medicine. 2017;43(3):304-377.
14. Seymour CW, Liu VX, Iwashyna TJ, et al. Assessment of clinical
criteria for sepsis: For the Third International Consensus Definitions
for Sepsis and Septic Shock (Sepsis-3). JAMA. 2016;315(8):762-774.
15. Shankar-Hari M, Phillips GS, Levy ML, et al. Developing a new
definition and assessing new clinical criteria for septic shock: For the
Third International Consensus Definitions for Sepsis and Septic Shock
(Sepsis-3). JAMA. 2016;315(8):775-787.
16. Singer M, Deutschman CS, Seymour CW, et al. The Third
International Consensus Definitions for Sepsis and Septic Shock
(Sepsis-3). JAMA. 2016;315(8):801-910.
17. Solomkin JS, Mazuski JE, Bradley J, et al. Diagnosis and management
of intra-abdominal infection in adults and children: guidelines by the
Surgical Infection Society and the Infectious Diseases Society of
America. Clin Infect Dis. 2010;50(2):133-164.
18. Timsit JF, Bassetti M, Cremer O, et al. Rationalizing antimicrobial
therapy in the ICU: a narrative review. Intensive Care Med.
2019;45(2):172-189.
19. Tunkel AR, Hartman BJ, Kaplan SL, et al. Practice guidelines for the
management of bacterial meningitis. Clin Infect Dis. 2004;39(9):1267-
1284.
20. Yokoe DS, Anderson DJ, Berenholtz SM, et al. A compendium of
strategies to prevent healthcare-associated infections in acute care
hospitals: 2014 update. Infect Control Hosp Epidemiol.
2014;35(5):455-459.
Suggested Websites
1. Society of Critical Care Medicine. http://sccm.org.

2. Surviving Sepsis Campaign.
https://www.sccm.org/SurvivingSepsisCampaign/Guidelines/Adult-
Patients
3. Centers for Disease Control. http://www.cdc.gov.
4. Infectious Diseases Society of America. http://www.idsociety.org.
Chapter 12
MANAGEMENT OF LIFE-THREATENING
ELECTROLYTE AND METABOLIC
DISTURBANCES
Objectives
Review the emergent management of severe electrolyte disturbances.

Recognize manifestations of acute adrenal insufficiency and initiate
appropriate treatment.
Describe the management of severe hyperglycemic syndromes.
Case Study
A 65-year-old man with altered mental status is brought into the emergency
department by his son. His son states the patient has been increasingly weak
for the past 3 days. He adds that he has been having multiple episodes of
non-bloody diarrhea with decreased appetite. Further history reveals the son
has yet to install an air conditioning unit in the patient’s room at home even
though it is the middle of summer. The patient is unable to provide
additional information because of his confusion. His initial vital signs are as
follows: blood pressure of 104/66 mm Hg, heart rate of 111 beats/min,
respiratory rate of 18 breaths/min, oxygen saturation level of 99% on room
air, and temperature of 36.9ºC (98.4°F). Examination findings include an
awake Caucasian male not oriented to place, time, or person. He appears
clinically dehydrated with dry mucous membranes and poor skin turgor
with tenting. The electrocardiogram shows frequent premature ventricular
contractions.
– What risk factors does this patient have for electrolyte disturbances?
– Which electrolyte abnormalities might contribute to his presentation?
– How would you initiate the evaluation and treatment of this patient?
I. INTRODUCTION
Electrolyte and metabolic disturbances are common in critically ill and
injured patients. These abnormalities alter physiologic function and
contribute to morbidity and mortality. The most common life-threatening
electrolyte and metabolic disorders in critically ill patients are disturbances
in potassium, sodium, calcium, magnesium, phosphate, and glucose levels.
With early recognition and treatment of these abnormalities, potentially life-
threatening complications may be avoided and outcomes improved.
II. ELECTROLYTE DISTURBANCES

Electrolyte disturbances result from an underlying disease process or
iatrogenic causes. It is important to seek the cause of the abnormality, as
well as to treat the electrolyte change itself. Many clinical manifestations
are not specific to a particular electrolyte change and may be the result of
multiple abnormalities. The urgency of treatment depends on the clinical
circumstances rather than the absolute electrolyte concentration. All severe
electrolyte abnormalities require frequent reassessment during correction.
A. Potassium
Potassium is primarily an intracellular cation that is essential for
maintenance of the electrical membrane potential. Its normal range is 3.5–
5.0 mEq/L (3.5–5.0 mmol/L). Most potassium (95–98%) is found
intracellularly and the remainder is present in the extracellular
compartment. Potassium plays an important role in maintaining cellular
function in excitable tissues. Alterations in this cation primarily affect the
cardiovascular, neuromuscular, and gastrointestinal systems.
1. Hypokalemia
Hypokalemia (potassium level < 3.5 mEq/L [< 3.5 mmol/L]) is a common
electrolyte disorder. It results from renal or extrarenal losses, transcellular
shifts, and decreased intake (Table 12-1). Life-threatening clinical
manifestations of hypokalemia primarily involve the cardiac and
neuromuscular systems. Dysrhythmias (ventricular and supraventricular,
conduction delays, sinus bradycardia), electrocardiogram (ECG)
abnormalities (U waves, QT-interval prolongation, flat or inverted T
waves), muscle weakness or paralysis, paresthesias, ileus, abdominal
cramps, nausea, and vomiting are common manifestations.
Table 12-1 Causes of Hypokalemia
Transcellular Shifts Renal Losses Extrarenal Losses Decreased Intake

Acute alkalosis Diuresis Diarrhea Malnutrition
Hyperventilation Metabolic alkalosis Profuse sweating Alcoholism
Insulin Renal tubular defects Nasogastric suction
β-Adrenergic Diabetic ketoacidosis
agonists
Drugs (diuretics,
aminoglycosides,
amphotericin B)
Hypomagnesemia
Vomiting
Hyperaldosteronism
Cushing syndrome
Treatment of hypokalemia is aimed at correcting the underlying cause and
administering potassium (Figure 12-1). Discontinuing offending drugs (if
possible), correcting hypomagnesemia and other electrolyte disturbances,
and correcting alkalosis should be completed as part of the treatment
process. Because potassium is primarily an intracellular ion, an estimated
deficit cannot be calculated from serum values. Therefore, administration
must be titrated against periodic reassessment of the serum levels. Infusion
of 20 mEq (20 mmol) potassium in 100-mL fluid over 1 hour, with
additional doses administered sequentially, is recommended to avoid
potential complications with more concentrated solutions. This
concentration must be administered through a central line, although more
dilute solutions can be administered peripherally. The infusion rate can be
slowed after life-threatening symptoms resolve. Concentrations and rates
may vary by institutional policy. Serum potassium levels must be monitored
at frequent intervals during repletion (ie, every 3–4 hours during initial
replacement). If acidemia is present, correct the potassium level before
correcting the pH because potassium shifts intracellularly as the pH
increases.
Always consider the possibility of

hypomagnesemia when significant
hypokalemia exists.
Figure 12-1. Treatment of Hypokalemia

2. Hyperkalemia
Hyperkalemia (potassium levels > 5 mEq/L [> 5mmol/L]) is very common
in the critical care setting and most often results from renal dysfunction or
overzealous replacement. Other causes of hyperkalemia are listed in Table
12-2. Pseudohyperkalemia may result from a white blood cell count >
100,000/mm3, a platelet count > 600,000/mm3, or secondary to phlebotomy
technique resulting in hemolysis. Pseudohyperkalemia is a potential cause
of hyperkalemia and should be ruled out prior to commencement of
treatment, especially if the measured potassium level is not consistent with
a previous trend without an obvious disease process to explain the
elevation.
Table 12-2 Causes of Hyperkalemia

Renal dysfunction Cell death
Rhabdomyolysis
Acidemia Tumor lysis
Hypoaldosteronism Burns
Hemolysis
Drugs (eg, potassium-sparing diuretics,
angiotensin-converting enzyme Excessive intake
inhibitors, succinylcholine, nonsteroidal
anti-inflammatory drugs, trimethoprim-
sulfamethoxazole)
In the evaluation of a patient with hyperkalemia, a complete medical history

and physical examination and an accurate reconciliation of patient
medication therapy are vital. Clinical manifestations of hyperkalemia relate
primarily to the heart and muscular system (Figure 12-2). Arrhythmias,
heart block, bradycardia, diminished conduction and contraction, ECG
abnormalities (eg, diffuse peaked T waves, PR interval prolongation, QRS
widening, diminished P waves, sine waves), muscle weakness, paralysis,
paresthesias, and hypoactive reflexes are common manifestations.
Figure 12-2. Electrocardiographic Effects of Hyperkalemia
Two rhythm strips showing the electrocardiographic effects of hyperkalemia.

A, peaked T waves and widened QRS complex. B, sine wave pattern.
Hyperkalemia with significant ECG
changes, such as widened QRS and
sine wave, mandates immediate
therapy.
Treatment of hyperkalemia involves the recognition and treatment of

underlying diseases, the removal of offending drugs, the limitation of
potassium intake, and the correction of acidemia or electrolyte
abnormalities. Any serum potassium level > 6 mEq/L (6 mmol/L) should be
addressed, but the urgency of treatment depends on the clinical
manifestations and ECG findings. Options for treating hyperkalemia are
summarized in Table 12-3. Serial serum potassium levels, continuous
cardiac monitoring, and serial ECG tracings should be obtained during
evaluation and treatment.
Table 12-3 Options for Treating Hyperkalemia
If Significant Electrocardiographic Abnormalities Are Present

Administer calcium chloride, 5-10 mL of a 10% solution, intravenously over 5-10 minutes
to stabilize the myocardial cell membrane and decrease the potential for arrhythmias. If
calcium gluconate is used, 10-20 mL of a 10% solution is needed for treatment because
of the lower elemental calcium content. The effect lasts only 30-60 minutes and should be
followed by additional treatment.
For Redistribution of Potassium
1. Administer insulin and glucose (10 units of regular insulin with 50 g of 50% dextrose
over 5-10 minutes intravenously). Glucose monitoring is necessary to avoid
hypoglycemia.
2. Administer sodium bicarbonate (1 mmol/kg intravenously over 5-10 minutes). Be
aware of the potential for sodium overload. Sodium bicarbonate is less effective
than glucose and insulin for decreasing the potassium level in patients with end-
stage renal failure.
3. Administer inhaled β2-agonists in high doses (albuterol [salbutamol], 10-20 mg),
which can decrease serum potassium by approximately 0.5 mmol/L.
For Removal of Potassium From the Body

1. Increase urine output with a loop diuretic (furosemide, 1-2 mg/kg) and isotonic
fluids.
2. Increase gastrointestinal potassium loss with sodium polystyrene, 25-50 g in
sorbitol, enterally or by enema. (Be aware of potential for sodium overload. This
may not be a good option in critical illness.)
3. Initiate dialysis.
B. Sodium
Disorders of sodium and water balance are common in critical illness.

Multiorgan failure, fluid therapy, and the numerous therapies administered
to patients admitted to the ICU can interfere with the different mechanisms
that maintain total body sodium and water homeostasis. Sodium is the
principal osmolyte in the extracellular fluid and determines the size of the
extracellular volume. Sodium functions as the primary determinant of blood
osmolality and is involved in the regulation of extracellular volume.
Abnormalities in circulating sodium primarily affect neuronal and
neuromuscular function.
When discussing osmolality and tonicity, the osmolality of a solution is
determined by the numbers of solutes per kilogram. Plasma (serum)
osmolality can be calculated by freezing point depression or using the
following formula:
2 (Na) [mEq/L] + Glucose (mg/dL)/18 + BUN (mg/dL)/2.8
Normal value: 275–295 mOsm/kg H2O
The difference between measured osmolality and calculated osmolality is <

10 mOsm/kg H2O. Water moves freely between the intracellular and
extracellular spaces based on the osmotic gradient with the osmolality of
both compartments being virtually identical. It is important to remember
that sodium is the major determinant of plasma tonicity. Tonicity is the
relative concentration of solutes dissolved in solution which determine the
direction and extent of diffusion
Thirst mechanism and antidiuretic hormone (ADH) tightly control
osmolality. ADH stimulates reabsorption of water within the collecting
ducts of the kidney. Increases in tonicity produce stimulation of thirst and
ADH. Disorder in osmolality reflects impaired water homeostasis and
pathologic abnormalities of these mechanisms.
1. Hyponatremia
By definition, hyponatremia is a serum sodium concentration below 135
mEq/L (135 mmol/L). Pseudohyponatremia, a spurious form of iso-osmolar
hyponatremia, may occur in the presence of severe hyperlipidemia,
hyperproteinemia, or hyperglycemia when the sodium concentration is
measured by flame photometry. Serum osmolality determines true
hyponatremia. A serum osmolality value of 280–295 mOsm/kg indicates
pseudohyponatremia as a result of hyperlipidemia or hyperproteinemia. A
serum osmolality value of greater than 295 mOsm/kg indicates
hyperglycemia or the use of mannitol as the cause of low serum sodium
levels. True hyponatremia is indicated when the serum osmolality value is
less than 280 mOsm/kg.
If serum osmolality rules out hyperglycemia or mannitol as the source of
hyponatremia and that true hyponatremia is present, the volume status of
the patient needs to be evaluated. Clinical presentation, along with urine
osmolality and urine sodium, are used to determine volume status.
Fractional excretion of sodium is an additional value that can aid in
determination of volume status. A urine sodium level of < 100 mOsm/kg
indicates a low solute level from primary polydipsia, low sodium intake, or
beer potomania. A urine sodium level > 100 mOsm/kg indicates a
disturbance in sodium/water balance. Hypovolemia, euvolemia, or
hypervolemia is determined using the clinical diagnosis and presentation.
Review of the medication administration record needs to be completed to
identify any medications that could affect sodium-water balance needs.
Urine sodium and fractional excretion of sodium (FENa) values narrow the
underlying cause of the hyponatremia to correctly manage the disorder and
correct the sodium level.
Figure 12-3. Diagnostic Approach to the Etiology of Hyponatremia
Abbreviations: FENa, fractional excretion of sodium; SIADH, syndrome of inappropriate
antidiuretic hormone
Clinical manifestations of hyponatremia involve the central nervous system
(CNS) and muscular system and include disorientation, decreased
mentation, irritability, seizures, lethargy, coma, nausea/vomiting, weakness,
and respiratory arrest. Treatment requires identifying the type of
hyponatremia, treating the underlying disease, removing offending drugs,
and improving the circulating sodium level. Hypovolemic hyponatremia
usually responds to intravascular volume repletion (ie, with normal saline).
As volume is replaced, the release of ADH is appropriately suppressed and
the kidneys begin to excrete free water. Hypervolemic hyponatremia is
usually not severe and improves with successful treatment of the underlying
condition.
Adrenal insufficiency should be

ruled out in patients with euvolemic
and hypovolemic hyponatremia.
Euvolemic hyponatremia is almost always secondary to elevated levels of

ADH. Diagnosis is facilitated by determining urine osmolality before
treatment (especially with diuretics) to compare with a calculated serum
osmolality. If the hyponatremia is acute or the patient is symptomatic, the
serum sodium level should be increased by restricting free-water intake,
increasing free-water clearance with loop diuretics, and replacing
intravascular volume with normal saline (154 mEq/L [154 mmol/L]) or
hypertonic 3% saline (513 mEq/L [513 mmol/L]).
Hypertonic saline is indicated for treatment in the presence of severe
symptoms, such as seizures, coma, or impending respiratory arrest. The
goal of therapy in this situation is to remove free water and not sodium. The
increase in serum sodium should be controlled, and although the precise
rate of increase is controversial, the serum sodium increase should be
limited to approximately 6 to 8 mmol/L in the first 24 hours. However, one
option is to accelerate the rate of serum sodium elevation early in the
treatment course in the presence of life-threatening symptoms, such as
seizures, and then slow the rate of increase after resolution of the symptoms
with a proper strategy to minimize a potential demyelination lesion as a
result of a unplanned rapid correction. When hypertonic saline is used in
symptomatic patients, 1 mmol/kg sodium chloride should be infused
initially (3% saline contains ~0.5 mmol/mL). The same amount can be
administered in incremental doses to a maximum of 3 to 5 mmol/kg or until
symptoms resolve. Alternatively, the change in serum sodium expected
after administering 1 liter of 0.9% normal saline can be estimated by using
the following formulas:
Change in Serum Sodium = Infusate Sodium – Serum Sodium
Total Body Water + 1
Change in Serum Sodium = (Infusate Sodium + Infusate Potassium) – Serum Sodium

Total Body Water = 0.6 × Weight (kg) for men; 0.5 × Weight (kg) for women
The sodium concentrations of various infusates are listed in Table 12-4.

The formulas presented previously do not take into account other fluid
gains (ie, tube feeds or continuous medication infusions) and losses (ie,
urine output), and therefore, should serve only as guides to intervention.
Serum sodium levels should be monitored at frequent intervals during
therapy for hyponatremia, at least every 6 hours. When serum sodium is
greater than 125 to 130 mEq/L (125 to 130 mmol/L), restriction of free
water alone allows for slower return of the sodium level to normal.
Do not use vasopressin antagonists

in patients with severe neurologic
symptoms and do not co-administer
with hypertonic saline.
Table 12-4 Sodium Characteristics of Selected Infusates
Infusate Sodium Concentration (mmol/L)
5% sodium chloride 855
3% sodium chloride 513
0.9% sodium chloride 154
Ringer lactate solution 130
0.45% sodium chloride 77
5% dextrose in water 0
Correction of the serum sodium level that is too rapid may result in CNS
injury (ie, osmotic demyelinating syndrome), particularly in the setting of
chronic hyponatremia. Osmotic demyelinating syndrome rarely occurs in
patients whose serum sodium is greater than 120 mEq/L (120 mmol/L).
Symptoms of demyelination are typically seen after initial improvement in
mentation. In 1 to 7 days following a hasty reversal of chronic
hyponatremia, patients may develop focal motor deficits, respiratory
insufficiency, and progressive loss of consciousness. Patients at greatest risk
for osmotic demyelinating syndromes are those with malnutrition,
hypokalemia, alcohol abusers, elderly women, and burn patients. If
hyponatremia is chronic and the patient is asymptomatic, regardless of the
magnitude of hyponatremia, free-water restriction alone may be sufficient
to allow for slow return of serum sodium to normal.
Although controversial, vasopressin receptor antagonists, such as
conivaptan and tolvaptan, are available for use in the management of
hyponatremia. These agents should not be used in the management of acute
hyponatremia and expert consultation should be sought before their use.
They inhibit resorption of water via their action on the V2 receptor of the
kidney and result in a slow rise in the serum sodium level. Vasopressin
receptor antagonists can cause hypotension and volume depletion and
therefore should be avoided in patients with hypovolemia. After a
vasopressin receptor antagonist is administered, serum sodium levels should
be monitored frequently (every 4 hours) because of concerns for rapid
sodium correction and neurologic sequelae (specifically, demyelination). To
prevent over-correction, avoid using vasopressin antagonists in combination
with hypertonic saline. Once an increase of 6 to 8 mmol/L is achieved,
consider replacing free water (orally or intravenously) to match urine output
and prevent an excessive rise in sodium levels.
2. Hypernatremia
Hypernatremia (sodium > 145 mEq/L [145 mmol/L]) indicates intracellular
volume depletion with a loss of free water that exceeds sodium loss. Causes
of hypernatremia are listed in Table 12-5.
Table 12-5 Causes of Hypernatremia
Water Loss Reduced Water Intake Excessive Sodium Intake

Diarrhea Altered thirst Salt tablets
Vomiting Impaired access Hypertonic saline
Excessive sweating Sodium bicarbonate
Diuresis
Diabetes insipidus
The clinical manifestations of hypernatremia relate to CNS and muscle

function. Manifestations of hypernatremia include altered mentation,
lethargy, seizures, coma, and muscle weakness. Polyuria suggests the
presence of diabetes insipidus or excess salt and water intake.
Treatment focuses on correcting the underlying cause of hypernatremia.
Nearly all patients with hypernatremia require free-water repletion. The
water deficit can be estimated by using the following equation:
Water Deficit (L) = 0.6 (0.5 for women) × weight (kg) [(measured
Na/normal Na) – 1]
Example: Water deficit of a 70-kg man with sodium measurement of 160
mEq/L (mmol/L)
0.6 × 70 [(160/140) – 1]
42 [1.14 – 1]
42 × 0.14 = 5.88 L water deficit
A portion of the free-water deficit should be replaced initially at a speed
commensurate with the severity of symptoms, and the patient should be
reevaluated for subsequent replacement frequently (monitor sodium levels
every 6 hours). Regardless of the serum sodium level, if the patient shows
signs of hypovolemic shock (eg, hypotensive, orthostatic, or significantly
tachycardia), administer normal saline until the intravascular volume is
corrected. When the patient is hemodynamically stable, replete the
remaining water deficit with 5% dextrose in water, 0.45% NaCl, or 0.2%
NaCl with 5% dextrose. To estimate the change in serum sodium expected
after administering 1 liter of fluid, use the same formulas as for
hyponatremia:
Change in Serum Sodium = Infusate Sodium – Serum Sodium
Change in Serum Sodium = (Infusate Sodium + Infusate Potassium) – Serum Sodium

In stable patients, water may be replaced via the enteral route (ie,
nasogastric tube). In the rare patient with extreme sodium overload, sodium
may be removed with loop diuretics or dialysis (provided intravascular
volume is adequate). Administration of aqueous vasopressin or
desmopressin should be considered for patients with central diabetes
insipidus.
Rapid correction of serum sodium

can result in cerebral edema and
neurologic injury.
Sodium concentrations should be measured frequently during treatment,

and therapy should be adjusted for optimal correction of the sodium level. If
hypernatremia developed over a period of hours, reducing the serum
sodium by 1 mEq/L/h (1 mmol/L/h) is appropriate. In hypernatremia of
longer or unknown duration, a slower rate of correction (0.5 mEq/L/h [0.5
mmol/L/h]) is recommended. Increasing free-water intake in maintenance
fluids allows for a slow return to normal sodium levels.
C. Other Electrolyte Abnormalities
1. Calcium
Calcium is the most abundant mineral in the body, comprised of 50% active
ionized calcium and 50% calcium bound to albumin in extracellular fluid. It
is required for muscle contraction, nerve impulse transmission, hormone
secretion, blood clotting, cell division, cell motility, and wound healing.
Effective calcium levels in a seriously ill patient are best assessed by using
ionized calcium measurements, if available. Total serum calcium is directly
related to serum albumin whereas ionized calcium is inversely related to
serum albumin. In general, for each increase or decrease in serum albumin
of 1 g/dL, the serum calcium increases or decreases by 0.8 mg/dL (0.2
mmol/L). However, the relationship between albumin and serum calcium is
less reliable in critically ill patients.
a. Hypocalcemia
Hypocalcemia (total calcium < 8.5 mg/dL [< 2.12 mmol/L], ionized
calcium < 4 mg/dL [1 mmol/L]) is common in critically ill patients and
results from impairment of the parathyroid and/or vitamin D systems (Table
12-6). Cardiovascular abnormalities, the most common clinical
manifestations of hypocalcemia in critically ill patients, include
hypotension, bradycardia, arrhythmias, heart failure, cardiac arrest, digitalis
insensitivity, and QT interval and ST-segment prolongation. Neuromuscular
manifestations include weakness, muscle spasm, laryngospasm,
hyperreflexia, seizures, tetany, and paresthesias.
Table 12-6 Causes of Hypocalcemia
Hypoparathyroidism Pancreatitis Calcium chelators

Sepsis Malabsorption Hypomagnesemia
Burns Liver disease Massive transfusion
Rhabdomyolysis Renal disease
Treatment is aimed at correcting the underlying disease process and any
concomitant electrolyte abnormalities, and administering calcium. Mild
hypocalcemia is well tolerated, and aggressive treatment may result in
tissue injury (especially during ischemic and septic states). If the
hypocalcemia is severe (ionized calcium < 4 mg/dL [1 mmol/L]) or if the
patient is symptomatic, administer 100 mg calcium intravenously over 5 to
10 minutes (3–4 mL of 10% calcium chloride or 10 mL of 10% calcium
gluconate), followed by calcium in the amount of 0.3 to 2 mg/kg/h. Calcium
preparations vary in their content of elemental calcium: 1 g of 10% calcium
chloride contained in 10 mL has 272 mg of calcium; 1 g of 10% calcium
gluconate contained in 10 mL has 90 mg of calcium. When the circulating
calcium concentration is stable, calcium may be replaced via the enteral
route (ie, 500–1,000 mg every 6 hours).
Monitor ionized or total calcium levels frequently during treatment, and
adjust repletion to maintain calcium in the lower normal range so as not to
suppress parathyroid gland function. If calcium replacement alone fails to
maintain the circulating calcium level, consider administration of vitamin D
and confirm normal magnesium levels. Adverse effects of calcium
administration include hypercalcemia, bradycardia, nausea/vomiting,
flushing, and tissue calcium precipitation.
b. Hypercalcemia
The most common causes of hypercalcemia (total calcium > 11 mg/dL [>
2.75 mmol/L], ionized calcium > 5.21 mg/dL [1.3 mmol/L]) are the result
of calcium release from bone (Table 12-7). The clinical manifestations of
hypercalcemia relate primarily to the cardiovascular and neuromuscular
systems and include hypertension, cardiac ischemia, arrhythmias,
bradycardia, conduction abnormalities, digitalis toxicity, dehydration,
hypotension, weakness, depressed mentation, coma, seizures, and sudden
death. Gastrointestinal manifestations include nausea/vomiting, anorexia,
abdominal pain, constipation, pancreatitis, and ulcer disease. Nephrogenic
diabetes insipidus with polyuria may occur and contribute to volume
depletion. Renal stones, nephrocalcinosis, and renal failure may also be
encountered.
Table 12-7 Causes of Hypercalcemia
Hyperparathyroidism Excess intake of vitamin A or vitamin D
Malignancy Thyrotoxicosis
Immobilization Granulomatous disease
Treatment of hypercalcemia is aimed at controlling the underlying disease,

rehydrating the patient, and lowering the calcium level. The circulating
calcium level frequently needs to be lowered while the primary disease is
being evaluated and treated. Intravascular volume should be restored with
normal saline to ensure adequate tissue perfusion and renal blood flow
(urine output 2–3 mL/kg/h). Saline also decreases renal tubular calcium
reabsorption. Once adequate volume status is secured, diuresis with a loop
diuretic further increases calcium excretion. Serum potassium and
magnesium levels should be monitored and low levels corrected. In patients
with renal failure, pulmonary edema, or life-threatening hypercalcemia,
calcium levels may be lowered with dialysis. After initial stabilization,
therapy with calcitonin and bisphosphonates can be considered.
2. Phosphorus
Phosphate is important in cellular energy metabolism. Hypophosphatemia
(phosphate < 2.5 mg/dL [0.81 mmol/L]) results from transcellular shifts,
renal loss, gastrointestinal loss, or inadequate intake (Table 12-8).
Phosphate depletion primarily affects the neuromuscular and central
nervous systems. Clinical manifestations include muscle weakness,
respiratory failure, rhabdomyolysis, paresthesias, lethargy, disorientation,
obtundation, coma, and seizures. Other possible complications include
impaired renal tubular function, impaired pressor response, hepatic
dysfunction, immune dysfunction, impaired protein synthesis, hemolysis,
impaired platelet function, and impaired oxygen off-loading from
hemoglobin.
Table 12-8 Causes of Hypophosphatemia
Transcellular Shift Renal Loss Gastrointestinal Decreased

Loss Intake
Acute alkalosis Hyperparathyroidism Malabsorption Malnutrition
Carbohydrate Diuretic use Diarrhea Parenteral
administration nutrition
Drugs (insulin, Hypokalemia Intestinal fistulas
epinephrine)
Hypomagnesemia Antacids
Steroids
Treatment of hypophosphatemia consists of controlling the underlying

disease, removing offending drugs, correcting electrolyte abnormalities, and
replacing phosphate. Phosphate levels < 1 mg/dL (< 0.32 mmol/L)
associated with symptoms are considered life-threatening and require
immediate treatment. For emergency treatment, administer phosphate at 0.6
to 0.9 mg/kg daily intravenously. When circulating levels are stable,
maintenance replacement of phosphate is 1,000 mg/day intravenously plus
excess estimated losses (ie, in urine or stool). Phosphate may be
administered as potassium phosphate (93 mg/mL phosphate, 1.1 mmol/mL
potassium) or sodium phosphate (93 mg/mL). Enteral administration of
phosphate is preferred in patients with serum phosphate levels > 1.0 to 1.5
mg/dL (> 0.32–0.48 mmol/L).
Serum phosphate should be monitored during repletion and therapy
adjusted to achieve a circulating level of 3 to 4 mg/dL (0.97–1.29 mmol/L).
Adverse effects of phosphate administration include hyperphosphatemia,
hypocalcemia, tissue calcium precipitation, renal injury, and diarrhea
(enteral phosphate).
Hyperphosphatemia is uncommon in critical illness except with renal
failure. Increased bone metabolism secondary to tumors or increased gut
absorption also may cause hyperphosphatemia. Symptoms are similar to
those of hypocalcemia: ventricular arrhythmias, prolonged QT interval,
seizures, paresthesias, and muscle cramps. Hyperphosphatemia is treated
with intravenous calcium and enteral phosphorus binders. Dialysis may be
required with renal failure.
3. Magnesium
Magnesium is important to the body for energy transfer and electrical
stability. Causes of hypomagnesemia (magnesium < 1.8 mg/dL [< 0.75
mmol/L]) are listed in Table 12-9.
Table 12-9 Causes of Hypomagnesemia
Renal Loss Gastrointestinal Transcellular Decreased

Loss Shift Intake
Renal tubular dysfunction Malabsorption Refeeding Malnutrition
Diuresis Diarrhea Recovery from Alcoholism
Hypokalemia Nasogastric hypothermia Parenteral
suction nutrition
Drugs (eg, aminoglycosides,
amphotericin)
Clinical manifestations of hypomagnesemia overlap those of hypokalemia

and hypocalcemia, including cardiovascular abnormalities (ie, QT-interval
prolongation, arrhythmias, vasospasm, myocardial ischemia),
neuromuscular abnormalities (eg, weakness, tremor, seizures, tetany,
obtundation, coma), and electrolyte abnormalities (eg, hypokalemia,
hypocalcemia).
Treatment of hypomagnesemia consists of addressing the underlying
disease, discontinuing problematic drugs, correcting concomitant
electrolyte abnormalities, and replenishing magnesium. For emergency
treatment (ie, arrhythmias), administer 1 to 2 g magnesium sulfate
intravenously over 5 to 10 minutes. The agent can be administered over a
longer interval (10–60 minutes) in less urgent situations. Depending on the
clinical situation, subsequent intravenous replacement ranges from 1 to 2 g
magnesium sulfate every 4 to 6 hours. Once serum levels stabilize,
intravenous maintenance doses are 0.1 to 0.2 mmol/kg daily (1 g
magnesium sulfate = 8 mmol). Maintenance magnesium may be
administered enterally. The dose should be reduced if renal failure is
present. Magnesium levels should be monitored during repletion. Deep
tendon reflexes can be used to assess for hypermagnesemia during
replacement (ie, decreased at serum level 4–5 mg/dL [1.65–2.06 mmol/L]).
Hypermagnesemia is uncommon in critical illness but may be seen with
renal failure or shifts in magnesium from intracellular fluid as a result of
soft-tissue injury as with crush injuries, burn trauma, and rhabdomyolysis.
Hyporeflexia, lethargy, and apnea may result. Treatment consists of
administration of intravenous calcium, diuretic administration, and dialysis
in severe cases.
III. METABOLIC DISTURBANCES
Case Study
A 54-year-old woman is admitted to the general medicine floor (day 3) with

cellulitis of her left lower extremity. Her medical history is significant for
diabetes mellitus (Type 2) and rheumatoid arthritis, and her home
medications include metformin, methotrexate, and prednisone. During this
admission, she has been started on antimicrobial therapy and insulin
glargine. Her home methotrexate and prednisone are on hold to help with
healing of her infection. The emergency response team is called because of
a new finding of altered mental status, respiratory rate of 22 breaths/min,
heart rate of 140 beats/min, blood pressure of 84/42 mm Hg, and
temperature of 37.2°C (98.9°F). A complete blood count and basic
metabolic panel are unremarkable. She is given a 2-L fluid bolus of lactated
Ringer and started on 10 µg/min of norepinephrine and remains
hypotensive.
– What metabolic disorder may contribute to this patient’s new onset
hypotension?
– What interventions should be considered?
– What laboratory tests could confirm this diagnosis?
A. Acute Adrenal Insufficiency

Acute adrenal insufficiency in the critically ill patient, also known as
critical illness-related corticosteroid insufficiency (CIRCI), may result from
preexisting or previously undiagnosed chronic disease of the adrenal glands
or hypothalamic-pituitary axis, or acute conditions affecting these endocrine
organs (Table 12-10). Patients with chronic disease may develop acute
adrenal insufficiency precipitated by infection or other stressors. In
addition, functional impairment during serious illness may result from
relative or absolute insufficiency of glucocorticoid production, which
usually reverses with recovery from the illness. Relative adrenal
insufficiency occurs when cortisol response is normal or high, but is
reduced relative to the severity of illness.
Table 12-10 Etiologies of Adrenal Insufficiency
Chronic Conditions
Adrenal glands
Autoimmune destruction
Granulomatous disease (tuberculosis)
HIV infection
Other infection (cytomegalovirus, fungal)
Primary or metastatic malignancy
Drug effects (ie, ketoconazole)
Hypothalamic/pituitary axis
Withdrawal from exogenous glucocorticoid therapy
Hypopituitarism (tumors, infarction, radiation)
Sarcoidosis, histiocytosis
Head trauma
Acute Conditions
Critical illness (affects adrenal glands and hypothalamic-pituitary axis)
Hypoperfusion
Cytokine effects (altered cortisol metabolism, receptor affinity)
Acute adrenal hemorrhage
Meningococcemia
Disseminated intravascular coagulation
Anticoagulation (eg, warfarin, heparin)
Drug effects
Increased cortisol metabolism (phenytoin, phenobarbital, rifampin)
Interference with glucocorticoid synthesis (ketoconazole, etomidate)
Lack of specific signs and symptoms of acute adrenal insufficiency makes

for a challenging early diagnosis in the critically ill population. Clinical
manifestations consistent with acute adrenal insufficiency include
weakness, nausea and vomiting, abdominal pain, tachycardia, and
orthostatic hypotension. A diagnostic clue is hypotension refractory to
volume resuscitation. Suggestive laboratory findings may include
eosinophilia, hyponatremia, hyperkalemia, acidosis, and hypoglycemia.
Acute adrenal hemorrhage may cause abdominal, flank, or back pain.
Clinical and laboratory manifestations overlap significantly with
manifestations of other common critical illnesses, such as sepsis.
Electrolyte abnormalities are less

likely with acute adrenal
insufficiency compared with
chronic adrenal insufficiency.
Important clues for possible adrenal insufficiency in critically ill patients

are vasopressor-dependent states, failure to respond to appropriate fluid
administration, fever without an apparent source, and a discrepancy
between the expected disease severity and the patient’s condition.
The value of a single test for hypothalamic-pituitary-adrenal axis function is
limited. Either a random cortisol level of < 10 µg/dL or a stimulation test
may be used to diagnose CIRCI. With the cosyntropin stimulation test,
clinicians may use the change in cortisol of less than 9 µg/dL 60 minutes
after a 250-µg cosyntropin dose as suggestive of a diagnosis of adrenal
insufficiency. Current recommendations call for administration of less than
400 mg of hydrocortisone per day for 3 or more days. Improvement in
hemodynamic status after administration of hydrocortisone was previously
an important physiologic indicator, but laboratory testing is now preferred.
Although corticosteroid therapy is frequently weaned by reducing the dose
over a period of 3–5 days, no specific recommendations for weaning exist
and many trials did not wean therapy.
Hydrocortisone also provides some

mineralocorticoid effects.
B. Hyperglycemic Syndromes
1. Diabetic Emergencies
Serious metabolic complications of diabetes mellitus result from a relative
or absolute lack of insulin coupled with increased production of counter-
regulatory hormones such as glucagon, catecholamines, cortisol,
epinephrine, and others. Life-threatening hyperglycemic syndromes include
diabetic ketoacidosis (DKA) and hyperglycemic hyperosmolar state (HHS).
These syndromes differ in the severity of dehydration and degree of
acidosis (ketosis) but share many clinical manifestations and therapeutic
interventions. In addition, patients may manifest components of both
syndromes. Table 12-11 lists characteristics that may distinguish the
syndromes, but considerable variability is possible. Although DKA and
HHS may be the initial presentation of diabetes mellitus, the most common
precipitating factors are infection and medication noncompliance. Other
precipitants include corticosteroid use, myocardial infarction, stroke,
alcohol abuse, pancreatitis, trauma, and pregnancy.
HHS develops over days to weeks

and results in greater dehydration
than does DKA, which usually
evolves in < 24 hours.
Table 12-11 Characteristics of Hyperglycemic Syndromes
Diabetic Ketoacidosis Hyperglycemic Hyperosmolar State

Glucose >250 mg/dL >600 mg/dL
Arterial/venous pH <7.3 >7.3
Anion gap Increased Variable
Serum/urine ketones Positive Negative or small
Serum osmolality Normal Increased
Clinical manifestations result from hyperglycemia in both syndromes and

from excess ketone production in DKA. Hyperglycemia causes
hyperosmolality, osmotic diuresis, fluid and electrolyte loss, dehydration,
and volume depletion. Ketones, specifically beta-hydroxybutyrate and
acetate, are responsible for the metabolic acidosis and can be measured
indirectly by the anion gap. Clinical features of both hyperglycemic
syndromes may include weakness, dehydration, polyuria, polydipsia,
tachycardia, hypotension, anorexia, nausea/vomiting, and ileus. Abdominal
pain, hyperpnea (Kussmaul respirations), and fruity odor to the breath are
more characteristic of DKA, whereas altered mental status (ranging from
lethargy to coma) and dysrhythmias are more common in HHS. Laboratory
investigation may reveal hyperglycemia, hyperosmolality (more common in
HHS), glucosuria, anion gap metabolic acidosis (DKA), hyperkalemia
(when acidemia is present) or hypokalemia and hypophosphatemia (after
insulin therapy is initiated), lactic acidosis, leukocytosis, and azotemia.
Serum sodium concentrations may be low as a result of translocation of
water to the extracellular space. An elevated serum sodium concentration
suggests severe dehydration.
The corrected serum sodium

concentration [measured sodium +
0.016 × (serum glucose-100 )]
should be used to assess the
severity of dehydration.
An initial rapid evaluation of the patient with a possible hyperglycemic
condition should include assessment of mental status, degree of dehydration
(vital signs, orthostatic changes, urine output), and presence of infection.
Laboratory studies should include complete blood count, electrolytes, renal
function, glucose (plasma or fingerstick), urine or serum ketones, and
arterial blood gas (venous pH can be used as a substitute). An
electrocardiogram should be obtained to evaluate for ischemia and changes
caused by electrolyte abnormalities. If infection is suspected, appropriate
cultures are indicated.
The goals for treatment of hyperglycemic syndromes are to restore the fluid
and electrolyte balance, provide insulin, and identify precipitating factors.
The initial management of DKA and HHS is outlined in Table 12-12.
Volume deficits correlate with the severity of hyperglycemia and are usually
greater in HHS. Urine output should be maintained at 1 to 3 mL/kg/h to
ensure adequate tissue perfusion and clearance of glucose.
Table 12-12 Initial Management of Hyperglycemic Syndromes
Fluids
1. Assess severity of dehydration.

2. Institute crystalloid resuscitation, initially with normal saline at approximately 15-20
mL/kg/h in the first hour in the absence of cardiac dysfunction to restore
hemodynamic stability and renal perfusion. Subsequent fluid infusion rates should
be guided by assessment of hydration and urine output, and 250-500 mL/h is often
adequate.
3. After stabilization of the hemodynamic status, fluids with less chloride (eg, 0.45%
saline) should be considered to avoid or minimize the development of
hyperchloremic metabolic acidosis. The corrected serum sodium should also be
used to guide fluid selection.
4. Add glucose to fluids when glucose is 250-300 mg/dL (13.9-16.7 mmol/L) in DKA.
Administer 10% dextrose if necessary to maintain glucose >150 mg/dL (>8.3
mmol/L). In HHS, add glucose to fluids when glucose is 300 mg/dL (16.7 mmol/L) to
maintain the glucose concentration between 250-300 mg/dL (13.9-16.7 mmol/L).
Insulin
1. Administer a regular insulin loading dose as an intravenous bolus (0.1-0.15

units/kg), followed by an infusion at 0.1 units/kg/h. If potassium concentration is
<3.3 mmol/L, hold insulin until potassium is replaced.
2. If the glucose concentration does not fall by 50 mg/dL (2.8 mmol/L) in the first hour,
consider increasing the insulin infusion rate or administering additional insulin
boluses (10 units regular insulin hourly).
3. In DKA, continue insulin infusion or decrease by 50% when the glucose reaches
300 mg/dL (16.7 mmol/L). Maintain the glucose concentration between 150 and 200
mg/dL (8.3 and 11.1 mmol/L) until acidosis and ketosis are resolved.
4. In HHS, decrease insulin infusion when the glucose concentration reaches 300
mg/dL (16.7 mmol/L) to maintain the glucose at 250–300 mg/dL (13.9-16.7 mmol/L)
until the plasma osmolality is ≤315 mOsm/kg and the patient is alert.
Electrolytes
1. If serum potassium is <3.3 mEq/L (mmol/L), hold insulin and administer potassium,
40 mEq/h (mmol/h) as potassium chloride or potassium phosphate (or combination),
until potassium is >3.3 mEq/L (mmol/L) to avoid arrhythmias or severe weakness.
2. If serum potassium is <3.3 mEq/L (mmol/L) but <5 mEq/L (mmol/L) and urine output
is adequate, administer potassium, 20–30 mEq (mmol), in each liter of fluids to
maintain the potassium at 4–5 m Eq/L (mmol/L).
3. If serum potassium is >5 mEq/L (mmol/L), do not administer potassium in fluids until
<5 mEq/L (mmol/L).
4. Consider phosphate replacement with potassium phosphate if serum are low (<1
mg/dL, 0.32 mmol/L) or severe symptoms are present.
Abbreviations: DKA, diabetic ketoacidosis; HHS, hyperglycemic hyperosmolar state
The intravenous route for insulin administration is the most reliable and
easiest to titrate. Because of the short half-life of intravenous insulin, a
continuous infusion is necessary with serial monitoring of the glucose and
electrolyte concentrations. Smaller doses of insulin may be adequate in
HHS. In the case of DKA, insulin infusion should be continued until the
removal of beta-hydroxybutyrate and acetone, as measured by
normalization of the anion gap or normalization of beta-hydroxybutyrate
levels. Normalization of the anion gap usually occurs many hours after
normalization of the serum glucose levels.
Glucose-containing fluids may be started earlier than recommended if blood
glucose cannot be monitored frequently. When glucose and/or serum
osmolality are controlled, acidosis has cleared, and the patient is stable,
subcutaneous insulin may be administered; an insulin sliding scale of
regular and longer-acting preparations can be started and should overlap for
1 to 2 hours with discontinuation of the insulin infusion.
Be aware that bicarbonate therapy

in addition to insulin will lower the
serum potassium concentration.
Insulin and correction of acidosis shifts potassium intracellularly and may

lead to precipitous drops in serum potassium levels. Oral potassium
replacement can be considered if nausea and vomiting are not present.
Potassium and other electrolyte levels should be monitored frequently
(especially in the first 6 hours) until levels stabilize and acidosis is resolved.
Glucose concentrations should be

monitored every 1–2 hours.
Acidosis is well tolerated by patients with DKA, and bicarbonate therapy is

controversial. No benefit has been found when bicarbonate is administered
to DKA patients with a pH of 6.9 to 7.1, and fluid and insulin therapy
results in rapid improvement in pH. Bicarbonate administration may be
considered if the arterial pH is < 6.9 (give 100 mmol bicarbonate over 1
hour to increase pH > 7). Do not attempt to normalize blood pH with
bicarbonate because acidosis resolves as ketones are metabolized.
2. Hyperglycemia in Critical Illness

Hyperglycemia is common in diabetic and nondiabetic patients with critical
illness and may be the result of stress hormones, inflammatory mediators,
glucocorticoid therapy, excessive nutritional calories, decreased activity,
and other mechanisms. Significant hyperglycemia is associated with poor
wound healing, impaired immune function, increased inflammation,
endothelial dysfunction, and other adverse effects leading to increased
illness and death. Early studies of tight glucose control (80–110 mg/dL,
4.4–6.1 mmol/L) suggested benefit in a surgical population, but this target
has been difficult to achieve in subsequent studies without increasing the
risk for severe hypoglycemia. In addition, in multiple subsequent trials, no
consistent reduction in mortality was observed with intensive control of
glucose levels. Some recent studies of tight glycemic control have actually
demonstrated increased mortality associated with higher rates of
hypoglycemia.
In critically ill patients, insulin therapy should be initiated for persistent
hyperglycemia (blood glucose level > 150 mg/dL). Once it has been
initiated, a glucose level of 140–180 mg/dL (7.8–10 mmol/L) with the
avoidance of hypoglycemia is recommended. Intravenous insulin infusions
are the preferred method to achieve and maintain control. During
intravenous insulin therapy, frequent monitoring of blood glucose is
essential to minimize the risk of hypoglycemia ( blood glucose < 70
mg/dL), and achieve optimal control.
Patients with renal dysfunction

require lower rates of insulin
infusions.
The ability to provide adequate nursing support and monitoring may affect
the blood glucose goals chosen. Different types of blood sampling and
glucose measurement methods may also yield different results. The
institution’s protocol for blood sampling, insulin infusion, and glucose
management targets should be followed to achieve consistency and
minimize the risk of hypoglycemia.
Key Points
Management of Life-Threatening Electrolyte and Metabolic
Disturbances
In the presence of life-threatening dysrhythmias or paralysis associated
with hypokalemia, administer potassium chloride, 20 mmol/h, through
a central venous catheter.
If hyperkalemia-associated ECG abnormalities are present, administer
calcium chloride or calcium gluconate intravenously over 5 to 10
minutes, then consider shifting potassium intracellularly with 50%
dextrose and regular insulin intravenously, inhaled β-agonists, and/or
sodium bicarbonate.
In symptomatic euvolemic hyponatremia, limit the increase in serum
sodium to 6 to 8 mmol/L in the first 24 hours. Correction of serum
sodium that is too rapid may result in CNS injury.
Patients with hypernatremia and hemodynamic instability should have
normal saline administered until intravascular volume is corrected.
Subsequently, replace water deficit with 5% dextrose in water, 0.45%
NaCl, or 0.2% NaCl with 5% dextrose. Enteral replacement with water
is an effective strategy in stable patients.
Emergent treatment with a glucocorticoid is indicated in patients with
critical illness-related corticosteroid insufficiency (CIRCI) diagnosed
by random plasma cortisol or the results of the cosyntropin stimulation
test.
A glycemic target of 140–180 mg/dL is appropriate for most
hospitalized patients to provide clinical benefits with a reduced risk of
hypoglycemia.
The goals of treatment in hyperglycemic syndromes are to restore the
fluid and electrolyte balance, provide insulin, and identify precipitating
factors.
In diabetic ketoacidosis, insulin infusion should be continued until the
ketosis and acidosis have resolved. Glucose-containing fluids should
be administered to prevent hypoglycemia during insulin infusion.
Maintain the glucose between 250 and 300 mg/dL (13.9–16.7 mmol/L)
in hyperglycemic hyperosmolar syndrome until the plasma osmolality
is < 315 mOsm/kg and the patient is alert.
Potassium should be added to the fluid therapy for hyperglycemic
syndromes as soon as serum potassium is recognized to be < 5 mmol/L
and urine output is adequate.
A protocol of blood sampling, insulin infusion, and target glucose
levels should be followed to avoid hyperglycemia and minimize
hypoglycemia in critically ill patients.
Suggested Readings
1. American Diabetes Association. Diabetes care in the hospital:

standards of medical care in diabetes – 2020. Diabetes Care.
2020;43(Suppl 1):S193-S202.
2. Annane D, Pastores S, Rochwerg B, et al. Guidelines for the diagnosis
and management of critical illness related corticosteroid insufficiency
(CIRCI) in critically ill patients (Part I): Society of Critical Care
Medicine and European Society of Intensive Care Medicine 2017. Crit
Care Med. 2017;45:2078-2088
3. Annane D, Pastores S, Rochwerg B, et al. Guidelines for the diagnosis
and management of critical illness related corticosteroid insufficiency
(CIRCI) in critically ill patients (Part II): Society of Critical Care
Medicine and European Society of Intensive Care Medicine 2017. Crit
Care Med. 2018;46:146-148.
4. Berl T. Vasopressin antagonists. N Engl J Med. 2015;372:2207-2216.
5. Brown GR, Greenwood JK. Drug- and nutrition-induced
hypophosphatemia: mechanisms and relevance in the critically ill. Ann
Pharmacother. 1994;28:626-632.
6. Charron T, Bernard F, Skrobik Y, et al. Intravenous phosphate in the
intensive care unit: more aggressive repletion regimens for moderate
and severe hypophosphatemia. Intensive Care Med. 2003;29:1273-
1278.
7. Gennari FJ. Disorders of potassium homeostasis: hypokalemia and
hyperkalemia. Crit Care Clin. 2002;18:273-288.
8. Jacobi J, Bircher N, Krinsley J, et al. Guidelines for the use of an
insulin infusion for the management of hyperglycemia in critically ill
patients. Crit Care Med. 2012;40:3251-3276.
9. Kamel KS, Wei C. Controversial issues in the treatment of
hyperkalemia. Nephrol Dial Transplant. 2003;18:2215-2218.
10. Noronha JL, Matuschak GM. Magnesium in critical illness:
metabolism, assessment, and treatment. Intensive Care Med.
2002;28:667-679.
11. Tzamaloukas AH, Malhotra D, Rosen BH, et al. Principles of
management of severe hyponatremia. J Am Heart Assoc.
2013;2(1):e005199. Available at:
http://jaha.ahajournals.org/content/2/1/e005199.long. Accessed
October 5, 2015.
12. Verbalis JG, Goldsmith SR, Greenberg A, et al. Hyponatremia
treatment guidelines 2007: expert panel recommendations. Am J Med.
2007;120:S1-S21.
Suggested Website
1. Society Critical Care Medicine. http://www.SCCM.org/Guidelines

Chapter 13
SPECIAL CONSIDERATIONS
Objectives
Outline the diagnosis and management of pulmonary embolism.

Describe appropriate prophylactic therapy for venous
thromboembolism.
List general management principles for severe gastrointestinal
hemorrhage.
Describe appropriate prophylactic therapy for the prevention of stress-
related gastritis.
Summarize the principles of poisoning management.
Review the management of hypertensive crises.
Outline the diagnosis and management of frequent hematologic and
oncologic emergencies.
Case Study
An otherwise healthy 46-year-old woman with no significant medical

history presented to the emergency department reporting fatigue, dyspnea,
diarrhea, and poor oral intake for the past 5 days. Her triage vital signs
showed a blood pressure of 83/45 mm Hg, heart rate of 165 beats/min, and
respiratory rate of 28 breaths/min. Her oxygen saturation on pulse oximetry
(Spo2) on initial presentation was 82% on room air and increased to 89% on
15 L/min using a nonrebreather mask.
A chest radiograph was obtained and was negative for infiltrates or
opacities. Laboratory data was significant for a white blood count (WBC)
of 14,000/mm3 with 91% lymphocytic predominance, platelet count of
200,000/mm3, and hemoglobin of 12 g/dL. Her chemistry was significant
for a potassium of 4.7 mEq/L (mmol/L), bicarbonate < 10 mEq/L
(mmol/L), blood urea nitrogen (BUN) 76 mg/dL, serum creatinine 4 mg/dL,
and lactate level on a blood gas 9 mg/dL. Two liters of lactated Ringer (LR)
were infused and the patient underwent a CT scan of her chest with IV
contrast which revealed a pulmonary embolism (PE) at the junction of her
pulmonary artery with bilateral lung infarcts as well as a right ventricle
(RV) to left ventricle (LV) size ratio of 1.5.
– What is the patient’s clinical risk stratification score?
– What are the therapeutic interventions for this patient?
– What are absolute and relative contraindications for thrombolytic
therapy?
I. INTRODUCTION
In addition to the medical conditions discussed in previous chapters,
clinicians may be called on to care for patients with other severe and/or life-
threatening problems. The management and prevention of some of these
commonly encountered conditions are reviewed in this chapter.
II. PULMONARY EMBOLISM
A. Clinical Presentation
Pulmonary embolism is defined as a clot obstructing the pulmonary artery
or its branches. It usually originates from the lower extremities or the iliac
veins. Clinical findings and the patient’s history might be unreliable for
diagnosis of a PE. Predisposing factors include any condition that might
cause venous stasis, injury to the vascular endothelium, or
hypercoagulability (Virchow triad). Risks factors for PE and venous
thromboembolisms are listed in Table 13.1.
Table 13-1 Risk Factors for Pulmonary Embolism/Venous

Thromboebolism
Family history Central venous catheterization
Advanced age Recent surgery
Obesity (body mass index >30) Immobility, paralysis
Prior history of deep vein thrombosis/pulmonary Stroke with partial or full paralysis
embolism
Venous insufficiency Trauma
Venous injury or repair Malignancy (past or current)
Inherited hypercoagulable disorders Cancer therapy
(protein C or S deficiency, lupus anticoagulant, etc) Selective estrogen receptor
modulators
Acute medical illness, ICU admission Pregnancy and postpartum period
Heart or respiratory failure Estrogen therapy
Nephrotic syndrome Smoking
The clinical presentation is variable in signs and symptoms (Table 13-2).

Laboratory tests, chest radiographs, and ECG might be nonspecific and of
limited help. D-dimer assays with high sensitivity and high negative
predictive value are frequently used as an initial step in algorithms for the
diagnosis of PE. A negative D-dimer result in a patient with low clinical
probability of PE may reliably exclude the diagnosis. Patients with a
positive D-dimer result or with a moderate or high clinical probability
assessment require further diagnostic evaluation. Positive D-dimer results
have limited value in the evaluation of PE in hospitalized, critically ill,
injured, and postoperative patients.
Table 13-2 Clinical Manifestations of Pulmonary Embolism

Dyspnea Fever (usually low-grade)
Chest pain Hypoxemia
Cough Cyanosis
Tachypnea Apprehension
Tachycardia Syncope
Diaphoresis Previously noted leg swelling
Hemoptysis
A correct diagnosis of PE is essential because early initiation of appropriate

therapy decreases mortality. The current diagnostic strategy recommends
that the clinician formulate a clinical likelihood of low, moderate, or high
clinical suspicion of PE (Figure 13-1).
Figure 13-1. A Diagnostic Approach to Pulmonary Embolism
Consider pulmonary angiogram if clinical suspicion is high; negative predictive value is
increased by a negative lower extremity study
Abbreviations: PE, pulmonary embolism; CT, computed tomography; V̇/Q̇,
ventilation/perfusion
Multidetector computed tomography angiography demonstrating thrombus

up to the segmental-level pulmonary arteries is diagnostic for PE, whereas a
negative scan can be safely used to exclude it. In patients with an allergy to
contrast, venous lower limbs Doppler scanning can be used to aid in the
diagnosis of thromboembolism, and if positive, further diagnostic testing
might not be needed because therapy is similar to that for PE. A negative
Doppler examination does not rule out deep venous thrombosis (DVT)
because most PEs originate from the iliac veins. A ventilation/perfusion
(V̇/Q̇) scan can be used to aid in the diagnosis in patients who cannot
receive intravenous contrast. A normal V̇/Q̇ scan can exclude PE. Similarly,
a high probability V̇/Q̇ scan is a good diagnostic tool for the determination
of PE. In all other combinations of V̇/Q̇ scan and clinical suspicion, further
tests need to be performed. Bedside echocardiography can be used to infer
the diagnosis but is only diagnostic if it shows new-onset right ventricular
dilatation or strain. A normal echocardiogram does not rule out PE. The
degree of clot burden on imaging does not translate to the degree of
hemodynamic instability. Underlying preexisting comorbidities and a
patient’s ability to compensate from a cardiopulmonary reserve perspective
for the sudden increase in RV afterload are more telling of the likelihood for
decompensation.
Clinically, PE should be subdivided into two broad categories: massive and
submassive PE (Table 13-3). This clinical classification correlates with
patient’s mortality. Those patients with submassive PE have a mortality rate
reported between 3% to 14%, whereas patients with massive PE have a
mortality rate of 25%. The most common clinical PE tool used to risk-
stratify patients with PE is the Pulmonary Embolism Severity Index (PESI)
score. The PESI score (Table 13-4 and Table 13-5) combines both clinical
signs and preexisting comorbidities to identify patients diagnosed with a PE
who are at high risk of clinical decompensation. A patient with at least a
Class III PESI Score has a 7% 30-day mortality. Class V PESI have a 25%
30-day mortality.
Table 13-3 Classification of Pulmonary Embolism
Massive Pulmonary Embolism Submassive

Pulmonary
Embolism
Systolic blood pressure <90 mm Hg or >40 mm Hg decrease >90 mm Hg
for >15 minutes despite fluid
resuscitation
Vasopressor therapy Initiated No
Cardiac biomarker (troponin Elevated Elevated
and/or >beta-natriuretic peptide
[BNP])
Imaging RV dysfunction present RV dysfunction
present
RV size Increase. RV:LV >0.9 Increase. RV:LV
>0.9
Abbreviations: LV, left ventricle; RV, right ventricle

Data taken from Rali P and Criner G. Submassive pulmonary embolism. Am J Respir Crit
Care Med. 2018;198(5)588-598.
Pulmonary Embolism Severity Index Criteria (score per

Table 13-4
criteria)
Age (+age) Sex (+10 for male)
History of malignancy (+30) History of heart failure (+10)
History of chronic lung disease (+10)
Clinical:
Heart rate >110 beats/min (+20) Systolic blood pressure <100 mm Hg (+30)
Respiratory rate >30 breaths/min (+20) Temperature <36°C (96.8°F) (+20)
Altered mental status (+60) Oxygen saturation <90% (+20)
Reproduced with permission Donze J, Le Gal G, et al. Prospective validation of the

pulmonary embolism severity index. A clinical prognostic model for pulmonary embolism.
Thromb Haemost. 2008.11;100(5):943-948
Table 13-5 Pulmonary Embolism Severity Index Class and Mortality
PESI Score Class Risk of 30-day Mortality

0–65 I 0–1.6%
66–85 II 1.7–3.5%
86–105 III 3.2–7.1%
106–125 IV 4–11.4%
>125 V 10–24.5%
Reproduced with permission Donze J, Le Gal G, et al. Prospective validation of the

pulmonary embolism severity index. A clinical prognostic model for pulmonary embolism.
Thromb Haemost. 2008.11;100(5):943-948.
B. Therapy and Management
Unless there are absolute contraindications, all patients with PE should be

managed with therapeutic systemic anticoagulation with either low-
molecular-weight heparin (LMWH), unfractionated heparin (UH), or
fondaparinux. Anticoagulation reduces thrombus size in the pulmonary
vasculature and helps prevent further clot formation. The dosage of LMWH
is weight-adjusted and requires renal function adjustments. Recently, novel
oral anticoagulants targeting Factor Xa, such as apixaban or rivaroxaban, or
direct thrombin inhibitors, such as dabigatran, have been proposed as an
alternative to the acute, subacute, and chronic treatment of venous
thromboembolism, including non-complicated PE. These new agents,
considered direct oral anticoagulants, do not require close monitoring and
have demonstrated to be as effective as the combination heparin/warfarin
with an improved safety record.
Patients who present with massive PE may require additional treatment.
Systemic thrombolytic therapy is currently suggested for patients with acute
PE with hypotension who are at low risk of bleeding. In this scenario,
thrombolytic agents, such as tissue plasminogen activator (tPA or
Alteplase), can be used to actively promote the breakdown of fibrin
molecules forming the clot. Tissue plasminogen activator is preferred at a
dose of 100 mg infused over a 2-hour period. Initiation of thrombolytic
therapy should be individualized with careful assessment of risk and
benefits. The major risk associated with lytic therapy is bleeding that could
be major or even fatal in some patients.
Contraindications to fibrinolytic therapy, mostly extrapolated from stroke
and ST-segment elevation myocardial infarction literature, are outlined in
Table 13-6.
Contraindications to Fibrinolytic Therapy for Pulmonary

Table 13-6
Embolisms
Absolute Contraindications
Intracranial hemorrhage on CT Neurosurgery, head trauma, or stroke in the
past 3 months
Uncontrolled hypertension (SBP >185 History of intracranial hemorrhage
mm Hg or DBP >110 mm Hg)
Active internal bleeding Known intracranial arteriovenous
malformation, neoplasm, aneurysm
Suspected/confirmed endocarditis Known bleeding diathesis (platelets
<100,000/mm3, oral anticoagulation use)
Abnormal blood glucose
Relative Contraindications
Major surgery or serious non-head History of gastrointestinal hemorrhage in last
trauma in last 14 days 21 days
Recent arterial puncture at non- Recent lumbar puncture
compressible site
Pregnancy
Abbreviations: CT, computed tomography; DBP, diastolic blood pressure; SBP, systolic
blood pressure.
Data taken from Jauch E, Saver J, et al. Guidelines for the early management of patients
with acute ischemic stroke: A guideline for healthcare professionals from the American
Heart Association/American Stroke Association. Stroke. 2013;44:870-947.
Patients with submassive PE present a therapeutic challenge. Fibrinolytic

therapy for submassive PE should be individualized depending on risk
stratification score, hemodynamic trends, and careful assessment of
contraindications. Some studies have shown that fibrinolytic therapy for
patients with submassive PE has prevented hemodynamic decompensation
but with an increased risk of major hemorrhage and stroke. New therapies,
such as catheter-directed thrombolysis or mechanical thrombectomy, have
not been prospectively randomized against systemic lytic therapy as it
pertains to mortality improvement in submassive PE. Hence, the
recommendation remains to reserve those treatment modalities to centers
with the expertise and resources in such management.
An inferior vein cava filter should be considered in patients with PE when:
Anticoagulation is strongly contraindicated

Emboli recur during anticoagulation
Bleeding occurs despite an appropriate level of therapeutic
anticoagulation
Physiologic reserve is insufficient to withstand a recurrent PE
Retrievable filters may be an option in some centers. If possible,

anticoagulation for treatment of the embolus should be resumed as soon as
possible after insertion of a filter.
C. Prevention
Many critically ill or injured patients are at risk of developing venous

thromboembolism, either PE or DVT. The development of thrombosis can
lead to longer hospital stays, increased resource utilization, venous
insufficiency, and death. Thromboprophylaxis is cost-effective and highly
efficacious in preventing venous thromboembolism. Both pharmacologic
and mechanical interventions (intermittent pneumatic compression device,
graduated compression stockings) may be used for prophylaxis in
hospitalized patients. Mechanical methods for prophylaxis are generally
less effective but are acceptable options for patients at high risk of bleeding
and when combined with anticoagulants.
A formal hospital strategy for

thromboprophylaxis is
recommended.
Recommendations are based on specific patient groups (nonsurgical,

nonorthopedic surgical, orthopedic surgical), level of risk for venous
thromboembolism, and risk of bleeding. Clinicians should follow
manufacturers’ instructions for dosing of LMWH, especially in the setting
of renal failure and obesity. Caution must be used when instituting
anticoagulant therapy in patients with recent or ongoing hemorrhage, renal
failure, or concomitant use of antiplatelet therapy. Caution should be taken
in patients with a body mass index (BMI) > 50 kg/m2 because monitoring
with anti-Xa might be warranted to ensure adequate anticoagulation.
III. GASTROINTESTINAL HEMORRHAGE AND

HEMORRHAGIC SHOCK
Case Study
A 52-year-old man is experiencing progressive shortness of breath

accompanied with some palpitations on exercise. The symptoms have
become more apparent and he has been admitted to the hospital for a
diagnostic workup. He mentioned some dizziness and lightheadedness on
occasion. He regularly takes a baby aspirin, a statin, and some ibuprofen for
occasional back and joint pains, memoirs from his college football years. In
his admission he noted that his stools have been darker than usual for the
last 2 weeks and he recalled an episode of dark red vomit that happened last
weekend after he had some “extra” wine. You have been called because he
has shown some dizziness and more distress as well as some abdominal
discomfort. He is pale, tachycardic, and dizzy with a blood pressure of
90/60 mm Hg.
– What are the principles of resuscitation in hemorrhagic shock?
– How would you prioritize interventions for this patient?
A. General Management Principles
Hemorrhagic shock is a condition defined as reduced tissue perfusion and

oxygen delivery as a result of significant blood loss. The general
management principle revolves around the prevention of the triad of death:
hypothermia, coagulopathy, and acidosis, where each factor can enhance the
other if left unrecognized. Prompt assessment, intervention, and source
control are crucial to prevent secondary consequences of organ failure in
patients with hemorrhagic shock. The general approach to the management
of hemorrhagic shock is outlined in Table 13-7.
An ECG should be obtained in

patients with GI bleeding and heart
disease or advanced age to assess
for myocardial ischemia.
Control of the source of bleeding is the most important step in patients with
hemorrhagic shock. Definitive management usually requires a specialist for
intervention. In the interim, conscientious resuscitation is paramount to
prevent further decompensation.
Table 13-7 General Approach to Resuscitation of Hemorrhagic Shock

Assessment Airway monitoring and management
IV access: at least two large-bore (>18 gauge)
Cardiac evaluation
Clinical history: most likely source of bleeding?
Resuscitation Blood first, not crystalloid

Type and screen
O− uncrossed blood for reproductive-age female
O+ uncrossed blood for male
Reverse anticoagulation
Correct coagulopathy
Evaluate for intrinsic fibrinolysis
Judicious use of crystalloid to prevent further precipitation of acidemia
Temperature management: passive warming
Calcium gluconate supplementation
Source Control Cross-sectional imaging for extraluminal bleeding evaluation

Endoscopy
Surgical evaluation
Interventional radiology evaluation
B. Severe Upper Gastrointestinal Hemorrhage
Severe upper GI hemorrhage is diagnosed by hematemesis or the presence

of blood in the gastric aspirate, although 10% to 15% of patients with a
duodenal ulcer may have little or no blood in the gastric aspirate because of
bleeding below the level of the pylorus. Peptic ulcer disease is the most
common reason for hospitalization in patients with upper gastrointestinal
disease. When obtaining a patient’s history and physical examination, it is
important to note previous upper GI bleeding, the presence of ulcer disease,
alcohol consumption, stigmata of cirrhosis, coagulation disorders, and use
of aspirin and other antiplatelet medications, nonsteroidal anti-
inflammatory agents, or anticoagulants. Upper GI hemorrhage is
categorized as variceal (VUGIH) and nonvariceal hemorrhage (NVUGIH)
because of differing prognoses and managements. Common causes of
NVUGIH include duodenal and gastric ulcers, Mallory-Weiss tear,
malignancy, and gastritis.
Initial assessment of patients with upper GI hemorrhage includes airway,
breathing, and hemodynamic assessment. In hemodynamically unstable
patients, early euvolemic resuscitation with crystalloids and packed red
blood cells (when needed) is the key to survival. Endoscopy is needed to
establish the diagnosis and control hemorrhage. If this procedure is not
quickly available, consider transfer to a facility with endoscopic
capabilities. In patients taking anticoagulants, correction of coagulopathy is
recommended, aiming for an INR < 1.7, but higher levels of INR should not
delay early endoscopy. Use of prokinetic agents (eg, 250 mg IV
erythromycin) is recommended to reduce gastric volume and improve
visualization before endoscopy.
When uncontrolled variceal bleeding is suspected before endoscopic
diagnosis, the following splanchnic vasoconstrictors may be considered:
Somatostatin, 250-μg bolus, followed by 250 μg/h

Octreotide, 25- to 100-μg bolus, followed by 25 to 50 μg/h
Vasopressin, 20 units over 20 minutes, followed by 0.1 to 0.4 units/min
Terlipressin, 1 to 2 mg every 4 hours (not available in the United
States)
Somatostatin or a somatostatin analogue, such as octreotide, is the agent of

choice because of the favorable adverse effect profile. Nausea and
abdominal pain are sometimes associated with bolus doses, but significant
adverse effects are uncommon. Maintenance infusions are usually
continued for 3 to 5 days and may be effective in stopping acute variceal
bleeding and preventing early rebleeding from varices. High-dose
vasopressin is an alternative but may cause coronary artery vasospasm,
angina, or hypertension. Concomitant nitroglycerin may prevent the
deleterious effects of vasopressin on the coronary circulation. Terlipressin is
a synthetic vasopressin analogue with fewer adverse effects and a longer
half-life. None of the previously mentioned agents are recommended in the
routine management of NVUGIH. Antibiotics, usually a second- or third-
generation cephalosporin, should be administered in cirrhotic patients with
VUGIH to protect against spontaneous bacterial peritonitis. If variceal
hemorrhage cannot be controlled, balloon tamponade can be considered as a
temporizing measure (maximum 24 hours) if expertise in placement is
available until more definitive therapy, such as a porto-venous shunt, can be
instituted. This often necessitates urgent transfer to a regional center.
Following endoscopy, an IV bolus of a proton pump inhibitor, followed by
continuous infusion or twice daily dosing for 72 hours, is effective in
decreasing NVUGIH repeat bleeding and mortality caused by peptic ulcer
disease. Pre-endoscopic administration of a proton pump inhibitor may
reduce the need for endoscopic therapeutic interventions, particularly if
endoscopy is delayed. If endoscopy is unsuccessful in controlling the
bleeding, surgical intervention or angiographic embolization may be needed
for control.
When hemostasis has been achieved in patients with cardiovascular disease,
antiplatelet or anticoagulant medications can be restarted safely with
appropriate cardiovascular indications. Biopsy and empiric treatment for
Hemophilus pylori should be considered at the recommendation of the
consulting gastroenterologist.
C. Severe Lower Gastrointestinal Hemorrhage

Frequent causes of lower GI hemorrhage are diverticular disease,
angiodysplasia, large hemorrhoids, colonic polyps, inflammatory bowel
disease, rectal ulcer/tear, upper GI source, and malignancy. Evaluation
should include special attention to a history of diverticular disease,
inflammatory bowel disease, previous abdominal aortic aneurysm repair
(may suggest life-threatening aortoenteric fistula), or the presence of a
coagulation disorder. Physical examination must include inspection and a
careful rectal examination to identify hemorrhoids or rectal/anal carcinoma.
Initial management of patients with lower gastrointestinal hemorrhage must
include a focused medical history, physical examination, hemodynamic
resuscitation, risk stratification, and correction of coagulation abnormalities
or reversal of anticoagulation medications.
Upper GI hemorrhage may mimic

lower GI hemorrhage when
associated with rapid bowel transit
of blood.
Gastric aspiration should be performed to eliminate an upper GI source of

hemorrhage. A nasogastric aspirate that is negative for occult blood and
contains bile makes an upper GI bleeding source unlikely. Upper GI
endoscopy may be considered based on assessment of the most likely
bleeding source. Lower GI endoscopy is important for diagnosis and
assessment of the potential for rebleeding in addition to planning other
diagnostic interventions or surgery. Although lower GI endoscopy may
offer a therapeutic means to arrest hemorrhage, its role as a therapeutic
intervention decreases as the rate of bleeding increases. Besides lower
endoscopy, the use of CT angiography, radionuclide imaging scan, and
angiography with embolization therapy should be considered for unstable
patients or those who are poor surgical risks.
D. Prevention of Stress-Related Gastritis

Identification and treatment of patients at risk for stress-related gastritis will
reduce complications, length of stay, and costs of care in the ICU. To
minimize the potential complications of pharmacologic prophylaxis for
stress ulcers (ie, nosocomial pneumonia, Clostridiodes difficile colitis),
routine use of such therapy should be limited to patients with known risk
factors for stress gastritis. The risk of stress ulcers and GI bleeding depends
on a patient’s underlying illness, its severity, and related comorbidities.
Significant risk factors include mechanical ventilation for longer than 48
hours, coagulopathy, severe infection, hypotension, severe head trauma
(Glasgow Coma Scale score < 10), severe burns or trauma, renal or hepatic
failure, major surgery, lack of enteral nutrition, and prolonged ICU stay.
Appropriate therapeutic agents include histamine receptor-blocking agents
(H2-receptor antagonists) and proton pump inhibitors. Discontinuation of
stress ulcer prophylaxis should be considered in patients who are recovering
from their critical illness and are receiving adequate enteral nutrition.
IV. POISONING AND DRUG TOXICITY
Case Study
A college student was brought to the emergency department by emergency

medical services after being found on the floor of her dormitory by her
roommate. She was difficult to arouse and her clothes were noted to have
vomit on them. Her roommate states that yesterday she went to a party and
she does not know when or how the patient came back. Evaluation reveals
that her pupils are reactive and when she is stimulated, she becomes
agitated and even violent.
– Is this patient at risk for developing respiratory failure?
– What are the immediate priorities and interventions in the management
of intoxicated patients?
– What are the likely toxins based on the patient’s history and clinical
presentation?
Patients who have ingested prescription, over-the-counter, or recreational
drugs present with a variety of clinical manifestations. General categories of
patient presentation and possible responsible agents are listed in Table 13-
8. Reliable information about the substance(s), amount(s) ingested, and
time of ingestion is often not available. Similarly, although qualitative urine
toxicology screens and quantitative blood tests may be available, they
cannot identify all agents that could have been ingested. Quantitative drug
levels should be obtained if the patient’s medication or medical history
suggests ingestion of a specific drug, or if the signs and symptoms are
compatible with toxicity from that drug. Acetaminophen levels should be
checked in all cases. The anion gap should be calculated in cases of
unknown toxins.
Table 13-8 Clinical Characteristics That Aid in Diagnosis of

Poisoning/Overdose
Clinical Examination Possible Agents
Agitation, confusion, Cocaine, amphetamines, antidepressants, phencyclidine,
bizarre behavior hallucinogens, SSRIs
Bradycardia/hypotension β-Blockers, barbiturates, calcium-channel blockers, clonidine,
digoxin, sedatives/hypnotics
Coma, lethargy Alcohols, antidepressants, barbiturates, benzodiazepines,
gamma-hydroxybutyrate, lithium, opiates, salicylates, SSRIs
Hyperadrenergic, Amphetamines, anticholinergics, cocaine, theophylline
hyperthermia
Hypotension Antidepressants, anticholinergics, opiates,
organophosphates/carbamates, sedatives, hypnotics
Hypothermia Ethanol, hypoglycemic agents, opiates, sedatives/hypnotics
Miosis Cholinergic drugs, opiates, organophosphates, phencyclidine
Mydriasis Antihistamines, atropine, tricyclic antidepressants, ethanol,
sympathomimetic drugs
Nausea/vomiting Acetaminophen, alcohols, iron, salicylates, theophylline
Nystagmus Alcohols, carbamazepine, phenytoin, phencyclidine,
sedative/hypnotics
Seizures Amphetamines, antidepressants, cocaine, cyanide, isoniazid,
lithium, organophosphates/carbamates, salicylates, SSRIs,
theophylline
Tachyarrhythmias Amphetamines, antidepressants, caffeine, cocaine, digoxin,
theophylline
Ventilatory compromise Opiates, alcohols, antidepressants, barbiturates,
(respiratory acidosis) benzodiazepines, gamma-hydroxybutyrate
Laboratory Tests Possible Agents
Increased osmolar gap Ethanol, methanol, ethylene glycol, acetone, isopropyl alcohol,
propylene glycol
Increased oxygen Methemoglobinemia, carbon monoxide
saturation gap
Metabolic acidosis Acetaminophen, salicylates, methanol/ethylene glycol, iron-
isoniazid, carbon monoxide, cyanide, propylene glycol, propofol
Abbreviation: SSRI, selective serotonin reuptake inhibitor
These patients often require a symptom-based initial evaluation and

treatment. Specific antidotes, treatments, and/or precautions based on
historic or laboratory evidence of particular substances ingested can be used
when applicable. In some countries, specialized resource centers are
available to assist in the treatment of poisoning. The overall mortality from
acute poisoning is low, but the treating clinician must quickly evaluate
critical issues and attempt to identify patients at highest risk.
A. General Management
1. Initiate airway support as required. Assessing the patient to ensure

adequate ventilation, oxygenation, and protective airway reflexes is
critical.
2. Initiate management of cardiovascular compromise as indicated.
Obtain adequate venous access and establish monitoring (eg, pulse
oximeter, ECG, automated blood pressure device). Address initial
concerns in monitored variables (eg, isotonic fluid administration,
supplemental oxygen, seizure control, cooling or warming the patient,
vasopressors, or inotropes).
Respiratory failure is a common

cause of death in overdose and
poisoning.
3. Consider the following interventions for a patient with altered mental
status:
a. 50% dextrose (50 g), 50 mL intravenously, preferably after a
blood glucose test.
b. Naloxone, 0.2 to 2 mg, intravenously, intramuscularly, or via an
endotracheal tube. Larger doses (6 to 10 mg), repeat dosing, or an
infusion may be required, especially when synthetic and long-
acting opiates are involved.
c. Thiamine, 100 mg, slow intravenous administration. Administer
before concentrated dextrose solutions to reduce the risk of
Wernicke encephalopathy.
4. Little evidence exists for use of gastric-emptying procedures. Ipecac is
not used in patients who have been poisoned, and gastric lavage may
be considered only in life-threatening overdoses within 1 hour of
ingestion. Contraindications include an unprotected airway and
ingestion of substances with a high potential for aspiration injury,
including hydrocarbons and acid or alkali ingestions.
5. In patients with significant toxic ingestions, administer activated
charcoal within 1 to 2 hours of ingestion at an initial dose of 1 g/kg.
The effectiveness of activated charcoal decreases with time from
ingestion, so early administration is indicated. Caution is required with
decreased level of consciousness and an unprotected airway.
6. Be aware that although cathartics have been used in overdoses, there is
no evidence of efficacy. Caution is warranted in the very young and
elderly (because of potential fluid losses) and those with the potential
for obstruction.
7. Recognize that hemodialysis, rather than continuous renal replacement
therapy, is the preferred intervention in patients with life-threatening
overdoses of dialyzable substances. Common dialyzable drugs include
carbamazepine, valproic acid, lithium, toxic alcohols, salicylates, and
metformin.
B. Specific Management
Do not overlook the possibility of
acetaminophen ingestion in
patients with drug overdoses.
After the patient is stabilized, more specific therapy may be warranted.

Specific antidotes and/or interventions that may be considered are listed in
Table 13-9. The use of more advanced interventions, such as hemodialysis
or hemoperfusion, should be individualized to each patient and may require
consultation or transfer.
Table 13-9 Parenteral Antihypertensive Agents Used in the Management

of Hypertensive Emergencies
Primary Condition Therapy Primary Condition Therapy
Acute aortic dissection Labetalol Diastolic dysfunction with Nicardipine
Esmolol pulmonary edema Labetalol
Nicardipine Fenoldopam
Nitroglycerin
Nitroprusside
Hypertensive Labetalol Acute ischemic stroke/ Nicardipine
encephalopathy Nicardipine intracerebral bleed Labetalol
Clevidipine Fenoldopam
Fenoldopam Clevidipine
Nitroprusside
Acute myocardial Nitroglycerin Acute renal failure Nicardipine
ischemia Labetalol Labetalol
Fenoldopam Fenoldopam
Systolic heart failure Nicardipine Perioperative hypertension Nicardipine
Nitroglycerin Nitroglycerin
Loop diuretic Clevidipine
Labetalol
Esmolol
Eclampsia/severe Hydralazine
preeclampsia Labetalol
Nicardipine
Pheochromocytoma Phentolamine
Labetalol
aFlumazenil should not be administered to patients who chronically ingest benzodiazepines
or have overdosed on cyclic antidepressants.
V. HYPERTENSIVE CRISES
Acute hypertension or severe elevation in blood pressure may occur as a
primary or secondary condition in seriously ill patients. Frequently, patients
have an underlying diagnosis of chronic hypertension. New or progressive
end-organ injury secondary to elevation in blood pressure constitutes a
hypertensive emergency, while severely elevated BP without evidence of
organ injury is defined as hypertensive urgency. Although the BP is often >
180/120 mm Hg, no specific BP defines a hypertensive emergency. The rate
of blood pressure increase may be more important than the absolute value.
The organs most severely affected by elevations of BP are the brain, heart,
and kidney, and injury can manifest as encephalopathy, stroke, intracranial
hemorrhage, unstable angina or myocardial infarction, acute left ventricular
dysfunction (with pulmonary edema), acute aortic dissection, and
deteriorating renal function. Hypertensive disorders associated with
pregnancy are discussed elsewhere (Chapter 14).
Symptoms related to an elevated BP at presentation reflect the organ
affected and consequent injury but may be nonspecific. The patient’s
history of use of monoamine oxidase inhibitors, recreational drugs
(including cocaine and amphetamines), over-the-counter medications, and
antihypertensive agents as well as medication compliance should be
ascertained. Physical examination and laboratory investigation should be
directed to determine the presence of end-organ injury. Initial workup
usually includes complete blood count, renal function, urinalysis with
microscopy, ECG to assess for cardiac ischemia, and chest radiography to
evaluate for pulmonary edema or widened mediastinum. Patients with
altered mental status or focal neurologic deficits warrant imaging of the
brain.
A complication of uncontrolled hypertension is acute aortic dissection.
Symptoms are often severe and can include unrelenting chest pain,
frequently associated with back or epigastric pain, and neurologic deficits
such as altered mental status, focal deficits, hemiplegia, and paraplegia. A
patient with severe hypertension, severe chest pain radiating to the back,
and a wide mediastinum on chest radiograph should be evaluated for
possible aortic dissection. Aortic dissection is frequently misdiagnosed as
acute myocardial infarction, PE, stroke, esophagitis, pancreatitis, peptic
ulcer disease, biliary colic, and ureteral colic. Physical examination should
include careful auscultation for a new murmur of aortic insufficiency,
assessment for asymmetric blood pressure or pulses in upper extremities,
and careful palpation of pulses in all extremities for significant asymmetry.
The diagnostic standard has been contrast angiography, but computed
tomography angiography is more commonly used. Magnetic resonance
imaging and transesophageal echocardiography may also be useful for
diagnosis.
Acute hypertension secondary to increased sympathetic drive and
catecholamine surge is also a frequent manifestation of common disease
processes in seriously ill patients, such as respiratory failure, acute pain,
alcohol or drug withdrawal syndromes, agitated delirium, and increased
intracranial pressure (Cushing reflex). Initial therapy in such circumstances
should be targeted to treating the underlying problem and not lowering of
an elevated BP.
B. Therapy
Hypertensive urgency can be managed with oral or intravenous agents, and
gradual blood pressure control over 24 to 48 hours. The goal is to reduce
the pressure over hours to days to a safer, but not necessarily normal, level
of BP. Hypertensive emergencies require continuous monitoring of BP,
neurologic status, urine output, and other parameters in a monitored
environment. Parenteral and titratable antihypertensive agents should be
administered to lower the BP within minutes to hours. The initial goal of
therapy should be to reduce mean arterial pressure by no more than 20% to
25% in the first few hours. If the BP is lowered too rapidly, it may result in
hypoperfusion of major arterial beds, resulting in cerebral infarction,
myocardial infarction, and blindness secondary to changes in autoregulation
of organ blood flow.
Rapid-acting antihypertensives are preferred, including labetalol, esmolol,
nitroprusside, nicardipine, nitroglycerin, and clevidipine. Agents that can be
considered in some specific situations are given in Table 13-10. Oral
antihypertensives appropriate for the patient can usually be initiated within
6 to 12 hours of presentation and parenteral agents weaned.
Table 13-10 Parenteral Antihypertensive Agents Used in the Management

of Hypertensive Emergencies
Primary Condition Therapy Primary Condition Therapy
Acute aortic dissection Labetalol Diastolic dysfunction with Nicardipine
Esmolol pulmonary edema Labetalol
Nicardipine Fenoldopam
Nitroglycerin
Nitroprusside
Hypertensive Labetalol Acute ischemic stroke/ Nicardipine
encephalopathy Nicardipine intracerebral bleed Labetalol
Clevidipine Fenoldopam
Fenoldopam Clevidipine
Nitroprusside
Acute myocardial Nitroglycerin Acute renal failure Nicardipine
ischemia Labetalol Labetalol
Fenoldopam Fenoldopam
Systolic heart failure Nicardipine Perioperative hypertension Nicardipine
Nitroglycerin Nitroglycerin
Loop diuretic Clevidipine
Labetalol
Esmolol
Eclampsia/severe Hydralazine
preeclampsia Labetalol
Nicardipine
Pheochromocytoma Phentolamine
Labetalol
Specific Situations:
1. In patients with acute aortic dissection, a rapid reduction of systolic BP

to 100 to 120 mm Hg with a heart rate of 60 to 80 beats/min should be
achieved within 5 to 10 minutes. A β-blocker or an agent with
combined alpha- and beta-blockade, such as labetalol, is preferentially
used in this condition to decrease the shear forces on the aorta and try
to limit the extent of dissection. In addition, opiate analgesics may be
needed for pain control.
2. In patients with normal renal function and signs of volume depletion
(as a result of pressure natriuresis), gentle volume expansion with
normal saline will help suppress renin secretion and prevent significant
hypotension from vasodilating medications.
VI. HYPERLEUKOCYTOCIS AND LEUKOSTASIS

SYNDROME
Case Study
An 81-year-old man with a history of chronic myeloid leukemia on

treatment with imatinib, coronary artery disease status post coronary artery
bypass graft complicated by ischemic cardiomyopathy with an ejection
fraction of 40%, severe aortic stenosis, and chronic kidney disease presents
to the emergency department reporting dyspnea on exertion and fatigue for
the past 3 days. On evaluation, his vital signs show a blood pressure of
103/56 mm Hg, heart rate of 110 beats/min, respiratory rate of 26
breaths/min, and an initial Spo2 91% on room air that improved to 96% on 3
L nasal cannula.
A chest radiograph was obtained and was negative for infiltrates or
opacities. Laboratory data was significant for a WBC of 260,000/mm3 with
91% lymphocytic predominance, platelet count of 80,000/mm3, and
hemoglobin of 10 g/dL. Additional blood work showed potassium of 4.7
mEq/L (mmol/L), bicarbonate of 18 mEq/L (mmol/L), BUN of 76 mg/dL,
serum creatinine of 3 mg/dL, uric acid of 9.2 mg/dL, calcium of 8.5 mg/dL,
albumin of 3.4 g/dL, and phosphorus of 6.6 mg/dL.
Two liters of lactated Ringer (LR) were infused and a hematology/oncology
consult was requested.
– What is the differential diagnosis based on the patient’s risk factors and
clinical presentation?
– What additional testing should be performed on this patient?
– What are the next therapeutic interventions?
Hyperleukocytosis is commonly defined as a white blood cell count (WBC)
> 100,000/mm3. Its incidence occurs more commonly in acute leukemias
rather than chronic leukemias. These conditions are a medical emergency
that need prompt recognition and therapy initiation to prevent end organ
failure. It portends up to 40% morbidity and mortality if not clinically
recognized.
Leukostasis is a syndromic diagnosis characterized by end-organ failure
with concomitant severe coagulopathy, electrolyte and metabolic
derangement leading to tumor lysis syndrome (TLS), and further
exacerbation of end-organ failure. This is a consequence of
micromechanical obstruction of different organ capillary beds by the
predominant deranged white blood cell line. The significant leukocyte
burden causes disruption of normal hematopoietic production, release of
additional tissue factors resulting in severe coagulopathy, and increased
bleeding tendency. The spontaneous death of the large number of
leukocytes as a consequence of high cellular turnover results in cell rupture
resulting in TLS and electrolyte derangement. When the byproduct of these
two events reaches end organs such as the kidneys, metabolic derangement
further exacerbates the critical clinical scenario.
B. Diagnostic Evaluation
Workup should be initiated early in patients clinically suspected to have
hyperleukocytosis to help guide certain therapy. These should include
diagnostics highlighted in Table 13-11. Additional workup should be
targeted at whichever end organ dysfunction a patient presents with.
Table 13-11 Workup for Hyperleukocytosis
CBC with differential Peripheral smear

Phosphorus Calcium
Potassium Type and screen
Uric acid LDH
Assessment of coagulation: qualitative and quantitative PT/PTT/INR
ROTEM/TEG
Abbreviations: CBC, complete blood cell count; LDH, lactate dehydrogenase; PT,
prothrombin time; PTT, partial thromboplastin time; INR, international normalized ratio;
ROTEM, rotational thromboelastometry; TEG, thromboelastography
C. Therapy and Management

Immediate therapeutic strategies for patients with leukostasis involve
adequate intravascular hydration as well as rapid reduction in the number of
circulating deranged WBCs. Fluid resuscitation with close monitoring of
fluid balance is recommended to decrease blood viscosity as well as to
improve end organ blood flow. Recommended fluid resuscitation rate
should start at 100 mL/kg/h with careful monitoring of urine output
especially in patients who already have oliguric/anuric acute kidney injury.
Electrolytes should be monitored frequently for patients with
hyperleukocytosis to prevent TLS. Red blood cell (RBC) transfusion should
be avoided unless absolutely indicated because RBC transfusion may
precipitate worsening leukostasis secondary to further increases in blood
viscosity. The uric acid level should be checked and allopurinol or
rasburicase should be given to patients with hyperuricemia. Cytoreduction
should also be initiated to avoid further worsening of leukostasis in patients
with hyperleukocytosis as well as to prevent manifestation of TLS in
patients who will be receiving chemotherapy. One way to perform
cytoreduction is leukapheresis. Leukapheresis refers to the withdrawal of
whole blood from the body to separate WBCs and its precursors from the
patient’s blood while plasma, platelets, and RBCs are returned to the
patient. Leukapheresis helps to reduce the WBC count by roughly 25% to
50%, removing excess circulated WBC precursors, as well as to treat
symptoms associated with leukostasis.
VII. TUMOR LYSIS SYNDROME
Case Study
The 81-year-old patient received hydroxyurea, 6 mg, and rasburicase, 3 mg

IV, and underwent acute leukapheresis through a right internal jugular
central venous catheter. Laboratory data after leukapheresis is significant
for a WBC of 35,000/mm3, platelets of 35,000/mm3, Hgb of 9 g/dL,
potassium of 4.5 mg/dL, phosphorus of 7.5 mg/dL, calcium of 7.6 mg/dL,
and uric acid of 7.2 mg/dL. Acute hypoxemic respiratory failure resolved
after leukapheresis. He was subsequently admitted to the floor for further
management.
Tumor lysis syndrome (TLS) is a life-threatening medical emergency as a
result of treatment of highly proliferative malignancy. TLS is characterized
by electrolyte derangement with hyperkalemia, hyperuricemia,
hyperphosphatemia, and hypocalcemia as a consequence of the release of
intracellular components from cell lysis during therapy (Table 13-12). TLS
usually arises within 12 to 72 hours of chemotherapy initiation. The
increase in the level of electrolytes seen outside of calcium is a
consequence of renal tubule saturation that is unable to be renally cleared.
Hypocalcemia manifests as a consequence of calcium phosphate crystal
formation. There are certain blood neoplasms that should raise the clinical
suspicion for the development of TLS. These are acute myeloid leukemia
and Burkitt lymphoma in adults. TLS is rarely seen in patients with solid
tumor neoplasms. Indirectly, the degree of hyperleukocytosis coupled with
the elevation in serum lactate dehydrogenase (LDH) should also raise the
suspicion for the likelihood of development of TLS.
Table 13-12 Clinical Characteristics of Tumor Lysis Syndrome
Hyperkalemia Hyperphosphatemia
Hyperuricemia Hypocalcemia
B. Management
The mainstay for management of patients with TLS are therapies targeted at
preventing further kidney injury through hydration, correction of
hyperuricemia, which prevents uric acid crystal deposition on renal tubules,
as well as supportive measures directed at particular electrolyte
derangements. In patients who are symptomatic, hyperkalemia can be
temporized with IV insulin and calcium gluconate. Caution should be
enacted in patients who are hypocalcemic and hyperphosphatemic because
supplementation with calcium gluconate may precipitate further calcium-
phosphate crystal precipitation, worsening acute kidney injury.
VIII. HEMOPHAGOCYTIC LYMPHOHISTIOCYTOSIS
Case Study
A 56-year-old woman is referred to the emergency department for abnormal

laboratory values after a recent hospitalization for fever and malaise
without improvement after treatment with IV antibiotics. She was seen at
the rheumatology clinic the previous day and laboratory studies were
significant for the following: INR > 9.7, PT > 100, PTT 34.6, ferritin level
of 14,000 µg/L, WBC of 1,600/mm3, platelets 49,000/mm3, and
hemoglobin of 10 g/dL. Her medical history is significant for systemic
lupus erythematosus (SLE) complicated by lupus nephritis and
antiphospholipid syndrome, and her current medications are
hydroxychloroquine, mycophenolate, and warfarin. Triage vital signs show
a blood pressure of 92/57 mm Hg, heart rate of 115 beats/min, temperature
of 39.3°C (102.7°F), respiratory rate 28 breaths/min, and Spo2 of 82% on
room air which improved to 96% on 15 L/min using a nonrebreather mask.
– What is the differential diagnosis based on patient’s risk factors and
clinical presentation?
– What additional testing should be performed on this patient?
– What are the next therapeutic interventions?
Hemophagocytic lymphohistocytosis (HLH) is a rare hematologic life-
threatening syndrome characterized by hyperactivation of innate immunity
by macrophages. HLH can be categorized as primary or secondary. Primary
occurs most commonly in children as a result of a genetic mutation.
Secondary or acquired HLH, occurs more frequently in adults as a
consequence of certain infections, malignancy, and/or autoimmune
disorders. Secondary HLH is commonly associated with fever and clinical
symptoms similar to sepsis. Despite antimicrobial therapy, patients do not
clinically improve.
Workup should be aimed at obtaining laboratory data indicative of HLH.
The presence of at least five out of the eight Henter’s criteria (fever,
splenomegaly, hypertriglyceridemia and/or low fibrinogen,
hemophagocytosis in bone marrow sample, ferritin level >500 µg/L,
elevated soluble IL-2 > 2400 U/mL, low or absent NK-cell activity, at least
2-line cytopenia) indicates HLH. Additional workup should also be catered
to the patient’s history and the provider’s clinical suspicion.
The patient was admitted to the medical ICU and was initiated on broad
spectrum antibiotics and a heated high-flow nasal cannula for her acute
hypoxemic respiratory failure. A bone marrow biopsy was performed which
confirmed the presence of hemophagocytes as well as budding yeast
consistent with histoplasma. What are the indicated treatments?

Unfortunately, there is no consensus for therapeutic management of
acquired HLH. Therapies are generally targeted at the underlying disease
which may be sufficient to treat patients with acquired HLH. Certain
medications, including immunosuppression, may need to be discontinued.
Glucocorticoid may be used if the etiology of acquired HLH is a
consequence of an underlying autoimmune disorder. A combination of
systemic therapy, which includes etoposide, dexamethasone, and
cyclosporine, has been used to treat HLH. Hematopoietic stem cell
transplantation has also been used to treat patients with HLH. Supportive
care, including targeted antibiotics to the diagnosed infections, is generally
required for patients with multi-organ dysfunction as a consequence of
secondary HLH.
IX. THROMBOTIC THROMBOCYTOPENIC PURPURA
Case Study
An otherwise healthy 45-year-old woman presents to the emergency

department reporting abdominal pain, vomiting, and malaise for the past
week. She denies any new exposure. Her triage vital signs show a heart rate
of 134 beats/min, blood pressure of 134/67 mm Hg, respiratory rate of 18
breaths/min, and a temperature of 36.9°C (98.4°F). Her oxygen saturation is
99% on room air. Her physical examination is significant for tenderness to
the right upper quadrant on palpation. Basic laboratory studies were
obtained and were significant for a platelet count of 10,000/mm3, Hgb of 7
g/dL (baseline of 12 g/dL on a previous CBC), and a normal WBC. Her
electrolytes are unremarkable except for a serum creatinine of 1.5 mg/dL.
She has a normal AST and ALT; however, her total bilirubin is elevated at
2.5 mg/dL.
– What is the differential diagnosis for this patient?
– What additional diagnostic tests should be performed?
– How should this patient be managed?
Thrombotic thrombocytopenic purpura (TTP) is a rare disease process with
a high mortality as a consequence of systemic microthrombosis, if left
unrecognized. The usual clinical presentation of TTP is vague without
specific diagnostic criteria and as such, should be part of the differential
diagnosis in patients with new-onset thrombocytopenia and anemia. If
recognized early, TTP responds well to treatment. Classically, TTP presents
as a pentad listed in Table 13-13. However, it is very rare for patients who
have TTP to manifest all five of the clinical criteria.
Table 13-13 Clinical Pentad of Thrombocytopenic Purpura
Thrombocytopenia Microangiopathic hemolytic anemia

Fever Neurologic abnormality
Acute kidney injury
TTP occurs as a result of deficiency in the protease enzyme ‘ADAMTS 13’

which is responsible for cleaving large von-Willebrand factor (vWF)
multimer secreted by endothelial cells. The absence of ADAMTS 13
protease results in large vWF that has increased ability to interact with
platelets, causing increased thrombi aggregation.
As mentioned previously, presentation of patients with TTP rarely includes
the pentad. Patients usually present with abdominal pain and nausea.
Subsequent diagnostic workup for TTP should be initiated if there is one or
more organ dysfunction as well as bi-cytopenia (anemia and
thrombocytopenia). Table 13-14 highlights some of the initial diagnostic
evaluation tests for patients suspected to have TTP.
Table 13-14 Diagnostic Workup for Suspected Thrombocytopenic Purpura
CBC with differential Basic metabolic profile

Type and screen Peripheral smear
Liver function test Urinalysis with microscopy
ADAMTS 13 assay if available

The foundation of therapy for TTP is plasma exchange. Plasma exchange
has been proven to be the only effective therapeutic modality for patients
with TTP. Initiation of plasma exchange requires early and accurate
diagnosis of TTP. Plasma exchange, like leukapheresis, requires a central
venous catheter to be performed. Temporary platelet supplementation might
be required in patients with severe thrombocytopenia prior to initiation of
plasma exchange to safely place the central venous catheter. Platelet
transfusion without plasma exchange is not recommended because the
patient’s thrombocytopenia will continue based on the ongoing thrombi
aggregation. Plasma exchange is efficacious for patients with TTP because
it allows removal of ADAMTS 13 autoantibodies. The duration of plasma
exchange has been suggested to last until the platelet count normalizes.
Plasma exchange comes with risks associated to the invasive treatment,
such as systemic infection, thrombosis, hypotension, as well as
complications related to central venous catheter placement.
Glucocorticoid therapy has also been evaluated for its use in patients with
TTP. Data surrounding steroid use in patients with TTP is not as strong
compared with plasma exchange. Glucocorticoids have been advocated to
be used in association with plasma exchange in patients who have relapsed
TTP. The glucocorticoid of choice is usually methylprednisolone at 1 g/day
for 3 days or 1 to 2 mg/kg of prednisone daily. There is no clear indication
for the use of immunosuppressive agents in patients with TTP.
Key Points: Special Considerations

In patients with suspected PE and no contraindications to
anticoagulation, unfractionated or low-molecular-weight heparin
should be initiated while diagnostic tests are being obtained.
Thrombolysis should be initiated on a case-by-case basis without
absolute contraindication to lytic therapy in patients who are
decompensating hemodynamically from massive pulmonary
embolism.
Judicious deployment of an IVC filter with a means for filter retrieval
once patients can be systemically anticoagulated.
While awaiting source control for hemorrhagic shock, correction of
coagulopathy, prevention of acidemia and hypothermia are paramount
adjunctive management for a patient receiving blood product
resuscitation.
Lower GI bleeding localization is essential for adequate source
control. Most of which will require surgical or interventional radiology
consultation.
Early diagnostic evaluation is warranted for patients suspected to have
hyperleukocytosis and tumor lysis syndrome.
Leukapheresis with chemoreduction has been proven to provide
clinical benefits for patients with hyperleukocytosis.
Correction of electrolytes (potassium, calcium, phosphorus, uric acid)
is paramount in tumor lysis to prevent further worsening of end organ
dysfunction.
HLH is a nebulous diagnosis that should be part of the differential for
patients with a fever of unknown origin.
TTP should be suspected in patients with thrombocytopenia and
anemia.
Therapy for TTP revolves around early recognition and initiation of
plasm exchange.
Suggested Readings
1. Barkun AN, Bardou M, Kuipers EJ, et al. International consensus

recommendations on the management of patients with nonvariceal
upper gastrointestinal bleeding. Ann Intern Med. 2010;152:101-113.
2. Bergsten E, Home A, Arico M, et al. Confirmed efficacy of etoposide
and dexamethasone in HLH treatment: Long-term results of the
cooperative HLH-2004 study. Blood. 2017;130(25):2728-2738.
3. Criscuolo M, Fianchi L, Dragnonetti G, et al. Tumor lysis syndrome:
Review of Pathogenesis, Risk Factors and Management of a medical
emergency. Expert Rev Hematol. 2016;9(2):197-208.
4. Darmon M, Vincent F, et al. Tumor lysis syndrome and acute kidney
injury in high-risk haematology patients in the rasburicase era. A
prospective multicenter study from the Groupe de Recherche
enReanimation Respiratoire et Onco-Hematologique. Br J Haematol.
2013;162(4):489-497.
5. Donze J, Le Gal G, et al. Prospective validation of the pulmonary
embolism severity index. A clinical prognostic model for pulmonary
embolism. Thromb Haemost. 2008;100(5):943-948.
6. Ganzel C, Becker J, et al. Hyperleukocytosis, leukostasis and
leukapheresis: practice management. Blood Rev. 2012;26(3):117-122.
7. George JN. Clinical Practice. Thrombotic Thrombocytopenic Purpura.
N Engl J Med. 2006;354(18):1927-1935.
8. Giammarco S, Chiusolo P, Piccirillo N, et al. Hyperleukocytosis and
Leukostasis: Management of a Medical Emergency. Expert Rev
Hematol. 2017;10(2):147-154.
9. Grund FM, Armitage JO, Burns CP. Hydroxyurea in the prevention of
the effects of leukostasis in acute leukemia. Arch Int Med.
1977;137:1246-1247.
10. Henter JI, Elinder G, Ost A. Diagnostic guidelines for hemophagocytic
lymphohistiocytosis. The FHL Study Group of the Histiocyte Society.
Semin Oncol. 1991;18:29-33.
11. Holig K, Moog R. Leukocyte depletion by therapeutic
leukocytapheresis in patients with leukemia. Transfus Med Hemother.
2012;8;39(4):241-245.
12. Jaff M, McMurtry S, et al. Management of Massive and Submassive
Pulmonary Embolism, Iliofemoral Deep Vein Thrombosis, and
Chronic Thromboembolic Pulmonary Hypertension. Circulation.
2011;123:1788-1830.
13. Jauch ED, et al. Guidelines for the early management of patients with
acute ischemic stroke: A guideline for healthcare professionals from
the American Heart Association/American Stroke Association. Stroke.
2013;44(3):870-947.
14. Larroche C. Hemophagocytic lymphohistiocytosis in adults: Diagnosis
and Treatment. Joint Bone Spine. 2012;79(4):356-361.
15. Majhail NS and Lichtin AE. Acute Leukemia with a very high
leukocyte count: confronting a medical emergency. Clev Clin J Med.
2004;71(8):633-637.
16. McKee LC, Collins RD. Intravascular leukocyte thrombi and
aggregates as a cause of morbidity and mortality in leukemia.
Medicine (Baltimora). 1974;53(6):463-478.
17. Meyer G, Vicaut E, Danays T, et al. Fibrinolysis for patients with
intermediate-risk pulmonary embolism. N Engl J Med.
2014;370(15):1402-1411.
18. Mikhail J. The Trauma triad of death: hypothermia, acidosis and
coagulopathy. ACCN Clin Issues. 1999;10(1):85-94.
19. Rali P and Criner Gerard. Submassive Pulmonary Embolism. Am J
Respir Crit Care Med. 2018;198(5)588-598.
20. Sachar H, Vaidya K, Laine L. Intermittent versus Continuous Proton
Pump Inhibitor Therapy for High-Risk Bleeding Ulcer. JAMA Int Med.
2015;174(11):1755-1762.
21. Zuckerman T, Ganzel C, et al. How I treat hematologic emergencies in
adult with acute leukemia. Blood. 2012;120(10):1993-2002.
Chapter 14
CRITICAL CARE IN PREGNANCY
Objectives
Describe the physiologic and metabolic alterations unique to

pregnancy.
Address concerns for fetal safety in relation to medications and
diagnostic imaging.
Discuss the diagnosis and management of hypertensive disorders of
pregnancy.
List priorities for managing the traumatized pregnant patient.
Review the management of delivery while a patient is under care in the
ICU.
List management options for severe postpartum hemorrhage.
Case Study
A 21-year-old woman is a direct admit from her OB/GYN office. She is

gravida 1 and is currently at 29 weeks’ gestation. Routine prenatal care has
revealed no pertinent past medical history and no complications during
pregnancy. Her visit to her OB/GYN office for her routine checkup revealed
a 10-lb weight gain in 2 weeks along with a blood pressure of 190/110 mm
Hg and new spots in her vision. A urinalysis reveals the presence of protein
in her urine.
– What are the possible diagnoses?
– What immediate interventions are needed?
– What additional diagnostic tests are indicated?
I. INTRODUCTION
A pregnant woman may present for critical care either with a disease that is
unique to pregnancy or with a critical illness that is not specific to
pregnancy. Diseases peculiar to pregnancy include preeclampsia, eclampsia,
HELLP syndrome (hemolysis, elevated liver enzymes, and low platelet
count), and amniotic fluid embolism syndrome. Some critical illnesses not
unique to pregnancy—such as preexisting maternal hypertension,
thromboembolic disease, cardiac and respiratory diseases, and trauma—can
be unmasked, precipitated, complicated, or aggravated by pregnancy. The
normal physiologic, metabolic, and hormonal changes of pregnancy may
alter the presentation of disease processes and add a level of complexity to
diagnosis and treatment. Understanding the normal physiologic changes
during pregnancy, delivery, and the postpartum period is the key to
managing critically ill obstetric patients with underlying medical diseases
and pregnancy-related complications. The most common critical illnesses in
obstetric patients are hypertensive disorders and postpartum hemorrhage.
These may not always come to the intensivist’s attention because these
conditions are commonly managed on a labor and delivery unit.
Most obstetric patients who are admitted to the ICU are admitted
postpartum rather than undelivered: this is because much of obstetric
critical illness requires delivery as a component of management (such as
severe preeclampsia) or only occurs after delivery (such as postpartum
hemorrhage). Much concern, however, is focused on the smaller proportion
of patients who are admitted to the ICU antepartum, because of anxiety
about fetal issues. Nevertheless, the physiologic changes of pregnancy
persist into the postpartum period and must be kept in mind when patients
are admitted to the ICU after delivery.
Leading causes of maternal death worldwide are obstetric hemorrhage,
hypertensive disorders, infection, and unsafe abortion. In high-income
countries, top causes of maternal death are thromboembolism, cardiac
disease, infection, and hemorrhage. Severe acute maternal morbidity is
tracked in some localities, particularly where maternal deaths are relatively
rare; leading indicators in this category are hysterectomy, acute renal
failure, sepsis, acute respiratory distress syndrome, disseminated
intravascular coagulation, and eclampsia.
However, maternal deaths do not map neatly onto maternal ICU
admissions. In the first place, not all deaths are in the hospital; deaths may
be so sudden that a woman does not survive to ICU admission. Many cases
of hemorrhage and hypertension are handled rather routinely on busy labor
and delivery units, rather than coming to the ICU at all; conversely, most
maternal ICU admissions are for additional monitoring rather than for life
support interventions, and most of these admissions are brief (< 48 hours).
Severe maternal morbidity has been

described as “a very ill pregnant or
postpartum woman who would have
died had it not been that luck and
good care was on her side.”14
Recognition of critical illness in the pregnant and postpartum patient

requires an understanding of normal physiologic changes. Maternal early
warning systems have been developed to identify women whose status may
be deteriorating. The National Partnership for Maternal Safety has proposed
a set of maternal early warning signs criteria; other expert councils have
developed similar criteria.
Systolic blood pressure less than 90 mm Hg or greater than 160 mm
Hg
Diastolic blood pressure greater than 100 mm Hg
Heart rate less than 50 beats/min or greater than 120 beats/min
Respiratory rate less than 10 breaths/min or greater than 30
breaths/min
Oxygen saturation on room air, at sea level less than 95%
Oliguria: urine output less than 35 mL/h for greater than or equal to 2
hours
Maternal agitation, confusion, or unresponsiveness
Women with preeclampsia reporting a non-remitting headache or
shortness of breath
II. PHYSIOLOGIC CHANGES OF PREGNANCY
A. Cardiovascular
Alterations in blood volume and cardiovascular status are among the most
dramatic changes that occur in pregnancy. These are adaptive mechanisms
that accommodate the increased metabolic needs of the mother and the fetus
during pregnancy, labor, and delivery. Blood volume increases in each
trimester, reaching 40% to 50% above normal values by the end of
gestation. Cardiac output (CO) also increases, up to 50% above pre-
pregnancy values by the 24th week of gestation, and remains elevated into
the immediate postpartum period. This is primarily a result of increased
stroke volume during the first and second trimesters and increases in heart
rate (15 to 20 beats/min) during the third trimester. Improved myocardial
contractility may account in part for the increase in cardiac output. A
decrease of 25% to 30% in CO may occur if the patient is placed in the
supine position. This positioning causes the gravid uterus to compress the
aorta and inferior vena cava, increasing afterload and restricting venous
return to the heart. The left lateral decubitus position is the preferred
position for pregnant women with serious illness, particularly as gestation
progresses and the gravid uterus increases in size. The decrease in cardiac
output in the supine position is exaggerated in women with poorly
developed venous collaterals who exhibit significant hypotension and
bradycardia; this is known as the supine hypotensive syndrome of
pregnancy. Filling pressures, such as the central venous and pulmonary
artery pressures, typically do not change during pregnancy. A decrease in
blood pressure (BP) is seen in the second trimester as a result of decreased
systemic vascular resistance attributed to the vasodilating effects of
progesterone. Peak reduction in BP occurs between 16 and 18 weeks, when
systolic pressures are reduced by 5 to 10 mm Hg and diastolic pressures by
10 to 20 mm Hg. By term, the BP returns to near pre-pregnancy values.
Venous flow in the legs is delayed in pregnancy, and this slower velocity of
blood return can contribute to occlusion of the pelvic veins and inferior
vena cava by the enlarged uterus. This venous stasis also contributes to the
common finding of dependent edema and development of varicose veins in
the legs and vulva, as well as hemorrhoids. This venous stasis contributes to
an increased risk for deep venous thrombosis and venous
thromboembolism.
The heart undergoes remodeling during pregnancy, with enlargement of all
four chambers in response to expanded plasma volume. This may provoke
or exacerbate cardiac conditions; for example, left atrial enlargement may
precipitate supraventricular and atrial arrhythmias. Systolic ejection
murmurs and a third heart sound are commonly detected during pregnancy
but diastolic, pansystolic, and late systolic murmurs suggest a more serious
underlying cardiac disorder.
In addition to chamber enlargement, the heart is rotated upward and to the
left as the uterus enlarges and the diaphragm is pushed superiorly. This
displacement can be seen as cardiomegaly and increased vascular markings
on the chest radiograph, although the changes have no clinical significance
if the patient has no other evidence of cardiac disease. Nonspecific ST-T
wave changes may be seen in the ECG during pregnancy, usually in lead III
or V1-V3, because of alterations in the shape of the thoracic cage or left
axis deviation as the diaphragm and heart are pushed cephalad by the
enlarging uterus.
During labor, cardiac output is increased by as much as 50% again, from a
rise in both heart rate and stroke volume. The effect on heart rate can be
limited with effective epidural analgesia, but because the augmented stroke
volume is largely caused by uterine contractions, it does not change. After
delivery, an additional 10–20% increase in cardiac output is reached,
peaking in the first hour, and gradually declining over the next 2 weeks.
The risk of decompensated heart

failure is even higher in the early
postpartum period, because the
low-resistance uteroplacental
circuit is abolished and another
500 mL of blood is returned to the
central circulation
Healthy pregnant women tolerate the cardiovascular and hemodynamic

effects associated with pregnancy, as do patients with mild to moderate
cardiac disease; however, the incidence of heart failure and arrhythmias is
higher in pregnant patients with cardiac disease.
B. Pulmonary
The pregnant woman is considered to have a “difficult airway” due in part

to edema of the upper respiratory tract as a result of increased blood volume
and hormone-induced mucosal edema and hypervascularity. Pulmonary
changes in pregnancy include an increase in tidal volume of approximately
33%, a decrease in functional residual capacity of 15–20% (300 to 500
mL), and an increase in oxygen consumption by 20% as a result of the
rising metabolic needs of the mother, placenta, and fetus. Total lung
capacity remains unchanged or decreases by less than 5% at term. The
combination of decreased functional residual capacity and increased oxygen
consumption during pregnancy diminishes maternal oxygen reserve and
subsequently increases the risk of hypoxemia in the event of maternal
hypoventilation or apnea.
Oxygen requirements rise by approximately 30 to 40 mL/min (15% to 20%)
in pregnancy and beginning in the first trimester are met by an increase in
minute ventilation, primarily as a result of an expanded tidal volume. The
increase in minute ventilation results in a mild compensated respiratory
alkalosis with a change in the Paco2 to 26 to 34 mm Hg (3.5 to 4.5 kPa).
The pH changes only minimally because of renal compensation, which
results in a decrease in serum bicarbonate concentration and therefore a
reduced buffering capacity. Pregnant women who present with a “normal”
Paco2 level of 35 to 40 mm Hg (4.7 to 5.3 kPa) should prompt the clinician
to look for a cause of impending ventilatory failure.
C. Gastrointestinal and Hepatic
Hormonal and anatomic changes in pregnancy affect the gastrointestinal

tract. Starting at the end of the first trimester, a reduction in lower
esophageal sphincter tone caused by high progesterone levels contributes to
an increased risk for aspiration. As pregnancy progresses, the enlarging
uterus can compress the stomach or displace other abdominal viscera.
Gastroesophageal reflux and decreased gastric emptying are expected
during pregnancy. Alterations in gastric motor function may cause nausea,
vomiting, and dyspepsia. Increased hepatic synthesis of cholesterol and
triglycerides are reflected in serum levels; alkaline phosphatase rises
because of placental rather than hepatic production. Serum albumin
declines by as much as 20% by the end of pregnancy as a result of both
decreased hepatic production and increased plasma volume.
D. Hematologic
The 1200- to 1300-mL increase in plasma volume that occurs by the end of
pregnancy is associated with a gain in red cell mass of only 300–400 mL.
The disproportionate rise in plasma volume results in dilutional anemia
(physiologic anemia of pregnancy). Hemoglobin concentration is ~11 g/dL
(110 g/L) at 24 weeks, when it stabilizes; however, it may increase slightly
later in the pregnancy when there is less discrepancy between the increases
in blood volume and red cell mass. The white blood cell count climbs to
10,000 cells/μL (10.0 × 109/L) at term, with a slight reduction in platelet
count. Plasma concentrations of all clotting factors except XI, XIII, and
antithrombin III increase in pregnancy. Fibrinogen levels may be as high as
600 mg/dL (6.0 g/L) at term. Fibrinogen levels < 150 mg/dL (< 1.5 g/L) are
overtly abnormal. Although coagulation test results and bleeding times do
not change, the changes of increased coagulation factors, fibrin generation,
and inhibition of fibrinolysis result in a hypercoagulable state that, in
association with venous stasis and vessel wall trauma, raises the risk for
thromboembolic disease.
E. Renal
Creatinine levels are lower by about 50% in pregnancy as a result of a rise

in the glomerular filtration rate (GFR) because of increased blood flow to
the kidneys. Serum creatinine levels > 0.8 mg/dL (70 μmol/L) must be
recognized as abnormal. Hydronephrosis is to be expected, both because of
progesterone-mediated smooth muscle relaxation and because of the
compressive effect of the enlarging uterus on the ureters at the pelvic brim.
Renal tubular reabsorption of sodium promotes salt and water retention,
triggered by high levels of estrogen, deoxycorticosterone, and aldosterone.
Renin and angiotensin levels are also increased.
Glycosuria occurs because of impaired glucose reabsorption in the loop of
Henle. Urinary glucose values are increased two to three orders of
magnitude over pre-pregnancy values and do not indicate pathology.
F. Metabolic/Endocrinologic
By the end of pregnancy, metabolic demand can be elevated up to 32%

above nonpregnant values. The increase in metabolic demand is the result
of the expanding uterine mass, the needs of the placenta and fetus, with
only 4% attributed to maternal metabolic needs.
Hyperinsulinemia and insulin resistance are characteristic of pregnancy.
Fasting hypoglycemia and postprandial hyperglycemia are attributed to
placental hormone secretion. Corticotropin and cortisol levels are increased
during pregnancy. The pituitary gland enlarges, which renders it more
vulnerable to infarction (Sheehan syndrome) if hemorrhage occurs.
III. PHARMACOTHERAPY IN PREGNANCY

Although pregnancy should not prevent or discourage the administration of
appropriate pharmacologic therapy, many providers are reluctant to
prescribe drugs during this time. In most cases, it is better to continue than
to abruptly stop medications because maternal health is important. In some
patients, alternatives that are better studied or less concerning are available
and it would be appropriate to switch medications, such as substituting a
different antihypertensive for an angiotensin receptor blocker.
Pregnancy affects pharmacodynamics and pharmacokinetics. With the
expanded plasma volume, volume of distribution (Vd) is increased. Plasma
protein binding decreases because of lower levels of serum albumin and
other proteins, which serves to increase free drug. Drug clearance may be
increased in pregnancy because of increased enzyme activity (eg, in the
cytochrome P450 family, glyburide and nifedipine are metabolized quicker,
or in uridine 5’diphosphatase glucuronosyltransferase enzymes, which
metabolize lamotrigine, the result is that serum levels fall by half), or there
may be increased renal clearance because of an increased glomerular
filtration rate. The overall result is that drugs which are well-studied outside
of pregnancy may be unpredictable under these circumstances.
The choice of medications for the pregnant woman must take into account
the potential for effects on the fetus. Certain medications have known or
potential adverse effects, and should be avoided when acceptable
alternatives are available. Teratogenic potential is linked to gestational age
at exposure, so there are vulnerable and safe periods. For example,
antenatal exposure to thalidomide is well known to cause limb reduction
defects, but the vulnerable period is from day 24 to 36 post-conception, and
fetal exposure outside of this period is not expected to carry the same risk.
Organogenesis is complete before the end of the first trimester; exposures
after that cannot induce birth defects, although they may affect fetal growth,
neuronal development, renal function, and other development. In general,
when starting a new medication for any pregnant patient, the clinician
should review its indications, possible effects, pharmacology, and
alternatives. Resources are available, both paid (subscription) and free.
Obstetrician-gynecologists, maternal-fetal medicine physicians, and/or
clinical pharmacists should be consulted for specific questions.
The US Food and Drug Administration (FDA), as of 2015, has phased out
its old classification system of drug labeling for pregnancy (A, B, C, D, and
X categories). The new system, called the Pregnancy and Lactation
Labeling Rule (PLLR) provides much more useful information and far
more detail. Most manufacturers do not test products on pregnant women,
which means that data are limited to preclinical animal studies and
postmarketing human surveillance. Because the background risk of birth
defects overall is about 4%, it can take many years to study enough
exposures to determine whether there is an association of a particular defect
with a particular medication. In addition, the issues of gestational age at
exposure and the wide variety of anomalies or syndromes that may affect
newborns make conclusions challenging. The PLLR requires descriptive
text of risk summary in humans, clinical considerations, underlying data,
and a link to a pregnancy exposure registry if one exists. Pregnant or
breastfeeding patients should be encouraged to enroll in these voluntary
registries.
The European Medicines Agency (EMA) also maintains detailed pregnancy
and reproductive toxicology data for drugs marketed in Europe.
Details on the new classification system are available from the United
States Food and Drug Administration and the European Medicines Agency
(see Suggested Websites at the end of the chapter).
IV. DIAGNOSTIC IMAGING IN PREGNANCY

When considering diagnostic imaging in a pregnant patient, similar
principles apply. The fetal risk incurred by exposure to ionizing radiation
depends on the timing of exposure and the dose. Exposure prior to 4 weeks
from the last menstrual period (LMP) (2 weeks from conception) is
associated with either embryonic death or no effect at all; the threshold is
50 to 100 mGy. During organogenesis (4–10 weeks gestational age [2–8
weeks after conception]), congenital anomalies may be incurred at a
threshold of approximately 200 mGy. After this time, there is no risk of
anomaly, but specific effects on brain growth and therefore on cognitive
function are possible. The estimated threshold dose may be as low as 60
mGy or as high as 610 mGy. None of these concerns preclude diagnostic
imaging when a patient is pregnant. Principles to minimize fetal risk
include the following:
1. Substitute another modality, if feasible, which does not employ

ionizing radiation, such as ultrasound or magnetic resonance imaging.
2. Shield the maternal abdomen and pelvis during ionizing radiation, if
possible; however, this will not affect internal scatter radiation.
3. Monitor the fetal radiation dose in consultation with a radiation
physicist.
There is no known risk of fetal anomaly, growth restriction, pregnancy loss,

or intellectual ability when fetal radiation exposure is less than 50 mGy, a
dose which is orders of magnitude greater than that imposed by most
common radiologic examinations (Table 14-1). Although a single
abdominal or pelvic computed tomography scan may reach a level near
that, modification of the examination settings can reduce the fetal dose.
This should be discussed with the radiologist beforehand.
Table 14-1 Typical Radiation Doses with Diagnostic Imaging*
Type of Examination Fetal dose (mGy)

Very low-dose examinations (<0.1 mGy)
Cervical spine radiography (anteroposterior and lateral views) <0.001
Radiography of any extremity <0.001
Mammography (two views) 0.001-0.01
Chest radiography (two views) 0.0005-0.01
Low- to moderate-dose examinations (0.1 to 10 mGy)
Radiography
Abdominal radiography 0.1-3.0
Lumbar spine radiography 1.0-10
Intravenous pyelography 5-10
Double-contrast barium enema 1.0-20
CT
Head or neck CT 1.0-10
Chest CT or CT pulmonary angiography 0.01-0.66
Limited pelvimetry (single axial section through the femoral heads) <1
Nuclear medicine
Low-dose perfusion scintigraphy 0.1-0.5
Technetium-99m bone scintigraphy 4-5
Pulmonary digital subtraction angiography 0.5
Higher-dose examinations (10 to 50 mGy)
Abdominal CT 1.3-35
Pelvic CT 10-50
18F PET/CT whole-body scintigraphy 10-50
*Fetal exposure varies with gestational age, maternal body habitus, and exact acquisition
parameters
Abbreviations: CT, computed tomography; PET, positron emission tomography
Reproduced with permission Tremblay E, Therasse E, Thomassin-Naggara I, Trop I. Quality
initiatives: guidelines for use of medical imaging during pregnancy lactation. Radiographics.
2012;32(3):897-911.
V. SPECIFIC CONDITIONS
A. Hypertensive Disorders of Pregnancy
Hypertensive disorders complicate up to 10% of all pregnancies. Women

with a preexisting history of diabetes mellitus, renal disease, or vascular
disease, or with a family history of hypertension, are more predisposed to
developing hypertension during pregnancy. Women with a history of
hypertension in pregnancy have an increased risk of later-life
cardiovascular morbidity later in life.
Hypertension in pregnancy is traditionally defined as either a systolic BP of
140 mm Hg or greater, a diastolic of 90 mm Hg or greater, or both.
Hypertension is considered mild until blood pressures reach a systolic BP of
160 mm Hg or a diastolic of 110 mm Hg.
1. Preeclampsia-Eclampsia (sometimes referred to as “pre-eclamptic

toxemia” or PET)
Preeclampsia is a pregnancy-specific disorder, believed to be mediated by
the placenta, which manifests as new-onset hypertension, typically after
midpregnancy (20 weeks.) It is usually but not always associated with new-
onset proteinuria, defined for these purposes as ≥ 300 mg protein in a 24-
hour collection, or a spot protein-to-creatinine ratio ≥ 0.3 (30 mg/mmol). It
may be associated with signs or symptoms of end-organ involvement
including thrombocytopenia, right upper quadrant pain, renal insufficiency
or acute kidney injury, pulmonary edema or significant headache. If
proteinuria is absent, one of the other features is required for diagnosis.
Preeclampsia is expected to resolve after delivery, although new-onset
hypertension with features of preeclampsia has been reported to arise as late
as 4 weeks postpartum.
2. Gestational Hypertension /Pregnancy-induced Hypertension

Gestational hypertension is defined as new-onset hypertension in
pregnancy, without proteinuria or the nonproteinuric manifestations of
preeclampsia. The distinction between “gestational hypertension” and
preeclampsia may be irrelevant because in practice they are treated in
largely the same ways, and there is no gold standard diagnostic test for
preeclampsia.
3. Chronic Hypertension
Chronic hypertension in pregnancy is defined as hypertension before
conception or detected before midpregnancy (20 weeks’ gestation). Recent
reclassifications of hypertension by the American Heart Association and
American College of Cardiology have not, at this time, been evaluated in a
pregnant population, but clinicians would expect that including women with
what is now called stage 1 hypertension (systolic BP 130–139 or diastolic
BP 80–89) will inflate estimates of prevalence. Preeclampsia may develop
in 20–50% of pregnant women with chronic hypertension, a condition
described as superimposed preeclampsia, difficult to distinguish from a
simple worsening of chronic hypertension. Sudden increases in baseline BP
or in baseline urinary protein excretion, or development of laboratory
abnormalities such as thrombocytopenia or elevated transaminases, may
suggest a diagnosis of superimposed preeclampsia. Although most cases of
chronic hypertension in pregnancy are essential hypertension, an estimated
11–14% are secondary hypertension, such as renovascular, endocrinologic,
or aortic causes.
4. Eclampsia
Eclampsia is described by the American College of Obstetricians and
Gynecologists (ACOG) as the “convulsive manifestation of the
hypertensive disorders of pregnancy and is among the more severe
manifestations of the disease.” Seizures are usually tonic-clonic and self-
limited, although they may be focal or multifocal. Eclampsia is a diagnosis
of exclusion, in that other causes for seizure should be absent. Most women
with preeclampsia do not develop eclampsia; symptoms of central nervous
system irritability (headache, hyperreflexia, altered mental status, visual
changes including scotomata, blurred vision, or even temporary blindness)
are identified, however, in about 80% of women who progress to eclampsia.
It should be noted that some women with eclampsia are not recognized to
have hypertension or proteinuria prior to the initial seizure.
5. Postpartum Hypertension
Preeclampsia can manifest in the postpartum period and commonly does
persist into this time. Blood pressures can remain elevated and labile from 2
weeks to 6 months postpartum. However, new-onset hypertension after 6
weeks postpartum should not be attributed to preeclampsia.
6. HELLP syndrome
HELLP syndrome (Hemolysis, Elevated liver enzymes, Low Platelets) is a
variant of preeclampsia characterized by laboratory abnormalities:
Hemolysis: hemolytic microangiopathic anemia with an abnormal

result on peripheral smear, a total bilirubin level > 1.2 mg/dL (21
μmol/L), or serum lactate dehydrogenase level > 600 U/L
Elevated liver enzymes: diagnostic criteria may be AST > 70 U/L or
twice the upper limit of normal
Low platelet count: < 100,000/μL
Incomplete forms of HELLP may be seen. Symptoms may be subtle

(malaise) or more obvious (right upper quadrant pain, nausea, vomiting). In
women with HELLP syndrome, 10–20% do not manifest hypertension or
proteinuria. Onset, like other forms of preeclampsia, may occur postpartum,
although seldom after the second postpartum day.
HELLP syndrome can be confused with acute fatty liver of pregnancy,
thrombotic thrombocytopenic purpura, or hemolytic uremic syndrome.
HELLP syndrome should be managed with delivery because expectant
management triples maternal morbidity. Complications include placental
abruption; coagulopathy; cerebral edema, infarction, or hemorrhage; acute
renal failure; hepatic infarction or failure, liver rupture, and subcapsular
liver hematoma. Clinical progression can be swift. Neonatal outcome is
largely related to gestational age achieved.
Management of Hypertensive Disorders of Pregnancy in the Acute Setting
1. General Guidelines
Women with severe preeclampsia, eclampsia, or HELLP syndrome should
be managed in a hospital with facilities for obstetric and neonatal care.
Depending on disease severity, local custom, and bed availability, they are
usually admitted to an obstetric rather than a critical care service. A model
has been developed to predict the risk of adverse maternal outcomes in
cases of hypertension in pregnancy. The fullPIERS calculator can be found
online at https://pre-empt.bcchr.ca/evidence/fullpiers and may be helpful in
making decisions as to the best location for management.
Administration of magnesium sulfate for prevention of seizures, judicious
control of BP, and maternal and fetal monitoring should be initiated early.
Issues such as ICU admission, management, and delivery should be
discussed with an obstetrician and critical care physician as soon as
possible. The treatment of choice in severe preeclampsia is delivery, but
significant prematurity may complicate decision-making, and under some
circumstances the pregnancy is allowed to continue for the possibility of
neonatal benefit. Consultation with a maternal-fetal medicine specialist is
recommended.
2. Seizure Prophylaxis
Intravenous magnesium sulfate is used prophylactically to prevent seizures
in preeclampsia with severe features. Magnesium sulfate therapy should be
initiated in patients with severe features or symptoms considered
premonitory to seizures, such as headache, altered mental status, blurred
vision, scotomata, clonus, and right upper quadrant abdominal pain.
Opinion is divided as to whether magnesium should be given as seizure
prophylaxis to women with mild preeclampsia.
Women treated with magnesium sulfate to prevent or treat eclamptic
seizures should receive an intravenous loading dose of 4 to 6 g, followed by
a maintenance dose of 1 to 2 g/h, continued for at least 24 hours. It is
unnecessary to monitor serum magnesium levels unless the patient is
symptomatic (loss of deep tendon reflexes, alteration in mental status,
depression of respiratory rate) or has signs of compromised renal function
such as oliguria or abnormal serum creatinine. If magnesium levels are
checked, however, the therapeutic range for seizure prevention is 5–9
mg/dL (2–3.5 mmol/L, or 4–7 mEq/L). Acute magnesium toxicity is treated
with 1 g calcium chloride or calcium gluconate intravenously.
3. Blood Pressure Control

The goal of antihypertensive therapy is prevention of maternal
complications such as stroke, intracranial hemorrhage, acute myocardial
infarction, or acute heart or renal failure. The evidence base for treatment
threshold is limited, but expert guidelines typically recommend treating
sustained systolic BP of ≥ 160 mm Hg or diastolic BP of > 110 mm Hg.
Precipitous drops in BP can occur with aggressive antihypertensive therapy,
particularly in the volume-depleted preeclamptic patient. Overly aggressive
lowering of the BP may be reflected in the fetal heart rate tracing because
uteroplacental perfusion is not autoregulated. In general, reducing systolic
BP to 160 mm Hg or less, diastolic to 110 mm Hg or less within an hour of
presentation is considered a reasonable goal.
Parenteral hydralazine or labetalol, or oral nifedipine, can be used to treat
acute severe hypertension in pregnancy. Drug choice may be dictated by
availability of the agent in the facility or by the clinician’s experience and
preference. Many institutions will have specific protocols. In some cases,
nicardipine or urapidil are used, although these would usually require
transfer of the patient from a maternity unit to a critical care unit.
Angiotensin-converting inhibitors and angiotensin receptor blockers are not
given in pregnancy because of concerns for fetal renal damage and its
sequelae.
4. Supportive Measures
Pregnancy is a state of expanded total body water, and this expansion is
typically exaggerated in preeclampsia, despite a reduction in effective
circulating volume. Injudicious fluid administration may produce
pulmonary edema in the patient with preeclampsia, and it may be necessary
to tolerate a degree of oliguria to avoid pulmonary edema. In current
practice, there is little appetite for invasive cardiac monitoring. The role of
point-of-care ultrasound in preeclampsia is beginning to be explored.
Thrombotic complications are more common in pregnancy and still more
common in preeclampsia. Thromboprophylaxis is important in these
patients, whether mechanical or pharmacologic; the timing of neuraxial
anesthesia, delivery, or surgical procedures must be factored into decisions
about pharmacothromboprophylaxis.
B. Postpartum Hemorrhage
Postpartum hemorrhage (PPH) is defined as “cumulative blood loss ≥ 1000

mL, or blood loss accompanied by signs or symptoms of hypovolemia
within 24 hours after birth.” The route of delivery is irrelevant, although
blood loss is usually higher after cesarean than after vaginal delivery.
Because of the expanded plasma volume which pregnancy imposes,
hemodynamic changes consistent with hemorrhagic shock, such as
tachycardia and hypotension, may be delayed. In fact, by the time
significant hemodynamic alterations occur, the pregnant or postpartum
patient may have already lost 25–35% of her blood volume.
When checking for potential causes

of obstetric hemorrhage, remember
the 4 t’s: tone, trauma (cervical or
lower genital tract lacerations),
tissue, and thrombin.
Primary or early postpartum hemorrhage occurs in the first 24 hours after

delivery, while secondary or late PPH (1–3% of all cases) occurs between 1
day and 3 months postpartum.
The single most common cause (70–80%) of PPH is uterine atony, that is,
the uterus does not contract tightly after delivery of the placenta, which is
required to tamponade the myometrial spiral arterioles. Because the uterus
receives > 500 mL/min of cardiac output at term, the potential for huge
blood loss is evident. Physical examination would reveal a large, boggy
uterus, palpable above the umbilicus. Manual compression or massage
should be immediately implemented, followed as needed by the
administration of uterotonic drugs (Table 14-2). If atony does not respond
to these measures, more invasive treatment such as intrauterine tamponade
using an intrauterine balloon, packing, or a indwelling/condom catheter
may be needed. In some cases, surgical management via direct compression
sutures, stepwise devascularization, angiographic uterine artery
embolization, or emergent hysterectomy is required.
Table 14-2 Drugs Used in Management of Uterine Atony
Agent Dose/Route Frequency Adverse Effects

Oxytocin 10 U IM or 10–40 U IV in ½ Nausea, vomiting, water
L of saline or lactated intoxication
Ringer solution, 125 mL/h
*Carbetocin 100 µg IV Over 1 min Abdominal pain,
flushing, headache,
hypotension, pruritus,
tremors
*Methylergonovine 0.2 mg IM Every 2–4 h Hypertension,
hypotension, nausea,
vomiting
Prostaglandin F2α 0.25 mg IM Every 15–90 Diarrhea, fever,
min; 8 doses headache, flushing
maximum
*†Prostaglandin E2 20 mg vaginal/rectal Every 2 h Nausea, vomiting,
(Dinoprostone) suppository diarrhea, fever,
shivering, headache
†Misoprostol 800–1000 μg rectal Single dose Shivering, fever, diarrhea
*Requires refrigeration
†Off-label prescribing for uterine atony and postpartum hemorrhage
The second “T”, for trauma, relates to lacerations, either extension of the
hysterotomy incision in the case of cesarean delivery, or lacerations of the
cervix, vagina, or vulva after vaginal delivery. These must be looked for,
and repaired if found. Lower genital tract hematomas can also lead to
significant blood loss at the time of delivery. Uterine rupture (spontaneous,
following abdominal trauma, or when labor disrupts an existing uterine
scar) can be devastating, and will require repair, if not hysterectomy.
The third “T”, for tissue, refers to retained placenta. Although inspection of
the placenta is routine after delivery, succenturiate or accessory placental
lobes may be retained in the uterus unsuspected. A more feared
complication is placenta accreta, in which the placenta, in whole or in part,
cannot be separated from the uterus. Retained placenta can be diagnosed by
manual exploration of the uterine cavity or by ultrasound demonstrating an
echogenic mass within. Manual removal or curettage of retained tissue is
indicated; if this is unsuccessful, the probability of placenta accreta is high,
and further assessment in the operating room must be undertaken. Most
cases of placenta accreta will require hysterectomy.
The final “T”, for thrombin, is a reminder that coagulopathy may exist
alongside any of these factors, although in most cases it will not be the sole
explanation. Dilutional coagulopathy or disseminated intravascular
coagulopathy (DIC) may occur. Obstetric DIC is associated with
preeclampsia, HELLP syndrome, placental abruption, and the condition
referred to as amniotic fluid embolism.
General treatment measures include early recognition of hemorrhage,
aggressive and early fluid resuscitation, and attempts to locate the source of
the bleeding and resolve it. Maternal mortality rates increase when
treatment is delayed and blood loss is underestimated. Patients with
ongoing blood loss resulting in hemodynamic instability require the
administration of blood products in addition to fluid administration.
Depending upon the amount of blood loss and the presence of
coagulopathy, blood product requirements could include packed red blood
cells, fresh frozen plasma, platelets, and cryoprecipitate. Many institutions
have instituted massive transfusion protocols for obstetric hemorrhage
using protocolized ratios of blood products (packed RBCs, plasma, platelets
and cryoprecipitate) in an attempt to minimize the coagulopathy associated
with massive hemorrhage. Some institutions also adopt protocol driven
flow charts or algorithms for treatment of major obstetric hemorrhage
(Figure 14-1). In austere settings with limited availability of blood and
blood products, the decision to move to definitive surgical treatment would
have to be made much faster.
Figure 14-1. Hemorrhage Flow Chart
Abbreviations: 4/4/1, ratio of packed red blood cells to fresh frozen plasma to pooled
platelets; ABG, arterial blood gas; BMP, basic metabolic panel; CBC, complete blood count;
Cryo, cryoprecipitate; CVC, central venous catheter; EBL, estimated blood loss; FFP, fresh
frozen plasma; HR, heart rate; Hb, hemoglobin; HCT, hematocrit; iCa, ionized calcium; INR,
international normalized ratio; IM, intramuscular; IO, intraosseous; MAP, mean arterial
pressure; PIV, peripheral intravenous line; PLT, platelets; POC, products of conception; PR,
per rectum; PRBC, packed red blood cells; PT, prothrombin time; PTT, partial
thromboplastin time; SBP, systolic blood pressure; T, temperature.
1PRBC is 1.0 Hb value
Courtesy of Scott A. Harvey, MD
C. Embolic Disease
1.Thromboembolism
Pregnancy and the puerperium predispose to thrombosis. The incidence of
thromboembolic disease in pregnancy is four to five times that in
nonpregnant women, and in the immediate postpartum period the risk may
be as much as 20 times higher. Risk increases with rising parity, cesarean
delivery, operative vaginal delivery, previous deep venous thrombosis, and
increased maternal age.
Although manifestations of pulmonary embolism in pregnant women are
similar to those in nonpregnant women (Chapter 13), the physiologic
changes of pregnancy complicate evaluation. Lower extremity edema, leg
pain, and dyspnea are common in pregnancy and create a diagnostic
dilemma for the clinician. The usual clinical decision rules for diagnosis or
exclusion of pulmonary embolus are far less useful in pregnancy. After 16
weeks’ gestation, D-dimer values are elevated above the usual normal range
and are of little diagnostic utility. Practically speaking, if thrombosis or
pulmonary embolus is suspected in a pregnant or postpartum patient,
imaging is required. Not all imaging is available in all facilities; the
radiologist should be consulted.
Doppler scanning of the lower extremities (compression ultrasound), when
available, is usually the first diagnostic test for deep venous thrombosis in
pregnancy, but it is less accurate for calf and isolated iliac vein thrombosis.
In a patient with chest symptoms and a positive compression ultrasound
(CUS) , pulmonary embolism is assumed to be present. If the CUS is
negative or not performed, and the suspicion for pulmonary embolism
exists, either ventilation/perfusion scanning or CT pulmonary angiography
(CTPA) is acceptable. Fetal exposure to ionizing radiation is very low with
either technique. An appropriate diagnostic evaluation should always be
performed when indicated. Heparin therapy should be initiated immediately
when the diagnosis of pulmonary embolism is suspected and must be
continued if the diagnosis is confirmed.
The treatment of stable pulmonary embolism in the pregnant patient is
based on heparin (unfractionated or low-molecular-weight) because
warfarin is contraindicated and there is still little data on fondaparinux and
direct thrombin inhibitors. Neither heparin nor low-molecular-weight
heparin (LMWH) cross the placenta. Weight-based dosing should be
calculated according to her pre-pregnancy or early-pregnancy weight. There
is no need for anti-Xa monitoring except in particular circumstances, such
as renal impairment or significant obesity.
Neuraxial anesthesia (including epidural analgesia for labor) cannot be
performed on a patient who is on anticoagulants. Recommendations for
elapsed time vary from 4–6 hours (IV heparin) to 12 hours for subcutaneous
heparin or LMWH in prophylactic doses to 24 hours for therapeutic
LMWH. The proximity of the event to delivery will affect whether
neuraxial techniques can be offered at all. Labor, vaginal delivery, and
cesarean delivery in the setting of full anticoagulation may result in
significant bleeding, and the team should be prepared.
In massive pulmonary embolism with hemodynamic compromise,
thrombolytic therapy must be considered. Maternal survival with
thrombolytics is above 90%, although the fetal/neonatal outcome is not as
good, which may be the result of maternal shock rather than maternal
thrombolysis. Major hemorrhage is a possible complication, twice as likely
with thrombolytic therapy in the postpartum rather than antepartum period.
2. Amniotic Fluid Embolism

Despite its name, amniotic fluid embolism (AFE) is not clearly understood
and may not be an embolic event. Neither the diagnostic criteria nor the
pathophysiology is clearly established. Clinically, it is a rare condition
suspected in women in close proximity to delivery who suddenly manifest
acute hypoxemia and hypotension, followed in most cases by coagulopathy.
Specific diagnostic criteria vary between countries, but the common
elements are typically hemodynamic compromise and coagulopathy. A
common hypothesis is that fetal components enter the maternal pulmonary
circulation, with catastrophic results. The precipitating component is not
known; fetal elements may be found in maternal circulation without ill
effect. There is some similarity with anaphylactoid and immune-related
reactions; and there is no reliable biomarker.
If AFE is suspected, treatment is supportive. Delivery should be effected
(unless, as in about one-third of cases, onset is postpartum) and the usual
resuscitative measures implemented. Hemodynamic and respiratory support
is indicated. Coagulopathy should be corrected. Case-fatality rates are
estimated to be between 20% and 60% in current practice, and at least 25%
of survivors are reported to sustain post-event morbidity, which may be
neurologic. The perinatal death rate is also high, as is the rate of morbidity
among neonatal survivors. The lack of standardized definitions and of
diagnostic criteria means that figures on epidemiology and outcome are of
limited reliability.
D. Cardiac Disease
In recent years, cardiac disease has become the leading cause of pregnancy-
related death in the United States, and is clearly the leading cause of
indirect maternal death in Europe. Some conditions are acquired during
pregnancy, or precipitated by pregnancy, while in other cases preexisting,
perhaps stable, cardiac disease is exacerbated by the physiologic burden of
pregnancy. These deaths may occur remote from the delivery
hospitalization and therefore may not be recognized. The increase in cardiac
disease during pregnancy represents both successes and failures: successes
in that many children with significant congenital heart disease now live
long enough to have children of their own, and failures in that the rising
prevalence of obesity and comorbidities contribute to cardiac disease during
this time as well as others.
In low-resource countries, cardiomyopathies and the valvular sequelae of
rheumatic heart disease are the most significant causes of heart disease in
pregnancy. In the United Kingdom, the primary cardiac causes accounting
for maternal deaths are cardiomyopathies (15% peripartum cardiomyopathy
vs 85% other cardiomyopathy), ischemic disease (about one-third of which
were spontaneous coronary artery dissection), sudden arrhythmic deaths
with a morphologically normal heart, aortic dissection, valvular heart
disease, and pulmonary hypertension.
Because of the high-volume state it induces, pregnancy challenges some
hearts more than others. Conditions with a fixed CO or those which poorly
tolerate increased volume, increased heart rate, or decreased systemic
vascular resistance, get worse during pregnancy. The highest risk of
maternal cardiac events (including but not limited to death) during
pregnancy is seen in pulmonary arterial hypertension, severe systemic
ventricular dysfunction with ejection fraction < 30%, previous peripartum
cardiomyopathy with any residual left ventricular dysfunction, severe aortic
or mitral stenosis, severe aortic dilation (depending on the underlying
lesion, aortic dimension > 45–50 mm), severe aortic coarctation, systemic
right ventricle with moderate-severe decrease in ventricular function,
vascular Ehlers-Danlos, or Fontan circulation with any complication.
Ideally, these patients are advised against pregnancy. Nevertheless,
pregnancy may occur, and these patients require expert specialized care
from a multidisciplinary team, at a facility capable of the appropriate level
of care.
Patients with mechanical valves

require therapeutic anticoagulation
during pregnancy, just as they do at
other times. Warfarin is a known
teratogen, but heparins do not
provide adequate protection against
valve thrombosis. The choice of
anticoagulation is a complicated
discussion which is best undertaken
prior to pregnancy.
1.Peripartum Cardiomyopathy
A. Clinical Manifestations
Not all cardiomyopathy occurring during pregnancy and the postpartum
period is peripartum cardiomyopathy (PPCM). Pregnant patients can
present with preexisting dilated cardiomyopathy or hypertrophic
cardiomyopathy which may or may not have been previously diagnosed. As
a contrast to this, PPCM is a pregnancy-specific disorder, although its
specific etiology remains unclear.
PPCM is more common among African American women, women older
than 40 years of age, women with hypertension in pregnancy, and women
with multifetal pregnancy. Peripartum cardiomyopathy is defined as left
ventricular systolic dysfunction that occurs during the last month of
pregnancy or (more commonly) within 5 months postpartum, in the absence
of an identifiable cause for the cardiac failure and absence of prior heart
disease. Left ventricular (LV) systolic dysfunction is demonstrated on
echocardiography as an ejection fraction < 45% and/or LV end-diastolic
dimension > 2.7 cm/m2 or fractional shortening < 30%. Clinical
presentation may be subtle or dramatic. Symptoms include progressive
dyspnea, progressive orthopnea, paroxysmal nocturnal dyspnea, and
syncope with exertion. Cough, fatigue, and edema are symptoms that may
not be recognized as signaling PPCM. On examination, tachycardia, rales,
and tachypnea may be evident. Approximately 50% of women experiencing
peripartum cardiomyopathy recover baseline ventricular function within 6
months of delivery, but in those with persistent cardiac failure, the mortality
rate approaches 85% over 5 years.
B. Management
Initial evaluation of the patient with suspected peripartum cardiomyopathy

includes echocardiography as the primary diagnostic tool. B-type natriuretic
peptide (BNP) is unaffected in pregnancy, although it may be slightly
elevated in the first 2 days postpartum, as well as in severe preeclampsia.
Management proceeds according to the usual treatment of systolic heart
failure: diuretics, prevention/treatment of arrhythmias, thromboprophylaxis,
and symptom control. Angiotensin-converting inhibitors or angiotensin
receptor blockers cannot be given during pregnancy, but are appropriate in
patients who are postpartum. Calcium channel blockers and β-blockers are
safe during pregnancy. In refractory cases, ventricular-assist devices can
serve as a bridge to recovery or transplant.
Most patients are diagnosed postpartum, but if the diagnosis is made in the
last month of pregnancy, delivery should be undertaken in a facility with
expertise in cardiology, maternal-fetal medicine, and obstetric
anesthesiology. PPCM does not mandate cesarean delivery. As with most
cardiac disorders, labor should be conducted under epidural analgesia to
minimize hemodynamic alterations associated with pain; the additional
hemodynamic changes expected during contractions and in the early
postpartum period may precipitate decompensation of a previously stable
condition. Most women do recover from PPCM within 12 months, but
recurrence with another pregnancy is possible.
2. Other Cardiovascular Conditions

Any cardiovascular disease that occurs outside of pregnancy can also
complicate pregnancy. The list is too long for an exhaustive discussion here.
But a few rare conditions are either more common or more lethal during
pregnancy and need to be addressed, specifically, spontaneous coronary
artery dissection and aortic dissection.
A. Ischemia, Myocardial Infarction, Spontaneous Coronary Artery

Dissection
Although myocardial infarction is rare in young women, pregnancy triples
the risk of acute myocardial infarction (AMI), compared with nonpregnant
women of the same age. Most young women do not have classic risk factors
for coronary disease, and more than 40% of AMIs in pregnancy are caused
by spontaneous coronary artery dissection. A higher incidence of left main
and multivessel involvement results in a larger area of myocardial injury in
these patients and worse outcomes. Conservative management seems
preferable to percutaneous interventions. Vulnerability to spontaneous
coronary artery dissection is higher in the postpartum period than the
antepartum or intrapartum periods.
B. Aortic Dissection
Other types of vascular dissection and rupture also occur in pregnancy, (eg,
splenic, aortic, and others). Acute aortic dissection is rare, although more
likely in pregnancy, and highly lethal. It is a feared complication of several
inherited connective tissue disorders (Marfan syndrome, Ehlers-Danlos,
Loeys-Dietz syndrome) but can arise in women without any of these
conditions. Aside from the hypervolemia induced by pregnancy, there may
also be hormonally mediated effects on vessel wall integrity. Delays in
diagnosis contribute to the high death rate, as does uncertainty about the
optimal management. If surgical repair is appropriate, as in Type A aortic
dissection, gestational age factors into whether it should be combined with
cesarean delivery or performed separately. All in all, acute aortic dissection
in pregnancy is associated with a maternal mortality of ~75%.
E. Trauma in Pregnancy
Pregnant patients with major traumatic injuries should be admitted to a
facility with surgical obstetric capabilities and neonatal support, unless at a
clearly previable gestational age. Treatment priorities for the pregnant
patient with traumatic injury are the same as those for nonpregnant patients
(Chapter 9). Primary and secondary assessment should be carried out.
However, there are unique changes that should be taken into account during
clinical assessment. The gravid uterus complicates initial abdominal
assessment. A general scheme for the evaluation of severe trauma in a
pregnant patient in presented in Figure 14-2. The uterus reaches the
symphysis pubis at 12 weeks and the umbilicus at 20 weeks; thereafter, the
height increases by 1 cm each week up to 36 weeks, when the uterus
encompasses almost the entire abdomen. Late in pregnancy, a widened
symphysis pubis and widened sacroiliac joints are possible. Aortocaval
compression in the supine position can contribute to hypotension by
restricting blood return to the heart. Whenever possible, the patient should
be placed in the left lateral decubitus position; at a minimum, the right hip
can be elevated by 15–30 degrees to displace the uterus away from the
inferior vena cava. If any question of spinal injury exists, spinal alignment
should be maintained and the patient logrolled, or the uterus can be
manually displaced toward the left by a member of the care team.
In cases of major trauma,

assessment and stabilization of the
woman (rather than the fetus)
should be the primary focus of
concern.
Figure 14-2. Initial Assessment and Management of the Pregnant Trauma Patient
Abbreviations: ATLS, Advanced Trauma Life Support; CS, cesarean section; ETT,
endotracheal tube; FAST, focused assessment with sonography for trauma; IV, intravenous;
MHP, massive hemorrhage protocol; OT, operating theater
Reproduced with permission Queensland Clinical Guidelines. Queensland Clinical
Guideline: Trauma in pregnancy. Document no. MN19.31-V2-R24, August 2019.
The pregnant patient can lose up to 25–35% of blood volume before

significant tachycardia, hypotension, and other signs of hypovolemia are
seen. Because the uteroplacental unit does not autoregulate, signs of
placental hypoperfusion may be evident in the fetal heart rate tracing before
general signs of maternal hypoperfusion are obvious. For gestational age
above the local standard of viability (often, in high-income countries, as
early as 23–34 weeks), assessment of the fetal heart rate is part of the initial
survey and can be accomplished easily with hand-held Doppler or bedside
ultrasound. If the initial facility cannot manage obstetric and neonatal care,
the patient should be stabilized and transported as soon as possible to a
facility with the proper capabilities.
Normal fetal heart rates are

between 110 and 160 beats/min.
Secondary assessment should include an evaluation of uterine contractions

and further fetal assessment. A pelvic examination may be indicated in
some circumstances (suspicion of labor, membrane rupture, vaginal
bleeding) but digital examination should be deferred if there is a question of
placenta previa. Ultrasound is needed to rule out previa.
Required diagnostic imaging should be performed. Focused abdominal
ultrasound for trauma (FAST) is commonly incorporated into abdominal
assessment, and at the same time can ascertain whether fetal cardiac activity
is present. If free fluid is present in the abdomen, the usual differential
diagnosis must be expanded to include uterine rupture. Posttraumatic
placental abruption cannot be ruled out by ultrasound (but may be ruled in.)
Definitive care of the pregnant trauma patient includes adequate
hemodynamic and respiratory resuscitation, stabilization of the mother,
appropriate surgical intervention as needed, and, once she is stable, fetal
assessment. If the mother is Rh-negative, Rh(D) immune globulin should be
given within 72 hours of injury. In cases of major trauma, fetal/neonatal
outcomes depend on severity of maternal injury and gestational age
achieved. However, even in minor trauma and in the absence of surgical
intervention, labor, membrane rupture, or placental abruption may occur,
and these may be delayed by hours to days. A period of post-trauma
electronic fetal monitoring is generally recommended, with a duration
ranging from 4 to 24 hours.
F. Sepsis
Infection is a leading cause of maternal morbidity, admission to the ICU,
and mortality. Antepartum infection is most commonly respiratory or
urinary in origin, whereas postpartum infection is usually from a uterine
source. All infectious causes that are possible outside of pregnancy, of
course, remain possible in the context of pregnancy.
The applicability of Sepsis-3 criteria in pregnancy remains uncertain,
particularly because the sequential organ failure assessment (SOFA) and
quick SOFA (qSOFA) criteria do not account for normal pregnancy
physiology. Cognizant of this, the Society of Obstetric Medicine of
Australia and New Zealand (SOMANZ) has proposed obstetrically
modified versions of both the SOFA and qSOFA scores which take into
account normal physiologic changes of pregnancy, (somanz.org/guidelines).
These have not been validated nor widely tested in pregnancy, but represent
at least a first-order attempt to incorporate the underlying physiology.
If sepsis is suspected in a pregnant or postpartum patient, it should be
managed using standard techniques: fluid resuscitation, early administration
of antibiotics, a search for the source, cultures as indicated, and source
control where feasible. Fluid resuscitation should be undertaken in the
context of the expanded plasma volume and decreased colloid oncotic
pressure typical of pregnancy, understanding that it is easy to precipitate
pulmonary edema in these patients. It may be prudent to start with a lower
volume than the generally recommended 30 mL/kg, and monitor the
response. Passive leg raising or point-of-care ultrasound may be useful in
determining fluid responsiveness.
Broad-spectrum antibiotic therapy is indicated for suspicion of severe sepsis
in pregnancy just as in other circumstances. Most infections with a pelvic
source are polymicrobial. When choosing antimicrobial therapy, it is
important to consider the effects of pregnancy on drug pharmacokinetics
and pharmacodynamics as well as drug safety concerns. Most antibiotics do
cross the placenta. Although gentamicin is often recommended as one
component of a regimen for chorioamnionitis, there are theoretical risks of
fetal toxicity and nephrotoxicity; however, this has not been definitely
demonstrated in real-world use. Tetracyclines are avoided during pregnancy
because they are associated with dental and possibly bony effects in the
fetus/newborn. Quinolones have been reported to interfere with cartilage
development in animals, and because of concerns in humans, should not be
considered a first-line class of drugs in pregnancy.
Spontaneous labor is often seen during or after maternal sepsis, and no
attempt to suppress the process should be made.
If vasopressors are needed, evidence suggests the use of norepinephrine as
the agent of first choice, understanding that data are limited.
G. Respiratory Failure
Respiratory failure in pregnancy may be the result of any condition that can
cause respiratory failure outside of pregnancy (asthma, trauma,
neuromuscular disease), but in addition, pregnancy is a particularly
vulnerable time for some conditions (influenza, gastric acid aspiration) and
is the underlying predicate for others (amniotic fluid embolism, severe
preeclampsia).
The physiology of pregnancy—increased oxygen demand, decreased
functional residual capacity, increased minute ventilation—means that there
is less physiologic reserve and desaturation occurs faster with
hypoventilation or apnea. In addition, it is important to recognize that
normal values for arterial blood gas are different in pregnancy. It is
important to identify a Paco2 around 40 mm Hg, which would be
normal outside of pregnancy, as impending ventilatory failure in a
pregnant woman.
The lower limit of maternal oxygenation which is acceptable for the fetus is
not definitely known. Experts have recommended maintaining Pao2 > 70
mm Hg (9.3 kPa), although the human data underpinning this
recommendation are thin. Fetal oxygenation is highly dependent on
uteroplacental perfusion and on the properties of fetal hemoglobin, and the
most highly oxygenated blood in the fetal circulation, the umbilical vein, is
normally at about PuvO2 30–35 mm Hg (4.0–4.7 kPa.) Maternal hypercarbia
and acidemia are expected to limit CO2 transport from the fetus across the
placenta, which requires a gradient, and may therefore predispose to fetal
acidemia. The degree of maternal hypercarbia which is safe for the fetus is
also not known.
Caution is needed when considering noninvasive positive pressure
ventilation, because of the increased risk of aspiration during pregnancy. It
is only feasible for very short-term support and only in selected patients
who can protect their airway. High-flow nasal cannula has been used
successfully in pregnancy and may be considered. The indications for
intubation are the same in pregnancy as any other time: inability to protect
the airway, inadequate ventilation, inadequate oxygenation. Intubation is
more difficult, however, so the practitioner should be experienced and a
backup plan should be in place if intubation fails. The endotracheal tube
should be smaller (eg, 7.0 mm) because airway edema complicates
pregnancy.
Normal ABG in pregnancy shows a

mild compensated respiratory
alkalosis.
pH 7.42 – 7.44
Paco2 28–32 mm Hg
(3.6 -4.3 kPa)
Pao2 101–108 mm Hg on room

air, at sea level (13–14
kPa)
HCO3- 18–21 mEq/L
(18–22 mmol/L)
Mechanical Ventilation in Pregnancy

When considering mechanical ventilation, recognize that data on the
optimum ventilator settings for pregnant patients are limited. Until more
information is available, consider the following strategies:
For normally compliant lungs: Aim to achieve normal-for-pregnancy
arterial blood gas values, while avoiding ventilator-associated lung injury.
For lungs with poor compliance: Lung-protective strategy with low tidal
volume and limit plateau pressure. A degree of permissive hypercapnia is
acceptable. Use ideal body weight rather than actual weight to calculate
desired tidal volume (6–8 mL/kg).
In addition to the usual monitoring required in mechanically ventilated
patients, adding electronic fetal monitoring is likely to be helpful because
fetal acidemia and hypoxemia can be reflected in the tracing. It may help
guide whether a given degree of permissive hypercapnia is acceptable or
too much.
Delivery is not a treatment for respiratory failure and should be reserved for
the usual obstetric indications. It may improve thoracic compliance (which
is reduced in pregnancy because of the alteration in diaphragm position and
chest shape incurred by pregnancy) or oxygen requirements, but it does not
affect maternal survival. If labor occurs, vaginal delivery is feasible,
although the patient cannot push effectively if she cannot close her glottis,
so instrumental delivery (vacuum, forceps) may be needed.
Extracorporeal Membrane Oxygenation and Extracorporeal Life Support

In rare cases, pregnant or postpartum patients are candidates for
extracorporeal membrane oxygenation (ECMO) or extracorporeal life
support (ECLS), either for severe respiratory failure or as an adjunct for
hemodynamic support. The 2009 H1N1 influenza epidemic revived interest
in veno-venous ECMO as a respiratory support during pregnancy, and the
coronavirus-19 pandemic that began in 2019 has demonstrated a need for
ECMO in a number of these patients. Maternal survival has been reported
to be > 75%, although fetal survival is lower. Bleeding complications are a
concern. There is less experience with veno-arterial ECMO in pregnant
patients, although there are a number of cases in the postpartum group.
H. Cardiac Arrest and Advanced Life Support in Pregnancy

When cardiac arrest occurs in a pregnant woman, the range of etiologies is
wide, encompassing all the usual causes and some that are peculiar to
pregnancy (eg, AFE, magnesium toxicity). Standard advanced life support
resuscitative methods should be undertaken at once. After mid-pregnancy,
at about 20 weeks, when the uterine fundus has reached the umbilicus,
compression of the inferior vena cava by the uterus impedes venous return
to the heart and further limits effective cardiac output in the supine position.
Manual displacement of the uterus to the left should be performed by an
additional rescuer, either pushing from the right side or pulling from the
left. In the absence of another rescuer, a less satisfactory alternative is to
place a wedge under the right hip. No differences are recommended in chest
compressions, defibrillation energy, ventilations, or resuscitation drugs. In
most cardiac arrest cases in pregnancy, the initial rhythm is nonshockable.
Assessment of the fetus is irrelevant

during maternal cardiac arrest and
may distract from resuscitation.
If the usual measures do not result in return of spontaneous circulation

(ROSC), resuscitative hysterotomy (RH, also known as perimortem
cesarean delivery, or PMCD) is indicated, if the pregnancy is 20 weeks or
more. This is primarily a tool for maternal survival, although, depending on
gestational age, it may also allow for delivery of a live infant or one that
could be resuscitated. The underlying goal is to alleviate caval compression
by emptying the uterus so that effective cardiac output can be achieved
during CPR; remember that even efficient CPR only provides 10–30% of
pre-arrest cardiac output in nonpregnant adults. Additional physiologic
benefits to emptying the uterus include a decrease in oxygen requirements,
an increase in functional residual capacity and chest wall compliance, and
the return of blood previously diverted to the uteroplacental circulation
back into the central circulation. The usual recommendation is to begin
resuscitative hysterotomy after 4 minutes without ROSC, and aim for
delivery within 1 minute after that. Neither a full surgical tray nor
anesthesia is required. The operator may begin with nothing more than a
scalpel. If an obstetrician is unavailable, a general surgeon, emergency
medicine physician, or another professional with surgical training may
perform RH. The swiftest incision is midline vertical; after opening fascia
and peritoneum, the uterus may also be incised vertically. The newborn is
handed off for assessment and, if applicable, resuscitation, once the cord is
clamped. At least one additional provider is needed for the neonate.
Maternal bleeding is minimal unless and until ROSC is attained, but may be
significant thereafter. The surgeon should close the uterus in 2 or 3 layers,
or, if uncomfortable with the repair, may pack and call for expert assistance.
The patient should not be transported from the location at which the arrest
occurred to perform RH; transport reduces success. If ROSC is achieved
after RH, however, the patient may be transported to the operating room for
repair.
Figure 14-3. Perimortem Cesarean Delivery
(A) Vertical incision through the abdominal wall; (B) Retraction of the
bladder inferiorly; (C) Incision through the lower uterine segment; (D)
Extension of the incision superiorly; (E) Delivery of the fetus. Healy ME,
Kozubal DE, Horn AE, Vilke GM, Chan TC, Ufberg JW. Care of the
critically ill pregnant patient and perimortem cesarean delivery in the
emergency department. J Emerg Med 2016; 51: 172-77.
Although experts recommend RH within 4–5 min after maternal cardiac

arrest, there is no sharp drop in survival at 5 minutes. Intact maternal
survival has been reported even after longer intervals, and therefore the
procedure should be considered well past the 4–5-minute mark. Survival
after in-hospital cardiac arrest is higher than in age-matched nonpregnant
women. Neonatal survival relates to both arrest-to-delivery interval and
gestational age achieved, but here too, although experts recommend RH
within 4–5 min after arrest, neonatal survival has been reported even at 30–
40 minutes.
Little is known about optimal post-arrest care for pregnant or postpartum
patients. At this time, there is no obvious reason to recommend against
usual post-arrest care such as correction of hypotension, targeted
temperature management, etc.
VI. WHAT IF DELIVERY IS INDICATED IN ICU?

If a pregnant patient is admitted to the ICU at a gestational age at which
delivery might result in a viable newborn, it should be in a facility with
obstetric and neonatal services. This may be as early as 23–24 weeks in the
U.S., or later in other countries, depending on resources and philosophy.
Multidisciplinary involvement is key throughout. A delivery tray and
neonatal resuscitation setup (“baby warmer”) should be easily accessible. If
the patient’s status is tenuous, consideration may be given to keeping a
cesarean tray close by so that resuscitative hysterotomy can be performed as
part of the cardiac arrest protocol; otherwise, it is probably inadvisable to
perform a cesarean delivery in the ICU.
Parameters for delivery should be decided in advance, such as the
attainment of a particular gestational age, the onset of labor or antepartum
bleeding, or specific fetal indications. The obstetrician or maternal-fetal
medicine specialist is best qualified to make this decision, with input from
the intensivist and neonatologist. The team should also decide where
delivery should occur, because in some cases the patient will be stable
enough to transport to the labor and delivery unit, in some cases it will be
unnecessary or dangerous to do so, and in some cases, delivery should
occur in a fully equipped operating room.
External electronic fetal monitoring is reasonable after viability, assuming
technical factors (such as extreme obesity, extensive abdominal burns, etc)
do not preclude it. Electronic fetal monitoring (EFM) is a good index of
regional perfusion, although in these circumstances not necessarily an
indication for emergent delivery as it might be on the labor floor. Fetal
monitor tracings should be interpreted by medical personnel qualified to
read them. If there is a capacity for remote monitoring, personnel on the
labor and delivery unit can easily follow a fetal tracing in the ICU, but if
there is not, a nurse with the relevant expertise should be available in the
critical care unit. An abnormal fetal heart rate tracing should prompt a
search for correctable maternal factors (IVC compression, hypotension,
acid-base balance, etc) and for medications known to affect EFM.
If the patient is alert and able to make her own decisions, she should be
involved in her care. If not, the family should be involved insofar as
possible. Local custom, mores, or legal constraints may complicate care
when a pregnant woman is admitted to the ICU and should be addressed
proactively.
VII. POSTPARTUM ISSUES

After delivery, maternal physiology takes hours to weeks to return to pre-
pregnancy norms. Hypertensive disorders and fluid retention may worsen
over the first few days after delivery. The uterus should remain contracted
and firm, at the level of the umbilicus or a little lower. Vaginal bleeding
(lochia rubra) will be present.
For the first few days after delivery, the breasts produce small quantities of
colostrum. Mature milk comes in between day 2 and day 5, depending on
parity and the amount of suckling or pumping. In the absence of any
attempts to empty the breasts, engorgement can develop by about day 3.
Low-grade noninfectious fever often accompanies engorgement. A breast
pump can be used to maintain lactation even if the baby cannot come to the
bedside.
Contact with the newborn should not automatically be forbidden just
because a woman is in the ICU, although in some cases the baby will also
be in an intensive care unit. If the mother and baby must be separated, she
will nevertheless want information, unless she is obtunded or sedated.
Key Points: Critical Care in Pregnancy

Physiologic changes of note: expanded plasma volume, increased
cardiac output, decreased functional residual capacity, increased
oxygen consumption, increased minute ventilation.
A marked decrease in cardiac output may occur in the supine position

because the gravid uterus restricts venous return and aortic blood flow.
Required medications and diagnostic imaging should not be withheld
purely because of pregnancy. In some cases, the fact of pregnancy may
affect the choice of drug or imaging technique.
Preeclampsia is diagnosed with new-onset hypertension with
proteinuria after 20 weeks’ gestation, or, in the absence of proteinuria,
other features indicating multisystem involvement..
Anticoagulation with heparin (unfractionated or low-molecular-
weight) is used to treat pulmonary embolism in pregnancy. Warfarin is
contraindicated.
Primary postpartum hemorrhage should be recognized and
aggressively treated, using pharmacologic and/or surgical approaches,
and replacement of fluid and/or blood components as needed. Consider
using a massive obstetric hemorrhage protocol.
Priorities for the resuscitation of the pregnant trauma patient are the
same as those for nonpregnant patients.
The pregnant woman can lose up to 35% of her blood volume before
tachycardia, hypotension, and other signs of hypovolemia are seen.
This can induce significant fetal compromise even while maternal
compromise is masked.
Indications for intubation and ventilation are the same for pregnant
patients as for nonpregnant patients, but airway management is more
difficult.
In the setting of maternal cardiac arrest, if return of spontaneous
circulation has not been achieved within 4–5 minutes, resuscitative
hysterotomy should be considered.
Suggested Readings
1. ACOG Committee on Obstetric Practice. Committee Opinion no. 767.

Emergent treatment of acute-onset, severe hypertension during
pregnancy and the postpartum period. February 2019. American
College of Obstetricians and Gynecologists, Washington DC.
https://www.acog.org/Clinical-Guidance-and-Publications/Committee-
Opinions/Committee-on-Obstetric-Practice/Emergent-Therapy-for-
Acute-Onset-Severe-Hypertension-During-Pregnancy-and-the-
Postpartum-Period. Accessed 11/11/19.
2. ACOG Committee on Practice Bulletins—Obstetrics. Practice Bulletin
no. 211. Critical care in pregnancy. May 2019. Obstet Gynecol 2019;
133(5): e303-e318.
3. Bowyer L, Robinson HL, Barrett H, Crozier TM, et al. SOMANZ
guidelines for the investigation and management of sepsis in
pregnancy. Aust NZ J Obstet Gynzecol 2017; 57: 540-51
4. Cifkova R, Jonson MR, Kahan T, Brguljan J, et al. Peripartum
management of hypertension. A position paper of the ESC Council on
Hypertension and the European Society of Hypertension. Eur Hear J
Cardiovasc Pharmacother. 2019 Dec
16.pii:pvz082.doi:10.1093/ehjcvp/pvz082.[epub ahead of print]
5. Cunningham FG, Byrne JJ, Nelson DB. Peripartum cardiomyopathy.
Obstet Gynecol 2019; 133(1): 167-179.
6. Elkayam U, Jalnapurkar S, Barakkat MN, Khatri N, et al. Pregnancy-
associated acute myocardial infarction: a review of contemporary
experience in 150 cases between 2006 and 2011. Circulation 2014;
129: 1695-1702
7. Fitzpatrick KE, Tuffnell D, Kurinczuk JJ, Knight M. Incidence, risk
factors, management and outcomes of amniotic-fluid embolism.
BJOG. 2016; 123: 100-109.
8. Havakuk O, Goland S, Mehra A, Elkayam U. Pregnancy and the risk
of spontaneous coronary artery dissection: an analysis of 120
contemporary cases. Circ Cardiovasc Interv. 2017; 10:e004941.
9. Jain V, Chari R, Maslovitz S, Farine D, for the Society of Obstetricians
and Gynaecologists of Canada. Guidelines for the management of the
pregnant trauma patient. J Obstet Gynaecol Can. 2015; 37(6): 553-
571.
10. Jardine J, NMPA Project Team. Maternity admissions to intensive care
in England, Wales, and Scotland in 2015/2016: a report from the
National Maternity and Perinatal Audit. Royal College of Obstetricians
and Gynaecologists, London. 2019.
https://maternityaudit.org.uk/FilesUploaded/NMPA%20Intensive%20
Care%20sprint%20report.pdf. Accessed 1/2/2020.
11. Jeejeebhoy FM, Zelop CM, Lipman S, Carvalho B, et al, on behalf of
the American Heart Association Emergency Cardiovascular Care
Committee, Council on Cardiopulmonary, Critical Care, Perioperative
and Resuscitation, Council on Cardiovascular Diseases in the Young,
and Council on Clinical Cardiology. Cardiac arrest in pregnancy: a
scientific statement from the American Heart Association. Circulation.
2015; 132(18): 1747-1773.
12. Knight M, Bunch K, Tuffnel D, Shakespeare J, Kotnis R, Kenyon S,
Kurinczuk JJ (Eds.) on behalf of MBRRACE-UK. Saving Lives,
Improving Mothers’ Care—Lessons learned to inform maternity care
from the UK and Ireland Confidential Enquiries into Maternal Deaths
and Morbidity 2015-17. Oxford: National Perinatal Epidemiology
Unit, University of Oxford 2019. Online at
https://www.npeu.ox.ac.uk/downloads/files/mbrrace-
uk/reports/MBRRACE-UK%20Maternal%20Report%202019%20-
%20WEB%20VERSION.pdf. Accessed 12/14/19.
13. Lapinsky SE. Management of acute respiratory failure in pregnancy.
Semin Respir Crit Care Med. 2017; 38(2):201-207.
14. Mantel GD, Buchmann E, Rees H, Pattinson RC. Severe acute
maternal morbidity: a pilot study of a definition for a near-miss. Br J
Obstet Gynaecol. 1998 Sep;105(9):985-90.
15. Mavrides E, Allard S, Chandraharan E, Collins P, et al, on behalf of
the Royal College of Obstetricians and Gynaecologists. Prevention and
management of postpartum hemorrhage. BJOG. 2016; 124:e.106-
e.149.
16. Moore SA, Dietl CA, Coleman DM. Extracorporeal life support during
pregnancy. J Thorac Cardiovasc Surg. 2016; 151(4): 1154-1160.
17. National Institute for Health and Care Excellence. Hypertension in
pregnancy: diagnosis and management. NICE guideline no. 133.
Published 25 June 2019.
https://www.nice.org.uk/guidance/ng133/resources/hypertension-in-
pregnancy-diagnosis-and-management-pdf-66141717671365
18. Ngan Kee WD, Lee SW, Ng FF, Tan PE, Khaw KS. Randomized
double-blinded comparison of norepinephrine and phenylephrine for
maintenance of blood pressure during spinal anesthesia for cesarean
section. Anesthesiology. 2015; 122: 736-745.
19. Pacheco LD, Saade G, Hankins GDV, Clark SL, for the Society for
Maternal-Fetal Medicine. SMFM clinical guideline no. 9. Amniotic
fluid embolism: diagnosis and management. Am J Obstet Gynecol.
2016; 215(2): B16-24.
20. Pearson GD, Veille JC, Rahimtoola S, et al. Peripartum
cardiomyopathy: National Heart, Lung and Blood Institute and Office
of Rare Diseases (National Institutes of Health) workshop
recommendations and review. JAMA 2000; Mar 1;283(9): 1183-1188.
21. Plante LA, Pacheco L, Louis J. Sepsis in pregnancy and the
puerperium. SMFM Consult Series #47. Am J Obstet Gynecol. 2019;
220(4): B2-B10.
22. Queensland Clinical Guidelines. Queensland Clinical Guideline:
Trauma in pregnancy. Document no. MN19.31-V2-R24, August 2019.
https://www.health.qld.gov.au/__data/assets/pdf_file/0013/140611/g-
trauma.pdf. Accessed 1/5/2020
23. Quinn A, Waldmann C, et al, for the Maternal Critical Care/ Enhanced
Maternal Care Standards Development Group. Care of the critically ill
woman in childbirth; enhanced maternal care 2018. Royal College of
Anaesthetists, Royal College of Obstetricians & Gynaecologists, Royal
College of Midwives, Intensive Care Society, The Faculty of Intensive
Care Medicine. London, August 2018.
https://www.rcoa.ac.uk/sites/default/files/documents/2019-09/EMC-
Guidelines2018.pdf Accessed 1/1/2020.
24. Regitz-Zagrosek V, Roos-Hesselink JW, Bauersachs J, Blomstrom-
Lundqvist C, et al. 2018 ESC guidelines for the management of
cardiovascular diseases during pregnancy. Eur Heart J. 2018; 39(3):
3165-3241.
25. Say L, Chou D, Gemmill A, Tuncalp O, et al. Global causes of
maternal death: a WHO systematic analysis. Lancet Global Health.
2014; 2(6): e323-e333.
26. WHO recommendations: drug treatment for severe hypertension in
pregnancy. Geneva: World Health Organization, 2018. Licence: CC
BY-NC-SA 3.0 IGO.
https://apps.who.int/iris/bitstream/handle/10665/277234/97892415504
37-eng.pdf Accessed 1/5/2020.
27. Yeomans ER, Gilstrap LC 3rd. Physiologic changes in pregnancy and
their impact on critical care. Crit Care Med. 2005;33(suppl):S256-
S258.
28. Zelop CM, Einav S, Mhyre JM, Martin S. Cardiac arrest during
pregnancy: ongoing clinical conundrum. Am J Obstet Gynecol.
2018;219(1): 52-61.
29. Baldisseri MR, Plante LA, eds. Fundamental Critical Care Support:
Obstetrics. Mount Prospect, IL: Society of Critical Care Medicine;
2017
Suggested Websites (guidelines available at these
sites)
1. American College of Obstetricians and Gynecologists. www.acog.org
2. Society of Critical Care Medicine. www.sccm.org
3. Society for Maternal-Fetal Medicine. www.smfm.org
4. Royal College of Obstetricians and Gynaecologists. www.rcog.org.uk
5. Society for Obstetric Anesthesia and Perinatology. www.soap.org
6. Society of Obstetric Medicine of Australia and New Zealand.
www.somanz.org
7. Obstetric Anaesthetists’ Association. www.oaa-anaes.ac.uk
Information Resources for Medication in Pregnancy and During

Breastfeeding (non-profit, free to use)
1. U. S. Food & Drug Administration, Pregnancy and Lactation Labeling

(Drugs) Final Rule. https://www.fda.gov/drugs/labeling-information-
drug-products/pregnancy-and-lactation-labeling-drugs-final-rule
2. European Medicines Agency (search for specific drug, navigate to
Section 4.6, Fertility, Pregnancy, and Lactation).
https://www.ema.europa.eu/en/medicines
3. MothertoBaby (Organization of Teratology Information Specialists).
www.mothertobaby.org
4. LactMed® database.
https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/books/NBK501922/
5. ConcePTION (launched in 2019 by the Innovative Medicines
Initiative, with the goal of disseminating information about
medications in pregnancy and lactation. https://www.imi-
conception.eu/
Chapter 15
ETHICS IN CRITICAL CARE MEDICINE
Objectives
Summarize the types of advance directives and surrogate decision-

making.
Describe the four ethical principles in medical ethics.
Explain the best case and worst case model of shared decision-making.
Understand the role of palliative care.
Understand the issues surrounding futile and potentially inappropriate
interventions.
Understand the concept of triage.
Describe the importance of introducing the concept of organ donation
into discussions about end-of-life care.
Case Study
A 72-year-old woman underwent an elective colon resection for colon

cancer. Her postoperative course was complicated by an anastomotic leak,
resulting in sepsis, a return to the operating room, and a colostomy. She is
currently in the ICU, with respiratory failure. She is intubated and has
worsening kidney function. Discussions have been conducted with the
family regarding the need for dialysis, but they are conflicted as to the next
step.
– Who should make decisions regarding her medical care?
– How should her advance directives be honored?
– Should further therapies be limited or withdrawn?
– What is the best way to address her goals of care?
– What is the role of palliative medicine?
I. INTRODUCTION
Ethics is one of the foundations of laws, statutes, and regulations that
govern the practice of medicine in many countries. Application of ethical
principles may vary in different regions and nations. Ethics is not identical
to existing laws; often it is in critical tension with laws, leading to statutory
change. Ethics is closely related to morality, culturally accepted norms
regarding right and wrong, but it is not reducible to prevailing or
conventional values. At its best, ethics may lead to substantive moral
reform.
Ethics is the branch of philosophy that deals with the concepts of what is
right or wrong conduct and what is good and bad. The basis of medical
ethics is rooted in ancient Greek theories of morality. Modern medical
ethics has been influenced by the moral theories formulated by Immanuel
Kant, Jeremy Bentham, and John Stuart Mill.
Ethics is the critical, reflective consideration of moral practices in light of
basic principles of conduct and value. Medical ethics involves critical
reflection on practices such as clinical research, resource allocation criteria,
relationships between patients and their healthcare providers, and healthcare
policy formulation. It is at the heart of the patient-clinician relationship,
which is grounded in trust. Healthcare professionals have an obligation to
act in their patients’ best interests, recognizing an inequality of knowledge,
information, and experience. Clinicians possess medical expertise but are
limited in their knowledge of patients’ goals and values. Shared decision-
making is one way of productively engaging these differences to determine
what is in the best interest of the patient while preserving the clinician’s
professional integrity.
In the critical care context, three sets of circumstances typically bring
patients at risk of dying in the hospital to the emergency department: (1) an
acute event in an otherwise healthy person (such as trauma, stroke,
myocardial infarction, or pneumonia); (2) a recurrent or relapsing
decompensation in a patient with a chronic and progressive disease (such as
respiratory failure in chronic lung disease, pneumonia complicating
dementia, heart failure in cardiomyopathy); or (3) the patient’s arrival at a
critical point in a progressive, unrelenting decline (such as cancer or
dementia). Many of these at-risk patients may be admitted to an ICU. Such
patients may be unable to participate in decisions about their medical care
and depend on advance directives or surrogate decision-makers to guide the
healthcare team regarding treatment.
The critical care team is involved in end-of-life care decision-making in
three key situations: (1) limitation of therapy and/or resuscitation attempts,
(2) withdrawal of life support, and (3) triage. Therefore, the critical care
team must be able to effectively communicate with patients and their
families about prognosis and futility, reasonable goals of therapy, healthcare
advance directives, and options for limitation of resuscitation efforts or
removal of life support. Without formal discussions, patients’ preferences
are difficult to predict; assumptions based on quality of life, age, or
functional status may be inaccurate; and physicians’ choices may reflect
their own preferences rather than those of their patients.
Healthcare providers must be both cognitively and emotionally prepared to
communicate among themselves and with patients and families regarding:
(1) realistic goals, (2) expectations for treatments and alternatives, (3)
patients’ expressed and implied desires regarding medical interventions and
the implications of those desires, and (4) acceptable therapeutic options.
Meaningful discussions of these issues are grounded in a thorough
understanding of medical ethics, individual and collective cultural values,
and pertinent legal principles. The competency of providers as
communicators correlates directly with patients’ and families’ satisfaction
with the medical care provided and enhances the professional integrity of
the providers.
Rapidly changing clinical conditions and uncertainty create difficult
situations in the ICU. Modern medicine has many technologies and
treatments to apply to diseases and clinical events. However, despite these
technologies, especially in the ICU setting, patients still die. The difficulties
encountered often consist of determining who will benefit from continued
therapies and when therapeutic options should be limited or withdrawn. It is
sometimes difficult to integrate patient wishes and values with the treatment
options in the context of an uncertain prognosis. Most deaths in the ICU
setting occur with some limitation of medical care, whether it be a do-not-
attempt resuscitation (DNAR) order or withdrawing or withholding life-
sustaining treatment. Shared decision-making and defining goals of care
will often help in delineating the best course of treatment for the patient.
II. THE GUIDING ETHICAL PRINCIPLES FOR

HEALTHCARE
In healthcare, ethical principles protect patient interests and inform
professional integrity. The guiding ethical principles of healthcare are a
conceptual framework for providing patient-centered care (care that is
appropriately respectful of patients), and for grounding the professional
standards of healthcare practice that define excellence. These principles are
also helpful in identifying, analyzing, and contributing to the resolution of
ethical problems that occur in the practice of medicine. The four commonly
accepted ethical principles of healthcare are:
Autonomy: Respect the right of an individual to be self-directing and

to make decisions freely and independently; this recognizes the
patient’s sovereignty over his or her own body.
Beneficence: Act in the best interest of patients and promote their
well-being. Different value systems can lead to different concepts of
what is best for an individual patient.
Nonmaleficence: Primum non nocere, the Latin tenet which translates
as “above all else, do not harm.” Harm can be defined as the
intentional or careless infliction of physical, psychological, or
emotional distress through either actions or omissions.
Justice: Treat all persons fairly and equitably; treat similar cases in the
same manner and different cases differently.
A shared decision-making model allows for the other principles to play a

role, includes the autonomy of the healthcare professionals involved
(surgeon, intensivist, nursing, and others), and provides for better
communication about expectations and outcomes. In general, discussions
regarding ethical decisions in medical and critical care should involve
several key elements (Table 15-1) to ensure that important relevant topics
are addressed.
Table 15-1 Key Elements of Ethical Decision-Making
Whenever possible, initiate discussions with patients regarding their preferences

and goals of care before a medical crisis occurs and they lose capacity to make
informed decisions.
Utilize hospital and/or unit end-of-life care protocols. If protocols are not in place,
healthcare providers should work with appropriate legal and ethical advisers to
develop them.
Direct discussions with patients and families to set appropriate goals of care based
on patient values, wishes, and preferences, taking into account the best diagnostic
and prognostic judgments. Use a best case/worst case framework.
Ensure that all decisions related to consent, refusal to consent, limitation of
resuscitation attempts, or termination of life support are clearly determined and
documented according to policy and regulation.
Make certain that all end-of-life care decisions are made with full disclosure of
alternatives, implications, and potential conflicts of interest, are free of duress and
coercion, and are made by persons who are competent and have decision-making
capacity.
Ensure adherence to ethical principles and professional and legal standards of
medical conduct.
Communicate clearly and document extensively.
Develop consensus and a plan with the care team and, when indicated, involve
support services such clergy, ethics committee or consultant, social services,
palliative care services, or hospital council.
III. ETHICAL TOPICS IN CRITICAL CARE
Many, if not all, ethical dilemmas can be handled professionally with
utmost respect for patient needs and professional integrity when decisions
involve consideration of the treatment situation, truthful exchange of
information, thorough discussion of the patient’s wishes and expectations,
understanding of pertinent ethical principles, and coordination among
members of the healthcare team. Uncertainty and ambiguity on the part of
the physician, critical care team, patient, or family make meaningful
discussion and decisions difficult. In rare situations in which some members
of the team have conflicting deeply held beliefs, serious emotional
conflicts, or conflicts of interest that preclude open and objective
communication and decision-making, they may request to be excused and
transfer patient care responsibilities to a colleague. Patients and families can
sense uncertainty and ambiguity and are likely to react with suspicion and
confusion. A consensus on the goals of care and treatment plan also
facilitates consistent communication and documentation and minimizes
liability risks. Ethics consultations will help identify what is ethically
permissible in each case. Palliative care consult teams may help determine
goals of care and symptom treatment for individual patients. Conflict
resolution teams can help in intractable conflict situations between the
family and the healthcare professionals.
A. Advance Directives and Surrogate Decision-Making
An advance directive is an instructional statement that takes effect at some

time in the future when specific conditions are met. A capable, competent
person can often leave verbal or written instructions for healthcare
professionals and/or select a surrogate to guide medical decisions. If
patients have left unambiguous and detailed instructions regarding their
preferences for life-sustaining therapy in the event they become
incapacitated, such instructions are usually binding and carried out.
However, most patients’ instructions are neither sufficiently detailed nor
unambiguous for the circumstances of their future illness. The role of the
surrogate decision-maker is to inform the healthcare team of what the
patient’s wishes and values would be under the circumstances. The wishes
and values, therefore, are not those of the surrogate but of the patient. The
surrogate makes a substituted judgment based on explicit instructions or
direct and indirect communication of the patient’s preferences and
expectations.
The following tools may be used to convey a patient’s preferences:
Advance healthcare directive: This document contains specific,

substantive statements of the patient’s values and wishes regarding
medical care. It may also specify procedures that the patient wants to
receive or forgo in specific circumstances. In most cases, this
document also enables the patient to name a healthcare agent who will
make decisions for the patient when incapacitated.
Durable power of attorney for healthcare: A durable power of
attorney is a proxy directive that assigns one person authority to
perform specified actions on behalf of the signer. The power is
“durable” because, unlike the usual power of attorney, it continues to
be in effect if the signer becomes incompetent.
Healthcare proxy: A proxy is a person appointed by the patient
specifically for the purpose of making healthcare decisions on the
patient’s behalf.
Next of kin: Under some circumstances, in some countries or states,
the next of kin is authorized by law to speak on behalf of an
incapacitated patient. Surrogacy hierarchies that must be considered in
healthcare decision-making are often defined by law. Ethically, the
person who knows the patient best is the appropriate surrogate
decision-maker. This person may not be the legally identified next of
kin.
The healthcare provider should be certain that the conditions for invoking
an advance directive as intended by the patient have occurred before acting
on the directive. Similarly, acquiescing to requests made by surrogates
occurs only after consideration of proper medical and ethical decision-
making principles. If an incapacitated patient’s specific wishes and values
are unknown, a surrogate is usually expected to act in the best interests of
the patient. Conflict arises when healthcare professionals refuse to
acknowledge and accept the patient’s expressed wishes and choose to
follow the direction of a family member, who may not be acting in the
patient’s best interest. Although advanced directives are not legally binding
in many states, ideally they should be honored as the written wishes of the
patient and discussed with the surrogate decision-maker in detail, should a
conflict arise. Should the family member not be acting in the patient’s best
interest, which is the legal standard for surrogate decision-making, then an
ethics consult, conflict resolution team (if available), or legal intervention
may be appropriate. Conflict also arises when the advance directive is
sufficiently vague and difficult to apply to the current clinical condition. In
those situations, shared decision-making and discussions of goals of care
should occur.
B. Do-Not-Attempt-Resuscitation Orders
DNAR orders, also known as do-not-resuscitate (DNR) orders, are explicit

physician orders restricting specific medical interventions in the event of a
cardiopulmonary arrest. Because resuscitation efforts are not always
successful, it is more accurate to refer to these as limitations on attempts to
resuscitate. Such orders are usually based on a patient’s expressed or
written wishes or on such wishes as they are known to a proxy or surrogate
decision-maker. DNAR orders may include categoric specifications that
limit blood transfusions, intubation and mechanical ventilation,
defibrillation, cardiopulmonary resuscitation in an already mechanically
ventilated patient, or an escalation of existing ICU treatment. If such orders
are agreed on, it is usually advisable to review all other treatment modalities
to determine whether they continue to be compatible with the changed goals
of care (eg, dialysis, medically provided fluids and nutrition, antibiotics).
Factors that suggest a discriminatory intent must never form the basis for
initiating DNAR discussions; these factors include sex, age, race, and
economic or social status. Suicidal ideation and treatable depression must
be excluded as reasons for a patient’s wishes to limit resuscitation or
terminate life support.
DNAR orders do not necessarily
preclude ICU admission or care;
they only limit resuscitation
attempts.
C. Shared Decision-Making and Goals of Care

In recent years, medicine has sometimes focused on applying technology to
every clinical event without focusing on the patients and their goals. This
technologic-driven philosophy commonly creates disagreement in the
definition of futility (eg, dialysis is “not futile” because it will do exactly
what it is designed to do: remove toxins and fluid and clean the blood; yet it
may not change the clinical outcome of the patient or restore the patient to
health). Some clinicians have also emphasized patient autonomy over all
other ethical principles, creating a menu of choices (eg, Do you want a
ventilator? Dialysis? CPR? Shocks? Vasopressors?). In recent years, the
model of shared decision-making has advocated to allow all ethical
principles to be considered and for discussions about goals of care to focus
on the expected outcomes of the entire treatment plan rather than each
individual intervention.
Best case/worst case discussions are well-documented to help patients and
families determine whether the medical interventions fit within their goals
of care. In a discussion about goals of care, there are several steps involved
that help all persons who are part of the discussion. A narrative from the
patient and family about how the patient has functioned in the past year, any
decline in health, hospitalizations, and treatments help them put the current
stay in the ICU in perspective. Questioning the patient and family about
what is most important to them and their expectations regarding medical
care helps to place ICU interventions into perspective. Explaining the
medical treatments appropriate and available in the ICU to reach those
goals is often easiest through a best case/worst case framework.
Recommendations for time-limited trials of continued interventions help the
family with decision-making. They are given milestones and expected steps
of progress and recovery. They are given clear meeting times with the
treatment team to discuss progress and overall goals of care. Most
importantly, they know that they may have to make some very difficult
decisions and can begin to discuss among themselves what the patient
would really want in this situation. Families seem to do better with
decision-making when they understand the extensive steps and processes
and expected recovery times, especially when the patient is expected to
cross multiple healthcare facilities (ICU, hospital, long-term acute care
hospitals, rehabilitation, nursing home, etc.)
DNAR discussions are often subject to conflict, sometimes because of the
timing chosen for the discussion itself and sometimes because of the
approach taken in the conversations. As a result, families are unwilling to
assign the category of DNAR to the patient because they feel they are
“killing their loved one” or making the decision to “let their loved one die.”
Reminding them that DNAR does not mean “do not treat” sometimes may
be helpful. Phrasing the DNAR discussion as an opt-out versus an opt-in
discussion is helpful. Families rely on the healthcare team to offer
recommendations as to what therapies will be medically beneficial and
those that will not help their loved one recover. Explaining the clinical
situation in detail and stating that CPR and chest compressions will not help
their loved one, and then allowing them to speak up and opt-out of the
DNAR is a better option than asking them if they want a DNAR. The opt-
out option of “your relative would not have wanted to do this or to live like
that” rather than an opt-in choice (eg, “do you want chest compressions
performed? Do you want intubation performed?”) helps relieve their burden
of guilt of responsibility for actively refusing care for their loved one.
Recommendations from the healthcare team are important because not all
choices are morally equal with equal outcomes. Regrettably, CPR is often
offered in clinical situations in which CPR will not work and should not be
offered (eg, exsanguinating hemorrhage when the surgeon cannot stop the
bleeding). Presenting the family with the choice of DNAR when it really is
not a choice is morally irresponsible.
In the case presented at the beginning of this chapter, a best case/worst case
discussion might be as follows:
Physician: Please tell me how your family member has done in the
past year.
Family: She has been in good health and is on medicine for her
diabetes and blood pressure. She lives alone and still drives and
visits her grandchildren frequently.
Physician: Right now, she is quite sick and is not doing well. After
her leak from her colon cancer and going back to the operating
room, she has a bag to collect stools, called ostomy, which in her
case would likely be permanent. Several of her organs have failed
and she is requiring support for her breathing. Her kidneys are
failing, and she needs dialysis to clear toxins and remove fluid. Has
she ever spoken to you about what she would want if she was
critically ill like this?
Family: No, not really.
Physician: Let’s talk best case/worst case. Best case is we continue
to treat her with these life-sustaining therapies and start dialysis. She
recovers over the next week or so, requires dialysis over the next
several months, but slowly her kidneys recover and function without
dialysis. We are able to wean her off the ventilator over the next
week. She would then need extensive rehabilitation and a skilled
nursing facility for a couple of months and then hopefully home.
That is the best case. Worst case is obviously death. But there are
some things that people consider worse than death. In her case it
would be long-term support on a ventilator, with a tracheostomy
which is a hole on her neck to breathe through, a long-term hospital
for patients with long-term ventilators; permanent dialysis, and
progressive organ failure that will lead her lingering in the hospital
for months before she finally dies.
Family: Oh, we know she wouldn’t want that. She would want to
know if she can go home and visit her grandkids. That is really
important to her.
Physician: I think it is too soon to know exactly how she is going to
do because she was in such good health to begin with. I recommend
a time-limited trial of dialysis of 5 days to see if helping her kidneys
helps us get her off the ventilator and breathing on her own. If that
does not work and we are not making any progress in her recovery,
we should meet and discuss if we are accomplishing her goals and
what she would want. Let’s meet again in 3 days and in 5 days and
discuss where she is and how she is doing overall, and we can make
further decisions. She is really critical right now, and I would
recommend that if her heart stops beating, that we do not try to
restart her heart. We would continue to treat her, in every aspect, but
if she decides for us, then we let her go. She would be DNAR. Are
you okay with that?
D. End-of-Life Care and Termination of Life Support
The goal of end-of-life care is to allow patients to die with dignity and
respect and to exercise an element of control over their death. It is
paramount that in all communications it is made clear that care is not being
withdrawn; rather, it is life support or unwanted medical interventions that
are withdrawn after the goals of treatment have changed. In many cases, the
intensity of care may actually escalate following termination of life support
as comfort needs are addressed. DNAR never means do not treat. Before
the removal of life support, a proper DNAR order should be in effect based
on local and institutional regulations. A plan for comfort measures should
be developed by the healthcare team and must address anxiety and
analgesia. Although they may have this effect, comfort care interventions
are not intended to directly hasten death; this distinguishes comfort care
from euthanasia and physician-assisted suicide.
E. Medical Futility/Nonbeneficial Medical Treatment
Medical futility is a nebulous concept, which is why some prefer the

concept of nonbeneficial medical treatment. Both concepts generally refer
to medical interventions that are highly unlikely to contribute to a beneficial
outcome for the patient. The key problem associated with medical futility or
nonbeneficial medical treatment is that it is based on situational value
judgments. Interventions perceived as medically futile or nonbeneficial in
one institution by some providers at a certain time may not be perceived as
such by others at a different time. These concepts are also based on the
anticipated outcome in terms of probability of survival, values regarding
minimally acceptable quality of life, and prognosis or time frame for
possible recovery. Thus, a determination of nonbeneficial or medically
futile treatment should take into account the predicted outcome, available
medical evidence or experience, and patient expectations and wishes.
Considerable ethical debate has occurred about whose views should prevail
in decisions regarding discontinuation or limitation of medical interventions
when providers and families disagree about the benefit. Depending on the
circumstances, a determination of nonbeneficial or medically futile
treatment may be made by a team of clinicians, an ethics team, or a by legal
process. Local conditions and policies will determine the course to follow
to implement a judgment that a medical intervention is not beneficial.
The Society of Critical Care Medicine and four other major critical care
organizations have endorsed a seven-step process to resolve disagreements
about potentially inappropriate treatments. ICU interventions should
generally be considered inappropriate when there is no reasonable
expectation that the patient will improve sufficiently to survive outside the
acute care setting, or when there is no reasonable expectation that the
patient’s neurologic function will improve sufficiently to allow the patient
to perceive the benefits of treatment. When patients or surrogate decision-
makers demand interventions that the clinician believes are potentially
inappropriate, the seven-step process presented in the multiorganization
statement should be followed (Table 15-2). Clinicians should recognize the
limits of prognostication when evaluating potential neurologic outcome and
terminal cases. At times, it may be appropriate to provide time-limited ICU
interventions to patients if doing so furthers the patient’s reasonable goals
of care. If the patient is experiencing pain or suffering, relieving treatment
is always appropriate.
Differences regarding nonbeneficial

and medically futile treatments are
best resolved through a fair,
transparent process.
Table 15-2 Recommended Steps for Resolution of Conflict Regarding

Potentially Inappropriate Treatments
1. Before initiation of and throughout the formal conflict-resolution procedure, clinicians
should enlist expert consultation to aid in achieving a negotiated agreement.
2. Surrogate(s) should be given clear notification in writing regarding the initiation of the
formal conflict-resolution procedure and the steps and timeline to be expected in this
process.
3. Clinicians should obtain a second medical opinion to verify the prognosis and the judgment
that the requested treatment is inappropriate.
4. There should be case review by an interdisciplinary institutional committee.
5. If the committee agrees with the clinicians, then clinicians should offer the option to seek a
willing provider at another institution and should facilitate this process.
6. If the committee agrees with the clinicians and no willing provider can be found,
surrogate(s) should be informed of their right to seek case review by an independent
appeals body.
7a. If the committee or appellate body agrees with the patient or surrogate’s request for life-
prolonging treatment, clinicians should provide these treatments or transfer the patient to a
willing provider.
7b. If the committee agrees with the clinicians’ judgment, no willing provider can be found,
and the surrogate does not seek independent appeal or the appeal affirms the clinicians’
position, clinicians may withhold or withdraw the contested treatments and should provide
high-quality palliative care.
Source: https://www.sccm.org/getattachment/f7ff8591-f36e-4dc6-ae02-
17d19afd91c6/Responding-to-Requests-for-Potentially-Inappropria
F. Palliative Care
Palliative care (PC) focuses on symptom management and goals of care and
can be provided along with life-saving treatment. It is not identical to
hospice care which focuses on end-of-life care with no further treatments
designed to restore health. Too often medicine emphasizes the treatments
available without addressing the symptoms like nausea, pain, constipation,
dyspnea, and others. PC can help address these symptoms and may offer
treatments to relieve symptoms (like venting gastrostomy for malignant
bowel obstruction, or paracentesis for tense ascites). The basics of PC, like
goals of care discussions and simple symptom management, should be in
the scope of every physician. Complex PC, like intractable pain or
extensive conflict among family members, is likely helped by a consult
from the PC team. Involving PC early in the ICU has been shown to
improve discussions about goals of care, addressing code status, and
decreasing use of tests and procedures without increasing mortality.
G. Triage
The ICU is characterized by resource-intensive medical care. Because ICU
technology, physician presence, and staffing are costly and limited, triage
decisions regarding the allocation of these resources are frequently
necessary. Triage is most often necessary when demand for critical care
beds exceeds supply. Thus, patients may be denied admission based on
resource constraints; be transferred from the ICU to another level of care
based on severity of illness, prognosis, or wishes; or be transferred to
another institution. The minimum severity of illness required to meet ICU
admission criteria is likely to fluctuate within an institution (such as during
influenza season or disaster situations). Increasingly, however, patients who
do not meet some minimum objective criteria for ICU admission are cared
for on general medicine units regardless of the preference of patients,
attending physicians, or staff. Critically ill patients who are not admitted to
ICUs may have significantly greater morbidity and mortality rates.
Therefore, triage choices represent life-and-death decisions that must be
based on criteria that are as objective as possible and applied uniformly.
The ethical principle of beneficence is applied at the group or social level in
such cases (maximize the benefit to the most) and is restrained by the
principle of justice (treat all similar cases the same and different cases
differently).
H. Organ Donation
After discussions regarding the extent of medical treatments have been

completed and a decision to withdraw life support has been made, organ-
procurement representatives should be allowed to evaluate the patient and
conduct discussions with the patient’s family or surrogate decision-maker
about the potential for organ donation. Options include both conventional
organ recovery after declaration of neurologic death and potential organ
donation after circulatory death. See Appendix 6 for more information on
brain death and organ donation.
Considering that decision-making at the end of life should be based on
medical, moral, societal, and welfare considerations, critical care societies
currently recommend organ donation be presented as an option in end-of-
life planning. This recommendation is underpinned by the concept that
healthcare providers should proceed under a holistic approach to the
interests of the patient once all curative treatments have been discarded.
Although providers are not legally allowed to approach families about
organ donation, involvement of the organ procurement organization allows
the patient’s wishes to be considered, and the potential benefit to society
and the organ recipient.
I. Moral Distress, Perceived Delivery of Inappropriate Care, and

Compassion Fatigue
Moral distress, perceived delivery of inappropriate care, and compassion

fatigue occur in critical care healthcare professionals, often overlapping
with burnout syndrome, especially in situations related to end-of-life care.
Moral distress occurs when an individual knows the ethical and appropriate
action to take but feels constrained from enacting the specific action. Moral
distress may be related to internal constraints, such as self-doubt, anxiety
about creating a conflict, and a lack of confidence, or external constraints,
such as imbalances in perceived power, inadequate communication
strategies, and pressure to reduce costs or avoid legal ramifications.
Clinicians consider care to be inappropriate when it is not aligned with their
personal beliefs or professional knowledge. Compassion fatigue is
characterized by a gradual reduction in compassion over time that results
from a cumulative and persistent desire to help patients who are suffering.
IV. CONCLUSION
Most ethical issues in the ICU seem to be related to poor communication
and disagreement among the healthcare team. Healthcare staff often create
these conflicts through actions on their part: using the term “brain death”
casually and when the patient is not brain dead, but neurologically
devastated; using the term “futile” when the treatment is not futile; by not
ensuring good communication among the healthcare team so that a unified
and coherent and cohesive message is given to the family; by not having
early and frequent meetings with the family and setting goals of care, or
using a best case/worst case framework; by offering a menu of choices
without discussing context or expected outcomes; and by offering choices
when there is not a choice. Early, frequent, and clear communication can
avoid many of these issues in the ICU setting.
Key Points: Ethics in Critical Care Medicine

Healthcare professionals have an obligation to act in a patient’s best
interests based upon the ethical principles of autonomy, beneficence,
nonmaleficence, and justice.
When faced with an ethical dilemma, consensus from the healthcare
team on the diagnosis, prognosis, and recommended treatment plan
facilitates consistent communication and documentation and
minimizes liability risks.
Specific components of conflict within an ethical dilemma can be
identified and the analysis simplified when each ethical principle is
addressed systematically.
Life support may be withdrawn at the end of life, but care is never
withdrawn.
Suggested Readings
1. Bernacki RE, Block SD. Communication about serious illness care
goals: a review and synthesis of best practice. JAMA Intern Med.
2014;174(12):1994-2003.
2. Bosslet GT, Pope TM, Rubenfeld GD, et al. An Official
ATS/AACN/ACCP/ESICM/SCCM Policy Statement: Responding to
Requests for Potentially Inappropriate Treatments in Intensive Care
Units. Am J Respir Crit Care Med. 2015;191(11):1318-1330.
3. Bossaert LL, Perkins GD, Askitopoulou H, et al. European
Resuscitation Council Guidelines for Resuscitation 2015: Section 11.
The ethics of resuscitation and end-of-life decisions. Resuscitation.
2015; 95:302-311.
4. Committee on Bioethics (DH BIO) of the Council of Europe. Guide on
the decision-making process regarding medical treatment in end-of-life
situations. Available at: http://www.coe.int/en/web/bioethics/guide-on-
the-decision-making-process-regarding-medical-treatment-in-end-of-
life-situations.
5. Feudtner C, Morrison W. The darkening veil of “do everything”. Arch
Pediatr Adolesc Med. 2012;166:694.
6. Kon AA, Shepard EK, Sederstrom NO, et al. Defining Futile and
Potentially Inappropriate Interventions: A Policy Statement From the
Society of Critical Care Medicine Ethics Committee. Crit Care Med.
2016;44(9):1769-1774.
7. Kruser JM, Nabozny MJ, Steffens NM, et al. “Best case/worst case”:
qualitative evaluation of a novel communication tool for difficult-in-
the-moment surgical decisions. J Am Geriatr Soc. 2015;63:1805-1811.
8. Moss M, Good VS, Gozal D, Kleinpell R, Sessler CN. An Official
Critical Care Societies Collaborative Statement-Burnout Syndrome in
Critical Care Health-care Professionals: A Call for Action. Chest.
2016;150(1):17-26.
9. Nabozny MJ, Steffens NM, Schwarze ML. When do-not-resuscitate is
a nonchoice choice: a teachable moment. JAMA Intern Med.
2015;175:1444–14445.
10. Nelson J, Curtis JR, Mulkerin C, et al. Choosing and using screening
criteria for palliative care consultation in the ICU: a report from the
Improving Palliative Care in the ICU (IPAL- ICU) Advisory Board.
Crit Care Med. 2013;41(10):2318-2327.
11. Papadimos TJ, Maldonado Y, Tripathi RS, Kothari DS, Rosenberg AL.
An overview of end-of-life issues in the intensive care unit. Int J Crit
Illn Inj Sci. 2011;1:138-146.
12. Soliman IW, Cremer OL, DeLange DW, et al. The ability of intensive
care unit physicians to estimate long-term prognosis in survivors of
critical illness. J Crit Care. 2018;43:148-155.
13. Welie JV, Ten Have HA. The ethics of forgoing life-sustaining
treatment: theoretical considerations and clinical decision making.
Multidiscip Respir Med. 2014;9(1):14.
Chapter 16
SURGERY INCRITICAL CARE
Objectives
Review the diagnosis and treatment of pancreatitis and necrotizing

soft-tissue infections.
Identify early postoperative anastomotic leak or infection.
Recognize and manage mesenteric ischemia.
Evaluate and treat abdominal compartment syndrome.
Case Study
A 62-year-old man presents to the emergency department reporting

epigastric pain radiating to his back. He denies fevers, chills, or sweats but
has vomited greenish material several times. He describes the pain as severe
and constant. The pain is worse with eating, but he is anorexic now. His
medical history is notable for heavy alcohol consumption. His vital signs
show a temperature of 37.8°C (100.2°F), pulse rate of 110 beats/min,
respiratory rate of 24 breaths/min, and a blood pressure of 100/60 mm Hg.
Physical examination reveals clear breath sounds, the abdomen is slightly
distended with tenderness throughout but worse in both upper quadrants,
and possible rebound tenderness.
– What clinical and laboratory assessments are needed to make the
diagnosis?
– What are the initial priorities for treatment of this patient?
I. INTRODUCTION
Caring for the critically ill surgical patient can bring challenges that are not
seen with a nonsurgical patient. Providers overseeing the care of these
patients must remember to consider both surgical and nonsurgical causes of
illness and deterioration to render appropriate care. The patient’s surgical
history may be important in developing a thorough differential diagnosis.
Because not all healthcare personnel who provide critical care have a
surgical background, liberal use of surgical consultation is recommended.
The identification and management of commonly encountered conditions in
critically ill patients that may require additional knowledge of surgical
principles are reviewed in this chapter.
II. PANCREATITIS
This patient has signs and symptoms of an acute abdominal process. At this
point, the possible diagnoses are varied both in the organ involved and
acuity. The differential diagnosis includes peptic ulcer disease, acute
cholecystitis, perforated viscus, acute appendicitis, mesenteric ischemia,
leaking abdominal aortic aneurysm, and acute pancreatitis. Some of these
conditions require emergent surgical intervention. Therefore, he needs rapid
examination, assessment with laboratory and radiologic testing, and triage
to the appropriate level of care. Studies should include a complete blood
count (CBC), complete metabolic panel (including calcium, blood urea
nitrogen (BUN), creatinine, liver function studies, amylase, and lipase),
upright chest radiograph (to look for free air), and point-of-care
ultrasonography to evaluate for intra-abdominal free fluid.
Laboratory results show a WBC of 13,800/mm3, glucose of 160 mg/dL,

hematocrit of 42.6%, LDH 210 U/L, SGOT 180 U/L, amylase 820 U/L, and
lipase 260 U/L. The chest radiograph shows no free air and point-of-care
ultrasonography shows a small amount of fluid in the pelvis. The patient is
admitted to the ward with the diagnosis of acute pancreatitis.
More than 300,000 inpatient admissions and 20,000 deaths occur annually
from pancreatitis in the United States, with costs exceeding $2.2 billion per
year. The initial management of the patient with acute pancreatitis includes
clarification of the cause, assessment of the severity, and resuscitation.
Although not mandatory, a contrast-enhanced CT scan or full abdominal
ultrasound are helpful to look at the most common causes of acute
pancreatitis, namely gallstones and alcohol (80% combined). Less common
causes include drug reactions, pancreatic solid and cystic malignancies, and
hypertriglyceridemia. Several scoring systems are used to attempt to predict
the patient’s clinical course including Ranson Criteria (Table 16-1), the
revised Atlanta criteria (Table 16-2), APACHE II, and the Bedside Index of
Severity in Acute Pancreatitis (Table 16-3). For example, Ranson uses risk
and laboratory results on admission, combined with indicators of how the
patient performs over the next 48 hours, to establish a projected patient
mortality. Zero to 2 points is a low mortality patient (0–3%), with predicted
mortality rising sharply to 40% with 5–6 points, and culminating in nearly
100% mortality at 7 points or above.
Table 16-1 Ranson Criteria for Severity of Acute Pancreatitis
Criteria at Admission Criteria Within 48 Hours

Age in years > 55 Serum calcium < 8.0 mg/dL
WBC count > 16,000 cells/mm3 Hematocrit fall > 10%

Blood glucose > 200 mg/dL Pao2 < 60 mm Hg
Serum AST > 250 U/L BUN increase by ≥ 5 mg/dL
Serum LDH > 350 U/L Base deficit < 4
Sequestration of fluids > 6 L
Data taken from Ranson JH. Etiological and prognostic factors in human acute pancreatitis:
a review. Am J Gastroenterol. 1982;77(9):633-638.
Table 16-2 Revised Atlanta Classification of Acute Pancreatitis
Mild acute pancreatitis No organ failure

No local or systemic complications
Moderately severe acute Organ failure that resolves within 48 hours (transient
pancreatitis organ failure)
Local or systemic complications without persistent organ
failure
Severe acute pancreatitis Persistent organ failure > 48 hours
Reproduced from Banks PA, Bollen TL, Dervenis C, et al. Gut 62(1), 102-111, Copyright ©
2013 with permission from BMJ Publishing Group Ltd.
Table 16-3 Bedside Index of Severity in Acute Pancreatitis Score
BUN > 25 mg/dL (8.9 mmol/L) 1 point

Abnormal mental status with a Glasgow coma score < 15 1 point
Evidence of SIRS 1 point
Patient age > 60 years old 1 point
Imaging study reveals pleural effusion 1 point
Points Total
0 to 2 points Lower mortality (<2%)

3 to 5 points Higher mortality (>15%)
Abbreviation: SIRS, systemic inflammatory response syndrome.

Data taken from Wu BU, Johannes RS, Sun X, et al. The early prediction of mortality in
acute pancreatitis: a large population-based study. Gut. 2008; 57(12):1698-1703.
The role of imaging is to help identify the type of acute pancreatitis because
the treatment plan may be determined by the findings. Edematous
pancreatitis is the most common form, and it consists of inflammatory
infiltration of the pancreas without involvement of other organs. The
severity is generally mild to moderate, and patients generally recover
relatively quickly with low mortality. In necrotizing pancreatitis, there may
be extensive destruction of the pancreas with an accompanying
inflammatory injury to both surrounding and distant organs. These patients
typically require ICU-level care during their resuscitation. They may
require invasive procedures, such as percutaneous catheter drainage,
endoscopic transluminal drainage, or surgical necrosectomy.
Recommended resuscitation is with isotonic crystalloid using goal-directed
therapy for fluid management. Goal resuscitation markers include heart
rate, mean arterial pressure, central venous pressure, urine output, BUN,
and central venous oxygen saturation. Isotonic crystalloid fluid may be
started at 20 mL/kg over 60 minutes, followed by an infusion of up to 250
mL/h for the next 24–48 hours, depending on the achievement of the goals.
More aggressive volume resuscitation has not been shown to improve
outcomes and may lead to edema formation, which may aggravate systemic
conditions, such as acute respiratory distress syndrome (ARDS), and
increase the risk of abdominal compartment syndrome. Two randomized
controlled trials suggest the use of lactated Ringer solution over normal
saline as the optimal fluid, although there was no difference in organ failure
or mortality. Keep in mind that aggressive resuscitation with normal saline
only can contribute to a hyperchloremic acidosis. Other isotonic fluid
options include more balanced salt solutions such as Normosol or Plasma-
Lyte. Hydroxyethyl starch (HES) is not recommended as a resuscitative
fluid.
Prophylactic antibiotics are not considered to be part of the treatment plan
for pancreatitis, even in severe cases. Antibiotics are to be used only as a
therapeutic intervention in cases of actual infection. Probiotic prophylaxis is
not recommended for the prevention of infectious complications and acute
pancreatitis. A multicenter, randomized controlled trial of 298 patients with
severe acute pancreatitis showed a higher risk of death in the probiotic
group versus placebo.
Antibiotics are used in pancreatitis

only in cases of actual infection.
Patients with acute pancreatitis, especially severe, were historically kept
nothing by mouth (NPO), had a nasogastric (NG) tube placed, and were
given total parenteral nutrition. Several randomized control trials have
shown a reduced risk of infectious complications and mortality with early
enteral nutrition. Current recommendations are now to begin oral nutrition
as tolerated within 24 hours. If nutrition cannot be taken by mouth, tube
feedings may be begun, and they be given either through a NG or a
nasojejunal tube. Enteral nutrition supports the gut-mucosal barrier and
therefore may reduce bacterial translocation, subsequently reducing the risk
of infected pancreatic necrosis.
Early enteral nutrition in

pancreatitis improves outcomes.
Many therapeutic agents have been tried in an attempt to improve the

outcome of patients. Octreotide is a peptide that inhibits exocrine secretion
of the pancreas and is thought to decrease inflammation. Results have been
mixed in terms of complications and mortality. Antioxidants, such as
vitamin C, N-acetylcysteine, and selenium, also showed no improvement
and outcomes. Pentoxifylline (phosphodiesterase inhibitor), lexipafant
(platelet-activating factor antagonist), and gabexate mesylate (protease
inhibitor) all did not improve results. Thus, no specific drug has been found
to improve outcomes in a patient with pancreatitis.
Aggressive, invasive intervention used to be part of the mainstay of
treatment of pancreatic necrosis. Patients would undergo exploratory
laparotomy with debridement of necrotic tissue. The initial procedure was
typically followed by a series of open surgical debridements. Management
has been altered to include percutaneous sampling of fluid to look for
infection and thus justify initiation of antibiotic therapy, percutaneous
catheter drainage, and endoscopic transluminal drainage. Current
recommendations include waiting at least 4 weeks before invasive
intervention to allow collections to become “walled-off” and form
pancreatic pseudocysts. Pancreatic fluid collections that fail to improve
with conservative management alone or that last greater than 8 weeks
should typically be drained. These drainage procedures can sometimes be
performed endoscopically.
Life-threatening hemorrhage is an unusual complication of acute
pancreatitis. It is caused by erosion of vessels that are near the pancreas,
such as the splenic or gastroduodenal artery. It should be suspected when
there is a falling hematocrit after the initial resuscitation. CT angiography
may confirm the diagnosis. Interventional angiography can be attempted to
control the bleeding. If not controlled via the radiologic approach, the
patient may be taken for emergency surgery.
Timing of cholecystectomy for gallstone pancreatitis has undergone a
change over time. At least for mild gallstone pancreatitis, the time to
surgery has been decreasing. Studies now suggest that radiologic and
laboratory resolution of pancreatitis is not necessary before performing the
surgery. Cholecystectomy at 48–72 hours of admission, and as soon as 24
hours, has shown a decreased 30-day length of stay without an increase in
significant complications. In general, patients admitted with gallstone
pancreatitis should undergo cholecystectomy prior to hospital discharge to
prevent a future bout of pancreatitis.
This patient received supportive management, with IV hydration and

advancement of his diet as tolerated. Amylase and lipase levels were within
normal limits on the third hospital day. He was discharged on a regular diet
and was given an appointment for an alcohol abuse program.
III. POSTOPERATIVE INFECTION

Case Study
A 55-year-old man was admitted for diverticulitis. He was initially

resuscitated in the ICU for septic shock and underwent emergent surgery
for perforated diverticulitis. He underwent resection of the sigmoid colon
with drainage of an intra-abdominal abscess and an end colostomy was
created. He is now postoperative day 7 and has not had any significant
colostomy output. His antibiotic course for perforated diverticulitis was
completed on postoperative day 4. His abdomen remains distended.
– What are potential signs and symptoms of intra-abdominal abscess or
leak?
– What is an appropriate diagnostic study to determine a cause?
Infections in the critically ill have been discussed in detail in Chapter 11.
In addition to pneumonia, urinary tract infections, and bloodstream
infections, patients who have recently undergone surgery are at risk for
infections of the surgical site. These surgical site infections (SSI) account
for 20% of all hospital-acquired infections and are associated with
increased mortality and hospital length of stay. SSI are defined by depth and
tissue space involved. Superficial incisional SSI involve the skin and
subcutaneous tissues, deep incisional SSI involve fascia and muscle layers,
and organ space SSI involve any parts of the body opened or manipulated
during the surgery.
There are many risk factors for SSI. These include modifiable and
nonmodifiable patient factors, as well as extrinsic factors related to the
procedure and even the facility itself. The American College of Surgeons
identified SSI patient risk factors that are derived from patient medical
conditions (Table 16-4), as well as from conditions related to the procedure
(Table 16-5).
Table 16-4 Patient-related Risk Factors
Modifiable Nonmodifiable
Diabetes Increased age
Obesity Recent radiotherapy
Alcoholism History of skin or soft-tissue infection
Current smoker
Preoperative albumin < 3.5 mg/dL
Immunosuppression
Data taken from Ban KA, Minei JP, Laronga C, et al. American College of Surgeons and
Surgical Infection Society: Surgical Site Infection Guidelines, 2016 Update. J Am Coll Surg.
2017; 224(1)L59-74.
Table 16-5 Patient-related Risk Factors for Surgical Site Infection
Emergency procedure
Increasing complexity
Higher wound classification
Data taken from Ban KA, Minei JP, Laronga C, et al. American College of Surgeons and
Surgical Infection Society: Surgical Site Infection Guidelines, 2016 Update. J Am Coll Surg.
2017; 224(1)L59-74. L59-74.
If a patient has undergone surgery and triggers concerns for infection, a

surgical site infection must be considered. Traditional signs of potential
infection, including fever and rising leukocytosis, may be noted. Sometimes
the first signs of infection include hypoxia, arrhythmias (including
tachycardia and atrial fibrillation), and general failure to improve as
expected. In patients that have undergone abdominal surgery, SSI may
present with ileus or increasing abdominal pain and tenderness. Further site-
specific signs and symptoms are addressed in Chapter 11. A thorough
physical examination can usually help pinpoint the source of infection.
Ensure that the surgeon or the surgical team is made aware of the infection
concerns.
In the initial evaluation for source of infection, the incision must be
evaluated. Remove all dressings and inspect the wounds. If a negative
pressure therapy dressing (ie, “wound vac”) is in place, have the surgical
team remove it. If the patient has a hard cast or splint from an orthopedic
procedure, the surgical team will need to be involved for removal and
evaluation of the surgical incisions. Superficial site infections can present as
erythema, fluctuance, increasing tenderness, or drainage from the incision.
If there is need to open the incision to rule out an SSI, the surgical team
should be present to evaluate the wound to determine whether any further
intervention is required. Antibiotics are generally not needed for SSI unless
there is a significant cellulitis component. Sending a swab of the incision
for culture is not recommended because of the likelihood of contamination
of the swab and subsequent positive culture, leading to the overuse of
antibiotics.
Further evaluation for deeper organ space infections can be determined in
part by the surgical procedure performed. Generally, a CT scan with IV
contrast is the first step. If the patient had a portion of the gastrointestinal
tract opened (eg, gastrostomy tube placement, bowel resection), then adding
enteral contrast to evaluate for a leak is ideal. Discussing these scans with
the surgical team is necessary because it will typically take 5 to 7 days for
abscess formation to occur. If the scan is done very soon after surgery it
may be difficult to distinguish between normal postoperative changes and
abscess formation. If evaluating for a leak within the abdomen, it is
imperative to use water-soluble contrast rather than barium to avoid
potential barium-induced peritonitis. If the patient had an esophageal
procedure, it is also recommended to use water-soluble contrast initially
because of the risk of barium-induced mediastinitis. Caution must be used
when evaluating patients at risk for aspiration because of the potential for
water-soluble contrast-induced aspiration pneumonitis, which can cause
pulmonary edema and acute respiratory failure.
Examination of all wounds and

incisions is recommended in
postoperative patients with fever.
After diagnosis of an organ space infection, the next step is to achieve

source control and treat with appropriate antibiotics. The treatment course
for source control should be decided in conjunction with the surgical team.
In cases of an anastomotic leak, the patient will generally need to return to
the operating room for resection of the anastomosis and diversion. Some
endoscopic therapies can be attempted for treatment of an anastomotic leak
in certain situations, but these should be attempted only at the surgeon’s
direction. These endoscopic therapies have a high enough failure rate that a
subsequent surgical intervention may be required. If the patient has an
abscess only, the next step is to assess for drainage. Drainage procedures
can be performed in many ways, including percutaneous CT or ultrasound-
guided drainage conducted by interventional radiologists or treatment of
intra-abdominal abscesses with surgeons performing laparoscopic drain
placement. Again, these drainage procedures have a high enough failure
rate; therefore, the surgical team should still be involved in the patient’s
care. If a patient is undergoing a drainage procedure, the abscess fluid
should be sent for culture, if possible, to aid in antibiotic selection and
subsequent de-escalation. Drains typically stay in place until there is no
further output and imaging shows resolution of the abscess. Imaging can
include repeat CT scans or fluoroscopic drain studies conducted by
interventional radiologists.
Antibiotic therapy should start broad and then be tailored as culture results
are received. In general, consider the potential flora based on the surgical
site. For example, initial antibiotic options for intra-abdominal abscesses
include monotherapy with a β-lactam/β-lactamase inhibitor or a
carbapenem. Dual therapy using a cephalosporin or fluoroquinolone with
metronidazole can also be considered. Patients that are positive for
methicillin-resistant Staphylococcus aureus (MRSA) may need to have
vancomycin or other MRSA treatment-appropriate antibiotics as part of the
regimen. The institution’s antibiogram should be used when choosing the
antibiotic regimen. Immunocompromised patients should also be
considered for antifungal coverage, especially in infections involving the
gastrointestinal tract. Typical antibiotic regimen lengths are 4–7 days after
achieving adequate source control. Antibiotics should be deescalated when
possible, based on culture results.
The hospital antibiogram is an

effective way to target appropriate
antibiotic therapy.
The patient underwent CT of the abdomen/pelvis with oral and IV contrast.

He was found to have a 4 cm x 5 cm rim-enhancing fluid collection in the
pelvis. He was started on piperacillin/tazobactam and interventional
radiology was consulted for drainage. A percutaneous drain was
successfully placed, and the fluid collection was confirmed to be an
abscess. The patient was continued on intravenous antibiotics until the
culture results finalized, and antibiotic treatment was deescalated as
appropriate.
IV. NECROTIZING SOFT-TISSUE INFECTION
The patient now develops redness and drainage of the wound. On opening
the wound, there is release of dishwater-appearing fluid and the
subcutaneous tissues appear necrotic.
– What are the signs of a necrotizing soft-tissue infection?
– What is the recommended treatment of a necrotizing soft-tissue
infection?
Necrotizing soft-tissue infection (NSTI) is a surgical emergency. The only
effective treatment includes surgical debridement of all involved tissue.
NSTI has a very high mortality rate (approximately 10–12% in recent
literature) and can also have very high morbidity. Delay in diagnosis and
treatment drastically increases the mortality and morbidity of NSTI.
NSTI can be seen with postoperative wound infections, but most patients
present from the community without a recent surgery. Patients coming from
the community can have NSTI of any location, but most commonly NSTI
affects the extremities, perineum, and genitalia. NSTIs involving the
perineum and genitalia are more commonly referred to as Fournier
gangrene. Patients may not be able to recall an inciting inoculation event.
There is always the potential for hematogenous spread of the infection.
These patients may have already sought care for an abscess or cellulitis and
have worsening signs and symptoms despite appropriate initial treatment.
Suspicion of NSTI should be raised when patients have worsening
hemodynamic stability or no improvement or worsening on examination. If
there is any question or concern for NSTI, a surgical consult should be
obtained without delay.
There are four different types of NSTI, and not all types reveal dishwater
drainage or crepitus on examination. Type I NSTI is 55–80% of all NSTI
and is polymicrobial. Patient risk factors for type I NSTI include history of
diabetes mellitus, obesity, immunosuppression, chronic kidney disease,
cirrhosis, malignancy, and alcohol abuse. Type II NSTI is characterized by
single organism infection, usually with β-hemolytic group A Streptococcus
or Staphylococcus. These bacteria exhibit production of endotoxins which
produce a pro-inflammatory cytokine response. Risk factors for type II
NSTI include a history of trauma, surgery, or intravenous drug use as an
initial inoculation of the tissues. Type III NSTIs include infections with
Clostridium and Vibrio and have a mortality rate of 30–40%. Lastly, type IV
NSTIs include infections with Aeromonas and fungi. In
immunocompromised patients, most will have Candida infections, while
immunocompetent individuals usually have Zygomycetes as the organism.
Type IV NSTIs also have very high mortality rates.
Signs of NSTI include:
Pain out of proportion to examination

Erythema
Soft-tissue edema
Fever
Hemorrhagic bullae
Hypotension
Shock
Patients can also have blistering, crepitus, bullae, hemorrhagic blebs, or

necrosis on examination. The Laboratory Risk Indicator for Necrotizing
Fasciitis (LRINEC) score is one reported method that may help risk stratify
a patient. If the LRINEC score is ≥ 6, the patient is at moderate risk of a
NSTI with a probability of 50–75%, and if the LRINEC score is ≥ 8, the
patient is at high risk of a NSTI with a probability > 75%. The components
of the LRINEC score are listed in Table 16-6.
Table 16-6 Laboratory Risk Indicator for Necrotizing Fasciitis Score
Lab Value Score

C-reactive protein (mg/dL) < 150 0
≥ 150 4
WBC (per mm3) < 15 0

15 – 25 1
> 25 2
Hb (g/dL) > 13.5 0
11 – 13.5 1
< 11 2
Serum sodium (mEq/L) ≥ 135 0
< 135 2
Serum creatinine (mg/dL) ≤ 1.6 0
> 1.6 2
Serum glucose (mg/dL) < 180 0
≥ 180 1
Reprinted from Hakkarainen TW, Kopari NM, Pham TN, Evans HL. Necrotizing soft tissue
infections: review and current concepts in treatment, systems of care, and outcomes. Curr
Probl Surg. 2014;51(8):344-362 with permission from Elsevier.
Diagnosis of NSTI is confirmed by surgical exploration. Imaging and

physical examination alone are not sufficient for diagnosis of NSTI. CT
scans will generally show edematous changes. Not all NSTI is caused by
gas-forming organisms; therefore, the absence of gas on CT or radiographs
does not exclude the diagnosis. Any patient with suspicion for NSTI must
have an emergent surgical consult for exploration and debridement. After
the initial debridement, patients should undergo repeat surgical wound
exploration within 12–24 hours of continued resuscitation. Antibiotics do
not penetrate necrotic tissue; debridement is the mainstay of therapy.
If NSTI is suspected, an emergent

surgical consult should be obtained
and empiric antibiotics initiated
immediately.
If NSTI is suspected, in addition to obtaining a surgical consult, empiric

antibiotic therapy should be instituted. Empiric antibiotics should include
broad spectrum gram positive, gram negative, and anaerobic coverage.
Clindamycin or linezolid should be added for toxin binding properties and
can be discontinued after 48–72 hours of debridement and source control.
One appropriate NSTI regimen to use is vancomycin,
piperacillin/tazobactam, and clindamycin. Another suitable regimen is
linezolid, cefepime, and metronidazole. Ideally, tissue samples will be sent
from the initial debridement to streamline antibiotic choices. Antibiotics are
generally continued until 4–7 days after complete source control. If an
Aeromonas or Vibrio NSTI is suspected, include doxycycline or
tetracycline. If fungal infection is suspected, discussion with the pharmacy
or infectious disease is warranted to choose an appropriate antifungal agent.
Intravenous immune globulin therapy has been discussed in the literature as
an adjunct; however, the studies overall have had limitations. No consensus
regarding improvement in mortality has been made. Similarly, the use of
hyperbaric oxygen therapy has not been found to be of significant benefit in
the treatment of NSTI. The current recommended treatment of NSTI is
prompt surgical debridement with appropriate empiric antibiotic therapy.
Urgent surgical consultation was obtained. The patient’s antibiotic regimen

was broadened to include piperacillin/tazobactam, vancomycin, and
clindamycin. The patient was taken emergently to the operating room for
debridement of the abdominal wall. The wound was packed with a gauze
dressing, and the patient was brought back to the ICU for further
resuscitation. The patient underwent repeat debridement in the operating
room 12 hours later and was found to have additional necrotic tissue. The
patient underwent several more surgical debridement procedures until all
tissue appeared healthy and viable. After several days of wet-to-dry gauze
packing, the patient’s wound was treated with negative pressure wound
therapy.
V. ACUTE MESENTERIC (BOWEL) ISCHEMIA
Case Study
A 52-year-old man who smokes was admitted for abdominal pain and lactic
acidosis. He had undergone a noncontrast (creatinine 1.6 mg/dL) CT scan
of the abdomen, which showed nonspecific findings of bowel edema, most
significant in the distal small bowel and proximal colon. He was initially
resuscitated with crystalloid fluids and admitted to the ICU for shock.
– What are potential signs and symptoms of mesenteric ischemia?
– What are the types of mesenteric ischemia?
Bowel ischemia, if not diagnosed and treated emergently, can have
significant mortality. Once mesenteric ischemia progresses to necrosis,
mortality is at least 50%. Unfortunately, signs, symptoms, and physical
findings can be variable. In addition, a wide differential is usually present.
Therefore, a high index of suspicion is required. Patients are primarily
women 65 years of age and older. Abdominal pain, with or without bloody
diarrhea, that is out of proportion to examination is classically described,
but often the patient presents less dramatically in the early stages. Bowel
sounds are often present early. ECG monitoring with atrial fibrillation may
provide a clue to embolic mesenteric ischemia but is still a nonspecific
finding. Laboratory findings mimic sepsis with an elevated white blood cell
count and left shift, hemoconcentration, and a gapped metabolic acidosis
(lactic acidosis). Plain abdominal radiographs may show an ileus. CT scans
without contrast are often performed because of the hemoconcentration or
acute kidney injury that is present. These scans will likely only show late or
very late findings such as pneumatosis intestinalis or portal venous gas, or
free fluid/air, respectively. CT angiography of the abdomen and pelvis is the
ideal scan, but unfortunately it is usually not ordered in a timely fashion.
Diagnostic delay is the clinical challenge with mesenteric ischemia because
of the nonspecific symptoms reported by the patient and nonspecific
laboratory and radiographic findings.
Abdominal pain out of proportion

to examination is highly concerning
for mesenteric ischemia.
There are four types of acute mesenteric ischemia: 1) embolic, 2)

thrombotic, 3) venous, and 4) nonocclusive. The most common is embolic
(50%) with a clot in the heart originating from atrial fibrillation and lodging
in the superior mesenteric artery (SMA), just distal to the takeoff of the
middle colic artery. Thrombotic, occurring at the origin of the SMA, is the
cause in approximately 20% of these patients. With both contrast and
noncontrast CT scans, significant calcification can be seen in the aortic and
mesenteric vessels, especially at the origin. Patients with atherosclerosis of
the mesenteric vessels often have cardiac disease, and therefore are at risk
for atrial fibrillation that is NOT contributing to the mesenteric ischemia.
Because the bowel has three arterial trunks (celiac artery, SMA, and inferior
mesentery artery) and extensive vascular collaterals, significant disease in
two of three vessels is frequently present. Patients who have a
hypercoagulable state (eg, protein C or S deficiency), pancreatitis, or
dehydration are at risk of venous thrombosis of the portal vein, which can
be a cause of acute mesenteric ischemia in approximately 20% of the
patients. Finally, the least common cause (10%) is nonocclusive mesenteric
ischemia (NOMI), or hypoperfusion to the bowel because of various shock
states.
In view of the abdominal pain and lactic acidosis, a surgical consult was
obtained. The patient was taken to the operating room and intraoperatively
was noted to have diffuse ischemia but no necrosis of the bowel. The
general surgeon consulted with a vascular surgeon who evaluated the
arterial mesenteric vessels, which appeared normal. The portal vein was
noted to be firm with a clot. A heparin drip was started after a bolus. A
temporary closure of the abdomen was performed, and the patient was
taken back to the ICU intubated, on norepinephrine at 5 µg/min, with a
nasogastric and indwelling catheter in place.
Although it is extremely helpful to have a complete diagnosis of mesenteric
ischemia preoperatively, it is not uncommon to have incomplete data
regarding the patient and the type of mesenteric ischemia until the surgical
setting. In patients with a mesenteric embolus, an embolectomy is
performed, and anticoagulation is provided. Patients who have thrombotic
disease typically require revascularization of the SMA and at times, the
celiac trunk. These patients also are anticoagulated as part of the surgical
intervention and in the postoperative period. If severe bowel ischemia is
noted, or if there is frank bowel necrosis and perforation, the affected
portions of bowel are resected. Most patients will be left in discontinuity
and taken back to the operating room for further evaluation of the bowel
within 24–48 hours. These patients will have temporary abdominal closure
systems in place.
In patients with mesenteric

ischemia it is important to consider
that multiple operations and open
abdominal management could be
required.
Patients who are diagnosed with venous thrombosis are typically treated
with anticoagulation only. The bowel generally does NOT require resection
in venous mesenteric ischemia. However, the bowel is often more
edematous, creating a scenario of intra-abdominal hypertension or
abdominal compartment syndrome if the abdomen is closed before
significant edema has resolved.
Even after this patient has the appropriate diagnosis and treatment, the
critical care plan is complex. The ICU length of stay, assuming survival,
will likely be several days to weeks. Therefore, a comprehensive plan
(Table 16-7) will be needed because the patient will likely require
mechanical ventilation, goal-directed hemodynamic resuscitation, a
comprehensive nutrition plan, multiple surgical interventions requiring trips
to the operating room, and strategies to address the prevention of hospital-
acquired conditions that will likely occur in this complex patient. Similar to
other abdominal conditions such as pancreatitis, enteral nutrition should be
the preferred method of delivering protein and calories.
The cause and therefore the
definitive treatment of mesenteric
ischemia may not be able to be
determined until surgical
intervention is performed.
Table 16-7 Sample of Comprehensive ICU Plan with Open Abdomen

Patient After Ischemic Bowel
Neuro Sedation typically directed to RASS-1 to -2. Daily sedation
holiday. RASS goal 0 when abdomen closed.
Cardiovascular Goal-directed euvolemia, with norepinephrine as needed to
obtain MAP goal ≥ 65.
Pulmonary Tidal volume 6 mL/kg per ideal body weight lung protective
strategy. Daily weaning parameters if awake. Move toward
extubation when abdomen closed.
Gastrointestinal/Nutrition Nasogastric tube decompression. When bowel with continuity,
start enteral nutrition at 30–50% goal assuming resuscitation
successful. High risk of ileus. Parenteral nutrition on day 7 if
60% of nutrition not met. With open abdomen, patients require
2.0 g of protein/kg/day.
Renal Indwelling bladder catheter during resuscitation. Frequent
bladder pressure measurements because of high risk of intra-
abdominal hypertension.
Hematology Heparin drip for goal PTT 70–90 sec. Follow hemoglobin for
bleeding risk. Follow platelets for heparin-induced
thrombocytopenia.
Infectious Disease With no contamination, only 24 h of antibiosis for perioperative
coverage. If contamination and peritonitis, continue antibiotics
for 4 days after source control.
Prophylaxis Glucose control less than 180 mg/dL. Head above bed 30–45
degrees. Stress ulcer prophylaxis.
The final form of mesenteric ischemia is nonocclusive mesenteric ischemia

(NOMI). This typically occurs in the ICU in which a patient is experiencing
a “low flow” or shock state that results in a significant decrease in oxygen
delivery to the intestine, creating mesenteric ischemia. Patients generally
have low cardiac output, are on vasopressors, and at times are on dialysis.
Treatment to address the shock is paramount. Goal-directed euvolemia with
appropriate titration of the vasopressors is required. As with the other forms
of mesenteric ischemia, serial abdominal examinations and laboratory
values are necessary but nonspecific. Imaging can be done, but it is also
typically not specific unless contrast is given for CT angiography and
diffuse vasospasm is seen. A surgical consultation is obtained because of
the patient’s abdominal distention, ileus, and rising white blood count and
lactate. At times, a diagnostic laparoscopy or laparotomy is required for the
diagnosis. If the bowel is necrotic, resection is required, and the open
abdomen scenario described previously is typical, with multiple trips to the
operating room. In addition, use of intra-arterial vasodilators or
prostaglandin administered in the interventional radiology suite is another
adjunct of therapy to improve blood flow to the bowel.
Unfortunately, when any of the forms of mesenteric ischemia progress to
necrosis, mortality of 50–100% is present. Diffuse necrosis that would
require nearly all the small AND large bowel to be removed may be the
finding at surgery. A discussion with the family ensues regarding goals of
care that are consistent with no bowel resection, return to the ICU, stopping
vasopressor agents, and an attempt to awake the patient for extubation.
Death typically ensues within minutes or hours.
VI. INTRA-ABDOMINAL HYPERTENSION AND

ABDOMINAL COMPARTMENT SYNDROME
The patient underwent further surgeries, with closure of fascia and skin on
postoperative day 4. He continued to need aggressive resuscitation with
fluids and blood products but was able to be taken off pressors. During the
evening he had a rapid drop in his urine output, and his pulmonary
pressures rose, making ventilation difficult. Examination at bedside showed
his abdomen to be distended and tight.
Increased intra-abdominal pressure (IAP), the pressure within the
abdominal cavity typically measured as bladder pressure, has been
increasingly recognized as both the cause and consequence of many
complications in critically ill patients. The perfusion pressure to the
abdomen, termed abdominal perfusion pressure (APP), is the mean arterial
pressure minus the IAP. Similar to cerebral perfusion pressure, APP is the
critical determinant of perfusion to the abdominal visceral organs.
Intra-abdominal hypertension (IAH) is defined as a sustained increase of
IAP to >12 mm Hg, whereas abdominal compartment syndrome is defined
as IAP >25 mm Hg with new onset of organ failure at a lower IAP.
Abdominal compartment syndrome can be difficult to diagnose because of
the overlap of symptoms with other common ICU illnesses, such as acute
oliguric renal failure, acute respiratory distress syndrome, and tension
pneumothorax.
Although normal IAP is in the range of 3 to 7 mm Hg, it can reach 9 to 14
mm Hg in obese individuals. Hence, the physiologic state must be taken
into account when interpreting IAP measurements. Increases can come
from increased abdominal volume, decreased abdominal wall compliance,
or more commonly a combination of the two. Some conditions leading to
IAH/abdominal compartment syndrome are listed in Table 16-8.
Abdominal compartment syndrome is classified as primary, secondary, or
recurrent. Primary abdominal compartment syndrome is a condition
associated with injury or disease in the abdominopelvic region that
frequently requires early surgical or radiologic intervention, whereas
secondary abdominal compartment syndrome develops from conditions that
do not originate primarily from that region (eg, sepsis, capillary leak,
burns). Abdominal compartment syndrome can progress and recur even
after initial therapy is successful.
Table 16-8 Conditions Associated with Intra-abdominal

Hypertension/Abdominal Compartment Syndrome
Increased Intra- Decreased Abdominal
abdominal Volume Wall Compliance Combination
Gastrointestinal tract Abdominal surgery, especially with Obesity, sepsis, severe
dilatation tight abdominal closures sepsis, and septic
– Ileus shock
Abdominal wall bleeding or rectus
– Volvulus sheath hematomas Severe acute
– Colonic pseudo- pancreatitis
Surgical correction of large abdominal
obstruction
hernias, gastroschisis, or Massive fluid
Intra-abdominal or omphalocele resuscitation
retroperitoneal
Major burns (with or
masses>
without abdominal
– Abdominal
eschars)
tumor
Complicated intra-
Ascites or abdominal infection
hemoperitoneum
Retroperitoneal
edema/hemorrhage
Pneumoperitoneum
(eg, during
laparoscopy)
>Data from Malbrain ML, Cheatham ML, Kirkpatrick A, et al. Results from the International
Conference of Experts on Intra-abdominal Hypertension and Abdominal Compartment
Syndrome. I. Definitions. Intensive Care Med. 2006;32(11):1722-1732.
IAH has deleterious effects on both intra- and extra-abdominal organ

systems. Most of these effects are either from decreased abdominal
perfusion causing ischemia of abdominal organs or from reduced
thoracoabdominal compliance leading to reduced cardiac output and
respiratory compromise.
The result may be further bowel ischemia, acute kidney injury, or even
ischemia to the liver. In addition, as IAPs increase, extra-abdominal organs
can be affected. For instance, intrathoracic pressures increase secondary to
reduced intra-abdominal compliance. This can create increased intracranial
pressure and diminished cerebral venous return. Worsening hypercarbia
and/or hypoxemia can occur because of poor lung compliance and
decreased tidal volumes. Cardiac compromise occurs secondary to
decreased preload and increased afterload.
Significant IAH will lead to increased measured filling pressures, such as
central venous pressure, secondary to reduced chest wall compliance;
however, venous return is significantly reduced, and the transmural
pressures are actually low. Thus, these values will have different
interpretations with IAH, and higher physiologic targets may be appropriate
for resuscitation.
IAP measurements are made at end-expiration with the patient in the supine
position, after ensuring that abdominal muscle contractions are absent and
with the transducer zeroed at the level of the midaxillary line. The reference
standard for intermittent IAP measurement is via the bladder with a
maximal instillation volume of 25 mL of sterile saline. In ventilated
patients, the most accurate bladder pressure measurement may be obtained
with the use of chemical paralysis.
In patients that are at high risk of

developing abdominal compartment
syndrome, obtain bladder pressure
readings early and often.
The cornerstones of management of IAH/abdominal compartment

syndrome are early recognition by serial monitoring of IAP (generally
every 4 to 6 hours), maintenance of abdominal (APP >60 mm Hg) and
systemic perfusion, prompt institution of medical therapies to reduce IAP
and prevent adverse consequences on organ function, and early surgical
decompression for refractory IAH. Patients with the risk factors for
developing IAH (Table 16-8) should have their bladder pressure measured
routinely. Physical examination alone is not sufficiently sensitive to be
useful in the early detection of IAH. Both medical and surgical therapeutic
maneuvers are used to decrease the level of IAH to prevent acute coronary
syndrome (ACS) with its complications.
Treatment options for levels of bladder pressure readings are listed in Table
16-9. Medical therapies include options that attempt to lessen the intra-
abdominal contents, such as placement of nasogastric or colonic
decompression tubes, decompressive colonoscopy, and draining ascites.
Colonoscopy may also be performed for severe Ogilvie syndrome (colon
pseudo-obstruction). Fluid administration may be tapered to avoid
hypervolemia, and diuretics may be tried if the patient is not hypotensive.
Colloids, such as albumin, can be considered instead of large volumes of
crystalloid. Sedation and analgesia are promoted to improve
thoracoabdominal compliance, with consideration of neuromuscular
blockade. Pleural effusions may be drained. Constrictive bandages are
avoided. Blood pressure may be purposely raised to keep APP >60 mm Hg.
Similar to cerebral perfusion pressure, APP is the critical determinant of
perfusion to the abdominal visceral organs. The gold standard of therapy for
ACS remains surgical, with decompressive laparotomy. It is important to
note that ACS may occur even in the “open abdomen” if packing used
within the abdomen is too tight. Table 16-9 illustrates the class of IAH and
the treatment options.
Physical examinations are not

reliable in diagnosing intra-
abdominal hypertension or
abdominal compartment syndrome.
Table 16-9 Intra-abdominal Hypertension Classification and Treatment

Options
Abdominal Pressure Reading Treatment
< 12 mm Hg (normal) Surveillance of IAPs every 4 hours
12–15 mm Hg Class I IAH Reconfirm pressure readings, continue surveillance of
IAPs, start medical therapy to decrease IAH
16–20 mm Hg Class II IAH Reconfirm pressure readings, continue surveillance of
IAPs, optimize multimedical approaches to decrease
IAH, obtain early surgical consult
21–25 mm Hg Class III IAH Continue medical therapies, consider surgical
decompression
>25 mm Hg Class IV IAH Achieve surgical decompression
Abbreviations: IAH, intra-abdominal hypertension; IAP, intra-abdominal pressure.
Bladder pressure was 46 mm Hg, so the patient was returned to the

operating room to re-open the abdomen. With overall improvement in his
condition, he was able to have definitive closure 4 days later, was extubated
on postoperative day 7 from the last washout, and was discharged from the
ICU on postoperative day 17.
Key Points: Surgery in Critical Care

The diagnosis of acute pancreatitis should be made quickly and
resuscitation begun promptly to avoid progression of the condition.
There are many criteria available to assess severity of pancreatitis.
Treatment of severe pancreatitis requires a multidisciplinary approach,
and antibiotics are generally not required.
Postoperative infection treatment requires input from the surgical team
and thoughtful antibiotic selection.
Necrotizing soft-tissue infection is a surgical emergency and treatment
includes immediate surgical exploration and debridement.
Diagnosis of mesenteric ischemia requires a very high index of
suspicion.
Management of bowel ischemia requires resuscitation, surgical and/or
vascular interventions, and a multifaceted ICU plan.
Once mesenteric ischemia is diagnosed, heparin anticoagulation is
required.
In all of these diseases, nutrition is important, and the oral or enteral
route is preferred as long as there is no bowel discontinuity.
Physical examination alone is not diagnostic of abdominal
compartment syndrome.
Treatment of intra-abdominal hypertension requires a medical
approach; true abdominal compartment syndrome requires a surgical
approach.
Suggested Readings
1. Ban KA, Minei JP, Laronga C, et al. American College of Surgeons

and Surgical Infection Society: Surgical Site Infection Guidelines,
2016 Update. J Am Coll Surg. 2017;224(1):59-74.
2. Banks PA, Bollen TL, Dervenis C, et al. Classification of Acute
Pancreatitis-2012: Revision of the Atlanta Classification and
definitions by international consensus. Gut. 2013;62:102-111.
3. Bobadilla J. Mesenteric ischemia. Surg Clin North Am.
2013;93(4):925-940.
4. Crockett SD, Wani S, Gardner TB, Falck-Ytter Yngve, Barkun AN.
American Gastroenterological Association Institute Guideline on
Initial Management of Acute Pancreatitis. Gastroenterology.
2018;154(4):1096-1101.
5. Garcia NM, Cai J. Aggressive Soft Tissue Infections. Surg Clin North
Am. 2018;98(5):1097-1108.
6. Hakkarainen TW, Kopari NM, Pham TN, Evans HL. Necrotizing soft
tissue infections: review and current concepts in treatment, systems of
care, and outcomes. Curr Probl Surg. 2014;51(8):344-362.
7. Hines OJ, Pandol SJ. Management of Severe Acute Pancreatitis. BMJ.
2019;367:I6227.
8. Hirsch A, Haskal Z, Hertzer N, et al. ACC/AHA 2005. Practice
Guidelines for the management of patients with peripheral arterial
disease (lower extremity, renal, mesenteric, and abdominal aortic): a
collaborative report from the American Association for Vascular
Surgery/Society for Vascular Surgery, Society for Cerebrovascular
Angiography and Interventions, Society for Vascular Medicine and
Biology, Society of Intervention Radiology, and the ACC/AHA Task
Force on Practice Guidelines. Circulation. 2006;113(11):e463-654.
9. James TW, Crockett SD. Management of Acute Pancreatitis in the first
72 Hours. Curr Opin Gastroenterol. 2018;34(5):330-335.
10. Mueck KM, Wei S, Pedroza C, et al. Gallstone Pancreatitis: Admission
Versus Normal Cholecystectomy-A Randomized Trial (Gallstone
PANC Trial). Ann Surg. 2019;270(3):519-527.
11. Stevens DL, Bryant AE. Necrotizing Soft-Tissue Infections. N Engl J
Med. 2017;377(23):2253-2265.
12. Vivian E, Cler L, Conwell D, et al. Acute Pancreatitis Task Force on
Quality: Development of Quality Indicators for Acute Pancreatitis
Management. Am J Gastroenterol. 2019;114(8):1322-1342.
13. Wu BU, Johannes RS, Sun X, Tabak Y, Conwell DL, Banks PA. The
Early Prediction of Mortality in Acute Pancreatitis: a Large
Population-based Study. Gut. 2008;57(12):1698-1703.
Appendix 1
RAPID RESPONSE SYSTEM
I. INTRODUCTION
Rapid response systems (RRS) have emerged as important resources that
focus on the hospitalized patient with unexpected, sudden deterioration in a
condition from any cause. Historically, crisis teams were activated only
after a significant event, such as cardiac arrest; there was no organized
approach to preventing an untoward event in an at-risk hospitalized patient.
Most patients who experience a cardiac arrest while in the hospital
demonstrate identifiable signs of deterioration in the previous 8 hours. Early
recognition of deterioration and timely intervention can reduce the
incidence of in-hospital cardiac arrest or the need for intensive care. RRSs
have been shown to reduce in-hospital mortality and cardiopulmonary
arrest, although the presence of a physician is not significantly associated
with a mortality reduction.
Unfortunately, the early indicators of clinical deterioration can be difficult
to identify. Assessing the physiologic reserve of a patient is challenging.
RRSs bring additional experienced providers with advanced monitoring
tools to the patient’s bedside. If needed, more advanced monitoring and
therapy can be initiated immediately, and a decision can be made about the
most appropriate care level. The most important action in the process is the
call for help.
The RRS model can be divided into four components, each of which plays
an integral role in the success of the system (Figure A1-1). The
administrative arm oversees appropriate staffing, provides resources, drafts
protocols and guidelines, and ensures staff education regarding the presence
and utility of the service. The afferent arm is concerned with detecting
impending deterioration, while the efferent arm is focused on rendering
therapy and mobilizing additional resources quickly. Lastly, the
performance improvement arm seeks to identify recurrent patterns of
deterioration and assess improvement in quality measures following
system-wide interventions.
Figure A1-1. Rapid Response System Structure
Abbreviations: AMI, acute myocardial infarction; LOS, length of stay; MET, medical
emergency team; RRT, rapid response team; VIPPS, ventilation infusion of volume,
pressors/pump, pharmacy, and specific interventions
Adapted from Sebat F, ed. Designing, Implementing, and Enhancing a Rapid Response
System. Mount Prospect, IL: Society of Critical Care Medicine; 2009:41.
II. BUILDING A MEDICAL EMERGENCY OR RAPID

RESPONSE TEAM
Rapid response teams (RRTs) represent an intuitively simple concept: When
a patient demonstrates signs of imminent clinical deterioration, a team of
providers is summoned to the bedside to immediately assess and treat the
patient with the goal of preventing transfer to the ICU, cardiac arrest, or
death. An RRT is the intervention limb of the RRS. By consensus, a
medical emergency team (MET) is led by a prescribing clinician (physician
or advanced practice provider), whereas an RRT is led by a nurse and/or
respiratory therapist (nonprescribing clinician). However, most recently,
these two terms have been used interchangeably.
A. Response Team Composition
Although there is no single perfect team composition, the most successful

METs and RRTs have been developed by leveraging existing hospital
resources and targeting particular at-risk patient populations.
Multidisciplinary, physician-led teams (METs) are prevalent in academic
centers with training programs. Nurse-led or nurse–respiratory therapist
teams (RRTs) with physician backup (or medical control similar to the
emergency medical services model) are more often found in community
hospitals without training programs. Regardless of the team composition,
effective teamwork skills are essential to the success of the program. The
implementation of standardized protocols or standing orders allows the
team to use evidence-based best practices to address commonly identified
clinical issues. The RRS administrative leadership should develop these
protocols and standing orders in accordance with institutional policies and
procedures. Possible members of an MET or RRT are identified in Table
A1-1.
Table A1-1 Possible Members of Medical Emergency or Rapid
Response Team
Physicians Intensivist, hospitalist, emergency medicine physician,
(attending, fellow, anesthesiologist, pulmonologist, surgeon, internist
resident)
Advanced practice Nurse practitioner, physician assistant, certified registered nurse
providers anesthetist
Nurses ICU nurse, postanesthesia care unit nurse, emergency
department nurse, telemetry unit nurse, nursing supervisor
Other providers Respiratory therapist, electrocardiography technician, emergency
medical technician/paramedic
At an academic hospital, the composition of the responding team may

include the following combinations of caregivers:
ICU attending and/or fellow, ICU nurse, respiratory therapist,

pharmacist
Hospitalist, medicine resident or advanced practice provider, ICU
nurse, respiratory therapist
ICU nurse, respiratory therapist, physician (backup)
At a non-teaching hospital, the team may consist of one of the following

combinations:
Emergency department physician or advanced practice provider,

hospitalist, ICU nurse, respiratory therapist
Emergency department nurse, ICU nurse, respiratory therapist
Postanesthesia care unit nurse, respiratory therapist, physician
(backup)
Typically, physician members are trained (or are training) in critical care,
emergency medicine, anesthesia, or internal medicine. They bring their
knowledge of critical illness and their skills in the management of life-
threatening problems to the patient’s bedside. Nurse members usually have
many years of bedside experience and most often have extensive critical
care training. Team members from other disciplines add value to the MET
or RRT with their knowledge of such factors as airway and respiratory
management, drug therapies, traumatic injury management, and critical care
transport.
Team members usually are expected to maintain current provider status in
basic and advanced cardiac life support, pediatric advanced life support
(where applicable), and fundamental critical care. Periodic teamwork
exercises in mock events or medical simulation centers can hone members’
evaluation and management skills. Treatment protocols and standing orders
should be reviewed and amended based on feedback from MET or RRT
calls and quality improvement data.
B. Response Team Equipment
The use of advanced physiologic monitors and equipment by appropriately

trained MET members can provide crucial support to the at-risk patient.
This can greatly enhance the team’s ability to evaluate and manage signs
and symptoms of clinical deterioration. Clearly, the earlier clinical
abnormalities are identified and addressed, the greater the potential for a
positive outcome and, often, the simpler the needed intervention. The MET
or RRT should first evaluate the resources that are readily available in the
areas it will support and then create a list of additional needed equipment
(Table A1-2). The response team must have access to cardiac, respiratory,
and simple hemodynamic monitors. Other equipment and medications
should be selected based on the patient populations served, the team
composition, and local regulations and policies. Because the MET or RRT
is expected to respond quickly, any additional necessary equipment and
supplies should be organized in appropriate bags or carts that can be readily
transported to the patient.
Table A1-2 Response Team Equipment Lista
Physiologic Monitors Cardiovascular Equipment

Monitor/defibrillator with external pacing Manual blood pressure device
capability
Noninvasive blood pressure device IV administration kits
Pulse oximetry IV catheters
Portable capnography (if available)
Miscellaneous
Respiratory Equipment Personal protective equipment
Portable oxygen tank Sterile gloves
Portable suction device Dressings and bandages
High-flow oxygen reservoir face mask Antiseptics
Bag-mask device Drug Bag (as appropriate for scope of
practice)
Ventimask®, nasal cannula, and simple face Vasopressors
mask
Nebulizer mask Inotropes
Oropharyngeal/nasopharyngeal airways Vasodilators
Laryngeal mask airways Sedatives and analgesics
Laryngoscopes and blades Bronchodilators
Endotracheal tubes with stylets Crystalloid and colloid IV fluid
Cricothyrotomy catheter kit Aspirin
Stethoscope
Consider portable ultrasound machine where
available
aNecessary equipment and supplies should be available on the patient unit or carried by the
team.
III. ACTIVATING THE MEDICAL EMERGENCY OR RAPID

RESPONSE TEAM
A. Activation Criteria and Triggers

The most important activation criterion is the concern of the bedside
physician, nursing staff, or family that something is wrong, even if other
indicators are within acceptable limits. This intuition is often quite sensitive
and warrants additional assessment. The fact that an intuition or a gut
feeling is not very specific should not discourage activation of the MET or
RRT.
The distribution of a predefined set of MET or RRT activation criteria may
help to focus attention on important early indicators and empower the
bedside staff to call for help early. These criteria may be based on the
detection of acute changes in physiology, organ system–specific signs and
symptoms, and event triggers (Table A1-3). Acute changes in physiology
may include changes in vital signs that exceed predefined limits, such as
tachycardia, tachypnea, hypotension, and oliguria.
Table A1-3 Models of Activation Criteria
Acute Physiologic Criteria

Acute Physiologic Criteria
Acute change in heart rate to <40 or >130 beats/min
Acute change in systolic blood pressure to <90 mm Hg
Acute change in urine output to <50 mL in 4 hours
Acute change in respiratory rate <8 or >30 breaths/min
Acute change in pulse oximetry to <90% despite oxygen administration
Acute change in consciousness
Qualitative deterioration in clinical status
Organ System-Specific Criteria

Airway
Respiratory distress
Threatened airway
Breathing
Respiratory rate >30 breaths/min
Respiratory rate <6 breaths/min
SpO2 <90% on oxygen
Difficulty speaking
Circulation
Blood pressure <90 mm Hg despite treatment
Pulse rate >130 beats/min
Neurology
Any unexplained decrease in consciousness
New agitation or delirium
Repeated or prolonged seizures
Other
Concern about the patient
Uncontrolled pain
Failure to respond to treatment
Inability to obtain prompt assistance
Event Trigger
Unscheduled naloxone dose administered
Increase in oxygen requirement
Any change to a 100% reservoir face mask
Any change in FIO2 delivery by ≥20%
After 3 unanswered pages to medical/surgical team for any patient in a shift
Response time to medical/surgical team page >30 min
Family concern about patient status
Any falls or traumatic injuries
Pain score ≥4 of 10 more than 30 min after highest ordered dose of analgesic
Persistent nausea/vomiting more than 30 min after highest dose of antiemetic
Any newly noted abnormal pulse
Abbreviations: SpO2, oxygen saturation on pulse oximetry; FIO2, fraction of inspired oxygen.
The detection of one or more indicators of organ system dysfunction may

trigger activation of the response team. Such pattern recognition may be
more effective in detecting clinical deterioration when there is a gradual
change in physiologic variables.
Event triggers help emphasize that some patient incidents or interventions
warrant further evaluation. The event may be a sign or a result of a larger
issue that could be an ongoing threat to the patient’s safety. For example,
any administration of naloxone is an indicator that one or more undesirable
adverse effects of opiates may be present. Although naloxone may
temporarily reverse these adverse effects, they can recur as the antagonist
effects wane. A focused evaluation by the MET or RRT may avoid the
undesirable consequences of these events.
B. Response Team Scoring Systems
The use of a scoring system in evaluating the at-risk patient can provide a
graded assessment of clinical status and help to determine the level of
response needed. An overall score is calculated based on the aggregate of
points assigned to various symptoms, vital signs, and laboratory studies.
Additional points are assigned to results that vary greatly from normal.
Several patented early warning scoring systems are available, although not
all are validated. The Modified Early Warning Score, which evaluates a
patient’s vital signs and mental status, has been validated in hospitalized
medical patients. A score of 5 or greater has been associated with an
increased mortality rate and increased incidence of ICU admission.
Individual MET or RRT programs may choose to define absolute value or
trend thresholds that trigger a move to a higher level of care or mobilization
of additional clinical resources. Collection and analysis of aggregate scores
in patients receiving MET or RRT services can be used for quality
improvement efforts, such as evaluation of standing orders, event cluster
identification, and resource utilization.
IV. TEAM RESPONSE
A. Response Team Interventions

Interventions should be aimed at rapidly stabilizing the patient and
preventing further deterioration or full arrest. Studies have shown that the
three most common reasons for activating an MET or RRT are
hypoxemia, hypotension, and altered mental status. Teams should identify
the primary activating events in their institutions and build protocols to
address each rapidly.
Respiratory distress is the leading physiologic cause of MET or RRT
activation. The reasons for acute changes can be related to fluid status,
medications (eg, narcotics), progression of underlying disease, or patient
noncompliance with physician-ordered oxygen therapies. Initial treatment is
stabilization of the airway and application of high-flow oxygen to relieve
the patient’s distress and improve oxygen saturation. Following
improvement in patient status, the team can evaluate for potential reversible
causes.
Hypotension can be related to volume status (both overall volume and
blood volume); medications, including narcotics and antihypertensives; and
the potential for sepsis. Initial treatment is administration of fluids to raise
systolic pressure and/or the immediate reversal of a known cause, such as
narcotics. Consideration should be given to empiric antibiotic therapy in
cases of suspected severe sepsis or septic shock.
Altered mental status is most often associated with hypoxemia,
hypotension, or hypoglycemia. These should be evaluated and treated first.
Altered mental status unrelated to those issues should be evaluated for
either neurologic or medication causes. Treatment, including evaluation
with computed tomography scanning, should be guided accordingly.
The responding team should make every effort to involve the patient’s
primary physician and rounding team in decisions regarding disposition and
care. The role of a MET or RRT is not to take the place of the primary team
but to act for – and with – them at the bedside in an emergency.
B. Response Team Communications
In the complex hospital environment, the use of a structured communication

tool and a common critical language fosters the open communication
among caregivers that is essential to the prompt evaluation and
management of the at-risk patient. Incorporating the Situation, Background,
Assessment, and Recommendation (SBAR) Tool into MET or RRT
documentation can facilitate effective communication by gathering all
pertinent data in one place for any discussions to follow. This tool has
proven to be most valuable in the effective communication of critical
information (Table A1-4).
Table A1-4 SBAR Communication Tool
Situation: What is happening with the patient?

Background: What is the clinical background or context?
Assessment: What do I think is the problem?
Recommendation/interventions: What would I do to evaluate or correct it?
C. Response Team Utilizing Attending Physician Expertise via

Telemedicine
With telemedicine being widely used in institutions, providing early
attending physician expertise via telemedicine can improve RRT
evaluations. In a quasi-experimental study done in a single center, RRTs
used a smart phone-based telemedicine platform to facilitate early co-
assessment and disposition at the patient’s bedside with the ICU attending.
Results showed that the RRT providers spent less time outside the ICU, and
among patients transferred to the ICU there was a significant decrease in
the likelihood of patients requiring vasopressors or intubation within the
first 60 minutes of transfer. Utilizing early ICU attending involvement can
improve efficiency of the RRT evaluations.
D. Response Team Education
One of the primary goals of METs and RRTs is education. The detection
limb of the RRS model relies heavily on the early recognition of signs and
symptoms of clinical deterioration. Regularly scheduled staff in-services
and mock-event drills are effective in maintaining competencies in
identifying the at-risk patient. Public posting and discussion of activation
criteria can further enhance the use of MET or RRT services and reduce
patient clinical crises. Review of aggregate quality improvement data from
response team activity also can reinforce education. Post hoc review of a
patient event with the entire unit staff after an MET or RRT call serves to
raise the collective knowledge and skill of the entire group. This may
reduce the likelihood of subsequent problems and increase the likelihood
that signs and symptoms of clinical deterioration will be detected at the
earliest indication in future patients. Topic-of-the-week presentations, MET
or RRT case reviews, and SBAR practice sessions are examples of targeted
educational activities.
V. STRATEGIES FOR SUCCESS

Hospitals that use an RRS report various factors that lead to successful team
implementation. Some common themes in their success include:
1. Training/Education – The MET or RRT members and the bedside nursing
staff must understand when and how to activate the team and the scope of
team capabilities. The response team members will need ongoing training in
management of common indicators in at-risk patients and effective
intervention and communication strategies. The mentoring of the bedside
nursing staff in critical assessment skills and effective communication skills
is a primary team education objective. High-fidelity simulation in a
simulation center is helpful, but low-fidelity simulations with mock medical
emergency scenarios or table-top exercises are effective as well. Scenario-
based case presentations using a chalkboard or paper can be offered in any
clinical setting.
2. Equipment/Supplies – The equipment and supplies carried by the
response team should be tailored to the needs of the patient population
served, but then standardized to ensure that the appropriate resources reach
the bedside with each call. If multiple RRT bags are used, the items should
be organized within each bag to facilitate rapid access at the bedside. It is
impractical to carry every item available in the ICU. Equipment use should
be reviewed as part of the quality improvement program. Seldom-used
items should be removed unless they serve an important role in the
management of infrequent, but high-risk events. The response team should
strive to carry only the necessary equipment and supplies.
3. Culture of Empowerment – Staff nurses should be trained to recognize
signs of clinical deterioration before a crisis and to trust their experience
and skills. They should be empowered, and supported by leadership, to
activate the MET or RRT according to established criteria. There should be
no penalty for activating the MET or RRT, especially if the findings do not
point to an impending clinical crisis. Such events can identify areas for
targeted education in the detection of signs of clinical deterioration or
focused review of the risks inherent to that patient population.
4. Evaluation – Data collection should be embedded into the clinical
workflow to facilitate monitoring of clinical and service outcomes. Regular
reporting, monitoring, and evaluation of response team activities and
outcomes guide rapid cycle improvement of team processes. Patient and
family satisfaction data help prioritize program development and resource
allocation. Constant dialogue among the stakeholders to identify
improvement opportunities is essential.
VI. SUMMARY
Hospitalized patients can be at risk for clinical deterioration in part because
of the complex nature of healthcare delivery systems. The goal of the RRS
model is to identify and manage signs and symptoms of clinical
deterioration in at-risk patients through detection strategies at the bedside
and mobilization of appropriate resources. Important factors in the
successful implementation of an RRS include: (1) appropriate team
composition; (2) activation criteria based on bedside staff concern, acute
changes in physiology, or the use of scoring systems to identify at-risk
patients; (3) interventions aimed at rapidly stabilizing the patient; (4)
effective communication strategies like SBAR; (5) ongoing education to
enhance detection and management of potential clinical crises; (6)
availability of appropriate advanced clinical monitors, equipment, and
medications to conduct MET or RRT activities; and (7) evaluation and
correction of processes and causes of patient risk.
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after trial of a medical emergency team. Med J Aust. 2003;179:283-
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emergency team on reduction of incidence of and mortality from
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calling criteria: prevalence, characteristics and associated outcomes.
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consensus conference on medical emergency teams. Crit Care Med.
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attending physician expertise via telemedicine to improve rapid
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importance of effective teamwork and communication in providing
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Response System. Mount Prospect, IL: Society of Critical Care
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system for patients in shock on time to treatment and mortality during
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Suggested Website
1. American College of Cardiology. http://www.acc.org.

Appendix 2
AIRWAY ADJUNCTS
I. LARYNGEAL MASK AIRWAY

A. Indications
1. Provide an airway and ventilation when bag-mask ventilation is

difficult.
2. Provide a temporizing airway when endotracheal intubation is
unsuccessful.
B. Equipment
1. Bag-mask resuscitation unit with high-flow oxygen source

2. Pulse oximeter
3. Electrocardiographic monitor
4. Blood pressure monitoring
5. Gloves, mask, eye protection
6. Laryngeal mask airway (LMA) of appropriate size (Table A2-1)
7. Syringe for cuff inflation
8. Water-soluble lubricant
9. Qualitative CO2 detector or CO2 monitor
10. Resuscitation cart

Table A2-1 Laryngeal Mask Airway Size and Cuff Inflation
LMA Patient Maximum LMA LMA ProSeal LMA LMA Flexible

Size Size Cuff Unique Max Supreme ID
Volume Max ETT ETT IDb Gastric Orificed
IDa Tubec
1 < 5 kg ≤ 4 mL 3.5 mm ID 3.5 mm ID 6F n/a
1.5 5-10 kg ≤ 7 mL 4.0 mm ID 4.0 mm ID n/a n/a
2 10-20 ≤ 10 mL 4.5 mm ID 4.5 mm ID 10 F 5.1 mm
kg
2.5 20-30 ≤ 14 mL 5.0 mm ID 5.0 mm ID n/a 6.1 mm
kg
3 30-50 ≤ 20 mL 6.0 mm ID 5.0 mm ID 14 F 7.6 mm
kg
4 50-70 ≤ 30 mL 6.0 mm ID 5.0 mm ID 14 F 7.6 mm
kg
5 70-100 ≤ 40 mL 7.0 mm ID 6.0 mm ID 14 F 8.7 mm
kg
6 > 100 ≤ 50 mL 7.0 mm ID n/a n/a 8.7 mm
kg
a Largest endotracheal tube size (ETT ID) that will fit through laryngeal mask airway (LMA)
tube lumen.
b Largest endotracheal tube size (ETT ID) that will fit through a ProSeal laryngeal mask
airway (LMA) tube lumen.
c Gastric tube size (French) that will fit through a Supreme laryngeal mask airway (LMA)
gastric port.
d Internal diameter (ID) for flexible laryngeal mask airway (LMA) tube lumen.
C. Preparation for Insertion
1. Don gloves, mask, and eye protection.

2. Ensure patent airway and optimal oxygenation and ventilation.
3. Ensure intravenous access.
4. Apply pulse oximeter and electrocardiographic and blood pressure
monitors.
5. Select appropriate size LMA.
6. Check cuff integrity by inflating and fully deflating.
7. Lubricate only the posterior aspect of the deflated mask with a water-
based lubricant.
8. Preoxygenate with 100% oxygen for 2 to 3 minutes if time permits.
D. Technique (Figure A2-1)
1. The cuff is deflated completely so that it forms a spoon shape and

there are no folds in the mask.
2. The operator stands behind the head of the bed, and the bed is raised to
a position of comfort for the operator.
3. The patient is placed in the sniffing position (ie, head extended, neck
flexed), unless potential or definite cervical spine injury prevents neck
extension.
4. Cricoid pressure is not recommended during placement of the LMA
because it may interfere with correct placement.
5. The mask is positioned with the bowl facing anteriorly. Hold the
device like a pencil, with the index finger of the dominant hand at the
junction of the bowl and tube, pressing the device against the palate
and pharyngeal wall with the index finger.
6. The cuff is inserted into the hypopharynx until definite resistance is
felt.
7. Without the operator holding the device, the cuff is inflated with
enough air to obtain a seal around the laryngeal inlet. This results in an
outward movement of the tube.
8. The cuff is inflated with enough air to obtain a seal (intracuff pressure
of approximately 44 mm Hg, or to the minimum pressure needed to
create an adequate seal). Excessive cuff pressure will increase the
incidence of pharyngolaryngeal complications. Maximum volumes are
listed in Table A2-1, but lesser volume may provide an adequate seal.
9. A manual ventilation device is attached, and chest movement and
breath sounds are verified in both lung fields. Correct position should
be confirmed with a qualitative or quantitative end-tidal CO2 detector.
10. If chest movement is inadequate, or if a large air leak is present, the

device should be removed and reinserted.
11. When the LMA is positioned appropriately, the tube is secured with
tape.
Figure A2-1. Insertion Technique for Laryngeal Mask Airway
(A) Insert lubricated and deflated mask into the open mouth with the bowl facing anteriorly.
(B) Hold the device like a pencil, pressing against the palate and pharyngeal wall with the
index finger. (C) Continue inserting the cuff behind the tongue into the hypopharynx until
definite resistance is felt. (D) Without holding the device, inflate cuff with enough air to
obtain a seal. Attach manual ventilation device and ensure chest movement.
II. ESOPHAGEAL-TRACHEAL DOUBLE-LUMEN AIRWAY
DEVICE
A. Indications
1. Cardiorespiratory arrest and inability to provide an airway by other

means
B. Equipment

2. Pulse oximeter
6. Esophageal-tracheal double-lumen device

3. Intravenous access recommended.
monitors.
5. Select appropriate size device. The available sizes for the device are 41
and 37 French. Use the 41 French for patients taller than 5 feet (152
cm) and the 37 French for patients less than that height.
6. Check integrity of both cuffs by inflating and fully deflating.
D. Technique (Figure A2-2 and A2-3)
1. The cuffs should be deflated completely.

3. The patient is placed in a neutral or sniffing position (ie, head
extended, neck flexed), unless potential or definite cervical spine
injury prevents neck extension.
4. The patient’s tongue and jaw are grasped between the thumb and index
finger, and the device is inserted blindly. It is advanced until the
placement ring markers on the tube are positioned as indicated by the
manufacturer. Do not force the tube if resistance is met. A
laryngoscope can be used to assist with placement.
5. The pharyngeal cuff is inflated (85 mL for 37 Fr and 100 mL for 41
Fr) first to seal the posterior pharynx.
6. The distal cuff is then inflated (12 to 15 mL).
7. Ventilation should be attempted first through the pharyngeal lumen,
and the chest should be auscultated for breath sounds and observed for
movement. The tube enters the esophagus approximately 95% of the
time.
8. With the device placed in the esophagus, gastric contents can be
aspirated and gastric decompression performed by passing the
provided suction catheter through the clear connecting tube into the
stomach.
9. If breath sounds are absent, ventilation should be attempted through
the tracheal lumen while auscultating for breath sounds.
10. Use of the correct lumen for ventilation should be confirmed with a
qualitative/quantitative end-tidal CO2 or esophageal detector device.
11. When the device is positioned appropriately, the tube is secured with
tape.
Figure A2-2. Esophageal-Tracheal Double-Lumen Airway Device
Some tubes have two pilot balloons to allow for independent inflation of the pharyngeal and
esophageal cuffs, whereas other tubes have a single pilot port and simultaneously inflate
both cuffs. Detection of end-tidal CO2 in the proximal lumen suggests that the tube is in the
esophagus. In the rare instance that the tube enters the trachea, ventilation is only possible
via the distal lumen and end-tidal CO2 will not be detected from the proximal lumen.
Figure A2-3. Insertion Technique of Esophageal-Tracheal Double-Lumen Airway Device
(A) Insertion begins by lifting the chin and lower jaw. (B) The esophageal-tracheal double
lumen airway tube is inserted in a downward, curved movement along the tongue. (C) The
oropharyngeal balloon is inflated with 85 mL of air, and the distal cuff is inflated with 5 to 10
mL of air. (D) With the esophageal-tracheal double lumen airway tube in the esophageal
position, ventilation is performed through the longer no. 1 tube (blue). Air flows through the
holes into the pharynx and from there into the trachea (arrows). (E) With the esophageal-
tracheal double lumen airway tube in the tracheal position, ventilation is performed through
the shorter no. 2 tube. (F) Laryngoscopy facilitated insertion of esophageal-tracheal double
lumen airway tube.
Reprinted from Hagberg and Benumof’s Airway Management, 4th edition, Hagberg C,
Supraglottic airway techniques: Nonlaryngeal mask airways, Copyright (2017), with
permission from Elsevier.
III. VIDEO LARYNGOSCOPE

A. Indications
1. Endotracheal intubation in known or presumed difficult airway

2. Consider videolaryngoscopy for known or suspected cervical spine
injury
B. Equipment

2. Pulse oximeter
6. Video laryngoscope with appropriate blade
7. Endotracheal tube (ETT) of appropriate size for patient

monitors.
5. Prepare ETT with stylet and check cuff.
6. Turn on video laryngoscope power and check light/camera.
7. Ensure proper cable and blade attachment.
8. Position video screen for optimal viewing during laryngoscopy.
D. Technique (Figure A2-4)
3. Consider lubricating the tongue side of the laryngoscope blade prior to
insertion. Insert the laryngoscope blade into the oropharynx, and
advance into the hypopharynx while watching the video screen for
anatomic landmarks.
4. Once positioned in the hypopharynx, lift up and away, then adjust the
position until the glottis and vocal cords are seen.
5. Insert and advance the ETT into the hypopharynx until the tip is seen
near the end of the laryngoscope blade.
6. Advance the ETT through the glottis opening until the cuff passes the
vocal cords. Make small adjustments in laryngoscope and ETT
positioning as necessary to intubate the trachea.
7. Gently remove the laryngoscope blade while holding the ETT in place.
Be careful not to kink or pinch the camera cable.
8. Inflate the ETT cuff and remove the stylet. Attach the bag-valve device
and provide manual ventilation. Confirm bilateral breath sounds and
end-tidal carbon dioxide.
9. When the ETT is positioned appropriately, the tube is secured with
tape.
Figure A2-4. Video Laryngoscope
IV. OPTICAL LARYNGOSCOPE
A. Indications
1. Endotracheal intubation in known or presumed difficult airway

2. Consider optical laryngoscopy for known or suspected cervical spine
injury
B. Equipment

2. Pulse oximeter
6. Appropriately sized optical laryngoscope – color coded
7. ETT of appropriate size for patient
1. Don gloves, mask, eye protection.

monitors.
5. Prepare ETT, check cuff, and lubricate.
6. Choose appropriately sized optical laryngoscope.
7. Turn on laryngoscope light at least 30 seconds prior to use.
8. Load ETT into optical laryngoscope side channel.
9. Ensure ETT tip is seen through eyepiece but is not obstructing view.
D. Technique
3. Consider lubricating the tongue side of the laryngoscope blade prior to
insertion. Insert the laryngoscope blade in the midline over the tongue
into the oropharynx and advance into the hypopharynx by rotating the
laryngoscope along the tongue until it is perpendicular. Use caution to
not displace the tongue posteriorly.
4. Once positioned in the hypopharynx, look through the eyepiece and lift
up gently. Adjust the position until the glottis and vocal cords are seen.
If glottis structures are not seen, gently pull back until seen. DO NOT
tilt back or leverage against upper teeth or gums.
5. Advance the ETT through the glottis opening until the cuff passes the
vocal cords. Make small adjustments in laryngoscope positioning as
necessary to intubate the trachea.
6. Inflate the ETT cuff and separate from the laryngoscope with a gentle
spreading or peeling motion. Be careful to not displace the ETT.
7. Gently remove the laryngoscope blade while holding the ETT in place.
Rotate in opposite direction from insertion.
8. Attach the bag-valve device and provide manual ventilation. Confirm
bilateral breath sounds and end-tidal carbon dioxide.
9. When the ETT is positioned appropriately, the tube is secured with
tape.
Suggested Readings
1. Asai T, Morris S. The laryngeal mask airway: its features, effects and
role. Can J Anaesth. 1994 Oct;41(10):930-960. PMID 8001213
2. Brain AIJ. The Intavent Laryngeal Mask Instruction Manual.
Berkshire, UK: Brain Medical; 1992.
3. Huang HB, Peng, JM, Xu B, Liu GY, Du B. Video Laryngoscopy for
Endotracheal Intubation of Critically Ill Adults: A Systemic Review
and Meta-Analysis. Chest. 2017;152(3):510-517. PMID 28629915
4. Krafft P, Schebesta K. Alternative management techniques for the
difficult airway: esophageal-tracheal Combitube. Curr Opin
Anaesthesiol. 2004; 17(6):499-504.
5. Lascarrou JB, Boisrame-Helms J, Bailly A. Video Laryngoscopy vs
Direct Laryngoscopy on Successful First-Pass Orotracheal Intubation
Among ICU Patients: A Randomized Clinical Trial. JAMA.
2017;317(5):483. PMID 28118659
6. Lu Y, Jiang H, Zhu YS. Airtraq laryngoscope versus conventional
Macintosh laryngoscope: a systematic review and meta-analysis.
Anaesthesia. 2011;66(12):
1160-1167.
7. Niforopoulou P, Pantazopoulos I, Demestiha T, et al. Video-
laryngoscopes in the adult airway management: a topical review of the
literature. Acta Anaesthesiol Scand. 2010;54(9):1050-1061.
8. Seet E, Yousaf F, Gupta S, et al. Use of manometry for laryngeal mask
airway reduces postoperative pharyngolaryngeal adverse events: a
prospective, randomized trial. Anesthesiology. 2010 Mar;112(3):652-
657.
Appendix 3
ENDOTRACHEAL INTUBATION
I. INDICATIONS, PATIENT EVALUATION, MANUAL MASK

VENTILATION, PATIENT PREPARATION
See Chapter 2.
II. EQUIPMENT
A. Bag-mask resuscitation unit with oxygen supplementation (with
positive end-expiratory pressure valve if indicated)
B. Topical anesthetic spray
C. Medications as selected for analgesia/anesthesia, amnesia, and
neuromuscular blockade
D. Towel roll or pad for occipital elevation
E. Pulse oximeter
F. Electrocardiography monitor
G. Automatic blood pressure device or manual blood pressure monitoring
device
H. Gloves, mask, eye protection
I. Laryngoscope handle and blade(s): usually sizes #3 and #4 curved, #2
and #3 straight
J. Endotracheal tubes: usually 7.0- or 7.5-mm for adult women and 8.0-
mm for adult men
K. Malleable stylet
L. Yankauer and tracheal suction catheters, suction device
M. Magill forceps
N. 10-mL syringe to inflate cuff
O. Water-soluble lubricant
P. Qualitative CO2 detector, CO2 monitor, or esophageal detector device
Q. Tape or tracheal tube stabilization device

R. Resuscitation cart
S. Ventilator with breathing circuit
T. Functioning IV access in extremity without blood pressure device
III. ROUTE OF INTUBATION

A. Orotracheal intubation via direct laryngoscopy
This route is generally favored in most circumstances, including when

cervical spine injury is suspected.
B. Video laryngoscopy
This technique is used in the event of an anticipated difficult airway or

with a suspected or known cervical injury or highly transmissible
respiratory infection.
IV. OROTRACHEAL INTUBATION

A. Preparation
1. Don gloves, mask, and eye protection for universal precautions.

2. Explain the procedure, if patient is conscious.
3. Ensure patent airway and optimal oxygenation and ventilation
(Chapter 2).
5. Apply pulse oximeter, electrocardiography, and blood pressure
devices.
6. Assemble all equipment and ensure proper working order.
7. Prepare the endotracheal tube.
a. Check cuff integrity by inflating and fully deflating.
b. Insert stylet into endotracheal tube, bend to predicted
configuration to assist glottic entry. Ensure the distal tip of the
stylet does not protrude past the end of the endotracheal tube.
c. Apply water-soluble lubricant to the cuff end of the tube.
8. Connect laryngoscope blade to handle.
a. Select blade type (operator’s choice).
1. Straight blade — used to elevate the epiglottis anteriorly
2. Curved blade — inserted into the vallecula
b. Select blade length — #3 blade is proper unless patient’s neck is
very long.
c. Ensure that light is sufficiently bright.
9. Place pad or towel under occiput if cervical spine injury is not
suspected.
10. Use topical anesthetic on the patient’s oropharynx.
12. As necessary, proceed with sedation and neuromuscular blockade
(Chapter 2).
B. Technique
1. The operator stands at the head of the bed, and the bed is raised to a
position of comfort for the operator. The head of the bed may be flat or
raised slightly per operator preference.
2. When no cervical injury is suspected, a small pad is placed under the
occiput (the “sniffing” position) and the neck is gently extended
(Figure A3-1). When cervical spine injury is possible, these steps are
omitted, the neck is stabilized by an assistant (as described in Chapter
2), and the anterior portion of the cervical collar is removed.
Figure A3-1. Positioning for Orotracheal Intubation
The axial planes of the neck are not lined up with the head in a neutral position (A).
Slight extension and forward movement of the neck will line up the pharyngeal-
laryngeal axis and place the oral axis perpendicular to this line, thereby allowing
visualization of the vocal cords. (B). Note that this positioning is contraindicated in
patients with possible cervical spine injury.
3. Regardless of the operator’s dominant hand in other contexts, the

laryngoscope is always held in the left hand.
4. Mouth opening in the sedated/relaxed patient may be assisted by a
cross-finger technique wherein the thumb of the right hand is placed
on the front lower teeth of the mandible and the first finger on the front
upper teeth (maxilla). The mouth is gently opened by a “reverse
scissor” movement of the fingers, and the laryngoscope is introduced
into the mouth.
5. The tip of laryngoscope blade is inserted into the right side of the
patient’s mouth (Figure A3-2); the blade is advanced to the base of the
tongue.
Figure A3-2. Insertion of Laryngoscope
(A) The blade of the laryngoscope is inserted into the patient’s mouth and pushes the
tongue to the left. (B) The curved blade follows the base of the tongue and is inserted
into the vallecula and (C) the straight blade is inserted beneath the epiglottis.
6. The tongue should be swept to the left; proper tongue control is key to
laryngeal visualization.
7. The blade is gently advanced further to its proper position. A straight
blade is placed beneath the epiglottis; a curved blade is placed into the
vallecula above the epiglottis.
8. Caution! Traction should be applied only along the long axis of the
laryngoscope handle as the laryngoscope lifts the tongue upward away
from the larynx, revealing the glottic opening. A rocking or rotating
motion of the blade and handle may damage teeth, gingiva, or lips. The
base of the laryngoscope blade should never contact the upper teeth!
9. The vocal cords and glottic opening should be visualized.
10. If the vocal cords and glottis cannot be visualized, it may be helpful
for an assistant to grasp the thyroid cartilage between the thumb and
index finger and exert pressure in the following sequence: Pressure is
applied backward against the cervical vertebrae and then in an upward
direction to shift the larynx superiorly. Additional pressure is applied
to shift the thyroid cartilage no more than 2 cm to the right side of the
patient’s neck. This procedure can be remembered by the acronym
BURP (backward, upward, and rightward pressure on the thyroid
cartilage).
11. The endotracheal tube is inserted gently through the vocal cords
(Figure A3-3), holding the tube/stylet with the right hand. The stylet,
if angled, may interfere with passage of the tube into the trachea. If
resistance is encountered as the tube is advanced, consider having an
assistant remove the stylet while the operator holds the endotracheal
tube firmly in the glottic opening.
12. The stylet and laryngoscope should be removed carefully (Figure A3-
3). The operator must continue to hold the endotracheal tube firmly
and position it such that the external centimeter length markers on the
tube show 21 cm (female) or 23 cm (male) adjacent to the front teeth.
Figure A3-3. Placement of Endotracheal Tube
(A) The endotracheal tube is inserted through the vocal cords until the distal end rests
approximately 2 to 3 cm above the carina. (B) Once the endotracheal tube is in the
proper position, the laryngoscope and stylet are removed and the cuff is inflated.
13. The cuff is inflated.

14. To ensure proper position of the tube:
a. Auscultate the epigastrium; inspect and auscultate chest to ensure
equal bilateral gas entry.
b. Use qualitative CO2 detector or monitor or esophageal detector
device. Lack of color change with a qualitative CO2 detector or
low exhaled CO2 measurement may occur with a correctly placed
tracheal tube in the patient with poor pulmonary perfusion, such
as during cardiac arrest or profound hypotension.
c. Observe for condensation in the endotracheal tube during
exhalation.
d. Listen for breath sounds through the endotracheal tube as the
patient is breathing spontaneously.
e. Obtain chest radiograph (tube tip 2 to 3 cm above carina).
15. Secure endotracheal tube with tape or endotracheal tube stabilization
device.
V. VIDEO LARYNGOSCOPY
A. Indications
1. Endotracheal intubation in known or suspected difficult airway

2. Patient with known or likely cervical spine injury
B. Equipment

2. Pulse oximeter
6. Video laryngoscope with appropriate blade
7. Endotracheal tube (ETT) of appropriate size for patient

12. Ventilator with breathing circuit
13. Functioning intravenous access in extremity without blood pressure
device

monitors.
5. Prepare endotracheal tube with special stylet that accompanies video
laryngoscope and check endotracheal tube cuff.
6. Turn on video laryngoscope and check the light and camera.
7. Check that the video laryngoscope cable and matching blade are
properly attached.
8. Position the video screen for optimal visualization during
laryngoscopy.
9. Preoxygenate the patient with 100% oxygen for 2 to 3 minutes if
clinically appropriate.
A. Technique
1. The person performing intubation stands behind the patient’s head with
the bed is raised to a height which is comfortable for the
laryngoscopist (usually at the level of lower sternum).
2. The patient’s head is placed in a sniffing position (with upper cervical
extension and lower neck flexion) unless a cervical spine injury is
known or suspected in which case the head position remains neutral
(no cervical spine movement).
3. The laryngoscope blade is inserted into the oropharynx and advanced
into the hypopharynx while viewing the screen for anatomic landmarks
(epiglottis, vocal cords).
4. When the laryngoscope blade is positioned in the hypopharynx, the
blade is lifted up and/or gently rotated until the glottic opening and
vocal cords are visualized.
5. The endotracheal tube (ETT) with curved stylet is then inserted into
the hypopharynx and advanced until the tip of the endotracheal tube is
seen near the glottic opening.
6. The endotracheal tube is advanced through the glottic opening until the
cuff of the ETT passes through the vocal cords as visualized on the
screen (Figure A3-4A and Figure A3-4B). Small adjustments may
need to be made in the position of either the laryngoscope blade or the
ETT to get the tube through the glottic opening and into the trachea.
Figure A3-4A. Insertion of Endotracheal Tube with Video Laryngoscopy
Reproduced with permission Xidong C, et al. Management of difficult suspension

laryngoscopy using a GlideScope® Video Laryngoscope. Acta Otolaryngol. 2012;
132(12):1318-1323.
Figure A3-4B. Insertion of Endotracheal Tube with Video Laryngoscopy
A) The endotracheal tube is inserted through the vocal cords visualized on the screen
until the distal end rests approximately 2 to 3 cm above the carina. (B) Once the
endotracheal tube is in the proper position, the laryngoscope and stylet are removed
and the cuff is inflated.
Reproduced with permission Rezaie S. Glidescope Video Laryngoscopy. REBEL EM -
Emergency Medicine Blog. https://rebelem.com/video-laryngoscopy-direct-
laryngoscopy-trainees/glidescope-vl/%C2%A0. Published March 5, 2015. Accessed
February 2, 2021.
7. The laryngoscope blade is gently removed from the oropharynx while

holding the ETT in place. Care should be taken to prevent damage to
the camera cable by avoiding kinking or pinching of the cable.
8. The stylet is removed after the tip of the ETT moves past the vocal
cords and the cuff of the ETT is inflated. The ETT is then attached to a
bag-valve device and manual ventilation is initiated. Confirmation by
auscultation of the chest and color change by a CO2 detector provides
evidence of successful ETT placement.
9. Secure the endotracheal tube with tape after appropriate ETT position
is confirmed.
VI. PEDIATRIC CONSIDERATIONS

A. Anatomic differences between adults and children:
1. The larynx is more cephalad in infants than in adults, making it appear

more anterior and more difficult to visualize during laryngoscopy.
2. In young children, the narrowest part of the airway is at the level of the
cricoid cartilage making an anatomic “cuff” below the vocal cords.
3. Uncuffed tubes are generally used in younger children. For uncuffed
ETT sizing, the age-based formula [4 + (age in years/4)] is used. In
general, the diameter of the small finger of the patient approximates
the properly sized endotracheal tube. A full-term neonate can accept a
tube with a 3.5-mm internal diameter.
4. Cuffed tubes are usually used in children older than 8 years of age. For
a cuffed ETT, [3.5 + (age in years/4)] is predictive for appropriate ETT
sizing.
B. Technique differences between adults and children:

1. A shoulder roll is usually needed to achieve the sniffing position in
infants.
2. Most clinicians do not use curved blades in infants. A common
mistake in intubating a child is choosing a blade that is too small.
Laryngoscopists may choose a straight or curved blade in older
patients.
3. Proper depth of insertion (in centimeters) can be estimated by
multiplying the internal diameter of the endotracheal tube by 3 (eg,
internal diameter = 4.0; depth of insertion = 4.0 × 3 = 12.0 cm).
4. Appropriately sized equipment (eg, face mask, laryngoscope,
endotracheal tube, suction catheter) should be used.
VII. PRECAUTIONS/COMPLICATIONS
A. Hypoxia, hypercapnia during procedure
B. Cardiovascular compromise during and immediately after procedure
C. Damaged teeth, lips, gingiva
D. Malpositioned tube (esophagus, right mainstem bronchus)
E. Pharyngeal, laryngeal, tracheal damage
F. Gastric distension and aspiration of gastric contents
G. Bronchospasm
H. Pneumothorax
Suggested Readings
1. Apfelbaum JL, Hagberg CA, Caplan RA, et al. Practice guidelines for
management of the difficult airway: an updated report by the American
Society of Anesthesiologists Task Force on Management of the
Difficult Airway. Anesthesiology. 2013;118(2):251-270.
2. Carlos A. Artime and Carin A. Hagberg. Airway Management in the
Adult. In: Miller’s Anesthesia, 9th Ed, Elsevier, 2020. Pages 1373-
1410.
3. Knill RL. Difficult laryngoscopy made easy with a “BURP.” Can J
Anaesth. 1993;40:279-282.
4. Lascarrou JB, Boisrame-Helms J, Bailly A, et al. Video Laryngoscopy
vs Direct Laryngoscopy on Successful First-Pass Orotracheal
Intubation Among ICU Patients:
A Randomized Clinical Trial. JAMA. 2017;317(5):483-493.
5. Lavery GG, Jamison CA. Airway management in the critically ill
adult. In: Parrillo JE, Dellinger RP, eds. Critical Care Medicine:
Principles of Diagnosis and Management in the Adult. 3rd ed.
Philadelphia, PA: Mosby Elsevier; 2008:17.
6. Lavery GG, Craig TR. Airway management in the critically ill adult.
In: Parrillo JE, Dellinger RP, eds. Critical Care Medicine. 4th ed.
Philadelphia, PA: Elsevier Saunders; 2014:11-30
7. Ungern-Sternberg B and Sims C (2020) Airway Management in
Children. In: Sims C, Weber D, and Johnson C, eds. A Guide to
Pediatric Anesthesia. Spring Cham
8. Wheeler DS, Spaeth JP, Mehta R, et al. Assessment and management
of the pediatric airway. In: Wheeler DS, Wong HR, Shanley TP, eds.
Pediatric Critical Care Medicine: Basic Science and Clinical
Evidence. London, England: Springer-Verlag; 2007:223.
Appendix 4
INTRAOSSEOUS NEEDLE INSERTION
I. INTRODUCTION
A. Intraosseous (IO) vascular access was first introduced by Drinker in
1922 and first reported in humans in 1934 by Josefson
B. IO access can be easily achieved by users with little training
C. IO access is recommended as the immediate alternative when IV
access cannot be rapidly achieved
D. IO access provides a noncollapsible venous plexus for rapid fluid
administration
E. All fluids, blood products, and medications can be given by the IO
route
F. IO access can be used to obtain blood samples for laboratory
evaluations.
II. CONTRAINDICATIONS
A. Ipsilateral fracture
B. Compartment syndrome
C. Superficial infection at site of insertion
D. Osteogenesis imperfecta
E. Previous attempts at the same site
F. Previous orthopedic procedures near insertion site
G. Inability to locate landmarks or excessive tissue
III. EQUIPMENT
A. IO needle or trocar options, depending on the site of insertion and
patient age
B. Gloves
C. Antiseptic solution
D. Syringes for infiltration of local anesthetic, blood sampling, and
flushes
E. Hypodermic needle
F. Lidocaine 1%
G. Connecting tubing
H. Tape and gauze or commercially available securing devices
IV. SITE SELECTION

A. Neonates
1. Proximal anterior tibia, just below the growth plate, distal to the tibial
tuberosity
B. Infants up to 1 year of age
1. Proximal anterior tibia, 1 cm distal to the tibial tuberosity
C. Children older than 1 year

1. Proximal anterior tibia, 1 fingerbreadth distal to the tibial tuberosity
D. Adults
1. Proximal anterior tibia

2. Proximal metaphysis of the humerus
3. Sternum
4. Distal tibia, proximal to the medial malleolus
5. Distal radius and distal ulna
6. Distal femur, above the femur plateau
7. Anterior-superior iliac spine
8. Calcaneus
V. FLOW RATES
15G tibia 30 mL/min
15G humerus 60 mL/min
15G sternum 90 mL/min
VI. TECHNIQUE FOR PROXIMAL TIBIAL INSERTION

A. Apply universal precautions.
B. Palpate the tibial tuberosity and locate the insertion site 2
fingerbreadths distal to the tuberosity.
C. Create a sterile field (if clinical situation permits).
D. Infiltrate a local anesthetic in a conscious patient.
E. Place the patient in the supine position with knee flexed; stabilize the
knee with a hand under the popliteal fossa.
F. Insert the needle 90° through the skin until it touches the bone. Apply
downward pressure for powered devices, and add clockwise and
counterclockwise rotation for manual devices.
G. Advance the needle until the loss of resistance (needle has passed
through the bone cortex); the needle should stand freely and upright
without support.
H. Remove the trocar and aspirate marrow into the syringe, discarding the
first few milliliters of blood (thick fibrin mesh).
I. For needles without a trocar (Near Needle Holder), flush the needle
with saline first
(needle may be plugged with bone debris).
J. Secure the needle by taping flanges to the skin or stabilize with bulky
gauze dressing.
K. Draw blood for laboratory analysis.
L. Start infusions, observing the surrounding tissues for possible
extravasation.
M. Use pressure bags for infusions of fluids or medications
N. Remember to flush the needle with 5 mL of saline solution after
administration of every medication.
Figure A4-1. Intraosseous Needle Insertiona
Approach to puncture of the proximal anterior tibia.
aFrom: Fiser DH. Intraosseous infusion. N Engl J Med. 1990;322(22):1579-1581. Copyright
© 1990 Massachusetts Medical Society. Reprinted with permission from Massachusetts
Medical Society.
VII. IO REMOVAL
A. Discontinue IO once peripheral or central venous access is established.
B. Stabilize the extremity and withdraw the trocar/needle, maintaining the
axial alignment of the needle. Use an upward clockwise and
counterclockwise rotation until the needle exits the bone cortex.
C. Apply pressure to the puncture site for approximately 5 minutes.
D. Apply a sterile dressing.
VIII. COMPLICATIONS
A. Inability to place the needle, bending or breaking the needle
B. Subcutaneous extravasation
C. Bone fracture
D. Through-and-through penetration
E. Compartment syndrome
F. Clogged needle
G. Local infection (cellulitis, subcutaneous abscess, osteomyelitis)
H. Pneumothorax, mediastinal hematoma, mediastinitis (in sternal IO
access)
I. Pulmonary fat embolus
J. Pain
Suggested Readings
1. American Heart Association (AHA) guidelines for cardiopulmonary

resuscitation (CPR) and emergency cardiovascular care (ECC) of
pediatric and neonatal patients: pediatric advanced life support.
Pediatrics. 2006;117(5):e989-e1004.
2. Brenner T, Bernhard M, Helm M, et al. Comparison of two
intraosseous infusion systems for adult emergency medical use.
Resuscitation. 2008;78(3):314-319.
3. Chreiman KM, Dumas RP, Seamon MJ, et al. The intraosseous have it:
A prospective observational study of vascular access success rates in
patients in extremis using video review. J Trauma Acute Care Surg.
2018;Apr:84(4):558-563.
4. Hansen M, Meckler G, Spiro D, Newgard C. Intraosseous line use,
complications, and outcomes among a population-based cohort of
children presenting to California hospitals. Pediatr Emerg Care.
2011;27(10):928-932.
5. Helm M, Haunstein B, Schlechtriemen T, Ruppert M, Lampl L, Gäßler
M. EZ-IO(®) intraosseous device implementation in German
Helicopter Emergency Medical Service. Resuscitation. 2015;88:43-47.
6. Horton MA, Beamer C. Powered intraosseous insertion provides safe
and effective vascular access for pediatric emergency patients. Pediatr
Emerg Care. 2008;24(6):347-350.
7. Leidel BA, Kirchhoff C, Bogner V, Braunstein V, Biberthaler P, Kanz
KG. Comparison of intraosseous versus central venous vascular access
in adults under resuscitation in the emergency department with
inaccessible peripheral veins. Resuscitation. 2012;83(1):40-45.
8. Lewis P, Wright C. Saving the critically injured trauma patient: a
retrospective analysis of 1000 uses of intraosseous access. Emerg Med
J. 2015;32(6):463-467.
9. Pasley J, Miller CH, DuBose JJ, et al. Intraosseous infusion rates under
high pressure: a cadaveric comparison of anatomic sites. J Trauma
Acute Care Surg. 2015;78(2):295-299.
10. Schwartz D, Amir L, Dichter R, Figenberg Z. The use of a powered
device for intraosseous drug and fluid administration in a national
EMS: a 4-year experience. J Trauma. 2008;64(3):654-655.
11. Wampler D, Schwartz D, Shumaker J, Bolleter S, Beckett R, Manifold
C. Paramedics successfully perform humeral EZ-IO intraosseous
access in adult out-of-hospital cardiac arrest patients. Am J Emerg
Med. 2012;30(7):1095-1099.
Appendix 5
ARTERIAL BLOOD GAS ANALYSIS AND

TREATMENT
These acid-base problems are provided for practice in analyzing arterial
blood gas and electrolyte information and determining appropriate
interventions.
For complicated acid-base disorders, it may be helpful to understand the
utility of the delta gap (Δgap). In an uncomplicated anion gap (AG)
metabolic acidosis, every AG increase of 1 mmol/L beyond the normal
value should result in a concomitant decrease of approximately 1 mmol/L in
[HCO3]. Deviation from this relationship suggests a mixed acid-base
disorder. The difference between the change in the AG and the change in
[HCO3] from the normal values is the Δgap, which can be expressed as:
Δgap = (deviation of AG from normal) – (deviation of [HCO3] from

normal)
The normal value for Δgap should be 0. However, variance in
measurements can result in a Δgap of 0 ± 6. If the Δgap is positive, then a
simultaneous metabolic alkalosis exists. If the decrease in [HCO3] is greater
than the increase in AG, which results in a negative Δgap, then a
concomitant normal AG acidosis (hyperchloremic) may exist. Small
deviations of the Δgap may not indicate mixed acid-base disorders, and
clinical information must always be considered.
For purposes of analyzing the following cases, assume that a normal HCO3
is 24 mmol/L and a normal AG is 12 mmol/L using the formula:
[Na] – ([Cl] + [HCO3])
Case 1
A 78-year-old woman with hypertension and hyperlipidemia is admitted to
the intermediate care unit for ongoing evaluation and management of a
community-acquired pneumonia. She was admitted 12 hours ago from the
emergency department. She remains tachypneic with increased work of
breathing. Vital signs are: heart rate 105 beats/min, blood pressure 110/68
mm Hg, respiratory rate 22 breaths/min, and temperature 38.4°C (101.2°F).
Physical examination reveals bilateral rhonchi and normal mental status.
She is receiving supplemental oxygen at 3 L/min via nasal cannula, and
oxygen saturation on pulse oximetry is 88%. An arterial blood gas
measurement is made as part of her ongoing workup, with the following
results:
pH 7.47
Paco2 31 mm Hg (4.13 kPa)
Pao2 55 mm Hg (7.33 kPa)
HCO3 (calculated) 22 mmol/L
1a. Which one of the following best describes the acid-base disorder?
A. Metabolic acidosis
B. Respiratory alkalosis
C. Respiratory alkalosis and metabolic acidosis
D. Respiratory alkalosis and metabolic alkalosis
1b. Which one of the following is the most appropriate intervention?
A. Intubation and mechanical ventilation

B. Noninvasive ventilation
C. Increase in supplemental oxygen concentration
D. No new intervention
Case 2
A 26-year-old man arrives at the emergency department with multisystem
trauma following a motorcycle collision. He is somnolent with a Glasgow
Coma Scale score of 13. The primary survey reveals an open airway with
equal breath sounds bilaterally. Vital signs are: temperature 36.2°C
(97.2°F), heart rate 116 beats/min, respiratory rate 20 breaths/min, blood
pressure 100/50 mm Hg, and oxygen saturation on pulse oximetry 99%
with a non-rebreather mask in place. The patient undergoes diagnostic
radiological evaluations that reveal left rib fractures without hemothorax or
pneumothorax. As part of his initial workup, he has blood sent for
laboratory analysis. The results are as follows:
pH 7.31
Pao2 163 mm Hg (21.73 kPa)
Na 140 mmol/L
Cl 105 mmol/L
HCO3 15 mmol/L
2a. Which acid-base disorder is present?
A. Non-anion gap metabolic acidosis

B. Respiratory acidosis
C. Anion gap metabolic acidosis
D. Metabolic acidosis with respiratory alkalosis
2b. What is the suspected cause of the acid-base disorder?
A. Diabetic ketoacidosis
B. Lactic acidosis
C. Uremia
D. Hyperventilation
2c. Which of the following is the most appropriate intervention?
A. Administration of intravenous bicarbonate

B. Fluid and blood product administration
C. No intervention required at this time
D. Intubation
Case 3
A 21-year-old female college student did not wake up the morning after
attending a fraternity party where alcohol and drugs were available.
Emergency services was called, the patient was placed on supplemental
oxygen via non-rebreather mask, peripheral intravenous access was
obtained, and fluids were started. Initial vital signs in the emergency
department are: heart rate 102 beats/min, respiratory rate 10 breaths/min,
blood pressure 92/60 mm Hg, and oxygen saturation on pulse oximetry
94%. The patient only moans when exposed to noxious stimuli but does
localize. Blood is drawn for laboratory evaluation, including an arterial
blood gas. The result are as follows:
pH 7.23
Na 141 mmol/L
K 4.0 mmol/L
Cl 110 mmol/L
HCO3 26 mmol/L

A. Non-anion gap metabolic acidosis
B. Respiratory acidosis
C. Respiratory acidosis and non-anion gap metabolic acidosis
D. Respiratory acidosis and metabolic alkalosis
3b. Which of the following should be the initial intervention?
A. Intubation and intravenous administration of naloxone

B. Administration of activated charcoal
C. Noninvasive positive pressure ventilation
D. No additional intervention
Case 4
A 55-year-old man is admitted to the surgical ICU after elective

laparoscopic cholecystectomy. An iatrogenic injury to the hepatic artery
required conversion to an open cholecystectomy and fluid resuscitation with
normal saline and blood products. Vital signs are: heart rate 115 beats/min,
respiratory rate 12 breaths/min (ventilator rate), blood pressure 105/68 mm
Hg, and oxygen saturation on pulse oximetry 99% at fraction of inspired
oxygen of 50%. Laboratory values are as follows:
pH 7.32
Na 146 mmol/L
K 3.8 mmol/L
Cl 117 mmol/L
HCO3 18 mmol/L

A. Anion gap metabolic acidosis
B. Anion gap metabolic acidosis and respiratory acidosis
C. Anion gap metabolic acidosis and non-anion gap metabolic acidosis
D. Non-anion gap metabolic acidosis
4b. Which of the following is the most likely cause of the acid-base
disorder in this patient?
A. Cardiogenic shock
B. Hemorrhagic shock
C. Normal saline administration
D. Hypoventilation
Case 5
An 81-year-old man was admitted to the medical floor for an exacerbation

of congestive heart failure. He received high-dose intravenous furosemide
over the last 48 hours, which allowed him to be weaned off noninvasive
positive pressure ventilation. He is currently on supplemental oxygen via
nasal cannula. Vital signs are: heart rate 88 beats/min, respiratory rate 18
breaths/min, blood pressure 120/72 mm Hg, and oxygen saturation on pulse
oximetry 97% on supplemental oxygen at 6 L/min. Laboratory values are as
follows:
pH 7.50
Na 136 mmol/L
Cl 96 mmol/L
HCO3 33 mmol/L
A. Metabolic alkalosis and respiratory acidosis

B. Metabolic alkalosis
C. Metabolic alkalosis and non-anion gap acidosis
D. Respiratory acidosis
5b. Which of the following is the most likely cause of the acid-base
disorder?
A. Hypercapnic respiratory failure

B. Volume overload related to congestive heart failure
C. Hypercortisolism
D. Diuretic administration
5c. Which of the following is an appropriate treatment option?
A. Restart noninvasive positive pressure ventilation

B. Administer acetazolamide
C. Continue diuresis with furosemide
D. Decrease administration of furosemide and consider administration of
fluids
Case 6
A 58-year-old woman with hypertension and chronic kidney disease is

admitted to the hospital with alcohol intoxication. She is somnolent and
arouses to painful stimuli. Vital signs are: heart rate 110 beats/min, blood
pressure 142/88 mm Hg, respiratory rate 10 breaths/min, temperature 37°C
(98.6°F), and oxygen saturation on pulse oximetry 94%. Laboratory results
are as follows:
pH 7.23 Na 134 mmol/L
Paco2 38 mm Hg (5.06 kPa) K 6.1 mmol/L
PaO2 78 mm Hg (10.4 kPa) Cl 100 mmol/L

HCO3 15 mmol/L
Blood urea nitrogen 62 mg/dL

Creatinine 3.7 mg/dL
Glucose 125 mg/dL
6. Which one of the following best describes the acid-base disorder?

B. Anion gap metabolic acidosis and metabolic alkalosis
C. Anion gap metabolic acidosis and respiratory acidosis
D. Anion gap metabolic acidosis and non-anion gap metabolic acidosis
Case 7
An 80-year-old man with hypertension, diabetes, and malnutrition is

admitted to the hospital with cough, fever, and hypotension. Chest
radiograph shows a right lower lobe pneumonia. Vital signs are: heart rate
115 beats/min, blood pressure 90/52 mm Hg, respiratory rate 20
breaths/min, temperature 38.3°C (101°F), and oxygen saturation on pulse
oximetry 95% on oxygen supplemented at 8 L/min via nasal cannula.
Laboratory results are as follows:
Pao2 78 mm Hg (10.4 kPa) Cl 103 mmol/L
HCO3 17 mmol/L
Blood urea nitrogen 20 mg/dL
Creatinine 1.4 mg/dL
Albumin 1.5 g/dL

B. Non-anion gap metabolic acidosis
C. Non-anion gap metabolic acidosis and respiratory alkalosis
Case 8
A 60-year-old man with arterial vascular disease and hypertension

presented to the emergency department with complaints of shortness of
breath and abdominal pain. Vital signs are: heart rate 90 beats/min, blood
pressure 168/96 mm Hg, respiratory rate 25 breaths/min, temperature
37.2°C (99°F), and oxygen saturation on pulse oximetry 98% while
receiving oxygen at 2 L/min via nasal cannula. Laboratory results are as
follows:
HCO3 13 mmol/L
8a. Which one of the following best describes the acid-base disorder?
A. Acute respiratory alkalosis

B. Chronic respiratory alkalosis
C. Acute respiratory alkalosis and metabolic alkalosis
D. Acute respiratory alkalosis and metabolic acidosis
8b. Which one of the following is a potential etiology of the acid-base

disorder?
A. Pulmonary embolism
B. Sepsis
C. Diuretics
D. D. Chronic obstructive lung disease and renal failure
Case 9
A 70-year-old woman is admitted to the ICU with syncope after several

days of vomiting. Vital signs are: heart rate 140 beats/min, blood pressure
80/50 mm Hg, respiratory rate 24 breaths/min, and temperature 37.0°C
(98.6°F). Laboratory results are as follows:
HCO3 20 mmol/L
Glucose 90 mg/dL

B. Anion gap metabolic acidosis and metabolic alkalosis
C. Anion gap metabolic acidosis and respiratory acidosis
Case 10
A 55-year-old diabetic, hypertensive man presents with nausea, vomiting,
and abdominal pain. Vital signs are: heart rate 124 beats/min, blood
pressure 102/50 mm Hg, respiratory rate 22 breaths/min, and temperature
36.4°C (97.6°F). Laboratory results are as follows:
HCO3 23 mmol/L
Glucose 420 mg/dL
A. Respiratory acidosis and metabolic acidosis

B. Respiratory acidosis, metabolic acidosis, and metabolic alkalosis
C. Respiratory alkalosis, metabolic acidosis, and metabolic alkalosis
D. Respiratory alkalosis and metabolic acidosis
Case Study Answers and Rationales
Case 1
1a. The correct answer is B, Respiratory alkalosis.

The pH is alkalemic. The low Paco2 suggests a respiratory process rather
than a metabolic process. The formula to determine if the respiratory
process is acute is:
Increase in pH = 0.08 × (40 – PaCO2)
10
Using the information from the case, the expected increase in pH would be
0.072, resulting in an expected pH 7.47. This finding suggests a pure
respiratory process. You can further analyze it by considering whether there
is appropriate buffering of HCO3 using the following formula:
Decrease in [HCO3] = 2 × ∆PaCO2

10
Data from the blood gas measurements suggest a decrease of [HCO3] of 1.8
mmol/L, which is close to the decrease of 2 mmol/L of the calculated
[HCO3].
Although the patient is at risk for a metabolic acidosis, the appropriate

decrease of [HCO3] in relation to the respiratory alkalosis makes that a less
likely condition. Clinically, you would always review the electrolytes along
with the arterial blood gas and calculate the anion gap. There is no
suggestion of a metabolic alkalosis with the near normal [HCO3].
1b. The correct answer is C, Increase in supplemental oxygen

concentration.
The patient is significantly hypoxic but based solely on the information
presented, she may not need any more support than an increase in oxygen
concentration and continued monitoring. Any worsening of her respiratory
rate or mental status may necessitate positive pressure support.
Case 2
2a. The correct answer is C, Anion gap metabolic acidosis.

The pH is acidemic. The low bicarbonate concentration is consistent with a
metabolic process. The next step is to determine if appropriate respiratory
compensation is present.
Appropriate Paco2 compensation = 1.5 x [HCO3] + 8 ± 2
In this case, the appropriate compensation would yield Paco2 30.5 ± 2 mm

Hg. Thus, respiratory compensation is appropriate. The next step is to
calculate the anion gap.
AG = [Na] – ([Cl] + [HCO3])
AG for this case = [140] – [(105+15)] = 20 mmol/L

This patient has an elevated anion gap metabolic acidosis. With an anion
gap acidosis, the Δgap should be calculated to determine if additional
metabolic processes are present.
Δgap = (deviation of AG from normal) – (deviation of [HCO3] from
normal)
= (20-12) – (24-15)
= -1 mmol/L
This is within the normal range of 0 + 6, indicating that no additional
metabolic process is present.
2b. The correct answer is B, Lactic acidosis.
The causes of elevated anion gap metabolic acidosis can be remembered
with the following mnemonic MUDPILES, which stands for methanol,
uremia, diabetic ketoacidosis, paracetamol/acetaminophen, isoniazid, lactic
acidosis, ethylene glycol or methanol, and salicylates.
This case depicts a trauma patient in shock with hypoperfusion, resulting in
lactic acidosis.
2c. The correct answer is B, Fluid and blood product administration.
The goal is restore perfusion to the tissues. This patient is experiencing
hypovolemic hemorrhagic shock. The treatment is fluid and blood product
administration and control of the hemorrhage.
Case 3
3a. The correct answer is B, Respiratory acidosis.
The pH is acidemic. The increase in Paco2 indicates a respiratory process.
Next, determine if this is an acute or chronic respiratory process.
For an acute respiratory acidosis,
the decrease in pH = 0.08 x ∆PaCO2
10
Thus, the decrease in pH = 0.08 x 20/10 = 0.16, which is close to the

observed value of 60 mm Hg (8.0 kPa). This is an acute respiratory process.
If metabolic compensation is present, the bicarbonate concentration will
increase 1 mmol/L for every 10 mm Hg (1.33 kPa) increase in Paco2. For
this case, there is a 20 mm Hg change in Paco2 that should translate into a 2
mmol/L increase in bicarbonate. The HCO3 concentration is 26 mmol/L,
which is 2 mmol/L above the normal value of 24 mmol/L and consistent
with appropriate metabolic compensation.
3b. The correct answer is A, Intubation and intravenous administration of
naloxone
This patient has hypoventilation related to drug and alcohol intoxication.
Activated charcoal will not reverse the respiratory depression. The patient
also was not found until the following morning, making it too late for use of
activated charcoal. The severely depressed mental status prohibits the use of
noninvasive positive pressure ventilation; a patient must be conscious with
the ability to protect the airway for noninvasive positive pressure
ventilation to be used. This patient should be intubated to control her
respiratory failure, and naloxone can be administered simultaneously.
Case 4
4a. The correct answer is D, Non-anion gap metabolic acidosis.
The correct answer is D, Non-anion gap metabolic acidosis.
The pH is academic and the change in HCO3 concentration would indicate a
metabolic process. The next step is to evaluate whether the respiratory
compensation is appropriate.
Respiratory compensation: 1.5 x [HCO3] + 8 ± 2
Respiratory compensation: 1.5 x [18] + 8 ± 2 = 35 ± 2

In this case the patient has appropriate respiratory compensation. The next
step is to determine if the anion gap is elevated.
AG = [Na] – ([Cl] + [HCO3])
146 – (117 + 18) = 11 mmol/L
There is no elevation in the anion gap, so this patient has a non-anion gap
metabolic acidosis.
4b. The correct answer is C, Normal saline administration.
Metabolic acidosis with a normal anion gap, which is a hyperchloremic
acidosis, may result from gastrointestinal or renal loss of HCO3 or volume
resuscitation with normal saline. In this case, the patient received excess
fluid resuscitation due to hemorrhage in surgery. This patient has metabolic
acidosis as a result of hyperchloremia from normal saline resuscitation.
Cardiogenic shock and hemorrhagic shock would result in metabolic
acidosis with an elevated anion gap. Hypoventilation would be associated
with a respiratory acidosis. The appropriate intervention is to change to an
intravenous fluid with lower chloride content, such as Ringer lactate.
Case 5
5a. The correct answer is B, Metabolic alkalosis.
The pH is alkalemic. The increase in [HCO3] indicates a metabolic process.
Respiratory compensation in metabolic alkalosis is determined by the
following formula:
Increase in Paco2 = 0.6-0.7 x Δ[HCO3] = 0.6-0.7 x 9 = 5.4-6.3 mm Hg
(0.72-0.84 kPa)
Thus, the increase in Paco2 is appropriate respiratory compensation.
Calculation of the anion gap yields a normal result of 7 mmol/L.
5b. The correct answer is D, Diuretic administration.
Metabolic alkaloses are usually characterized as chloride-depleted
(hypovolemic) or chloride-expanded (hypervolemic). In this patient,
diuretic use is the most likely cause of the alkalosis.
5c. The correct answer is D, Decrease administration of furosemide and
consider administration
of fluids.
Chloride-depleted metabolic alkalosis is corrected by administration of an
intravenous normal saline infusion. Discontinuation of the furosemide
should occur to prevent further depletion of chloride and further
exacerbation of metabolic alkalosis. Careful monitoring of the fluid status is
indicated in a patient with history of heart failure, and expert consultation is
required.
Case 6
6. The correct answer is C, Anion gap metabolic acidosis and respiratory
acidosis.
The pH is acidemic and the low [HCO3] indicates a metabolic process. The
formula for determining the expected respiratory compensation is:
Paco2 = 1.5 x [HCO3] + 8 ± 2
The expected Paco2 would be approximately 30 mm Hg (4.0 kPa). Thus, the

finding of a higher Paco2 than expected indicates another acid-base process
of respiratory acidosis. The respiratory acidosis is most likely secondary to
depressed respiratory drive from intoxication. This patient has ventilatory
insufficiency and must be monitored closely for worsening and the potential
need for more aggressive ventilatory support. The anion gap is calculated as
an increased value of 19 mmol/L, which is likely secondary to chronic
kidney disease, but other unmeasured anions (such as lactate) may be
contributing.
The Δgap can be calculated for this case. The deviation of the anion gap
from normal is 7 mmol/L, and the deviation of the [HCO33] from normal is
9 mmol/L. The difference of -2 mmol/L is not likely to represent a third
acid-base process.
Case 7
7. The correct answer is A, Anion gap metabolic acidosis.
The pH is acidemic and the low [HCO3] indicates a metabolic process. The
Paco2 = 1.5 x [HCO3] + 8 ± 2
Thus, the expected Paco2 would be approximately 33 mm Hg (4.4 kPa). The

anion gap is calculated as 12 mmol/L, which appears normal. However, the
albumin concentration must be taken into account. A limitation of the
traditional approach to acid-base analysis is the effect of hypoalbuminemia
on the anion gap. The expected anion gap decreases by 2.5 to 3 mmol/L for
every 1 g/dL. In this patient, an albumin of 1.5 g/dL (assuming a normal
albumin of 4 g/dL) would decrease the expected anion gap to 5 to 6
mmol/L. Thus, the calculated anion gap of 12 mmol/L is increased by 6
mmol/L. It is important to recognize the presence of the anion gap
metabolic acidosis in assessing the severity of illness of this patient. The
clinical scenario is consistent with severe sepsis, and a lactic measurement
is indicated.
Case 8
8a. The correct answer is D, Acute respiratory alkalosis and metabolic
acidosis.
The pH is alkalemic and the low Paco2 indicates a respiratory process. The
next step is to determine if this is an acute or chronic respiratory alkalosis.
The formula for acute respiratory alkalosis is:
Increase in pH = 0.08 × (40 – Paco2)/10
Using the data from this case, the expected increase in pH would be 0.2 or
pH 7.6, which is higher than 7.55. The formula for chronic respiratory
alkalosis is:
Increase in pH = 0.03 × (40 – Paco2)/10,
Applying it yields a pH increase of 0.075 or pH 7.475. These calculations

suggest that there is likely to be a second acid-base disorder present.
Calculation of the anion gap as 21 mmol/L identifies the second process of
anion gap metabolic acidosis. The Δgap can be also be calculated for this
case. The deviation of the anion gap from normal is 9 mmol/L, and the
deviation of the [HCO3] from normal is 11 mmol/L. The difference of -2 is
not likely to represent a third acid-base process.
8b. The correct answer is B, Sepsis.
The acid-base pattern can be helpful in suggesting an etiology of a patient’s
condition. In this case, respiratory alkalosis with anion gap metabolic
acidosis is the typical acid-base disorder of sepsis. Salicylate intoxication
would also be associated with this acid-base pattern. Pulmonary embolism
would typically result in a respiratory alkalosis, with acidosis being unlikely
in a hemodynamically stable patient. Diuretic use would primarily result in
metabolic alkalosis rather than acidosis. Chronic obstructive lung disease
and renal failure would most likely result in a respiratory acidosis and
metabolic acidosis.
Case 9
9. The correct answer is B, Anion gap metabolic acidosis and metabolic
alkalosis.
The pH is acidemic and the lower HCO3 indicates a metabolic process. The
Paco2 = 1.5 x [HCO3] + 8 ± 2
Using this, the expected Paco2 would be approximately 38 mm Hg (5.07

kPa), which is close to the Paco2 of 36 mm Hg (4.8 kPa). The anion gap is
calculated as 25 mmol/L, which identifies the presence of an anion gap
metabolic acidosis. The Δgap should also be calculated for this case. The
deviation of the anion gap from normal is 13 mmol/L, and the deviation of
the [HCO3] from normal is 4 mmol/L. The difference of 9 mmol/L suggests
the presence of a metabolic alkalosis. The [HCO3] did not decrease as much
as expected for the degree of acidosis. The clinical scenario is also
suggestive of volume depletion from vomiting, resulting in the metabolic
alkalosis. An anion gap metabolic acidosis (lactic acidosis) was the result of
hypotension.
Case 10
10. The correct answer is C, Respiratory alkalosis, metabolic acidosis, and
metabolic alkalosis.
The pH in this very ill patient is nearly normal, which should immediately
raise the suspicion for complex acid-base disorders. The history is
suggestive of possible diabetic ketoacidosis, so the first calculation could be
the anion gap, which is increased at 26 mmol/L. Using the formula for
determining the expected respiratory compensation for a metabolic acidosis
—Paco2 = 1.5 x [HCO3] + 8 ± 2—the expected Paco2 would be
approximately 42 mm Hg (5.60 kPa). Since the patient’s Paco2 is lower at
34 mm Hg (4.53 kPa), a respiratory alkalosis is present. The Δgap should
definitely be calculated for this case. The deviation of the anion gap from
normal is 14 mmol/L, and the deviation of the [HCO3] from normal is 1
mmol/L. The difference of 13 mmol/L suggests the presence of a metabolic
alkalosis. The [HCO3] did not decrease as much as expected for the degree
of acidosis. The clinical scenario is consistent with diabetic ketoacidosis
with volume depletion from vomiting and a respiratory alkalosis, possibly
secondary to pain.
You could also approach the problem by identifying the pH as alkalemic.
The lower Paco2 would prompt assessment of whether it is an acute or
chronic respiratory process. Acute is more likely, so the formula for acute
respiratory alkalosis would be used: Increase in pH = 0.08 × (40 –
Paco2)/10. Based on the data from this case, the expected increase in pH
would be 0.048 or pH 7.45, which is similar to the patient’s value. The
other acid-base processes would still be identified because the anion gap is
always calculated.
Appendix 6
BRAIN DEATH
BRAIN DEATH (DEATH BY NEUROLOGIC CRITERIA)

In 1981, the Uniform Determination of Death Act (UDDA) was developed
by the President’s Commission for the Study of Ethical Problems in
Medicine and Biomedical and Behavioral Research working in conjunction
with the American Bar Association, the American Medical Association
(AMA), and the National Conference of Commissioners on Uniform State
Laws.
Important Milestones in the History of Defining

Brain Death
1968 Harvard Ad Hoc Committee
First attempt to define death by neurologic
criteria
1981 Uniform Determination of Death Act
Established physiologic standards defining death
as irreversible cessation of circulatory and
respiratory functions (cardiopulmonary criteria)
AND/OR irreversible cessation of all functions of
the brain, including the brain stem (neurologic
criteria)
2008 President’s Council on Bioethics
Affirmed the concept of brain death
2019 American Academy of Neurology Position
Statement
Called for the uniformity of brain death
determination criteria, citing variation in law
and policy regarding testing procedures
The UDDA defined death as occurring in the
presence of one or both of the following:
irreversible cessation of circulatory and

respiratory functions (cardiopulmonary
criteria)
irreversible cessation of all brain functions,
including those of the brain stem (neurologic
criteria)
The American Academy of Neurology (AAN) endorses the UDDA

definition that brain death has occurred when the irreversible loss of all
functions of the entire brain, including the brain stem, has occurred and has
been determined by the demonstration of complete loss of consciousness
(coma), brain stem reflexes, and ventilatory drive (apnea), in the absence of
any reversible factors. It also recognizes that neuroendocrine function may
persist in patients with irreversible injury to the brain and brain stem. This
is presumed to occur because of the possible protective anatomic location of
the pituitary gland and its vasculature.
At present, brain death is diagnosed clinically at the bedside when there is
evidence of the complete loss of brain stem function as noted by lack of
response to prescribed noxious stimuli and hypercapnia; the “apnea test.” A
patient in a comatose state may exhibit some of the clinical findings of a
patient that has progressed to brain death. It is therefore imperative to rule
out other causes of comatose state (toxic, metabolic, etc.) prior to
concluding that brain death has occurred.
Because there can be some ambiguity with the clinical examination,
especially if there are not skilled individuals to perform the examination, as
well as anatomic and physiologic limitations that prevent completion of the
examination components, eg, if the patient is hemodynamically unstable to
tolerate the testing or has sustained significant facial trauma, there may be a
need to perform confirmatory testing. Confirmatory tests include cerebral
blood flow examinations, such as four-vessel digital subtraction
angiography, technetium radionuclide angiography or scintigraphy,
magnetic resonance angiography, CT angiography, and transcranial Doppler
studies. Ancillary testing includes EEG and evoked potentials
(somatosensory, auditory, or visual). Confirmatory and ancillary testing are
performed to complement the clinical examination and, in some
jurisdictions, may eliminate the requirement for a second examiner or a
second examination after a prescribed delay to reexamination.
Some limitations to confirmatory and ancillary testing include its
availability at the facility, its accuracy across multiple operators and
interpreters, its ability to be performed at the bedside, and whether it has
any potentially deleterious adverse effects to the patient or organs
(especially when considering organ donation).
Diagnosis of brain death can be further challenged by medical, cultural, and
societal barriers that must be overcome before such consensus becomes
possible. Barriers to the diagnosis of brain death can include the acceptance
of brain death as death, religious beliefs about death, legal standards of
death determination, cultural norms about death, requirements for organ
donation, knowledge deficits of professionals, examination technical
requirements, and availability and quality of ancillary tests.
The determination of brain death is further complicated by practice
variation between hospitals and jurisdictions as well as individual
physicians. In the United States, despite having accepted diagnostic criteria
proposed by the AAN and allied specialty societies, it has been challenging
to standardize practices of brain death determination. In other countries,
practice disparities arise more because of legal, cultural, or religious
differences.
Examination of the patient with concern for brain death can be challenging
for many reasons. The clinical examination is the foundation of determining
brain death and may be complemented by ancillary confirmatory testing as
needed (Table A6-1). It is recommended that a protocol be developed at
your facility that is supported by the guidance of the AAN, the
Neurocritical Care Society (NCS), and policies set forth by your state,
jurisdiction, and hospital. To facilitate training and uniformity, the NCS has
developed a Brain Death Determination credentialing program which can
be found at
https://www.neurocriticalcare.org/education/braindeath
Table A6-1 Accepted Medical Standards for Brain Death
Parameter American Academy of Pediatrics American Academy of

Neurology
Relevant age 37 weeks’ gestation to 18 years of >18 years of age
age
Prerequisites Known irreversible cause of coma Known irreversible cause of coma
No hypothermia or hypotension Normal temperature or mild
hypothermia;
SBP > 100 mm Hg
No metabolic disturbances No severe electrolyte, acid-base,
or endocrine disturbance
Sedatives, analgesics, Absence of CNS-depressant drug
neuromuscular blockers, and effect; no evidence of residual
anticonvulsant agents discontinued paralytics
Defer examination for 24-48 h after Wait several hours since onset of
acute brain insult to exclude possibility of
brain injury recovery
Performed Attending physicians involved in Physician demonstrating
by… care of child competence and intimate
familiarity with protocol
Cardinal Coma; lack of all responsiveness; Coma; absence of motor response
findings absence of eye movement or motor to noxious limb stimuli (other than
response to noxious stimuli spinally mediated reflexes)
Loss of all brain stem reflexes (mid- Loss of all brain stem reflexes
or fully dilated pupils unresponsive (pupillary response to light;
to light; corneal, oculovestibular, corneal, oculoencephalic,
gag, sucking, and facial movement oculovestibular, gag, cough, and
to noxious stimuli) facial movement to noxious stimuli)
Apnea test (safety permitting) Apnea test (as mandated)
Flaccid tone and absence of
movement
Recommended 4-vessel angiography Cerebral angiography
confirmatory or
ancillary Electroencephalogram Electroencephalogram
studies Radionucleotide cerebral blood flow Cerebral scintigraphy
Transcranial Doppler
ultrasonography
Indication for If components of examination When uncertainty exists about
confirmatory cannot be safely performed reliability of parts of the neurologic
studies examination
If apnea testing cannot be safely When apnea test cannot be
performed performed
To reduce interexamination To shorten duration of observation
observation period period
If uncertain neurologic examination
is present
If uncertain medication effect is
present
If helpful for social reasons, allowing
family members to better
comprehend diagnosis
Requirement Two examinations by different One neurologic examination is
for repeat physicians separated by sufficient
physical observation period; apnea testing (some U.S. state statutes require
examinations may be repeated by same physician two examinations)
Observation 24 h for term newborns (37 weeks’ Not required
period gestation to 30 days); 12 h for
between infants and children (>30 days to 18
repeat years of age)
examinations
Abbreviations: CNS, central nervous system; SBP, systolic blood pressure
This research was originally published in JNM. Zuckier L. Radionuclide Evaluation of Brain
Death in the Post-McMath Era. J Nucl Med. 2016;57(10):1560-1568. © SNMMI.
Brain death diagnosis by means of transcranial Doppler (TCD) ultrasound

is a good example of the point-of-care ultrasound (POCUS) concept applied
to critical care. It could be easily performed bedside and results are clear
and reproducible. There are two options to perform the examination:
spectral or “blind” devices (TCD) and transcranial coded color Doppler
(TCCD), which is included in most of ultrasound machines available at the
ICU.
Using both transtemporal and occipital windows, middle cerebral arteries
and the basilar artery should be insonated for at least 30 seconds. If no
ultrasound images are found in these windows, the proximal arteries
(ipsilateral internal carotid siphon or both vertebral, respectively) are
acceptable for the diagnosis of cerebral circulatory arrest. The examination
must be repeated after 30 minutes.
Arterial blood pressure must be greater than 90/50 mm Hg or mean arterial
pressure greater than 60 mm Hg at the beginning of the study and sustained
among the different diagnostic stages.
Figure A6-1 shows a summary of cerebral circulatory arrest (CCA)
patterns.
Figure A6-1. Brain Death Patterns
As ICP increases and CPP decreases, Doppler spectral waveforms become extinct.
Complete cerebral circulatory arrest is suggested by equalization of forward and reverse
flow components. Absence of flow should be considered as cerebral circulatory arrest only
when the same operator had found it in a previous examination.
Reprinted from J Neurol Sci., 159(2), Ducrocq X, et al., Consensus opinion on diagnosis of
cerebral circulatory arrest using Doppler-sonography: Task Force Group on cerebral death
of the Neurosonology Research Group of the World Federation of Neurology, 145-150,
Copyright (1998), with permission from Elsevier.
A false negative result could occur in cases of loss of tightness of the skull
(large craniectomies, ventricular drainage, multiple skull fractures). In that
situation, changes in intracranial pressure (ICP) or cerebral perfusion
pressure (CPP) may be not so important to produce the CCA patterns.
However, a large percentage of these patients evolve to CCA, so the study
is not only not contraindicated, but on the contrary, its repetition over time
becomes peremptory for its diagnosis.
A false positive result could occur when ancillary circulatory devices are
present (aortic balloon pump, extracorporeal membrane oxygenation) in
which biphasic flow may be identified in the absence of cerebral
circulation.
In summary, TCD or TCCD are useful and available tools as ancillary tests
for brain death diagnosis in cases in which clinical examinations are not
possible or conclusive as a result of large cranial or facial destruction or
depressant drugs. Physician training is simple and results are not operator-
dependent.
Suggested Readings
1. Consensus Group on Transcranial Doppler in Diagnosis of Brain

Death. Latin American consensus on the use of transcranial Doppler in
the diagnosis of brain death. Rev Bras Ter Intensiva. 2014;26:240-252.
2. Ducrocq X, Hassler W, Moritake K, et al. Consensus opinion on
diagnosis of cerebral circulatory arrest using Doppler-sonography:
Task Force Group on cerebral death of the Neurosonology Research
Group of the World Federation of Neurology. J Neurol Sci.
1998;59:145-150.
3. Milliken A and Uveges M. CE: Brain Death: History, Updates, and
Implications for Nurses. Am J Nurs. 2020;120(3):32-38.
4. Russell JA, Epstein LG, Greer DM, Kirschen M, Rubin MA, Lewis A.
Brain death, the determination of brain death, and member guidance
for brain death accommodation requests: AAN position statement.
Neurology. 2019 January 2.
5. Schiff ND, Fins JJ. Brain death and disorders of consciousness. Curr
Biol. 2016:26(13):R572-R576.
6. Shemie SD, Hornby L, Baker A, et al. The International Guidelines for
Determination of Death phase 1 participants, in collaboration with the
World Health Organization. International guideline development for
the determination of death. Intensive Care Med. 2014;40:788-797.
7. Wahlster S, Wijdicks EFM, Patel PV, et al. Brain death declaration:
practices and perceptions worldwide. Neurology. 2015;84:1870-1879.
8. Zuckier LS. Radionuclide Evaluation of Brain Death in the Post-
McMath Era.
J Nucl Med. 2016;57(10):1560-1568.
Appendix 7
ORGAN DONATION
Organ donation is a process consisting of giving an organ or a part of an
organ to be transplanted into another person. Over the past 10 years,
transplant surgery has advanced in the organ recovery and preservation
process in the hopes of meeting the increasing community need for organ
transplantation. Transplant surgery has evolved to meet the public needs for
function and quality of life with the expansion of organ donation to include
tissue graft transplantation, such as extremity and face, as well as infertility
with uterine transplant. Organ donation can occur with a deceased donor or
a living donor.
I. HISTORY
The first successful human organ transplant occurred in 1954. In 1968, the
Uniform Anatomical Gift Act (UAGA) provided the legal foundation upon
which human organs and tissues could be donated for transplantation. Since
1972, all states in the United States and the District of Columbia have
adopted this Act, or amended forms of this Act. Worldwide over 100,000
transplants occur yearly. In the United States, almost 40,000 transplants
were coordinated in 2019. Unfortunately, the waiting list for men, women,
and children for organ transplantation still is in excess of 100,000 in the
United States with more being added to the list daily. On average, only 3 in
1000 deaths allow for organ donation.
The dead-donor rule was developed by Robertson in 1999 to refer to a norm
that organ donation policies have implicitly held since the beginning of
multiorgan procurement in the late 1960s. Although it is not a law, the rule
established the relationship between the two most relevant laws governing
organ donation from deceased donors: The Uniform Anatomical Gift Act
and state homicide law. The key point is that organ donation must not kill
the donor; the person must first be declared dead. It applies only to organ
donation from deceased donors.
As organ transplantation evolved, the regulation and oversight of the
process evolved as well. In 1984, The National Organ Transplant Act
(NOTA) called for the creation of an Organ Procurement and
Transplantation Network (OPTN). The OPTN is overseen by the Health
Resources & Service Administration (HRSA), an agency of the U.S.
Department of Health and Human Services (HHS). The United Network for
Organ Sharing (UNOS), an independent nonprofit company incorporated in
1984, is charged with operationalizing the goals of the OPTN. Examples of
critical requirements the OPTN must support include the establishment and
maintenance of an organ transplant waitlist, the process and procedures to
match organ donors to recipients, securing an allocation process that is
equitable, ethical, and medically sound in manner, the ability to collect and
process data into meaningful information to improve the transplant process,
the presence of a 24-hour availability, and the establishment of a forum for
public comment on policy and process. The United States is divided into
different regions to facilitate transplantation. These regions help determine
how the 200+ transplant hospitals, 50+ organ procurement organizations,
and 150+ histocompatibility laboratories interact with one another.
A. Organ Procurement Organization (OPO)

An organization designated by the Centers for Medicare and Medicaid
Services (CMS) is responsible for the procurement of organs for
transplantation and the promotion of organ donation. OPOs and their
transplant coordinators (TCs) serve as the vital link between the donor and
recipient and are responsible for the identification of donors and the
retrieval, preservation, and transportation of organs for transplantation.
There are several similar organizations around the world, but the one that
has had more impact in organ donation is the Spanish National Transplant
Organization (ONT). Since its creation in 1989, the so-called “Spanish
model” allowed the increase from 14 donors per million population to 48 in
2018, making Spain the world leader in organ donation. This model has
been recreated in Latin-America and Europe with different rates of success.
The model is based on “transplant coordinators” who are physicians and/or
nurses from intensive care units that take care of the complete organ
donation process, from donor identification and management to the family
interview.
In the United States, the administration of organ allocation and geographic
representation requires the territorial division into 11 different regions.
Members of each region share policy structure and are linked primarily to
the other members of the region. Historically, when an organ is available,
the priority is given to the members of the region. As transplant surgery
evolves, so has the process for organ allocation. In March 2021, OPTN
launched a new policy for kidney and pancreas to increase equity in
transplant access nationwide. This new policy consists of replacing
distribution based on donation service area and OPTN region with a more
consistent measure of distance between the donor hospital and the
transplant hospital. For more information regarding these regions and about
the OPTN, you can visit https://optn.transplant.hrsa.gov.
II. DONOR CLASSIFICATION
A. Donation after Declaration of Brain Death (Controlled)

The recovery of organs or tissue after irreversible damage of cerebral and
brain stem function; characterized by absence of electrical activity in the
brain, blood flow to the brain, and brain function as determined by clinical
assessment of responses. A brain-dead person is dead, although his or her
cardiopulmonary functioning may be artificially maintained for some time.
Ongoing communication by the healthcare team with the family is
encouraged when a patient is expected to progress to brain death. Prior to
pronouncement of brain death, the regional OPO should be contacted by the
healthcare team for patient evaluation for possible organ donation. Once the
pronouncement of brain death is made, further conversations with the
family must occur to discuss the pronouncement and perhaps explain what
brain death means. Family is informed of the brain death declaration prior
to the discussion of organ donation. The TC of the OPO is introduced to the
family and then communicates with the family about the opportunity for
organ donation and obtains consent. The donor patient must be supported
until the recovery process occurs in the operating room after coordination
with family and recovery surgeons.
B. Donation After Circulatory Death (DCD)
Recovery of organs and or tissues from a donor whose heart has irreversible
cessation of circulatory and respiratory function, previously referred to as
donation after cardiac death,
non-heart-beating or asystolic donation. This process can be controlled or
uncontrolled depending on the organ donor’s clinical status.
Controlled
Potential donors are limited to patients who have died, whose death is
imminent, or whose medical treatment no longer offers a medical benefit to
the patient as determined by the patient, the patient’s authorized surrogate,
or the patient’s advanced directive in constitution with the healthcare team.
Prior to the OPO initiating discussion regarding potential DCD organ
donation, the OPO must confirm the decision to withdraw life-sustaining
medical interventions. Prior to withdrawal of life-sustaining measures, the
healthcare team and OPO coordinate donation discussion with the patient’s
family or legally appointed representative.
Once organ donation consent has been obtained by the TC, a time is
coordinated with the family and recovery surgeons for the patient to be
separated from all life-supporting interventions and comfort care is
initiated. This usually occurs in the operating room but may occur in the
ICU and the family may or may not chose to be at the patient bedside. The
patient is pronounced dead by circulatory/cardiac death. Pronouncement of
death is made by the donor hospital healthcare team member who is
authorized to declare death and must not be part of the organ recovery team.
This must occur within 60 to 90 minutes of separation of life support for the
donation to proceed. If transition to comfort measures occurs in the ICU,
the patient is transported to the operating room; if comfort care is initiated
in the OR, the family is escorted out of the OR. A period of 2 to 10 minutes
of asystole (pulselessness, apnea, unresponsiveness) is observed prior to
organ recovery in the operating room. Up to 10% of potential donors
maintain cardiac activity for more than 90 minutes after discontinuation of
life support. These individuals are not candidates for organ donation and
will receive ongoing end-of-life care.
Uncontrolled
Rapid organ recovery donation after circulatory death (uncontrolled DCD)
involves recovery of organs following death from an unexpected circulatory
arrest and can be an out-of-hospital, refractory cardiac arrest or an
unexpected cardiac arrest in hospital. Optimally an OPO TC will be present
or available during the arrest event; if a representative is not present, the
OPO should be contacted by healthcare staff not participating in the
resuscitation. After resuscitation attempts are judged futile by the healthcare
team, the OPO assesses the patient as eligible to proceed with rapid organ
recovery. The family/ legal representative must have made the decision to
withdraw life support and stop resuscitative efforts prior to the discussion of
donation. Resuscitation is continued as the TC has a conversation with
family regarding possible donation. If consent is obtained and the plan is to
move forward with rapid organ recovery, all interventions are terminated
and the patient is pronounced dead. The diagnosis of death may occur after
resuscitation is terminated on scene or after arrival to the hospital. There is
a “no touch” period after which death is determined, usually 2 to 5 minutes.
After this time, organ preservation may be restarted with cardiac
compressions and mechanical ventilation initiated to preserve the organs for
donation only. Compressions are maintained by healthcare staff or using a
compression/CPR device until a recovery surgeon and OR are available.
C. Living Donation
A living individual from whom at least one organ is recovered for use in a
transplant. A kidney, or a portion of a liver, lung, pancreas, or intestine are
examples.
III. DONATION PROCESS
A. Potential Organ Donor Recognition
Consider patient as a potential organ donor and communicate with OPO:
At the first indication the patient has sustained a non-survivable

neurologic or anoxic injury/illness
Prior to the first formal brain death examination
Prior to family discussion of do-not-resuscitate (DNR) or withdrawal
of support
Patient has sustained: anoxia, cerebrovascular accident, head trauma
B. Communication
Consider phases of communication with the family: Provide up-to-date

information in small amounts. Set aside time to answer questions. Use
visual aids to describe the brain injury. When possible, bring the family to
the bedside to observe clinical tests. Choose words carefully when
discussing the patient’s condition. Do not mention donation until a
systematic, timed, collaborative approach can be orchestrated with the OPO
transplant coordinator and a member of the care team.
Phase 1 (Serious Injury) YOUR RELATIVE has sustained severe

damage to his/her brain. We are doing everything we can but he/she
may not recover.
– Critical care team continues to support the potential organ donor
patient through
all phases.
Phase II (Grave Prognosis) Despite everything we have done, things
are getting worse. There is nothing more we can do to save your loved
one’s life. Ensure that OPO has been notified.
Phase III (First Examination for brain death) YOUR LOVED ONE
appears to be dead because there is no brain function. We have begun a
series of tests to confirm this. We want to be extremely thorough and
careful to ensure that we are absolutely correct. (Provide the family
with information about additional testing and timeframes.)
Phase IV (Pronouncement) We have finished the testing and found
that YOUR RELATIVE______ has died @ (INFORM family of the
time of death). (Where appropriate, repeat clinical examination with
the family present.)
Phase V (Team Huddle and Care Team Introduces the OPO TC) This
is ______, a member of our team and a specialist who works with
families such as yours.
The communication process for controlled and uncontrolled DCD would

not include a brain death examination or pronouncement prior to discussion
of donation with the family. For the DCD communication process, a family
discussion with the appropriate hospital recommended support staff present
(palliative care, Chaplain service, case management) should be conducted
to discuss goals of care. The OPO TC should be available and present in the
hospital at the time of the meeting. If the family wishes to transition to
comfort measures/ withdraw/ hospice, this would be the time to introduce
the OPO TC to discuss DCD organ donation.
C. Management Goals for Potential Organ Donors
In 2015, the Society of Critical Care Medicine, the American College of

Physicians, and the Organ Procurement Organization Donor Management
Task Force published a Consensus Statement in organ donation. More
recently (2020), the Spanish Society of Intensive Care Medicine
(SEMICYUC) updated their guidelines on regards to the goals for the
management of potential organ donors.
Some of the points highlighted in those position papers are summarized
below.
Fluid Management Recommendations
Crystalloids (isotonic saline) is the preferred fluid therapy
Colloid infusions can be used as a bolus to treat hypotension
Hypotonic saline can be used to treat hypernatremia
Bicarbonate might be needed to treat metabolic acidosis
Replacement of fluids should be directed by hemodynamic monitoring
Monitoring Goals and Recommendations
Continuous cardiac monitoring and SpO2
Hourly vital signs and Input/Output documentation

Left ventricular ejection fraction > 45%
Maintain urine output > 1mL/kg/h and < 4mL/kg/h
Goal temperature 36-38°C (96.8-100.4°F) (warming/cooling blanket,
as needed)
Donor management focuses on improving and maintaining appropriate

organ perfusion. Critical care management is still required during this phase
of care. Interventions, such as mechanical ventilation, renal replacement
therapy, and titration of vasopressors, are necessary to achieve the goal of
organ transplantation. OPOs work in coordination with hospitals and
healthcare providers on management recommendations and goals.
Institution and OPO collaborative projects, such as the creation of donor
management order sets and protocols, have improved donor management
and successful organ recovery for transplantation.
IV. ORGAN PLACEMENT PROCESS

When organs are donated, the regional OPO accesses the national transplant
computer system. Information about the donor is entered into the system
and a donor/recipient match is run for each donated organ. The resulting
match list of potential recipients is ranked according to criteria defined in
that organ’s allocation policy. Each organ has its own specific criteria.
Using the match list of potential recipients, the regional OPO’s TC contacts
the transplant center of the highest ranked patient. If the organ is not
accepted, the next potential recipient’s transplant center on the match list is
contacted until the organ is placed. Once the organ is accepted for a patient,
transportation arrangements are made and transplant surgery is scheduled.
This narrative is a summary of organ donation. It does not encompass all
involved with the process. The intention of this section is to introduce organ
donation and provide an overview of the history, the types of organ
donation, and to state the importance of ongoing critical care management
of the donor patient. For more information on the process, please refer to
the suggested readings and consider contacting your regional OPO.
Suggested Readings
1. Chamorro-Jambrina C, Muñoz-Ramírez MR, Martínez-Melgar JL,

Pérez-Cornejo MS. Organ donor management: Eight common
recommendations and actions that deserve reflection. Med Intensiva.
2017;41(9):559-568.
2. Institute of Medicine, Committee on Non-Heart- Beating
Transplantation II, “Non-Heart-Beating Organ Transplantation-
Practice and Protocols”, report from conference convened on May 24,
25, 1999. https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/25077239/
3. Korte C, Garber JL, Descourouez JL, Richards KR, Hardinger K.
Pharmacists' guide to the management of organ donors after brain
death. Am J Health Syst Pharm. 2016;73(22):1829-1839.
4. Kotloff RM, Blosser S, Fulda GJ, et al. Management of the Potential
Organ Donor in the ICU. Crit Care Med. 2015;43(6):1291-1325.
5. Organ Procurement and Transplant Network. US Department of Health
and Human Services website. https://optn.transplant.hrsa.gov.
Accessed May 2, 2020
6. Organ Transplant Data. US Department of Health and Human Services
website. https://data.hrsa.gov/topics/health-systems/organ-donation.
Updated February 21, 2019. Accessed May 2, 2020.
7. Ortega-Deballon I, Hornby L, Shemie SD. Protocols for uncontrolled
donation after circulatory death: a systematic review of international
guidelines, practices and transplant outcomes. Crit Care.
2015;19(1):268.
8. “Report of a National Conference on Donation after Cardiac Death”,
conference held April 7,8, 2005, Philadelphia.
https://www.onelegacy.org/docs/NationalConferenceOnDCD_2006.pd
f
9. Thoracic and Critical Care Community. American Society of
Transplantation.
https://www.myast.org/about-ast/about-ast. Accessed May 2, 2020.
10. United Network for Organ Sharing. https://unos.org/about/history-of-
unos/ Accessed May 2, 2020.
11. US Department of Health and Human Services Advisory Committee
on Organ Transplantation Recommendations, November 6,7, 2003.
https://www.organdonor.gov/about-dot/acot/acotrecs2935.html
Suggested Websites
1. Protocolo Nacional de Mantenimiento del Potencial Donante de

Organos (SEMICYUC-ONT) https://semicyuc.org/2020/05/protocolo-
nacional-de-mantenimiento-del-potencial-donante-de-organos-
semicyuc-ont/
2. United Network for Organ Sharing (UNOS). https://unos.org/
3. OPTN: Organ Procurement and Transplantation.
https://optn.transplant.hrsa.gov/

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Fundamental

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