Chapter 8

TVET and entrepreneurship skills

Aboubakr Abdeen Badawi

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Contents

1 Introduction 276
1.1 Background 278
1.2 Why this paper? 284
1.3 Methodology 284
2 TVET and EPE: where we stand today 285
2.1 TVET: A broader concept and greater importance 285
2.2 EPE for SMEs to complement TVET 286
2.3 Selected EPE–TVET complementarity practices 289
3 Emerging trends in TVET and EPE which confirm their complementarity 292
3.1 Emerging EPE and education systems: selected examples 294
4 Conclusions and policy recommendations 298
4.1 Conclusions  299
4.2 Policy recommendations 301
References303
About the author 307

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1 Introduction

T here is no doubt that we are living in the ‘knowledge era’ of human history.
Knowledge societies and knowledge economies are the main characteristics of
the knowledge era, but more important is the ‘knowledge mindset’1 of individuals.
The knowledge mindset helps individuals to navigate today’s uncertainties and
tomorrow’s unknown developments, not only in labour markets but in all aspects
of life. Twenty-first-century citizens, regardless of their occupation, must be well
equipped to navigate oceans of fast changes and developments. It is the responsibility
of education to equip individuals to meet current and future challenges and
expectations. This is a huge responsibility, but one that must be fulfilled. Education is
the main vehicle used by societies to develop their new generations, and education
reforms should be oriented to providing students with a knowledge mindset. Two
main forms of education have a particular role to play in this context: technical and
vocational education and training (TVET) and entrepreneurship education (EPE).

The last decade of the twentieth century, and the first decade of the twenty-first,
have witnessed numerous and diversified initiatives to develop education in almost all
countries, both developed and developing, building on the proven role of education
in development. There have been rigorous reforms and major developments at all
levels of education, from elementary to higher and tertiary. Some of these initiatives
are global, while others are regional, national or local.
The United Nations (UN) system has adopted several global educational initiatives
to bridge the gap between the vast need to prepare the new generation to help
develop societies and economies, and the current offerings of educational and
training institutions. Among the relevant initiatives in this context are Education
for All (EFA), Millennium Development Goals (MDG) and Education for Sustainable
Development (ESD). The United Nations has also contributed to developments such
as private–public partnerships (PPP) and Life-Long Career Guidance for All (LLCG).

1 A mindset is a set of assumptions, methods or notations held by one or more people or groups of people,
which is so established that it creates a powerful incentive within these people or groups to continue to
adopt or accept prior behaviours, choices or tools (http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mindset).

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Many country-level initiatives have been developed, customized to the country’s

specific environment and needs. One initiative that is common to many countries is
Education for a Knowledge Economy (EfKE). Although many objectives and activities
of these initiatives overlap, each one represents a comprehensive package in itself.
Each initiative requires implementation, monitoring and evaluation systems at global
and country levels.
The unprecedented economic and social changes sweeping across all corners of the
world, and the growing effects of globalization, are drawing a new picture of our
current and future world. The global economic crisis which began in 2008–2009,
and the revolutions in the Middle East from 2011 onwards, which were led largely
by young people, call for a fresh look at how education and training policies and
systems, and labour market/ employment policies and practices, are matched to
each other and capable of accommodating these new realities. Many have been
demanding for a long time a shift of focus from quantifying economic returns as
the criterion for success, to an emphasis on securing productive decent work for all
and strengthening social coherence. It is time for planners and politicians to seriously
consider how they can achieve this transition.
The time is ripe to vigorously examine the role, modalities and effectiveness of many
governmental and non-governmental interventions, including education and labour
market policies. It will not be realistic to shape the minds of future generations using
traditional methods and settings. Innovation is a must, particularly in education. In
spite of the plethora of initiatives mentioned earlier, what seems to be missing is an
approach that comprehensively sets decent work for all at the centre of planning,
in contrast to the current focus on economic indicators. This is not to argue that
we should neglect economic growth and competitiveness. Rather, we need to revise
our priorities with a view of optimizing the impact of economic development on
the standards of living of all citizens. In other words, we need to view economic
growth through an employment lens, rather than viewing employment through
the lens of economic growth. There is a consensus among development researchers
that developmental plans to orient our economies around decent work are the right
approach to mitigating poverty2 and social exclusion. In such comprehensive plan,
2 For further information on decent work and poverty see the International Labour Organization’s (ILO’s)
Decent Work page: www.ilo.org/global/about-the-ilo/decent-work-agenda/lang--en/index.htm

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EPE and TVET would be the main cornerstone. EPE could promote innovation and the
self-reliance of learners, while TVET continues to play a major role in increasing the
employability of students and trainees and empowering them with relevant skills
needed for the labour market.

1.1 Background
The developments towards a knowledge economy, (KE) the faster than ever
technological developments, as well as changes in the structure and functioning
of labour markets, mean that all the workforce, both present and future, need to
acquire common skills over and above their specific occupational skills. In order to be
seen as employable, people today must not only show a capability of applying their
practical and theoretical learning in their own specialism; most importantly they
need the abilities to deal with change, to learn from experience, to think critically
and act autonomously.
A European Union (EU) Experts Group report (EU, 2008, p. 7) identified three broad
areas of competencies necessary for each individual: using tools interactively,
interacting in heterogeneous groups and acting autonomously. Among the other
generic skills that employers have indicated that they prioritize for inclusion in
education and training programmes are working in teams, communication and
language skills and problem-solving. Many education development initiatives have
taken on board the need to foster generic (also called soft or transferable) skills, but
there is a need to do still more, because skills and characteristics such as innovation,
creativity, energy and single-mindedness are needed increasingly for all levels and
types of work. The EU Expert Group report stated:
The important role of education in promoting more entrepreneurial
attitudes and behaviours is now widely recognised. However, the benefits of
entrepreneurship education are not limited to start-ups, innovative ventures
and new jobs. Entrepreneurship refers to an individual’s ability to turn ideas
into action and is therefore a key competence for all, helping young people to
be more creative and self-confident in whatever they undertake.
(EU, 2008, p. 7)

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In essence, comments such as this one are calling for skills and competencies that are
already included in the rich modality of EPE. Indeed, the time is ripe for integrating
the efforts aiming at helping individuals acquire occupation-related technical skills
through TVET with those for instilling transferable skills through EPE. The growing
trend towards many career changes in the course of people’s lives adds to the
importance of their acquiring good generic transferable skills.
Because of this growing awareness of the role of entrepreneurship in growth
and employment, the issues of redefining entrepreneurship, and consequently
entrepreneurship education and training, have become hot ones since 2001.
Initiatives in this regard have resulted in a wide acceptance that entrepreneurship
skills should be considered as generic skills for all. The conclusion of the EU Expert
Group report was that:
If it is to make a success of the Lisbon Strategy for growth and employment,
Europe needs to stimulate the entrepreneurial mindsets of young people,
encourage innovative business start-ups, and foster a culture that is friendlier
to entrepreneurship and to the growth of small and medium-sized enterprises
(SMEs). The important role of education in promoting more entrepreneurial
attitudes and behaviours is now widely recognised.
(EU, 2008, p. 7)
The countries in the Organisation for Economic Co-operation and Development
(OECD) also consider EPE as one of three pillars for building the individual. In the
OECD project on Definition and Selection of Competencies (DeSeCo), entrepreneurship
skills are highlighted:
In most OECD countries, value is placed on flexibility, entrepreneurship and
personal responsibility. Not only are individuals expected to be adaptive, but
also innovative, creative, self- directed and self-motivated.
(OECD, p.8)
This relatively new concept that entrepreneurship should be seen as a generic skill
for all is not in contradiction with the still prevailing concept that entrepreneurship
is concerned primarily with the development of businesses (which typically begin as
SMEs). EPE programmes usually include a ‘Raising awareness’ element that is offered

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to all learners, as well as more in-depth training that is provided in particular for TVET
students and trainees. In this context, it is important to clarify the definitions used
here for entrepreneurship, EPE, social enterprises and TVET.
Entrepreneurship
The word ‘entrepreneur’ originates from the French entreprendre, to undertake. In a
business context, an entrepreneur is someone who starts a business. The concept of
entrepreneurship covers a wide range. At one extreme an entrepreneur is a person of
very high aptitude, possessing characteristics found in only a very small fraction of
the population, who pioneers change. At the other, individuals who want to work for
themselves can be considered as entrepreneurs. 3
There is however a clear distinction between entrepreneurship and managing a
small, medium or even large enterprise. An entrepreneur is a person with vision (or
a visionary):
Who starts a business with a fresh idea – to make something better or less
expensively, to make it in a new way or to satisfy a unique need – [and] is
often not primarily interested in making money. The visionary wants to do
something that no one else has done because they can, because it is interesting
and exciting, and because it may be meeting a need. Once the business begins
to have some success, then the nature of the processes needed change.
(Di Masi, 2009)
EPE planners must distinguish between the need to assist visionary would-be
entrepreneurs in realizing their vision, and the equally real, but different, need
to prepare business managers (who need not possess this kind of vision) to run
businesses successfully. EPE programmes need to cover both roles. Trainees can best
be selected on the basis of their ability to create business ideas, rather than by using
psychometric tools. There are two real dangers for those involved in making such
selections. The first is:
Selecting entrepreneurial qualities over managerial skills. This may thereby
condemn the business to uneven growth, poor management and ultimate

3 www.quickmba.com/entre/definition/ (retrieved 1 January 2012).

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failure, as the enterprise does not respond adequately to new market and
trading conditions. A further danger is attempting to select people over ideas.
(Di Masi, 2009)
There is a longstanding debate on whether entrepreneurship is an innate ability, or
a skill that can be acquired through education, or indeed a combination of both.
Whatever the truth, it is apparent that a number of people in society opt to follow
this path, although the proportion varies between societies. Some societies are known
for their ‘entrepreneurship culture’, an environment which encourages individuals to
become entrepreneurs. In other societies, there is more of an emphasis on the need
for security, best achieved by taking up a job in an established enterprise, which
tends to have a negative impact on the entrepreneurship culture.
A more recent phenomenon is the tendency for economic development that does
not of itself create new employment opportunities. Because of the real need
noted above for an emphasis on employment opportunities, such a trend calls for
structural changes in labour markets, including the promotion of SMEs. As a result
many scholars and leaders are calling for encouragement of, in effect a revival of, an
entrepreneurship culture. In a recent Global Entrepreneurship Forum in Turkey (see
INSEAD, n.d.), the president of the Public Forum Institute talked about Turkey’s case:
Perhaps most difficult to change, as is often the case around the world, is
culture. Although entrepreneurs ‘by necessity’ are generally respected for
their work ethic, entrepreneurs ‘by choice’ who have other promising career
options are often discouraged by their families.
(Ortmans, 2011)
Entrepreneurship education is certainly a vehicle towards reviving entrepreneurship
culture.
Social enterprises
In addition to for-profit enterprises, social enterprises have become an important
field of entrepreneurship. They are emerging as the ‘missing middle’ between
traditional government programmes and non-profit bodies. Social enterprises use
business methods, but work for the common good of the society. At best, they

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address social, environmental and human concerns more efficiently than traditional
government programmes, and more sustainably than traditionally funded non-profit
organizations. Some see social enterprises as the single most hopeful vehicle for
overcoming the most heavily debated social, environmental and human concerns.
In the late 1990s, national gatherings for social entrepreneurs started in several
countries, leading to the establishment of social enterprise alliances and unions.
These focus on creating more connectivity and opportunity for mutual learning and
support between members, providing access to information, partnering with other
resources and developing a social enterprise marketplace. Some of these alliances
and unions certify their members, to help them obtain better visibility and credibility.
Such certification may help social enterprises in obtaining venture finance, promoting
their products and services, and receiving a favourable response from governmental
and other bodies. The work involved in establishing, managing and developing social
enterprises is not much different from what is required for business enterprises, but
the objective is to achieve social goods rather than profit.
Entrepreneurship education (EPE)
Initiatives to use the power of education to enhance individuals’ entrepreneurial
mindsets, and raise awareness of entrepreneurship as a viable alternative to paid
employment, gave rise to educational programmes that can be grouped together
under the heading of entrepreneurship education and training. EPE has existed for
decades and a wide variety of courses have been introduced in many systems of
education around the globe. Special EPE programmes are tailored to job seekers,
to unemployed people, and to scientists, engineers and researchers to encourage
them to commercialize their intellectual property. EPE is often a link in a chain of
support offered to those who decide to explore self-employment and establish a
small enterprise. Other links of the chain include technical, legal and administrative
support, as well as incubation, franchise and networking support services.
Although in this sense EPE is well established, the first decade of the new millennium
witnessed the birth of a broader concept of entrepreneurship as a generic skill for
everyone, and not just for exceptional entrepreneurs. EPE on these lines has been
adopted in many countries and regions, but this new concept is still in its infancy. The
new concept of EPE is closely linked to innovation and to knowledge-based action,

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so it stimulates the ‘entrepreneurial mindset’ of learners. EPE, in this new sense,

should start early in the lives of learners. ‘Introducing entrepreneurial thinking and
entrepreneurship education early at all levels can go very far in nurturing a culture
that rewards prudent risk-taking’ (Ortmans, 2011). In this paper EPE is used in both
senses: as a preparation for entrepreneurs and as a generic skill for all. The context
usually makes it clear which sense is meant, and where clarification is necessary, EPE
linked to enterprise start-up is referred to as the prevailing concept, while the ‘new
concept’ refers to training in generic skills.
Technical and vocational education and training (TVET)
The 2002 UNESCO and International Labour Organization (ILO) Recommendations on
TVET characterize it as:
A comprehensive term referring to those aspects of the educational process
involving, in addition to general education, the study of technologies and
related sciences and the acquisition of practical skills, attitudes, understanding
and knowledge relating to occupations in various sectors of economic and
social life.
(UNESCO, 2002)
Accordingly, the responsibility for activities related to TVET is shared among all
bodies planning for, implementing, monitoring and evaluating programmes. TVET is
administered differently in various countries, and several ministries and bodies can
be involved, but with a common objective: all TVET programmes aim at increasing
the employability of individuals, and work for the benefit of the community and
sustainability in general. ‘TVET must be the master key that can alleviate poverty,
promote peace, conserve the environment, improve the quality of life for all and help
achieve sustainable development’ (UNESCO, 2004).

1.2 Why this paper?

Under the prevailing concept of EPE, a vast range of activities to support
entrepreneurship have focused on numerous initiatives, projects and plans all over the
world. Typically there is an educational component that develops learning materials,

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in addition to other components (linking education to incubators, soft loans, technical

and legal/administrative support, and other services for entrepreneurs). Because the
broader conception of entrepreneurship as a generic skill is much newer, currently
there are few programmes focusing on this area. This paper attempts to:
• Analyse the main policies and trends in introducing EPE in education in general,
and TVET in particular;
• Identify the relevance of EPE to TVET;
• Come up with some policy recommendations.
Although it touches on EPE in its prevailing concept as promoting entrepreneurship,
the focus of the paper is on policies and trends for EPE to teach entrepreneurship
as a transferable skill necessary for all learners at all levels and at any point of life.

1.3 Methodology
The paper is based on an analytical review of the rich literature on TVET as a generic
concept, programmes linking technical, industrial, vocational and entrepreneurship
training (TIVET) in some African countries, career and technical education (CTE) in the
post-secondary sector in the United States of America (USA) and the two concepts
of EPE discussed above.

2 TVET and EPE: where we stand today

It would be impossible to cover all aspects of TVET and EPE in this paper, so the
emphasis here is on their complementarity and relationship. There are new trends
and developments in the concept, coverage, policies and modalities of both TVET and
EPE. In this section the focus is on EPE as a preparation for SME establishment and
development. Section 3 of the paper focuses on the newer trend for EPE to impart a
generic skill for all, as an integral part of life-long learning (LLL).

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2.1 TVET: A broader concept and greater importance

TVET is of paramount importance in developing, competitive economies and better
societies. International and regional developmental organizations as well as country
planners and decision-making bodies are nowadays focusing on TVET to boost
economies and promote equity. Research shows the level of workforce skills is a major
determining factor in growth rates: ‘Recent research shows that the level of skills in
a workforce predicts economic growth rates far better than average schooling levels’
(World Bank, 2011). A look into the international arena gives specific evidence of
that importance. It is shown, for example, in the selection of ‘Skills Development:
Expanding Opportunities for Marginalized Groups’ as the theme of the EFA Global
Report 2012; in the Third Global TVET Congress in May 2012; in plans to issue the
OECD Skill Strategy during 2012; and in the selection of ‘Education and Skill’ as the
topic of 2012 Global Youth Video Competition. The World Bank Group’s Education
Strategy 2020 (World Bank 2011) stresses the importance of skills and many more
examples, both international and on the country level, could be given.
To meet the growing demand for skills, many developed and developing countries are
adopting policies that clearly focus on skill development and TVET as means to ensure
that people will be more employable, and more productive once they are employed
(or self-employed). TVET policies cover the preparation of tomorrow’s workforce
for competitive labour markets, most of which are dominated by SMEs. In many
countries SMEs amount to more than 90 per cent of the total number of enterprises,
and employ more than two-thirds of the labour force. In Serbia, for example, they
make up 99.8 per cent of enterprises and 67.2 per cent of employees (Republic of
Serbia, n.d.).
Innovation in SMEs is crucial to their success and sustainability. Enterprises
characterized by innovation are more likely to survive in the market than enterprises
that do not innovate. Innovation should be the responsibility not only of entrepreneurs
but of all employees, particularly in high-tech enterprises where many are typically
TVET graduates.
Some countries have already moved to link EPE and TVET. For example, in Kenya there
is a Technical Industrial Vocational and Entrepreneurship Training (TIVET) programme.

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To sustain and develop SMEs, entrepreneurship education must be integrated into

TVET programmes to empower entrepreneurs and potential SME workers as innovators.

2.2 EPE for SMEs to complement TVET

One of the challenges for educators and policy-makers working in TVET is to assess
the extent to which their programmes are preparing students for the whole spectrum
of working life, including paid employment, work in cooperatives, self-employment,
setting up businesses, family work, social work and voluntary work. Currently, most
TVET programmes are basically designed to prepare people for paid employment and
many focus on employment in large enterprises. It could be argued that PPP can help
TVET planners and providers to improve the relevance of offerings, by ensuring that
the private sector viewpoint is heard and considered. In addition, EPE is needed to
ensure that students learn entrepreneurship. A combination of entrepreneurship skills
and occupation-specific skills should act as a major tool in mitigating unemployment
and opening opportunities for self-employment and SME development. So EPE is
needed alongside TVET to address the challenge.
By its nature, TVET applies particularly to some economic sectors (those with a
relatively large technical component). These relatively high-tech occupations can
play a significant role in alleviating poverty and achieving sustainable development
(UNESCO, 2004). It is natural to find entrepreneurship education as an integral part
of the TVET mandate in this context. It is through EPE (in the long-established sense)
that TVET graduates can gain access to a wider and better range of employment
opportunities. The eye for innovation that it encourages will also enable them
to become more productive employees. In addition to its role in accessing direct
employment, EPE can help TVET trainees and learners acquire the skills necessary for
successful enrolment in higher education. In some countries TVET is not a popular
training choice, and a crucial, and much needed, part of the equation is that EPE can
help to improve the public perception and image of TVET, enabling TVET courses to
attract higher-achieving learners.
TVET (at all levels of education) and EPE have more in common than either has with
many other types of education. First, TVET (in particular when designed using PPP, so

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the courses have strong links with the labour market) is already utilizing enterprises
of all sizes to assist in training students and trainees. This real-life experience helps
to expose them to the reality of entrepreneurship, and to see self-employment or
starting up a business as a viable employment alternative. Second, some of the
occupations for which TVET courses provide training lend themselves particularly
to self-employment and the establishment of SMEs. Third, many TVET programmes
and activities already include some of the main EPE skills, such as working in teams,
problem-solving and thinking innovatively. TVET students with practical work
experience are already familiar with the rules of preserving the work environment
(that is, with occupational health and safety) and the wider environment (being
aware of issues such as pollution and the degradation of natural resources), as well as
having some awareness of the sustainability of work opportunities and the economy
in general. For these reasons, and many others, EPE is crucial to TVET students,
trainees, and equally important to their teachers and other educational personnel.
Further evidence for the relevance of EPE to TVET can be found by analysing graduate
employment data, considering in particular the percentages of graduates from TVET
and general education who choose to become self-employed or establish their own
enterprise. Only limited information on this subject is available, but the evidence
that is accessible suggests that a higher percentage of TVET graduates establish SMEs
than do graduates in general education. In Australia, for example:
Around 20 per cent of all workers, the majority of whom are TVET graduates,
are self-employed, a significant number that has steadily increased since the
late 1970s. Over a quarter of males with vocational qualifications and 14
per cent of women with vocational qualifications are self-employed. Most
self-employed males are working in skilled manual occupations, while most
self-employed females are in hospitality management and the community
and personal services sector.
(Atkinson, 2011)
In the People’s Republic of China, 12.84 per cent of secondary vocational school
graduates opted for self-employment or to establish their own small business in
2010 (China integration of Vocational and Technical Education, 2011). This data was
collected just over one year after graduation, so the percentage can be expected to

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increase over time, as graduates gain experience and become more confident about
running their own businesses. The considerable percentage of TVET graduates who
choose to work independently (in self-employment or their own business) supports
the conclusion that EPE is relevant to TVET.
EPE and TVET are two types of education that aim directly at increasing the employability
of students and trainees in two major types of employment: self-employment (which
includes establishing and developing SMEs) and paid employment. Both types of
education directly link the educational course to the labour market, widen the scope of
choices for students and graduates, optimize the utilization of individuals’ potential,
and contribute to the comprehensive development of society, both economically and
socially. EPE is a major cornerstone in promoting the establishment and development
of SMEs. It can usefully be provided at secondary and tertiary education levels, and
to graduates, the unemployed (including both the never-employed and those who
have been laid off as a result of economic difficulties) and many other groups. TVET
programmes in particular are a major beneficiary of this type of entrepreneurship
education in many countries.
In times of national, regional or global economic crisis, such as has prevailed since
the onset of the global financial and economic crisis in 2008–2009, the need for
more skills becomes even more apparent. OECD research clearly confirms this:
Millions of workers lost their jobs in the recent economic crisis. And with the
global economy still subdued, the OECD expects unemployment to remain
high. One lesson from the crisis has been the importance of skills in today’s
workplace: job losses among skilled workers were much lower than among
the unskilled. In a globally competitive, knowledge-based economy, having a
skilled workforce is necessary to ensure productivity and sustainable growth.
(OECD, 2012)
Complementing their acquisition of job-specific skills with EPE would broaden the
scope for gainful decent work opportunities for TVET graduates in times of economic
difficulty.

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2.3 Selected EPE–TVET complementarity practices

The European Union’s Leonardo da Vinci programme was specifically designed to
promote innovation and entrepreneurship in Europe, through modification schemes
linked to professional and vocational training in individual participant countries
(Norway, 2006). The 2008 Expert Group report referred to earlier in this paper
showed that in spite of this imitative, implementation is lagging behind targets,
‘In spite of the numerous policy initiatives to promote EPE, implementation is still
lagging behind and scattered (Final Report of the Expert Group, 2008).’ The analysis,
carried out by the European Commission in cooperation with national authorities,
showed that:
Although numerous initiatives on entrepreneurship education are under
way at all levels across the EU, most of them are neither integrated into the
curriculum nor form part of a coherent framework, and that as a result most
students – at school and university – have no possibility as yet of taking part
in entrepreneurship courses and programmes.
(Final Report of the Expert Group, 2008)
Analysis of the results of the EU initiatives to promote entrepreneurship has stressed
the need for:
• Raising awareness;
• Tutoring by experts and professionals;
• Securing technical assistance;
• Involving guest trainers from different backgrounds, including young
entrepreneurs; and
• Integrating EPE into a wider entrepreneurship promotion programme (Final
Report of the Expert Group, 2008).
There is further information on EU policy and activities in this field in Section 3 of
this paper.
Norway’s Strategy for Entrepreneurship in Education and Training 2004–2008 shows
a trend towards EPE–TVET integration:

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Knowledge of working life, of enterprise-founding, of ethics/environmental

theory, economics and resource utilization will be important elements in
training. Within the vocational programmes the pupils and apprentices will
get to know different kinds of business and industry.
(Norway, 2006, p. 5)
The strategy hints at a team-teaching methodology that integrates EPE into subjects
that lend themselves to EPE:
For upper secondary 1 and 2 vocational programmes (Norw. Vg1 and Vg2)
we find entrepreneurship in: Arts, Crafts and Design, Electro and Electrical
subjects, in Media and Communication, in Programme for Agriculture, Fishing
and Forestry and in Service and Transport and communication.
(Norway, 2006, p. 7)
The ILO has a special department for enterprise development (Job Creation and
Enterprise Development Department, EMP/ENTERPRISE), including a unit responsible
for SMEs (Boosting Employment through Small Enterprise Development, EMP/SEED).
The Entrepreneurship training package developed by the ILO includes programmes
entitled Know About Business (KAB), Start Your Business (SYB) and Start and Improve
Your Business (SIYB).4 Know About Business (KAB) is focused on the awareness issue,
while SYB and SIYB aim to help those who opt to establish and/or improve an SME.
The ILO’s field offices offer support to training and educational institutes in using
the package in their programmes, including training teachers/instructors to use it
efficiently. Numerous memoranda of understanding (MOU) between ILO field offices
and education institutes, including ministries of education, have been signed in
many countries around the globe. A good percentage of these initiatives involve
TVET programmes.
At the request of its Member States, UNESCO has developed two training packages,
one tailored to students in secondary technical and vocational schools, and one
fitted to learning in informal settings. The idea is to broaden career options (work
options) for TVET graduates:

4 www.ilo.org/empent/units/start-and-improve-your-business/lang--en/index.htm

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Proposing that entrepreneurial skills should augment the technical knowledge

and skills young people gain in formal vocational training. Entrepreneurial
skills will help them to acquire the mindset and know-how necessary to make
self-employment a viable career option.
(UNESCO, 2006-07a, p. 4)
Each package starts with raising the awareness of self-employment as an option:
Launching a successful business requires an awareness of one’s knowledge,
skills, abilities, aptitudes, values and preferences. The training therefore begins
by inviting students to consider their own strengths and weaknesses in these
areas, so that they develop a clear sense of themselves.
(UNESCO, 2006-07a, p. 4)
The packages focus on preparing individuals to become successful entrepreneurs:
They are encouraged to perceive themselves as the actors responsible for their
own lives. Learners are then guided through the various stages of developing a
commercial idea, from identifying a community need for a product or service
to acquiring resources, organizing a workplace and marketing the product or
service and finally preparing a business plan.
(UNESCO, 2006-07a, p. 4)
These quotes are taken from the package for formal learning, but the one designed
for use in non-formal settings has similar content. Both training packages include a
participant’s workbook, as well as a facilitator’s guide.
Finally, it must always be remembered that EPE alone is not sufficient to promote
entrepreneurship. The task calls for a multidisciplinary approach involving other
governmental, financial, economic and social bodies. Shaping fertile ecosystems for
entrepreneurship is crucial in boosting the success rates of start-ups (Badawi, 2011).
A Forbes study (Marich, 2011) outlines ten recommended actions for governments
to promote entrepreneurship. The recommendations are grouped under three main
headings: shaping fertile ecosystems, financing entrepreneurship from inception to
critical size, and promoting an entrepreneurial culture.

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3 Emerging trends in TVET and EPE which

confirm their complementarity

T VET today involves more than skills acquisition programmes. Its policies and
strategies stress the need for stronger links with the labour market and for
strategies to help graduates to adjust continuously to the fast changes in the
market. With the return of apprenticeship programmes (in a modern form), learning/
workplace partnerships, high skills training, broader specializations, a greater role for
information and communications technology (ICT) in TVET, more transferable skills,
the learning workplace, recognition of prior learning and skills acquired informally,
and many other initiatives, EPE seems to be the glue that can keep all the trends
together. The innovative mindset developed through EPE will help people in choosing
and pursuing the career that most suits their abilities and interests. It will also help
them in changing their occupation, should the need arise, in fast-changing labour
markets.

TVET trends can be analysed on three main axes:

• The demand for graduates (with the skills taught);
• The willingness of students and trainees to enrol in programmes; and
• The qualitative and quantitative relevance to actual labour market needs.
On the issue of demand for general skills, a recent World Bank discussion paper on
skill development in the OECD countries confirms that the demand is growing: it
refers to ‘the growing demand for general competencies and higher-level skills’ (You,
2009). This finding is true for most countries, developed and developing. The same
study found that more than half of the secondary school students in OECD countries
choose to enrol in TVET courses:
Despite the increasing focus on general and higher education, we document
that participation in TVET systems at the upper secondary level in OECD

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countries has remained at approximately 50 per cent of total enrolment in

recent years.
(You, 2009)
Three strategic trends in the OECD countries were identified which were aimed at
ensuring the relevance of TVET:
There has also been an increasing trend in OECD countries to defer vocational
specialization and more effectively integrate general and vocational
education. Furthermore, in an effort to combat the image of TVET as a
‘dead-end’ pathway, OECD countries are undertaking measures to improve
permeability between TVET and higher education (e.g. the establishment of
national qualifications frameworks). Finally, while traditional apprenticeships
are declining in popularity, OECD countries are adopting new approaches
of effectively integrating workplace experience in pre-employment TVET
systems.
(You, 2009)
EPE could open up the scope of employment for TVET graduates, as well as playing an
important role in promoting enrolment in TVET courses and improving their image.
Transferable skills acquired through EPE would help to integrate TVET with general
education as well as workplace learning.
With the growing role of entrepreneurship in economic and social development,
and its importance for building a ‘self-reliant population’ capable of surviving in
increasingly turbulent labour markets, the learning of entrepreneurship skills cannot
be left to chance. Just as EPE is moving from a preparation for those starting up
SMEs to a focus on broader generic skills for all, it needs to become an integral part
of national education systems:
Entrepreneurship is an employment strategy that can lead to economic
self-sufficiency. Through entrepreneurship education, young people, learn
organizational skills, including time management, leadership development
and interpersonal skills, all of which are highly transferable skills sought by
employers.5
5 www.unevoc.unesco.org/56.0.html?&tx_drwiki_pi1[keyword]=Entrepreneurs (Accessed 1 January 2012.)

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That is why EPE is today recognized as a main objective of national education systems:
One of the main goals of education is to prepare students to be entrepreneurial
innovators and active participants in the labour market. Entrepreneurship
education increases the self-reliance of populations and makes them less
dependent on an increasingly shrinking job market.
(UNEVOC-UNESCO, n.d.b)

3.1 Emerging EPE and education systems: selected examples

In 2001 the European Commission set up an expert group for training and education
in entrepreneurship. The group had members from sixteen countries. One of the
group’s tasks was to arrive at a common definition of entrepreneurship in training
and education. In November 2002 the group submitted their report, defining
entrepreneurship as:
Entrepreneurship is a dynamic and social process where individuals, alone or
in collaboration, identify opportunities for innovation and act upon these by
transforming ideas into practical and targeted activities, whether in a social,
cultural or economic context.
(EC, 2002)
The Council of Europe in Strasbourg and the European Charter for Small Businesses
adopted the proposed definition and stated in the EU publication Measures to Create
a Culture of Enterprise that ‘Today the importance of entrepreneurship as one of the
fundamental skills that must be acquired through lifelong learning has been accepted’
(EC, 2002). With this declaration, EPE became an integral part of the LLL process. In
October 2006, the European Union organized a European Conference on EPE in Oslo,
which presented a wealth of good-practice examples of EPE policies and practices
in the EU Member States. Based on these experiences the Commission published The
Oslo Agenda for Entrepreneurship Education in Europe (2006c). The agenda presents
a menu from which all stakeholders can pick items at the appropriate level.
EU policy does not limit EPE’s importance to one level or type of education, but it
stresses its importance for tertiary and higher education, including researchers:

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Special attention should be paid to systematically integrating entrepreneurship

training into scientific and technical studies and within technical
institutions, to facilitate spin-offs and innovative start-ups, and to help
researchers acquire entrepreneurial skills. There needs to be more focus on
developing the skills necessary for fully exploiting innovation and knowledge
transfer activities in combination with the commercialization of new
technologies. Academic spin-offs are increasingly seen as important means
of enhancing local economic development. However, in their new roles,
scientists and universities must build business and managerial competencies.
(EC, 2006a)
Entrepreneurship and innovation are closely linked, and the “Recommendation of the
European Parliament and the Council” of 18 December 2006 on “Key competences for
lifelong learning (EU, 2006a)” identifies a ‘sense of initiative and entrepreneurship’ as
one of eight key competences that should be put across at all stages of education and
training. In its Europe 2020 Strategy (EC, 2010), the Commission is clearly reflecting
on that understanding. One of the ‘Flagships’ of the Strategy is entitled ‘Flagship
on innovation union’ and clearly refers to promoting entrepreneurship as a tool for
ensuring that the Union is an innovation one:
To promote knowledge partnerships and strengthen links between education,
business, research and innovation, including through the EIT, and to promote
entrepreneurship by supporting Young Innovative Companies.
(EC, 2010, p. 13)
Support for innovative companies would not be effective without TVET-EPE
complementarity.
Beyond the European Union, there are several other initiatives focused on adopting
EPE in its broader sense. In 2003, the World Economic Forum announced a Global
Education Initiative (GEI) as an open multi-stakeholder approach to education
advancement (WEF, n.d.) aiming to scale education partnerships globally.6 One of the

6 GEI now involves over forty private sector partners, fourteen governments, seven international
organizations and twenty NGOs. It has mobilized over US$100 million to support five countries or regions,
Egypt, Jordan, Palestine, Rajasthan (India) and Rwanda.

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GEI’s main work streams is ‘Educating the next wave of entrepreneurs’ (WEF, 2009). In
its Phase II, this work stream organized regional EPE round tables (for Europe in May
2010, the Middle East and North Africa in October 2010 and Africa in April 2011). The
GEI justifies an emphasis on entrepreneurship education as a tremendous force with
a big impact on growth and progress. Education for the new wave of entrepreneurs
would normally include both EPE and TVET. It is equally important to offer similar
training to current and future employees of SMEs, to help them in running more
sustainable enterprises.
UNESCO too has not been far from the developments. An inter-regional seminar
on entrepreneurship education was organized by UNESCO’s Division for the
Promotion of Basic Education (from 11 to 16 February 2008) to address the issue of
entrepreneurship education in a global context. It took place in Bangkok, Thailand,
where representatives from UNESCO and other UN agencies along with education
experts from all geographic regions of the world participated. The seminar adopted
the joint UNESCO- ILO definition of entrepreneurship education, which opens the
concept up to focus on basic skills for all. The inter-regional seminar also decided to
establish an International Working Group (IWG) on Entrepreneurship Education. This
group organized its first meeting in Frankfurt, Germany from 27 to 29 October 2008.
Around twenty education experts from various international organizations, national
governments and entrepreneurship education providers met to share experiences
and build partnerships, and to determine the best means for the IWG to promote
entrepreneurship education that responds to the current needs and conditions of
countries worldwide.
Shortly before the Frankfort meeting, from 22 to 24 September 2008, UNEVOC
Centres in the Southern African region came together in Mbabane, Swaziland to
exchange views on innovations and best practices, and to discuss areas for intensified
collaboration. The meeting adopted integrating entrepreneurial skills in TVET
curriculum as one of these areas of intensified collaboration.7
In clear support to the new concept of EPE as a generic skill for all and an integral part
of LLL, a UNESCO on-going pilot project for Arab States was launched jointly with
a UK NGO, the StratREAL Foundation, in 2010. The project title is ‘Entrepreneurship

7 www.unevoc.unesco.org/wiki.html?&tx_drwiki_pi1[keyword]=page_entrepreneurial_learningmore

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Education in the Arab States’, and it is being implemented by UNEVOC Bonn and the
UNESCO Beirut Office. The project adopted the joint UNESCO-ILO broad definition
of EPE as basic/generic/key skills for all learners at all levels. Based on the adopted
concept, four country reports and a regional synthesis report have been prepared.
The reports clearly showed that a major thrust of EPE offered in the four countries is
focusing on raising the awareness of self-employment and establishing SMEs. They
also revealed that the EPE programmes available were not as yet an integral part of a
national entrepreneurship promotion strategy or plan, but rather that the on-going
activities were scattered in nature.
To help countries in the Arab region to consider the practicality of adopting the
new EPE concept, and to re-examine their current EPE plans and activities, these
reports have been disseminated to all Arab countries for study. The project also offers
technical support, according to need. In development, it is well known that adopting
new concepts is a policy decision that must be supported with applicable plans for
implementation. Arab countries were invited to study the new concept, explore
its relevance to their educational strategies and systems, and decide on their own
priorities. Countries that choose to engage in further activities related to policy/
strategy or pilot implementation of the new EPE concept have been invited to submit
project ideas.
As would be expected, the responses were cautious, and at present several small
pilot projects are being implemented in a number of Arab countries. Most of the
supported pilot projects are focusing on the policy level, aiming at a smooth inclusion
of the broad concept of EPE in educational policies and strategies. Interestingly, most
of the project ideas submitted, and the projects that are currently running, came
from the TVET sector in ministries of education and other concerned national-level
institutions.

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4 Conclusions and policy recommendations

T here is a consensus on the potential role of entrepreneurship, and its supporting

educational activities (EPE), in promoting economic and social progress for all
societies, in both developed and developing countries. The international evidence for
this consensus is documented by the GEI:

The current emphasis on Entrepreneurship Education reflects the fact that

entrepreneurship has never been as important as it is today when the world is
confronted with big challenges that extend well beyond the global economy.
Entrepreneurship is a tremendous force that can have a big impact in growth,
recovery, and societal progress by fuelling innovation, employment generation
and social empowerment.
(WEF, n.d.)

4.1 Conclusions
The need for national entrepreneurship strategy
The potential role of EPE covers two main complementary, but distinct, roles: skills
for all, and the preparation of entrepreneurs. The importance of both roles calls
for integration and coordination via comprehensive national policies which weave
together all the necessary success factors. EPE strategies must stem from a broader
strategy to promote entrepreneurship and revive its culture.
National decisions on adopting EPE concepts
TVET, at all levels including tertiary programmes, should be a main contributor to
entrepreneurship skills acquisition in both its senses. EPE is more relevant to TVET
than to most other types of education. According to the situation in each country,
a decision needs to be taken on whether to focus the available resources on one
track or the other, or to work simultaneously on both tracks. In all cases, EPE should
not be the responsibility of education professionals alone. The business community
and other related bodies (law, finance, marketing, management, human resource

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professionals and so on) as well as representatives of society at large must be full,

active and educated partners. Building the capacity for proper implementation of
EPE should start without delay.
EPE as generic skills for all is best started early in schools
If generic EPE were offered to students as part of the basic education cycle, entrants
to TVET would normally enrol on their courses on a sound basis of appropriate labour
market information and an accurate analysis of their own abilities and interests. Their
educated choice of TVET would ensure their motivation, lead to better achievement
of the required skills, both personal and technical, and increase their opportunities
to enjoy satisfaction in their jobs and life. During their programme of study, they
will continue to use their acquired entrepreneurship skills in mastering skills and
acquiring knowledge that would enable them to become self-employed, establish
their own business, or become more productive in paid employment. EPE would help
them become more mature employees and possible entrepreneurs.
EPE should be an integral part of life-long learning
Life-long EPE would mean that students and trainees enrolled in TVET, at any level
and age, would continue to receive relevant support to master entrepreneurship skills.
Addressing TVET and EPE in an integrated way, for example using a multidisciplinary
team teaching approach, would allow students and trainees to organize what they
learn, in terms of skills, knowledge or attitudes, in a way that facilitates recalling and
using it, as appropriate, in different types of employment. It would also help them
to think about using these competencies in an innovative way in their work and in
their life more generally.
EPE can support the career decisions of individuals
Students and trainees who receive EPE as general skills for all would be able to
optimize their workplace experience, as a part of the TVET programme, by looking
beyond their skills and knowledge to other issues such as the organization of the
workplace, relationship between workers and managers, and many other aspects of
the workplace as an enterprise. Such ‘extra’ learning would be crucial in empowering
them to take career decisions.

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EPE would enhance the starting-up of enterprises

As they approach the completion of their TVET programme, students and trainees
receiving EPE as general skills for all should have the opportunity to discuss with
their teachers, parents, peers and others, issues related to their next step in life.
They should seek careers advice from life-long career guidance services either in or
outside their educational institutions. They can then start to arrange finance for their
project if they opt for a self-employment route, to seek employment (perhaps with
the private partner in their training programme), or to continue their education as
appropriate.
Implementing EPE is lagging behind policies
After almost ten years of developing the emerging concept of EPE, the achievements
are mostly at the policy and strategy level. On the ground, the UNEVOC joint pilot
project on EPE in Arab States is a humble start with very limited funds. It is hoped that
UNEVOC and UNESCO Beirut will be able to use the lessons learned from the project
in fuelling further implementation of the emerging concept. Good and practical ideas
can help to overcome the scarcity of funds for such pioneering projects. Meanwhile,
more information on the application of policies and strategies is expected in the near
future, in particular from the countries of the European Union and from the OECD
countries that have adopted EPE as life-long skills for all.

4.2 Policy recommendations

Based on the analysis and discussion in this paper, the following specific main
recommendations can be made. They are divided into recommendations for each of
the main stakeholders, researchers and international organizations, as appropriate.
Recommendations for governments
• Comprehensive national entrepreneurship promotion strategy: As
entrepreneurship must be developed by concrete policy initiatives, governments
are invited to take the lead in developing such policies and strategies. EPE
would normally become the cornerstone of the strategy, weaved in harmony
with related issues such as fertile ecosystems, finance and marketing.

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• Adoption of the EPE concept and activities: Since there are two strains of EPE,
it is necessary for each country to consider its available human and material
resources as well as its developmental plans, to decide how available allocations
can be best utilized. A double-track approach, which includes both training for
entrepreneurs and offering entrepreneurship skills as generic skills for all, is
recommended. Prioritizing activities in phases within a medium-term plan is an
alternative where human and financial resources are limited.
• Promoting regional and inter-regional cooperation: For developing policies and
activities in a relatively new area such as EPE as skills for all, governments
should seek regional and global exchange of ideas and practices through
regional and international networking. Peer review and learning would
facilitate cooperation.
Recommendations for TVET institutions (at all levels)
• Building capacity and motivating staff: Given the importance of
entrepreneurship skills to all, awareness programmes for all teachers, professors
and other related staff should be started without delay. Building capacity in an
early stage would help in studying the appropriateness of introducing EPE in
TVET institutions. Motivation for staff is also needed. Staff members need to
be confident that they will be rewarded in the medium and long term if they
invest in personal development in this area.
• Taking the lead in building partnerships with all stakeholders: Partnership is
crucial in education in general, and TVET and EPE in particular. TVET institutions
should play an active role in networking by reaching out to anticipated partners.
Partnerships for EPE (and TVET) should not be limited to economic sectors, but
must also include civil society, other providers of education and training, trade
unions, employers’ associations, academics, learners and their families, national
and local supporters and others.
Recommendations for business and social partners
• Engage in a win–win partnership: Research in the area of partnership in
education, and TVET in particular, has revealed that such partnerships benefit
all the partners, including businesses. Economic sectors reaching out to TVET

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institutions to play an active role in TVET and EPE are choosing a win–win
option. The involvement of business associations and social organizations
would give credibility to the process.
Recommendations for researchers
• Crucial areas like EPE and TVET deserve more focused research. There is a need to
explore issues related to EPE and TVET especially their bilateral relationship and
the impact on the employability of learners. Evidence-based policies cannot be
realized without a sound research base. Such a base would also guide policy
development and implementation actions, so this is an area that merits further
research from institutions and individuals.
Recommendations for international organizations and the donor community
• Coordination, articulation and collaboration: In spite of a good deal of
international and bilateral/multilateral cooperation in EPE, there is a large
amount of overlap in the on-going activities. In other areas, there is little
active endeavour: for example, efforts to educate policy-makers in developing
countries about the new concept of entrepreneurship are very limited. EPE,
in particular in TVET, is a promising area that merits more effort. This should
involve networking among those working on current initiatives and facilitating
the exchange of practices, lessons learned and ideas.

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About the author

G raduated as a mechanical engineer, Dr. Badawi got his Doctoral degree in TVET
from Indiana University to start a career focusing on the Strategy/Policy level
in developing the human capital through education and training. He joined the
International Labour Organization in 1991 as a Regional Advisor/Senior Specialist on
Vocational Training in Arab States cum ILO Representative in Kuwait until retirement.

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As a consultant, he rendered his services, focusing on analysis and building national

capacities, to UN organizations including ILO, UNDP, UNESCO, UNEVOC, WFP, and
the European Training Foundation (ETF). Dr. Badawi is the author of several books
and more than a 100 reports/ articles and case studies on Apprenticeship, Career
Guidance, Entrepreneurial Education and TVET Policy, Strategy and Implementation
issues.

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