COURSE SYLLABUS IN CRIMINALISTICS 6

I. COURSE TITLE LIE DETECTION

II. COURSE DESCRIPTION

This course deals with the study of scientific lie detection and forensic psychophysiology.
It covers the fundamental concepts about lies and deceits, history of lie detection,
fundamentals of polygraph science, and polygraph examination procedures and
techniques. Other methods of detecting deception aside from polygraph are included in the
academic discussions. However, the focus of the study is on the uses of polygraph
instrument and the standard procedures of polygraph examination.
Credits: 4 units (3 units lecture, 1 unit laboratory)
No. of lecture hours: 4 hours/week
No. of laboratory hours: 4 hours/week

III. COURSE RATIONALE

This course is designed to meet the demands of modern criminal investigation. The use of
scientific lie-detection methods is increasing as crime detection and investigation become
more sophisticated. Since most crimes involve deception and most criminals are inherent
liars, the significance of this course for potential criminologists and criminalists is obvious.
This course will familiarize the students with the various techniques of detecting
deception. It provides the students with the fundamental knowledge about the uses and
functions of polygraph and the other “truth verifiers”, including the techniques and
operations related to scientific truth verification.

IV. GENERAL OBJECTIVES

At the end of the course, the students should be able to:
1. state the significance of studying the physiology of the human nervous
system in relation to lie detection;
2. identify the pioneers in lie detection and their significant contributions;
3. discuss the basic function of the polygraph instrument in
psychophysiological veracity examination;
4. enumerate the principal uses, objectives, stages, procedures, and
techniques of polygraph examination;
5. enumerate the qualifications and responsibilities of the polygraph
examiner;
6. demonstrate the basic operation of the polygraph instrument and how to
attach the sensors to a person’s body; and
7. define the basic principle behind each of the scientific methods of
detecting deception.

V. COURSE CONTENT

Unit 1: INTRODUCTION TO SCIENCE OF LIE DETECTION

A. Specific Objectives: At the end of the unit, the students should be able to:
 1. define the difference between truth, lie, deceit, and fraud;
2. state the significance of studying the physiology of human nervous
system in lie-detection;
3. enumerate the various techniques/methods of detecting deception;
4. provide a scientific explanation about the role of the sympathetic nervous
system when a person is lying or attempting to deceive;
5. make a synopsis on the historical development of lie-detection;
6. discuss effectively the various explanations why people commit lying; and
7. identify the various types of lies and liars.
B. Unit Topics

1. The search for truth

a. Significance of searching the truth

b. The definition of truth

c. Lie, deceit, and fraud
d. Methods of detecting deception
 2. Lie detection and psychophysiology
a. The nature of psychophysiology
b. A review on the human nervous system
c. Forensic psychophysiology and polygraphy
3. Historical background of lie-detection
a. Ancient methods of detecting deception
b. Pioneers of lie detection’
c. Development of instruments and techniques
d. Development of the polygraph instrument
e. The status of polygraph science
4. The phenomenon of lying

C. References
Matte, pp 5-56
Reid, pp 2-32
Llamas, pp 1-4

Unit 2: FUNDAMENTALS OF POLYGRAPH SCIENCE

A. Specific Objectives: At the end of the unit, the students should be able to:
1. define concisely the key terms used in studying polygraph;
2. state clearly the underlying principle of polygraphy;
3. identify the principal uses and objectives of polygraph examination;
4. name the essential components of a standard polygraph machine and
provide their specific functions; and
5. sketch the floor plan of a standard polygraph suite and interrogation room;
6. discuss systematically the basic steps involved in each of the four stages of
polygraph examination;
7. manifest full understanding on the significance of the major technical
operations performed by polygraph examiners;
8. mount systematically the sensors of the polygraph machine to the
appropriate parts of subject’s body; and
9. demonstrate effectively the basic operations of the analog polygraph
instrument while simulating a standard polygraph test.

B. Unit Topics
1. Definition of key terms used in polygraphy
2. Frequently asked questions about polygraphy
3. The polygraph instrument
4. The polygraph suite and interrogation room
5. Stages of polygraph examination
a. Preliminary preparation
b. Pre-test interview
c. Instrumentation
d. Post-test questioning
6. Major technical operations performed by polygraph examiners
 a. Attaching and detaching procedures
b. Formulation of test questions
c. Construction of diagnostic tests
d. Chart marking
e. Chart probing
f. Chart interpretation
7. Film showing on selected scenes of “Meet the Parents”, “The Recruit”
and CSI

C. References
Lajom, pp 101-105
Matte, pp 37-65
Reid, pp 7-70
Tradio, pp 116-120
Unit 3: ETHICS AND LEGAL ISSUES INVOLVING POLYGRAPH SCIENCE

A. Specific Objectives: At the end of the unit, the students should be able to:
1. enumerate the qualifications and responsibilities of a polygraph examiner;
2. how full understanding on the ethical principles of interrogation as applied
during polygraph examination;
3. identify the technical limitations of polygraphy; and
4. explain briefly the legal issues barring the admissibility of evidence
developed using the polygraph method.

B. Unit Topics
1. Qualifications of forensic psychophysiologists
2. Responsibilities of psychophysiologists
3. Ethics of criminal interrogation as applied in polygraph examination
4. Limitations of the polygraph method
5. Legal aspects of polygraph examination

C. References
Gudjonsson, pp 247-306
Lajom, pp 109-115
Matte, pp 86-188
Reid, pp 71-308
Internet articles (see bibliography)

Unit 4: LIE-DETECTION METHODS OTHER THAN POLYGRAPHY

A. Specific Objectives:
At the end of the unit, the students should be able to:
1. define the basic principle behind each lie-detection method; and
2. explain briefly the general procedure involved in each of the various
scientific methods of detecting deception.

B. Unit Topics
1. Word Association Technique
2. Psychological Stress Evaluation
3. Computerized Voice Stress Analysis
4. Brain Wave Fingerprinting
5. Iris Analysis
6. Administration of “Truth Serum”
7. Narcoanalysis
8. Intoxication with Alcohol
9. Hypnosis

C. References
Matte, pp 25-88
Solis, pp75-90
 Internet articles (see bibliography)

VI. COURSE METHODOLOGY

Modular approach will be the primary method to be used. However, this will be
supplemented by other teaching strategies such as informal lecture, multimedia aided
lecture, film showing, and reportorial approach. Student’s comprehension on the subject
matter will be checked through oral recitation, pre- and post-test, progress checks,
laboratory exercises, and periodical examinations.

VII. COURSE REQUIREMENTS

To successfully pass this course, the student must:
1. actively participate during academic discussions during lecture periods;
2. regularly attend the class;
3. obtain passing score in the oral and written quizzes, laboratory exercises,
and periodical examinations; and
4. submit compilation of laboratory exercises.
VIII. BASES OF EVALUATION
1. Evaluation is conducted at appropriate times to test the mastery of the lessons through
oral recitations, written, quizzes, and major examinations.
2. The standard grading system of the institution shall be used.
*The bases of evaluation will depend solely on the requirements of the course*

IX. BIBLIOGRAPHY

A. BOOKS

Crim Gudjonsson, G. H. 2003. The psychology of interrogations and

363.254 confessions: a handbook. John Willey & Sons. Ltd, West Sussex,
G934 England.

Crim Llamas, V. T. 2002.To catch a liar.VIL Publishing House, Dagupan

363.25 City.
L77

C Reid, J. 1976. Truth and deception, 3rd ed. Williams & Williams,
363.254 London.
R272

Crim Lajom, F. P. 1998.Criminalistics. Rex Book Store, Manila.

363.26

C Matte, J. A. 1996.Forensic psychophysiology using the polygraph.

363.3 JAM Publications. New York.
L Solis, P. 1987. Legal Medicine.National Book Store. Quezon City.
364

Crim Tradio, C. M. 1997.Compendium on criminalistics. Central Law Book,

364 Inc. Manila.

B. Internet Articles

Lock, C. 2004. Deception detection.Science News Online.(Online). Available @

http://www.sciencenews.org/articles/20040731/toc.asp.

______. 2003. Scientific lie detection. (Online). Available @

http://faculty.ncwc..edu/toconnor/425/425lects.htm.

Honts, C. R. 2004. Papers on polygraph admissibility issues.The Polygraph Place.

(Online). Available @ http://truth.boisestate.edu/polygraph/CJLF.html
_______. (2006. Polygraph and physiological Instrumentation.TMS International.)
(online). Available @ http://www.tmsi.com

_______. (2008). htttp://faculty.ncwc.edu./toconnor/315/lectogc.html

_______. (2008). http://web.cn.edu./kweeler/trial_ordeal.html

Others

Manalo, C. E. Handbook on Polygraph AND Examination Techniques. PCCR

Panganiban, A. I. Polygraph Reference Handbook. F. I .L. E. Academy, Cebu City.

UNIT 1

INTRODUCTION TO SCIENCE OF LIE DETECTION

The Search for Truth

For as long there are liars and deceitful persons, there are people who persist to find
out the truth and detect those who are lying.

Various methods have been developed using science and technology to establish if a
person is telling the truth. Such methods applied knowledge in various sciences such as
psychology, psychiatry, physiology, and pharmacology. The application of modern
technology such as electronics and computer science is gaining its popularity in the field of
lie and crime detection.

Although lie detection methods are scientifically base, these are not fully recognized
by the court as a means of producing evidence to establish the truth. In fact, most
information developed using scientific lie detection methods are not admissible as direct or
primary court evidence despite their expediency in crime detection and investigation. This
is something that is ironic in the Philippine setting.

Why Do We Seek The Truth?

In decision-making, success primarily depends on true information (simply known

as the truth). Decision-makers must possess the ability to evaluate the veracity of
information that they use in their decisions. The knowledge of truth is the fundamental
requirement in administering justice.
 In crime detection, the task of determining the truth initially lies on the hands of the
field investigators.

Sometime in 1983, HANS GROSS, an Australian magistrate (judge) regarded as the

earliest advocate of criminal investigation as Science, published his CRIMINAL
INVESTIGATION. In this book, groos define search for truth as the basis and goal of any
form of investigation. (Weston & Wells, 1990).

In his earlier book System der Kriminalistiks, Gross emphasized that most part of
the investigator’s work involves battle against lies. The investigator has to discover the
truth and must fight opposite, as “lies” and “deceits”. He encounters the opposite every step
of his investigation. (Trovillo) 1939

Today, lying became a lucrative business and more and more people are lure into it.
As future law enforcers and criminal investigator, you have to learn more than what
ordinary people know about detecting lie and discovering the truth. By force of necessity
due to nature of your profession, you have to be knowledgeable about lies, truth, and
deception.

B. DEFINITION OF KEY TERMS (LIES, TRUTH, & DECEPTION)

LIE DETECTION, is sometimes referred to as Deception Detection, this is simply the

system or practice of determining whether or not somebody is telling the truth during
questioning. By the nature of this definition, some author prefers to use (scientific) Truth
Verification instead of lie detection.

Most of you probably think that the field of lie detection is geared towards the
discovery of lies and deceits. However, it would be better to say first because once the truth
is known, lie will be revealed eventually.

WHAT IS TRUTH?

Microsoft Encarta Reference Library (2004) provided the following means of truth.
 true quality of something
 something factual or something that corresponds to factor reality
 true statements that corresponds to fact or reality
 obvious fact or something that is clearly true to it hardly needs to be stated
 something generally believed to be true

WHAT ARE LIES AND DECEITS?

LIE is a falsehood or false statement made deliberately. It is a false impression made

deliberately. (Microsoft Encarta Reference Library)
 This refers to anything that deceives or creates a false impression. It could be
something that gives a false or misleading impression with intent to deceive. In other
words, is an untruth or falsehood. (Webster Comprehensive Dictionary)

DECEIT is a dishonest practice. It is an act or practice of deceiving or misleading

somebody. It is something that is done to trick or mislead somebody. (Microsoft Encarta
Reference Library)

According to AldertVrij (2004), a LIE can be made consciously or unconsciously. On

the other hand, deceit is an intentional act, which is intended to foster in another person as
false. Thus, an error of not telling the truth is not a lie.

Lie and deceit is therefore, synonymous and can be used interchangeably. Based on
their definition, these are means of committing deception.

METHODS OF DETECTING DECEPTION

There are various methods of detecting lies and deceit. Lie detection methods available
today may be grouped in four ways. (Llamas Jr., 2002).

1. Cross-checking information with testimonies, physical evidence, or other

existing information.
2. Psychological method (evaluation of the emotional, behavioral and cognitive
reaction of a person).
3. Interrogation (testing the credibility of the suspect’s statements).
4. Using “lie detection” instruments.

Dr. Pedro Solis, in his book Legal Medicine, provided a more elaborate classification of lie
detection methods available today.
1. Methods involving the use of scientific devices that record
psychophysiological responses, these methods include:
a. WAT (Word Association Test)
b. PSE (Psychological Stress Evaluation)
c. Polygraph Method (Polygraphy

2. Methods involving the use of substances that “inhibit the inhibitor”.

a. Administration “truth serum”
b. Narcoanalysis/Narcosynthesis
c. Intoxication with Alcohol

However, there are new sophisticated techniques of detecting deception not mentioned by
Solis. These include
a. Computerized Voice Stress Analysis
b. Brain Scanning
c. Iris Analysis
d. Functional Magnetic Resonance Imaging
Lie Detection is also called Deception and Scientific Truth Verification. As scientific lie
detection is now included as one area of forensic science. Forensic lie detection is better
known in the academe as Forensic Psychophysiology. The most popular field of forensic
psychophysiology is the polygraph method. According to Dr. William J. Yankee of the
Department of Defense Polygraph Institute (DoDPI), Polygraph examination is one of the
most complex psychophysiological examinations ever developed. (Matte, 1996)

In advance countries, the following are preferred description of lie detection though
polygraph examination.
1. PVE (Psychophysiological Veracity Examination)
2. PDD (Psychophysiological Detection of Deception)
3. PCA (Psychophysiological Credibility Assessment)
KNOWN METHOD OF DECEPTION DETECTION

A. Ancient Methods
B. Observation Methods
C. Regular Police Methods
D. Hypnotism
E. Truth Serum
F. Alcohol Intoxication
G. Word Association Test
H. Psychological Stress Evaluation
I. Computerized Voice Stress Analysis
I. Brain Wave Fingerprinting
J. Thermal Imaging
K. Iris Analysis

EARLY METHODS OF DETECTING DECEPTION

The problem of determining who is lying and who is telling the truth is as old as the
civilization. Since the birth of the first civilization, man has been searching ways to verify
facts, which is necessary to know the truth and detect deception. Early people had their
own ways to decide who were guilty and who were innocent. Suspected people who were
found to be lying were judge as the guilty party concerning a crime under investigation.

The idea that a person’s truthfulness can be detected may be not much more than a
throwback to ancient ideas of trial by ordeal. Primitive methods of detecting deception
were usually in the form of fortune and trial by ordeal. Some author takes trial separately
from ordeal. Trial by ordeal involves the practice of settling a dispute using divine
intervention or Judicium Dei (God’s Judgment).

Ordeal refers to the antiquated trial rooted on the practice of referring disputes to
God’s Judgment, determined either by lot or by certain trials. It usually placing suspect or
accused to life-threatening danger. Whatever the outcome, it reflects divine judgement.
Today, ordeal is basically regarded as a physically test that usually involves painful
experience.

Through Europe, before the 14th century, ordeal existed in various forms under the
sanction of law and was closely related to oath. The most prevalent kinds of ordeal are fire,
water, and the wager of battle.

1. Red Hot Iron Ordeal

It was practiced in North Bengal. The accused had to carry a bar of red-hot iron in his hands
while he walked nine marked paces. In the unlikely event of no burns appearing on his
hands, he was adjudged innocent. Otherwise, he was promptly hanged.

2. Wager of Battle – The judgment of God was thought to determine the winner, and the
defeated party was allowed to live a recreant, that is, on retracing the perjury that had
been sworn. Similar in the concept is the Burmese ordeal by divination, which would
involve two sides in a dispute holding lighted candles. Whoever’s candle lasted longest
was pronounced the winner.

3. Ordeal by Balance – It was practiced of the Institute of Vishu, India. A scale of balance is
used in one end of the scale is placed and in the other end is a counter balance. The
person will step out of the scale and listen to a judge to deliver an exhortation on the
balance and get back in. If he was found lighter than before, then he should be
acquitted.

4. Ordeal by Water – The water was symbolic of the flood of the Old Testament, washing
sin from the face of the earth, allowing only the righteous minority to survive.
There are two kinds of ordeal of water: the Boiling Water and the Cold Water. Ordeal by
water was the usual mode of trial allowed to members of the lower class.

a. Boiling Water – According to Athelstan, the first King of England, the ordeal
of boiling water consisted of lifting a stone out of the boiling water, with the
hand inserted as deep as the wrist. More serious offense demanded that arm
was submerged up to the elbow. The burn was bandaged for three days
before fateful examination.
 b. The Code of Hammurabi, where a man accused of sorcery is to be submerged
in a stream and acquitted if he survives. The practice occurred in Frankish
law and was abolished by Louis the Pious in 829.The practice did re-appear
in the Late Middle Ages. However, in the DreleicherWildbann of 1338, a man
accused of poaching is to be submerged in a barrel three times, and to be
considered guilty if he sinks to the bottom.

This ordeal became also associated with the witch-hunts of the 16 th and 17th
centuries, and demonologists would develop inventive new theories about how it worked.
Some argued that witches floated because they had renounced baptism when entering the
Devil’s service. Jacob Rickius claimed that they were supernaturally light, and
recommended weighing them as an alternative to dunking them. King James I (and VI of
Scotland) claimed in his Daemonologie that water was so pure an element that it repelled
the guilty. A late witch process to include this ordeal took place in Szegedin, Hungary in
1728.

Gregory of Tours (died 594) recorded the common expectation that with a millstone
round his or her neck, the guilty would sink. “The cruel pagans cast him (Quirinus, bishop
of the church of Sissek)” into a river with a millstone tied to his neck, and when he had
fallen into the waters he was long supported on the surface by a divine miracle, and the
waters did not suck him down since the weight of crime did not press upon him.

The ordeal of water is also contemplated by the Vishnu Smrti, which is one of the
texts of the Dharmasastra.

5. Ordeal by Rice Chewing – It is performed with a kind of rice called sathee, prepared
with various incantations. The person on trial eats the sathee, with the face to the east
 and then spits upon a pea leaf. If saliva is mixed with blood or the corner of his mouth
swells or he trembles, he is declared to be a liar. Indians practice this ordeal.

6. Ordeal of the Red Water – The ordeal of the “sassy bark” or red water is used in the
wide region of Eastern Africa. The accused is made to fast for twelve hours, and then
swallows a small amount of rice. He is then immersed into dark colored water. The
water is actually emetic and if the suspect ejects all the rice, he is considered innocent of
the charged. Otherwise, the accused is guilty.

7. Ordeal by Combat – The aggrieved party claimed the right to fight the alleged offender
or to pay a champion to fight for him. The victor is said to win not by his own strength
but because of supernatural powers that had intervened on the side of the right, as in
the duel in the European Ages in which the “judgment of God was thought to determine
the winner.” If still alive after the combat, the loser might be hanged or burned for a
criminal offense or have a hand cut off and property confiscated in civil actions.

In England, King Henry III abolished all legal ordeals except Ordeal by Combat. This
ordeal was vividly dramatized in the movie “Ivanhoe” based on the novel of the same title.

8. Ordeal of the Corsnaed (Ordeal by Blessed Bread) – A priest puts the corsnaed or
hallowed bread into the mouth of the accused, with various imprecations. If the accused
swallowed it he was freed from punishment,

9. Test of the Eucharist – This was applied chiefly among the clergy and monks. When they
took the host it was believed that God would smite the guilty with sickness or death.
Others believe that if the accused is innocent, when given a poisonous drink for him to
take in, Angel Gabriel will descend from heaven to prevent the accused from taking in
the poisonous drink.

10. Ordeal of the Bier – It was an ancient belief that the slain could point out their killer. In
England, it was customary for the accused the approach the bier where the corpse lay.
In the view of the witness, the wounds of the victim were observed to see if they began
to bleed again. They believe that the murderer is near, which causes the blood to flow
out from the wound of the victim. This ordeal was recorded well by Shakespeare in
“Richard III.”

11. Ordeal of the Needle – A red-hot needle was made to pierced the lower lip of the alleged
criminal and if the blood flowed from the wound, he was deemed guilty, but if none he
is innocent. Wanaka, Eastern Africa practiced this ordeal.

12. Ordeal by Heat and Fire – The accused walked bare footed over red hot coals, or was
made to walk through fire, if he was unharmed by fire he was considered innocent.

13. Trial of the Cross – The accuser and the accused were placed under the cross with their
arms extended or crosswise and the first to move his hands or suffer them to fall was
held guilty. Or the accused was placed before relics and two dice were then produced,
 one marked with a cross. Of these, one was taken up at hazard. If it happened to bear
the sign of the cross, he was considered innocent.

14. Trial of the Waxen Shirt – The accused was dressed in cloth covered with wax and
walked barefooted over burning coals. If he was unhurt by the fire and the wax did not
melt, he was considered innocent.

15. Hereditary Sieve Method – Hans Gross, the Father of Criminalistics, in his famous book
in criminal investigation in which beans thrown into a sieve as the name was called
mentioned ordeal. If the beans jumped out the sieve, the owner of the sieve is innocent.
If the beans remained in the sieve, the person named a thief.

16. Donkey’s Tail Ordeal – As a psychological theory, a donkey is placed in a room alone
and observed. If the donkey cried, a judgment of guilt in crimes is presumed. It is
believed that deep inside one’s conscience, he is guilty.

17. Ordeal of a Tiger – Practiced in Islam where the accused and the accuser are placed in a
cage of a tiger, spare one of them is considered innocent.

OTHER COUNTRIES PRACTICING ORDEAL

Burma – The ordeal by divination is being practiced in this country, whereby the two
contesting parties are furnished with candles of equal size and lighted simultaneously, the
owner of the candle that outlast the other is adjudged to won his cause.

Madagascar – Legal authorities practiced trial by ordeal. The supposed criminal was to
drink a poisonous fruit called “tangena”, a small dose can be fatal. By managing the size of
the dose, those who administer it can decide result.

Borneo – The accuser and the accused were presented shellfish placed on a plate. An
irritating fluid was then poured on the shellfish and the litigant whose shellfish moved first
was adjudged the winner.

Greece – a suspended axe was spun at the center of a group of suspects. Soon as the axe
stopped, whoever was in the line with axe’s blade was supposed to be guilty out by the
divine providence.
Nigeria – The priest greased a cock’s feather and pierced the tongue of the accused. If
feather passed through the tongue easily, the accused was deemed innocent. If not, the
accused is guilty. Another method practiced in the same country is the pouring of corrosive
liquid into the eyes of the accused who was supposed to be unharmed if innocent. Pouring
of boiling oil over the hand of the accused with usual requisites for guilt or innocence is
also practiced.

In the middle of the 13th century, the ordeal had died out in England and on the
other Continents.