Addressing Water Challenges in The Developing World:: A Framework For Action

ADDRESSING WATER
CHALLENGES IN THE
DEVELOPING WORLD:
A FRAMEWORK FOR ACTION
Bureau of Economic Growth, Agriculture, and Trade
U.S. Agency for International Development
Bureau of Oceans, Environment, and Science

U.S. Department of State
Printed March 2009
Cover: Collecting water for household use from a river near Lac Aloatra in Madagascar.
By Andrew Watson, DAI
ADDRESSING WATER
CHALLENGES IN THE
DEVELOPING WORLD:
An Annex of the 2008 Report to Congress for the

Senator Paul Simon Water for the Poor Act
Contents
Preface v
Introduction 1
Improving Access to Water Supply

and Sanitation, and Promoting
Better Hygiene 3
Improving Water Resources

Management 8
Improving Water Productivity 13
Water Sector Programming in

Country Development Plans 16
Monitoring and Evaluation 20
Conclusion 21
ADDRESSING WATER CHALLENGES IN THE DEVELOPING WORLD: iii

Preface
Global water resources are coming under increas- The 2005 Paul Simon Water for the Poor Act
ing pressure. Demand is beginning to outpace and 2003–2007 congressional appropriations
supply, and supply itself is being impacted in have highlighted the importance of increasing
terms of both quantity and quality by a range of access to affordable and safe drinking water and
factors, including hydrologic variability, climate sanitation within the context of sound water re-
change, and environmental degradation. For sources management. These priorities and guid-
poor and marginalized populations, who often ing initiatives of Congress are fully embraced
live on marginalized lands, reliable access to wa- within this Framework.
ter is tenuous and ensuring adequate water qual-
ity is becoming increasingly difficult. As water At the same time, these priorities do not define
resources become scarce and as pressures on these the full scope of needed interventions to ensure
resources increase, tensions are likely to grow. that water resources are available to meet the
entire range of human development needs, today
The U.S. Government brings extensive domestic and into the future. Water supply and sanitation
and international experience, resources, and a service delivery are intimately connected to the
willingness to enter into diverse and innova- sustainable management of upstream hydrologic
tive partnerships to address this water crisis. resources that, if not appropriately managed,
This Framework is the expression of the overall affect the health of humans and ecosystems
U.S. Government approach to the world’s water downstream. The ability of a society to develop is
challenges, embracing the government’s broad critically dependent on sustainable and sufficient
and interrelated portfolio of water expertise and supplies of high-quality water, and the reliable
approaches. maintenance and sufficient capital investment
for water and sanitation infrastructure require
The U.S. Department of State and the U.S. healthy economic development.
Agency for International Development are com-
mitted to investing in the water sector in ways The Framework also underscores numerous other
that achieve maximum positive impact through linkages between water and health, economic
strategic, integrated, catalytic, and innovative ac- growth, humanitarian objectives, democracy, and
tion taken in close coordination with host-country security goals of the larger U.S. foreign assistance
partner governments, civil society, and other do- strategy, making a compelling case for support-
nors. This Framework lays out guiding principles ing a broad-reaching and integrated approach to
for U.S. foreign assistance in the water sector. managing limited water resources. These inter-
Therefore, this document should be viewed as the ventions focus primarily on enabling environ-
overarching strategic structure through which all ments, technology, and human capacity rather
of the diverse threads of U.S. Government water than on the construction of large infrastructure
sector efforts can be woven together. and other direct capital improvements.
ADDRESSING WATER CHALLENGES IN THE DEVELOPING WORLD: v

Introduction
As the first decade of the new millennium comes
to an end, there remains no doubt about either The Global Water Challenge
the critical importance of water resources to
every aspect of life on Earth or the enormity More than 2.8 billion people will be living in
of the water challenges facing human society either water-scarce or water-stressed regions of
and increasing human populations. In spite of the world by 2025.
notable progress, improving water resources More than 1 billion people lack access to im-
management, access to improved water supplies proved water supply services and more than 2
and sanitation, and water productivity remains billion people lack access to improved sanitation,
an immense challenge. undermining efforts to protect public health.
Freshwater ecosystems and environmental
Meeting the growing demands on water resourc- services from water resources and watersheds
es for people, economies, and nature requires are increasingly at risk from human pressures
bold action by governments, water users, donors, such as water withdrawals, dam diversions, and
and the private sector working in partnership to industrial development.
transform water management in fundamental Wetland ecosystems, which serve as buffers
ways. Several international leaders have called against natural disasters, are being lost around
for a “blue revolution”—similar to the green the world at alarming rates.
revolution—to stimulate concerted action by Ninety-five percent of wastewater around the
governments and citizens and avert a looming world is discharged into the environment with-
widespread water crisis emerging in many parts out treatment.
of the globe. Nearly 2 million people—the vast majority
children under five—die from diarrhea each year,
The U.S. Government is committed to using its and nearly 90 percent of diarrhea is attributed
foreign assistance resources in support of a blue to unsafe drinking water, inadequate sanitation,
revolution that will help achieve a water-secure and poor hygiene.
world where people and countries have reliable Ninety percent of all disaster-related deaths are
and sustainable access to an acceptable quantity water-related.
and quality of water to meet human, livelihood, More than 260 watersheds, containing more
production, and ecosystem needs1 while reducing than 40 percent of the world’s population, are
the risks associated with hydrologic variability shared by two or more countries.
and the projected impacts of climate change.
1 Adapted from David Grey and Claudia W. Sadoff, 2007. “Sink or Swim? Water Security for Growth and Development.” Water Policy Vol. 9, No.
6, pp. 545–71.
ADDRESSING WATER CHALLENGES IN THE DEVELOPING WORLD: 1

This Framework for Action outlines many of the
key challenges in reaching this goal and provides
guidelines for strategic actions that will support Water
individual, organizational, and governmental Resources
efforts to achieve a water-secure world. Three Management
interrelated dimensions of water management
must be addressed to reach this vision for a
water-secure world:
Water
t *NQSPWJOHBDDFTTUPXBUFSTVQQMZBOE Security
sanitation, and promoting better hy- Safe Water Water
giene; and Basic Productivity
t Improving water resources management, Sanitation
including allocation among competing
needs; and
t Improving water productivity in agriculture
and industry.
Guidelines incorporated in the Framework draw The U.S. Government recognizes that all water
upon the growing body of internationally en- issues are ultimately grounded in unique and
dorsed principles and good practices. Among diverse local political, social, cultural, and eco-
these, the U.S. Government understands that logical contexts, and, therefore, that the portfolio
water issues are fundamentally interconnected of water sector interventions will be diverse.
and that specific activities are best developed Guidance, developed for each geographic region,
within the context of the broader water sector. will outline specific goals and priority countries
based on regional circumstances and U.S. foreign
The following three sections define U.S. Govern- policy priorities. The elaboration of specific
ment objectives within each component of the country-level activities will be informed by this
water sector identified above and provide embas- regional guidance, in combination with more
sies and U.S. Agency for International Develop- in-depth analysis and consultation at the local
ment (USAID) missions with guidelines for level to determine the most strategic blend of
programming resources and developing activi- interventions in each place.
ties with their host country counterpart agen-
cies. This document is also intended to inform
country-level counterparts and other members
of the international water community about the
U.S. Government’s strategic direction within the
water sector to facilitate improved collaboration,
communication, and shared learning.
2 ADDRESSING WATER CHALLENGES IN THE DEVELOPING WORLD:

Improving Access to Water Supply
and Sanitation, and Promoting
Better Hygiene
The Scope of the Problem
The health, economic, and social consequences
of limited access to clean water and improved
sanitation services are enormous, and success
in this area is linked to many U.S. Govern-
ment foreign assistance priorities in tangible and
substantive ways. Over the past several years, the
international community has agreed to a number
of water- and sanitation-related goals, includ-
Cour tesy of DAI

ing halving, by 2015, the proportion of people
unable to reach or afford safe drinking water
and the proportion of people without access to
Children gather water in Afghanistan. Access to clean
basic sanitation. While, globally, the world is
water poses a daily challenge for families throughout
on track to meet the target on drinking water, the developing world.
specific regions lag significantly behind, chiefly
Sub-Saharan Africa, and especially in rural areas.
Monitoring Access to Safe Water Progress on the sanitation goal is much further
Internationally accepted measures of access to safe behind; little progress has been made almost any-
drinking water do not take into account water qual- where in the developing world. At current rates
ity and reliability. For example, the World Health of progress, Sub-Saharan Africa will not meet
Organization (WHO) and the United Nations Chil- the Millennium Development Goals sanitation
dren’s Fund (UNICEF) estimate that access to piped target until 2076.
water in Georgia is 87 percent. However, water qual-
ity in many of Georgia’s mid-sized cities is so poor The internationally agreed goals tell only part
that water-borne diseases are often contracted even of the story about water supply and sanitation
by those receiving public water supplies. In Armenia, service delivery. In many parts of the world,
access is estimated by the WHO and UNICEF at 97 populations that have nominally “improved ser-
percent, but in cities outside the capital, water is usu- vice” suffer problems of both water quality and
ally available less than half of the day, and as little as service reliability. Sanitation is likewise deficient,
two to four hours each day in problem areas. with shortfalls in both household standards and,
where available, service provision. For example,

wastewater service is limited by a focus only on agreed goals is immense—from the financial,
collection of domestic waste, with next to no technical capacity, and governance perspectives—
investment made in treatment of waste before and cannot be addressed by any single actor alone.
discharge into water courses. The poor suffer Donor funds combined represent a relatively small
disproportionately from low quality of service. proportion of the overall resources and effort
needed to meet the internationally agreed goals,
For both water supply and sanitation, a singular improve service quality, and promote better hy-
focus on the “numbers served” only focuses on giene. The U.S. Government will focus on invest-
immediate service delivery, without attention ments that yield significant long-term impact per
either to the long-term sustainability of the service dollar spent and create impact at scale. Efforts will
or to the deeper, structural changes required to be especially centered on tapping into consumers’
overcome the huge gaps in service coverage that willingness and ability to pay, wherever possible, in
still remain. These problems will only increase in order to increase access, ensure sustainability, and
the future—the global population is expected to improve the economic feasibility of service delivery.
reach more than 8 billion by 2025, with the major
proportion of that growth in developing countries. USAID’s comprehensive water supply, sanita-
tion, and hygiene activities will support the three
The U.S. Strategic Response pillars required for sustainable access and use of
A U.S. Government strategic response to address- improved water supplies and sanitation:
ing the needs for expanding access to improved t "DDFTTUPBQQSPQSJBUFIBSEXBSFoNVOJDJQBM
water supply and sanitation services and promoting and community water supply systems and sew-
better hygiene practices begins with an understand- ers, household sanitation facilities, and other
ing that the gap in achieving the internationally household-level technologies and products.
USAID’s ECO-Asia Program

The ECO-Asia Program demonstrates innovative policies and practices for expanding water and sanitation ser-
vices to support internationally agreed goals. The four program areas for Asia are: (1) Enabling water services
delivery to the urban poor; (2) Demonstrating sustainable sanitation solutions; (3) Improving performance of
water services utilities; and (4) Enabling access to finance for water services. Accomplishments include:
Surabaya and Bandung, Indonesia. The program is helping the Surabaya Water Supply Enterprise expand
access to safe drinking services for nearly 15,000 low-income households over the next three years.
Negombo, Sri Lanka. The National Water Supply & Drainage Board of Sri Lanka and the Negombo Munici-
pal Council piloted an innovative water distribution system to supply piped water to a poor urban community
of 400 residents in Negombo.
Marikina, Philippines. ECO-Asia facilitated a partnership between Manila Water and the city of Marikina to
design a city-wide septage management program that will empty more than 92,000 septic tanks in Marikina
every five years.

t #FIBWJPSDIBOHFBOEIZHJFOFQSPNPUJPOo Strengthening the capacity of small-scale
community mobilization for sustained man- service providers. In rural areas or small
agement of water supply and sanitation infra- towns with smaller infrastructure needs, the
structure, social marketing of products and United States continues to support direct ser-
behaviors, and school and health clinic hygiene vice delivery within a model of ongoing cost
promotion programs. recovery and sustainable management at the
t &OBCMJOHFOWJSPONFOUoJNQSPWFEQPMJDJFT
institutional support, community organization, USAID’s Approach to WASH at Scale
finance and cost recovery, and public-private in Ethiopia
partnerships for improved water supply, sanita- In Ethiopia, the USAID Hygiene Improvement Project
tion, and hygiene. (HIP), together with the World Bank Water and
Sanitation Program, is supporting the Government
#BTFEPOFYQFSJFODFBOECFTUQSBDUJDFT TVDI of Ethiopia’s efforts to achieve universal sanitation
investments should focus on five programming coverage by 2012 in the Amhara region of 20 million.
areas: Ethiopia offers key lessons for an integrated scale
t 4USFOHUIFOJOHUIFDBQBDJUZBOETVTUBJOBCJMJUZ approach with a national hygiene and sanitation
of small-scale service providers that operate in strategy, multisectoral collaboration facilitated by the
rural and peri-urban areas; signing of a memorandum of understanding by three
t *NQSPWJOHUIFPQFSBUJOHFOWJSPONFOU PQFSB- line ministries (health, water, and education), multiple
tions and financial sustainability of utilities implementation partners, and a comprehensive and
that serve cities and towns that are undergoing strategic approach with training and tools for work-
the most rapid population growth; ing in households and communities. A regional water,
t .PCJMJ[JOHDBQJUBMGSPNEPNFTUJDNBSLFUTGPS sanitation, and hygiene (WASH) movement has been
infrastructure development on a permanent created to mobilize stakeholders, build district- and
and sustainable basis; village-level capacity, and support implementation at
t *NQSPWJOHIPVTFIPMEBOEDPNNVOJUZMFWFM the district level using a “total sanitation” approach.
hygiene and sanitation; and The program will launch activities in a minimum of
t *OUFHSBUJOHXBUFSTVQQMZBOETBOJUBUJPOXJUI 10 districts to achieve “open defecation-free com-
humanitarian assistance/disaster risk reduction munities.” Hygiene and sanitation behavior change
and response programs. is also reinforced using “MIKIKIR,” an approach for
negotiating improved behaviors that uses existing
For all aspects of water supply and sanitation health extension workers; a school WASH program,
access and improved quality of services, there building knowledge and practice and encouraging
are very different challenges and opportunities school-to-community action; and a pilot program
presented in the urban, peri-urban, and rural with President’s Emergency Plan for AIDS Relief part-
contexts. The U.S. Government strategic ap- ners and home-based care organizations helping to
proach will customize its interventions accord- develop programming guidance on integrating WASH
ingly, while also promoting shared learning to for people living with HIV/AIDS.
adapt/modify successful interventions.

local level. U.S. Government efforts also will test capable of expanding services to poor slums
the use of innovative approaches to link small and peri-urban neighborhoods. U.S. Govern-
town and village water services into networks ment efforts will also center on strengthening
that can provide technical and financial support the operating environment and regulation of
when systems break down and serve as avenues these institutions to deliver new access to those
for building the capacity of these small-scale who currently are unserved and to improve
providers to achieve cost recovery and expand the quality and reliability of service in targeted
services. locations, particularly those with vulnerable and
poor populations.
Improving operations and financial sustain-
ability of drinking water and sanitation Mobilizing capital for expanding and rehabili-
services utilities. In larger towns and cities, tating infrastructure. Ultimately, achieving the
it makes strategic sense for the U.S. Govern- internationally agreed goals requires expanding
ment to strengthen the capacity, operations, the pool of capital available to utilities, com-
and financial sustainability of the institutions munities, and households to expand coverage,
that provide drinking water and sanitation improve services, and upgrade household sani-
services. By restructuring operations, instituting tation. In conjunction with efforts to improve
operating and financing reforms, building their the creditworthiness of water and sanitation
capacity to operate as independent businesses, utilities, the U.S. Government is increasingly
improving performance, and implementing focused on mobilizing private sector capital from
full cost recovery, these utilities will be more domestic markets for investments in water and
sanitation system expansions and upgrades. In
many cases, this involves helping governments
put in place favorable policies and regulations
and establishing financing mechanisms such as
pooled financing facilities, revolving funds, and
urban infrastructure funds that serve as financial
intermediaries for a broader number of credit-
worthy utilities. Combining these mechanisms
with credit enhancements such as USAID’s
Cour tesy of ARD
Development Credit Authority (DCA) lowers

risks to private sector investors and encourages
their investment in the sector. DCA guarantees
A common solution for household sanitation in are also being used to leverage financing through
rural Jamaica – a dry-pit latrine. Latrine pits in microfinance institutions for small-scale systems
this limestone coastline often penetrate fissures,
and to fund household connection fees and sani-
contaminating ground and coastal water.
tation upgrades.

Improving household- and community-level Integrating sustainable water and sanitation
hygiene and sanitation. To reduce water-relat- services with humanitarian assistance/disaster
ed disease and achieve desired health impacts, risk reduction and response programs. In order
the U.S. Government strongly endorses that to better capitalize on investments in humanitar-
all water supply and sanitation service delivery ian assistance for drinking water, basic sanitation,
must be accompanied by strategic investments and hygiene promotion, program designs will
that promote good hygiene and sanitation better integrate disaster risk reduction, disaster
practices at the household level that translate response, and development activities to build the
into measurable improvements in public health, capacity of governmental, nongovernmental, and
especially the reduced morbidity and mortal- international partners. Specific activities could
ity of children under five. These will include include establishing financing mechanisms that
investments in ensuring and protecting water bridge the short-term humanitarian timeframe
quality, hand washing at critical times, and the with the longer-term development one, design-
effective removal and proper treatment/disposal ing emergency interventions that provide a foun-
of wastes from the proximity of people’s living dation for development activities, and integrat-
and working environment. ing risk analysis and risk reduction components
into long-term development planning.

Improving Water Resources
Management
Every country and community depends on sus-
tainable fresh water of sufficient quantities and
quality to provide for society’s needs, sustain eco-
nomic growth, and maintain ecosystems upon
which all life depends. Surface and groundwater
resources have come under enormous pressure
everywhere from withdrawals, diversions, and
pollution. Most countries share water resources
with others, further complicating the manage-
Courtesy of DAI
ment of this essential resource. Shared river
basins cover 50 percent of the globe, are home to
40 percent of the world’s people, and contribute
The Limbe watershed, Haiti. Watersheds serve as
60 percent of total freshwater flows.2
the life source for most human development and
are some of the final preserves for biodiversity.
Population growth, environmental degradation,
hydrological variability, and climate change are energy and water to meet agricultural, industrial,
stressing water resources and hydrologic systems. and urban needs have renewed momentum to
Clearing forest lands for agricultural production develop dams and water diversion infrastructure
and mineral and timber resources has degraded by both major lending institutions and emerging
many watersheds and impacted downstream economies. Unilateral decisions by countries to
ecosystems—including estuarine and coastal build new infrastructure may affect shared water
ecosystems—through more rapid runoff, in- resources and undermine the legitimacy of efforts
creased erosion, reduced groundwater recharge, to establish or carry out regional governance of
and greater potential for floods and droughts. shared river systems.
Large areas of Africa and Asia experience signifi-
cant water stress because of extreme hydrologic The challenge facing countries and communi-
variability. Climate change may exacerbate these ties is how to best use their finite but renewable
impacts—potentially forcing shifts in human set- water resources for meeting human, economic,
tlements and agricultural practices and dramatic and environmental needs while protecting the
changes in livelihoods. Growing demands for quality of this precious resource. Achieving these
2 Atlas of International Freshwater Agreements, 2002.

objectives requires governance and management more lasting change than investments in infra-
approaches that guide the effective and sustain- TUSVDUVSF#ZGPDVTJOHPOUIFTFUZQFTPGJOWFTU-
able use of limited water resources. As compet- ments, the U.S. Government can help create and
ing demands increase, the potential for tensions support the underlying conditions for sustained
will heighten, placing current cooperative re- improvements in water resources management.
lationships at risk and raising the possibility of
conflicts over water rights, allocations, and use. Most U.S. Government investments will address
Avoiding conflicts over water is vital. Conflicts issues of water quantity and quality through
are expensive and disruptive and interfere with crosscutting programs that focus on other
efforts to relieve human suffering, reduce envi- specific development objectives. Within these
ronmental degradation, reduce vulnerability to programs, the U.S. Government will incorporate
future disasters, and achieve economic growth. the principles of integrated water resources man-
agement that include:
The U.S. Strategic Response t 1PMJDZ SFHVMBUPSZ BOEJOTUJUVUJPOBMGSBNFXPSLT
U.S. strategic programming recognizes that that address planning and permitting at the
shared resources are not just a source of potential appropriate scale and across all relevant sectors;
tension, but an important opportunity to expand t 4VQQMZPQUJNJ[BUJPO JODMVEJOHBTTFTTNFOUTPG
cooperation and transparent and democratic surface and groundwater supplies, water balance,
governance models across boundaries. Successes wastewater reuse, and environmental impacts;
can have a positive influence that extends far t %FNBOENBOBHFNFOU JODMVEJOHDPTUSFDPWFSZ
beyond water resources management. The U.S. policies, water use efficiency technologies,
Government has actively supported cooperative and decentralized water resource management
and integrated approaches to water resources authority;
management around the world, at transbound-
ary, national, and subnational basin scales. It will
continue to promote interventions that optimize
regional benefits, mitigate water-related disasters,
and minimize tensions in shared waters, while
also helping to maintain shared ecosystems and
improve overall water productivity and security.
Courtesy of ARD
Improving water resources management requires

satisfying immediate needs while protecting
water quality and building the foundation for
meeting future demands on water resources. We Washing near Menongue, Angola, in the Cuebe River,
have learned over the past several decades that in the upper Okavango River Basin. Rivers and other
investments in policy and legal reforms, building water sources are under increasing pressure to meet
household, agricultural, and industrial development
local capacity, and strengthening water resources
demands.
planning, management, and governance yield

t &RVJUBCMFBDDFTTUPXBUFSSFTPVSDFTUISPVHI
participatory and transparent governance;
t 'JOBODJOHUPTVTUBJOJOWFTUNFOUTJOXBUFS
resources management and protection; and
t "UUFOUJPOUPIZESPMPHJDWBSJBCJMJUZBOEDMJNBUF
change and actions to mitigate and minimize
impacts of droughts and floods.
Effective water resources management at the
Courtesy of DAI
appropriate scale and across all sectors. The
U.S. Government will make strategic invest-
ments in basin-scale or watershed-scale manage-
ment, especially in locations where such activities A Zimbabwean small-scale farmer. Most food
produced in developing countries is by small-
support other foreign assistance priorities. The
scale farmers. Improving water use efficiency and
U.S. Government will also pursue opportuni-
increasing food production by these farmers pose
ties to engage in national water resources plan- significant challenges.
ning and policy setting in targeted countries
of strategic importance. Technical approaches for water resource development that is compat-
will draw upon sound information and science ible with and supportive of the country’s broader,
and use spatial planning tools and participa- long-term development goals, including social,
tory approaches to improve the capacities of economic, and environmental goals. Moreover,
national and local governments to monitor water water and energy linkages are an important part
resources, assess watershed threats, and support of that dialogue. With growing energy costs, it
integrated management to address sources of is crucial that water and energy investments be
degradation, surface and subsurface flows, and assessed in tandem and consideration given to
DPNNVOJUZBOEFOWJSPONFOUBMJNQBDUT#ZQSP- the impacts that pricing, subsidies, and other
moting the adoption of best practices by all wa- factors of one sector can have on the other. The
ter users, the U.S. Government can help ensure U.S. Government will assist those countries and
that hydrologic systems as a whole are managed communities wishing to optimize their water
in a sustainable fashion. investments while ensuring that efforts to bal-
ance supply and demand are based on science
Supply optimization. Most countries face either and agreed-upon goals across all sectors.
current or future constraints on water resource
availability. Constraints stem from either the Demand management. It is often more cost-
physical scarcity of water or the lack of financial efficient to balance supply and demand by
resources to meet capital improvement needs, reducing society’s overall demand for or use of
known as “economic scarcity” of water. An inte- water. This can be accomplished in many ways,
grated water resource management process facili- but most notably by eliminating leakages or
tates stakeholder dialogue on a set of objectives other loss (non-revenue water) or by increasing

the efficiency with which water is used in pro-
USAID Mission in Indonesia: duction, especially in agriculture and industry.
Environmental Services Program Demand can be further reduced through conser-
The USAID/Indonesia Environmental Services Pro- vation, pricing structures, and other water-saving
gram (ESP) covers six of the most densely popu- practices and technologies. With the potential
lated provinces in Indonesia. ESP is a $47 million of greater water stress and scarcity as a result of
program that works with water as an integrating climate variability, these and other measures,
theme to address the linkages among environmen- such as drought contingency plans, will play
tal health, water resource protection, biodiversity an important role in a country’s overall water
conservation, and critical land rehabilitation. Public strategy. The U.S. Government will continue to
health issues of diarrhea prevention and increased promote measures to reduce water demand as an
access to clean water and sanitation services are alternative to costly and not always appropriate
key focal areas. efforts to augment supply.
ESP’s work is making a difference. In three years: Addressing water quantity and quality
challenges. While some U.S. Government
26 local policies supporting land tenure and programs will explicitly focus on addressing
community access rights passed; water quantity and quality challenges, this ap-
13,092 hectares of critical land were rehabili- proach also recognizes that water is a “means” to
tated; numerous development ”ends,” and embraces
64,261 hectares of high conservation value for- programming that draws upon the best practices
est are under local management; of integrated water management to address both
152 community groups practice improved natu- water quality and quantity challenges within the
ral resources management; context of other development assistance objec-
61,479 households, or 249,660 individuals, have tives (see textbox). In some countries, U.S. Gov-
increased access to clean water; ernment programming will support one aspect of
25,231 people have been trained in effective water resources management in close coordina-
hand washing with soap; tion with other actors, making complementary
$15,318,000 of financial resources have been investments that seek to address gaps and collec-
leveraged to expand and sustain ESP’s work; tively achieve a more holistic approach.
25 water companies have improved operations
and efficiency indicators; and Equitable access through participatory and
Indonesian cities finally take wastewater col- transparent governance. There is a growing
lection and treatment seriously and budget for awareness by governments around the world
improved infrastructure. that water management must be better inte-
grated geographically and across sectors. How-
ever, water governance in most countries is very
fragmented and rarely involves stakeholders fairly
and democratically in making decisions about

how much water goes where, to whom, and for
what purpose. While experts and organizations
encourage integration and governance around
hydrologic boundaries such as river basins and
aquifers, political and operational realities argue
for flexible governance arrangements based on
participatory and democratic governance models
at a variety of scales. The U.S. Government will
emphasize improving governance and building
Courtesy of DAI
capacity to support long-term improvements
in water management. U.S. Government in-
terventions could focus on building trust and
The aftermath of the 2004 tsunami, Aceh, Indonesia.
facilitating dialogue, improving the information Severe storms and flooding can contaminate surface
foundation for management decision making, and groundwater supplies used by households, farms,
and strengthening institutional and organiza- and businesses.
tional capacity to effectively engage in coopera-
UJWFNBOBHFNFOUPGXBUFSSFTPVSDFT#VJMEJOH generate sustained flows of financing to support
transparent, effective, and equitable governance continued and expanded efforts to improve land
systems will help balance tradeoffs in the allo- and water resources management.
cation and use of water, ensuring that human,
economic, and environmental needs will be met Managing hydrologic variability and
in the most optimal manner possible. adapting to climate change. Hydrologic vari-
ability and climate change pose serious threats
Mobilization of financing. Lessons from the to many regions of the world. The U.S. Govern-
past 25 years highlight the critical need for ment can help countries to reduce vulnerability
financing to sustain improvements and invest- to droughts and floods by implementing disaster
ments in water resources management. With the risk reduction activities, including integrated
exception of a few countries where infrastructure water resources management. The U.S. Gov-
links to broader foreign policy objectives, such ernment can also develop country capacity to
as Iraq, Afghanistan, and Sudan, the U.S. Gov- monitor and assess the impacts of hydrologic
ernment does not invest directly in large water variability and climate change on economic and
infrastructure projects. The U.S. Government human development, increase resilience through
supports efforts to develop and test innovative disaster preparedness and mitigation, and priori-
financing mechanisms such as payments for en- tize investments and actions to increase resilience
vironmental services and carbon credits that can to climate variability and change.

Improving Water Productivity
Water is literally the lifeblood of human produc-
tive activity. Today, the competition for scarce Seventy-five percent of the additional food needed
water resources in many places is intense. Many for the next 50 years can be met by bringing the
river basins currently have insufficient water to production levels of the world’s low-yield farmers
meet all the demands—or even for their rivers to up to 80 percent of what high-yield farmers get
reach the sea and nourish critical fish nurseries, from comparable land. Better water management
an important source of food protein. The critical plays a key role in bridging this gap.
importance of improving water productivity for
essential economic development and ecosystem The great majority of fresh water used by hu-
services will only increase in the coming decades mans is for food production—roughly 70
as the world’s population grows and economies percent worldwide and 82 percent in develop-
industrialize. The world’s population faces two ing countries. The current food security crisis
great challenges with respect to water—improving underscores, among other challenges, the need
the efficiency of water use in agricultural and in- to expand production of basic grains. Scientists
dustrial production and in growing urban centers, estimate that the amount of water required
and protecting and maintaining water quality. to meet global food requirements will almost
double by 2050 unless farmers adopt technolo-
gies and practices that yield more crop per drop.
Many countries already face extreme hydrologic
variability. Climate change will exacerbate these
challenges and will affect water use in agricul-
tural production as some regions become drier—
especially in the subtropics, where most poor
countries are situated. For example, the current
rapid increase in food prices affecting countries
around the world is caused in part by several
years of bad weather in Australia, China, and
Courtesy of DAI
parts of Eastern Europe, which have reduced

grain harvests, especially wheat.
Water user association members checking control The food crisis has many dimensions, how-
gates in an irrigation system in Kyrgyzstan. Water user ever, and it would be short-sighted to focus
associations have often proven effective managers of
solely on increased agricultural production. In
irrigation infrastructure and scarce water resources.
fact, ecosystem goods and services contribute

The effects of agriculture, industry, and com-
merce on water quality are enormous, largely
unquantified, and nearly unchecked in most
developing countries. Water quality is being
degraded rapidly by widespread use of fertilizers
and pesticides in agriculture, by industrial ef-
fluents, and through the uncontrolled dumping
of untreated human wastes in rivers, lakes, and
oceans. The effects of uncontrolled water pollu-
Courtesy of DAI
tion show up in the increasing number of reports

of pollution-related health problems, contami-
A fish farm in Lake Sebu, Philippines. Fish farming nated foods, wildlife morbidity and mortality,
offers one way to meet growing demand for food. and biologically dead and dying rivers, lakes, and
However, it also can lead to the eutrophication of
ocean areas. All countries face increasing costs
lakes and bays.
and challenges in reducing pollution threats to
immensely—both directly and indirectly—to human health, future livelihoods, and overall
global food security, and water resources play ecosystem viability.
a central role in keeping these healthy. More
than 1 billion people in the developing world, The U.S. Strategic Response
for example, rely on fish as their principal The U.S. Government will focus predominantly
source of animal protein. Abundant supply of on approaches that:
good-quality fresh water is of course essential t *NQSPWFXBUFSVTFFċDJFODZJOBHSJDVMUVSF
to inland freshwater fisheries, but the same is t )FMQDPVOUSJFTNBOBHFIZESPMPHJDWBSJBCJMJUZ
true for as much as 75 percent of commercially and adapt to climate change;
important marine fisheries. This is because these t 3FEVDFXBUFSQPMMVUJPOCZJOEVTUSZBOE
species are dependent, for at least part of their t *NQSPWFXBUFSVTFFċDJFODZJODJUJFT
lifecycles, on estuaries, and nothing is more
fundamental to the health of an estuary than These are the most cost-effective and efficient
the inflow of fresh water. Clearly, water resource ways to intervene and tend to be those that are
planners and those responsible for global food most sustainable and market-friendly, and for
security must work together closely to ensure which sound business cases can be made.
understanding of a common agenda.
Improve water use efficiency in agriculture. Im-
Industrial and commercial water consumption is proving water use in agriculture involves address-
also increasing as economies grow and develop. ing issues of water pricing and water rights, while
As river basins come under increasing pressure, strengthening the role of institutions that enforce
the tradeoffs between water allocations for do- water pricing and rights. The U.S. Government
mestic use, agriculture, industry, and ecosystem will continue supporting efforts to improve
services will only intensify. agricultural productivity by emphasizing irriga-

tion system efficiency, working with public and regulations and policies that establish clear and
private extension services to increase the adoption appropriate rules for private sector productive
of improved production technologies and systems water use;
and appropriate crops for specific environments t 4USFOHUIFOJOHUIFSPMFPGJOTUJUVUJPOTUBTLFE
by farmers, and, where appropriate, promoting with enforcing regulations and protecting wa-
the reuse of treated wastewater for agriculture. ter quality; and
With the growing expansion of aquaculture, the t 1SPNPUJOHUIFBEPQUJPOCZJOEVTUSJFTPG
U.S. Government can work with research institu- cleaner production processes that reduce over-
tions to develop improved aquaculture production all effluents and the treatment of wastes before
technologies and systems that increase yields while discharge.
reducing water demand and promoting the use
of aquaculture species and systems that improve Improve water use efficiency in cities. In grow-
water quality. ing urban areas, the U.S. Government can help
water utilities reduce physical leaks, institute and
Help countries adapt to hydrologic variability carry out demand-side management programs,
and climate change. In countries facing greater craft regulations and ordinances, and design
risks of drought or long-term drier climates, communications/outreach programs to promote
the U.S. Government will promote adaptation water use efficiency by households and busi-
to drier climates by expanding efforts in water nesses.
harvesting and small-holder water capture and
distribution systems. The U.S. Government will The U.S. Government will also promote alliances
build on its experience in designing and financ- with key private sector actors in order to couple
ing small and medium-scale water capture and development objectives with private companies’
distribution infrastructure to improve water own commitment to responsible water manage-
security for rain-fed agriculture. ment. These investments will be done with an
eye toward shared private sector financing and
Reduce water pollution by industry. To reduce piloting lower-cost or innovative technologies.
water pollution by industry, key areas of engage-
ment include:
t 4VQQPSUJOHQPMJDZJNQSPWFNFOUTUIBUJODMVEF
“polluter pays” principles, and improving

Water Sector Programming in
Country Development Plans
In the end, all of the strategic water interven-
tion areas outlined above must take shape in real Planning Considerations for
places, within the real constraints and opportu- U.S. Government Water Sector
nities presented in each country. Programming Programming
decisions about the proper mix of interventions
will take place at the country level as part of Country-Specific Planning Factors
regular country-level operational planning. There Level and type of need in each water subsector
are critically important water sector needs in vir- (water supply, sanitation/hygiene, water resources
tually every country where the U.S. Government management, water productivity)
FOHBHFTJOEFWFMPQNFOUBTTJTUBODF3FTPVSDFTBSF Country enabling environment related to the
limited, however, and competing development water sector
needs are often compelling.
External (U.S. Government) Planning Factors
In strategic development programming at the U.S. Government comparative advantage
country level, the U.S. Government will seek the Opportunities to integrate water investments
right balance that optimizes the impact of water within USAID’s overall country portfolio
sector investments—especially for underserved Opportunities to build on parallel and comple-
and poor populations—while maintaining co- mentary activities of other donors and interna-
herence of the assistance portfolio as a whole. In tional nongovernmental organizations (NGOs).
reaching this balance, the U.S. Government will Partnership opportunities (Global Development
take into account numerous factors (see textbox). Alliances and others) with significant matching
The prior three sections have focused on factors resources or other value-added contributions
specific to countries and regions. U.S. Govern- Consistency with U.S. foreign policy priorities
ment programming decisions also will be influ- Compliance with statutory requirements, direc-
enced by factors external to the country. These tives, and funding accounts
are briefly discussed below. In all cases, the “big
picture” of U.S. foreign assistance priorities will ence in technical capacity building, institutional
serve as the starting point. strengthening, legal and policy reform, participa-
tory governance support, financing and resource
U.S. Government comparative advantage. mobilization, and fostering of innovation in
With limited resources, missions are encouraged all aspects of water management. Other U.S.
to target areas of U.S. Government comparative agencies, such as the U.S. Environmental Protec-
strength in water resources programming. For tion Agency, are recognized worldwide for their
example, USAID has gained considerable experi- specialized expertise in wastewater management

and technologies. Finally, the U.S. Government dimensions of the water sector, and among water
has demonstrated leadership within the donor and other development sectors.
community in supporting creative alliances and
partnerships that engage private companies, Potential linkages within water sector
international NGOs, and other donors in achiev- activities:
ing common objectives in the water sector. t Water supply services and water resources man-
agement: Poor land management and uncon-
Opportunities to integrate water investments trolled pollution degrade water quality. A more
within USAID’s portfolio. The interconnected- integrated approach to watershed resource
ness of water throughout all aspects of develop- management can improve the safety of drink-
ment is undeniable. The health, economic, and ing water supplies and benefit downstream us-
social consequences of water deficits in both ers of water as well as the environment.
quantity and quality for all users and for the t Sanitation services and water resources manage-
environment are enormous and linked to many ment: Most urban and rural sanitation solu-
U.S. foreign assistance priorities in tangible and tions focus on removing fecal waste from the
substantive ways. In fact, every development goal immediate human environment with little
is linked to at least one dimension of water man- attention to the treatment and safe disposal of
agement. While this Framework describes spe- these wastes. This often results in severe con-
cific approaches within various water subsectors, sequences for communities living downstream
the U.S. Government will also seek opportuni- who rely on surface water for their water sup-
ties to achieve water sector objectives throughout ply. Moreover, insufficient waste treatment can
the development agenda. Following are just a negatively affect economic productivity, bio-
few examples—both across the four highlighted diversity, and ecosystem services. A more inte-
grated watershed perspective would ensure that
waste treatment and disposal are incorporated
into ongoing efforts to improve sanitation ser-
vices and household hygiene practices.
t Water productivity and water supply services: The
development and maintenance of water supply
systems is one of the greatest challenges facing
MPXJODPNFDPNNVOJUJFT#FZPOEESJOLJOH
water, the livelihood of rural residents depends
on reliable water sources for sustaining agri-
Courtesy of AED
cultural and livestock production, aquacul-

ture, and enterprise development. Promoting
Children line up to wash hands on Global Hand approaches such as multiple use services will
Washing Day in Madagascar. School-based programs simultaneously address the full spectrum of
contribute to improved community hygiene behaviors. community water supply needs—both potable
and productive.

Potential linkages between water activities and
other sectors:
t Water and HIV/AIDS: Access to water in suffi-
cient quantities and of high quality is essential
for mitigating the diarrheal disease that afflicts
more than 90 percent of people who live with
HIV/AIDS. The U.S. Government has devel-
oped a Preventive Care Package for these popu-
lations and their families that includes infor-
mation on safe drinking water, washing hands
with soap, and safe disposal of feces. The U.S.
Courtesy of DAI
Government encourages the incorporation of
such activities into all HIV/AIDS programs.
t Water and governance: There is a close rela-
Drip irrigation kits enable Ethiopian families with
tionship between water resources manage-
members suffering from HIV/AIDS to establish
ment and good governance practices. The
gardens that improve household nutrition and
sustainability of water resources depends on provide sources of income.
getting the governance right. Interventions
that strengthen the capacity of water au- of disasters is projected to increase with greater
thorities and related institutions have positive climate change, impacting humans and ecosys-
repercussions, including building the capacity tems around the world. Sound water resources
of local governments, strengthening decen- management, increased cooperation at the
tralized institutions, and empowering women basin-scale, and capacity building to support
to take leadership roles in community life. institutions and communities will strengthen
t Water and education: Evidence clearly links self-resiliency and can help break the cycle of
school attendance to the availability of wa- chronic vulnerability while laying the founda-
ter supply and sanitation facilities in school tion for more sustainable development.
compounds, especially for girls. The presence
of adequate sanitation facilities ensures sus- Leveraging opportunities with other donors.
tained attendance, particularly when girls reach .VMUJMBUFSBMEPOPSTTVDIBTUIF8PSME#BOL
adolescence. School-based water/sanitation/ (including the Water and Sanitation Program)
hygiene programs also serve as platforms to im- and the regional development banks and bilateral
prove hygiene behaviors throughout communi- donors such as Australia, Germany, Japan, Den-
ties as a whole. mark, the Netherlands, the United Kingdom, and
t Water and humanitarian response: The U.S. Sweden have significant water sector programs.
Government makes significant investments ɨF8PSME#BOLT8BUFSBOE4BOJUBUJPO1SPHSBN
in water supply and sanitation services in in particular, is at the forefront of many efforts to
response to humanitarian crises caused by improve access to safe water and basic sanitation
natural and manmade disasters. The incidence in Africa and Asia. Opportunities exist for the

challenges. Using the Global Development Al-
liance model, these partnerships have helped
mobilize significant resources to improve access
to safe water and basic sanitation. Examples of
these alliances include the Community Water
and Sanitation Facility that works in partnership
with different organizations in many countries,
the West Africa Water Initiative, and the Safe
Water Partnership.
Courtesy of DAI
Consistency with U.S. foreign policy priori-

ties. U.S. water sector investments are not made
Rice farmers in Vietnam. Increasing food production
depends upon reliable sources of fresh water in addi-
in a vacuum, but are always targeted within the
tion to improved seed varieties, fertilizers, and farm context of broader U.S. foreign assistance priori-
management technologies. ties identified for each country in the areas of
economic growth, health, democracy and gov-
U.S. Government to leverage its efforts for greater ernance, humanitarian assistance, or peace and
impact by coordinating with ongoing or new security. The United States also supports activities
programs funded by these donors. in a broad range of country types, ranging from
fragile states to strategic partner countries, so that
Partnership opportunities. USAID has pio- a “one size fits all” model does not apply. Specific
neered alliances and partnerships with private water programming will always be guided by this
companies, foundations, and international macro-strategic foreign policy context.
NGOs to solve water supply and sanitation

Monitoring and Evaluation
All strategic actors in the international water
sector require access to good information for
multiple purposes, including strategic planning
to prioritize interventions; advocacy to influence
decision makers and mobilize resources; pro-
gramming of specific project activities; account-
ability to clients/beneficiaries, governments, and/
Courtesy of DAI
or donors; and advancement of overall water
sector learning. Solid and credible metrics and
monitoring systems that produce sound informa-
Monitoring water quality in Indonesia. Linking water
tion are used to track specific progress of U.S.-
quality monitoring with public outreach has improved
funded programs and assess national and inter-
support for investments in wastewater collection and
national water sector trends. treatment infrastructure.
To track program performance in the water use, and progress toward achieving the interna-
sector against specific program objectives and tionally agreed goals. As both a producer and
support for broader worldwide goals, the U.S. consumer of sector-level data and information,
Government has developed standardized com- the U.S. Government is committed to sharing
mon indicators and reporting systems that information and experiences to improve data col-
document how resources are being invested and lection, analysis, and reporting on water sector
the impact that they have. Moving forward, the metrics. The U.S. Government will participate,
U.S. Government will continue to refine and as appropriate, in international technical ef-
improve these information and reporting systems forts to improve global data collection related
and provide guidance and training for field staff to water supply, sanitation and hygiene, water
to improve project and program monitoring and resources management, and water productivity.
evaluation in a manner consistent with interna- To the extent that the U.S. Government invests
tional best practices. in data collection in the water sector, it will work
with the international community to enhance
#FZPOEUIFEPNBJOPG64GVOEFEBDUJWJUJFT the depth and quality of water-related measures
there is recognition of the need to improve included in these efforts.
information about water resources management,

Conclusion
Water resource problems are mounting and
have the potential to constrain human well-
being, including that related to economic devel-
opment, food security, and healthy ecosystems.
In many parts of the world today, current prac-
tices in the management, or mismanagement,
of water resources have led to severe challenges
in meeting future human, economic, and envi-
ronmental water requirements. To achieve water
Courtesy of DAI
security, individuals and countries must have
reliable and sustainable access to an acceptable
quantity and quality of water to meet human,
The Guaporé River, Brazil. Preserving water quality
livelihood, ecosystem, and production needs and flows is essential to long-term sustainable
while reducing the risks of extreme hydrological development.
events that can be devastating to people, the en-
vironment, and economies. To achieve this goal, The U.S. Government offers its experience and
USAID and the Department of State will focus resources in support of efforts by committed
their efforts in three areas: (1) increasing access countries to help achieve a water-secure world
to, and effective use of, safe drinking water and with sustainable quantities and quality of water
sanitation to improve human health; (2) im- to meet human domestic use, food production,
proving water resources management; and (3) economic development, and ecosystem needs.
increasing the productivity of water resources.
Within each of these areas, U.S. Government
investments will support activities and actions
that lead to lasting changes in the underlying
conditions for sustained improvements in water
resources management.

Bureau of Economic Growth, Agriculture, and Trade
U.S. Agency for International Development
Bureau of Oceans, Environment, and Science

U.S. Department of State

Addressing Water Challenges in The Developing World:: A Framework For Action

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ADDRESSING WATER

Bureau of Oceans, Environment, and Science

Printed March 2009

An Annex of the 2008 Report to Congress for the

Improving Access to Water Supply

Improving Water Resources

Improving Water Productivity 13

Water Sector Programming in

Monitoring and Evaluation 20

ADDRESSING WATER CHALLENGES IN THE DEVELOPING WORLD: iii

ADDRESSING WATER CHALLENGES IN THE DEVELOPING WORLD: v

ADDRESSING WATER CHALLENGES IN THE DEVELOPING WORLD: 1

2 ADDRESSING WATER CHALLENGES IN THE DEVELOPING WORLD:

Cour tesy of DAI

ADDRESSING WATER CHALLENGES IN THE DEVELOPING WORLD: 3

USAID’s ECO-Asia Program

4 ADDRESSING WATER CHALLENGES IN THE DEVELOPING WORLD:

ADDRESSING WATER CHALLENGES IN THE DEVELOPING WORLD: 5

Development Credit Authority (DCA) lowers

6 ADDRESSING WATER CHALLENGES IN THE DEVELOPING WORLD:

ADDRESSING WATER CHALLENGES IN THE DEVELOPING WORLD: 7

2 Atlas of International Freshwater Agreements, 2002.

8 ADDRESSING WATER CHALLENGES IN THE DEVELOPING WORLD:

Improving water resources management requires

ADDRESSING WATER CHALLENGES IN THE DEVELOPING WORLD: 9

Eﬀective water resources management at the

10 ADDRESSING WATER CHALLENGES IN THE DEVELOPING WORLD:

ADDRESSING WATER CHALLENGES IN THE DEVELOPING WORLD: 11

12 ADDRESSING WATER CHALLENGES IN THE DEVELOPING WORLD:

parts of Eastern Europe, which have reduced

ADDRESSING WATER CHALLENGES IN THE DEVELOPING WORLD: 13

tion show up in the increasing number of reports

14 ADDRESSING WATER CHALLENGES IN THE DEVELOPING WORLD:

ADDRESSING WATER CHALLENGES IN THE DEVELOPING WORLD: 15

16 ADDRESSING WATER CHALLENGES IN THE DEVELOPING WORLD:

cultural and livestock production, aquacul-

ADDRESSING WATER CHALLENGES IN THE DEVELOPING WORLD: 17

18 ADDRESSING WATER CHALLENGES IN THE DEVELOPING WORLD:

Consistency with U.S. foreign policy priori-

ADDRESSING WATER CHALLENGES IN THE DEVELOPING WORLD: 19

20 ADDRESSING WATER CHALLENGES IN THE DEVELOPING WORLD:

ADDRESSING WATER CHALLENGES IN THE DEVELOPING WORLD: 21

Bureau of Oceans, Environment, and Science

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