Six-Day War

The Six-Day War (Hebrew: ‫מלְחֶמֶת שֵׁשֶׁת‬ ִ

Third Arab–Israeli War
‫הַי ָ ּמִים‬, romanized: Milhemet Sheshet HaYamim;
Arabic: ‫اﻟﻨﻜﺴﺔ‬, romanized: an-Naksah, lit. 'The Part of the Arab–Israeli conflict
Setback' or 1967 ‫ﺣﺮب‬, Harb 1967, 'War of
1967'), also known as the June War, the 1967
Arab–Israeli War or the Third Arab–Israeli
War, was an armed conflict fought from 5 to 10
June 1967 between Israel and an Arab coalition
primarily comprising Jordan, Syria and UAR
Egypt.

Relations between Israel and its Arab neighbours

were not normalized after the First Arab–Israeli
War in 1948–1949. In 1956, Israel invaded Egypt,
triggering the Suez Crisis. Among Israel's rationale
for the invasion was its goal of reopening the
Straits of Tiran, which had been closed by Egypt
for all Israeli shipping since 1950. Israel was
eventually forced to withdraw, but was guaranteed
that the Straits would remain open. A
peacekeeping contingent known as the United
Nations Emergency Force (UNEF) was deployed
along the Egypt–Israel border, but there was no
demilitarization agreement between the two
sides.[25]

In the months prior to June 1967, tensions in the

region became dangerously heightened. Israel
reiterated its post-1956 position that the re-closure
Map of the military movements and territorial
of the Straits of Tiran to Israeli shipping would be
changes during the Six-Day War. The territory of
a definite casus belli. In May, Egyptian president
Gamal Abdel Nasser announced that the Straits Israel before the war is colored royal blue on this
would be closed to Israeli vessels, and map, while the territories captured by Israel during
subsequently mobilized the Egyptian military the war are depicted in various shades of green.
along the border with Israel, ejecting the
Date 5–10 June 1967
UNEF.[26] On 5 June, Israel launched a series of
(6 days)
airstrikes against Egyptian airfields, initially
claiming that it had been attacked by Egypt, but Location Middle East (Levant)
later stating that the airstrikes were pre- Result Israeli victory
emptive;[27][28] the question of which side caused Territorial Israel captures and occupies the
the war remains one of a number of controversies
changes Golan Heights, the West Bank (incl.
relating to the conflict.[29]
East Jerusalem), the Gaza Strip and
Egyptian forces were caught by surprise, and the Sinai Peninsula[3][4]
nearly the entire Egyptian Air Force was Belligerents
destroyed with few Israeli losses, giving Israel the
advantage of air supremacy. Simultaneously, Israel Egypt (UAR)
Israeli forces launched a ground offensive into the Syria
Egyptian-occupied Gaza Strip and the Sinai Jordan
Peninsula, which again caught the Egyptians by Iraq[1]
surprise. After some initial resistance, Nasser
Minor involvement:
ordered an evacuation of the Sinai Peninsula. The
Lebanon (Air raid on 5
Israelis continued to pursue and inflict heavy
June)[2]
losses on the retreating Egyptian forces, and
conquered the entire Sinai Peninsula by the sixth Commanders and leaders
day of the war.[28]
Levi Eshkol Gamal Abdel
Jordan had entered into a defence pact with Egypt Moshe Dayan Nasser
a week before the war began; the agreement Yitzhak Rabin Abdel Hakim Amer
envisaged that in the event of a war, Jordan would Uzi Narkiss Abdul Munim Riad
not take an offensive role, but would attempt to tie Motta Gur Hussein
down Israeli forces to prevent them from making Israel Tal Zaid ibn Shaker
territorial gains.[30] About an hour after the initial Mordechai Hod Asad Ghanma
Israeli air attack, the Egyptian commander of the Yeshayahu Gavish Salah Jadid
Jordanian military received orders from Cairo to Ariel Sharon Nureddin al-Atassi
mount attacks against Israel; in the initially
Ezer Weizman Abdul Rahman Arif
confused situation, the Jordanians were falsely told
Shlomo Erell
that Egypt had repelled the Israeli air raids.
David Elazar
Egypt and Jordan agreed to a ceasefire on 8 June, Strength
and Syria agreed on 9 June; a ceasefire was signed
with Israel on 11 June. In the aftermath of the war, 50,000 troops Egypt: 240,000
Israel had crippled the entirety of the Egyptian,
214,000 reserves Syria, Jordan, and
Syrian and Jordanian militaries, having killed over
250[5]–300 combat Iraq: 307,000
20,000 troops while losing fewer than 1,000 of its [6]
aircraft 957 combat aircraft
own. The sweeping Israeli success was the result
800 tanks[7] 2,504 tanks (mostly
of a well-prepared and enacted strategy combined
Soviet-made)[7]
with the poor military and political leadership and
Total troops: 264,000 Lebanon: 2 combat
strategy of the Arab coalition. At the cessation of
100,000 deployed aircraft[8]
hostilities, Israel had seized the Golan Heights
from Syria, the West Bank (including East Total troops: 547,000
Jerusalem) from Jordan, and the Gaza Strip as well
240,000 deployed
as the entire Sinai Peninsula from Egypt. Israel's
international standing greatly improved in the Casualties and losses
following years. The overwhelming Israeli victory
had humiliated Egypt, Jordan and Syria, leading 776–983 killed[9][10] Egypt: 10,000–15,000
Nasser to resign in shame; he was later reinstated 4,517 wounded killed or missing[12][13]
after protests in Egypt against his resignation. The 15 captured[10] 4,338 captured[14]
speed and ease of Israel's victory would later lead Jordan: 696 killed or
to dangerous overconfidence within the ranks of missing[15][16][17]
400 tanks destroyed[11]
the Israel Defense Forces—one of the primary 533 captured[14]
46 aircraft destroyed
factors that led to initial Arab successes in the Syria: 2,500
1973 Yom Kippur War, which, however, also killed [18][19][20]
ended in an Israeli victory. The displacement of 591 captured
civilian populations as a result of the Six-Day War Iraq: 10 killed
would have long-term consequences, as around 30 wounded
280,000 to 325,000 Palestinians and 100,000 Lebanon: 1 aircraft
Syrians fled or were expelled from the West lost[8]
Bank[31] and the Golan Heights, respectively.[32]
Hundreds of tanks
destroyed
452+ aircraft destroyed
Contents 20 Israeli civilians killed[21]
Background 34 US Navy, Marine, and NSA personnel killed[22][23]
Military preparation 17 Soviet Marines killed (allegedly)[24]

Armies and weapons

Armies
Weapons
Fighting fronts
Air attack
Gaza Strip and Sinai Peninsula
Northern (El Arish) Israeli division
Advance on Arish
Mid-front (Abu-Ageila) Israeli
division
Other Israeli forces
The Egyptian Army
Next fighting days
West Bank
Egyptian control of Jordanian
forces
Initial attack
Israeli cabinet meets
Initial response
Jordanian battalion at Government
House
Israeli invasion
The West Bank
Golan Heights
Syrian front 5–8 June
Israelis debate whether the Golan
Heights should be attacked
Israeli attack: first day (9 June)
Israeli attack: the next day (10
June)
Conclusion
Casualties
Controversies
Preemptive strike v. unjustified attack
Allegations of atrocities committed
against Egyptian soldiers
Allegations of military support from the
US, UK and Soviet Union
USS Liberty incident
Aftermath
Israel and Zionism
Jews in Arab countries
Antisemitism against Jews in
Communist countries
War of Attrition
Palestinian terrorism
Peace and diplomacy
Occupied territories and Arab
displaced populations
Long term
See also
Notes
References
Further reading
External links

Background
After the 1956 Suez Crisis, Egypt agreed to the stationing of a
United Nations Emergency Force (UNEF) in the Sinai to ensure
all parties would comply with the 1949 Armistice Agreements.[34]
In the following years there were numerous minor border clashes
between Israel and its Arab neighbours, particularly Syria. In early
November 1966, Syria signed a mutual defence agreement with
Egypt.[35] Soon after this, in response to Palestine Liberation
Organisation (PLO) guerilla activity,[36][37] including a mine On 22 May 1967, President Nasser
attack that left three dead,[38] the Israeli Defence Force (IDF) addressed his pilots at Bir Gifgafa
attacked the village of as-Samu in the Jordanian-ruled West Airfield in Sinai: "The Jews are
threatening war—we say to them
Bank.[39] Jordanian units that engaged the Israelis were quickly
ahlan wa-sahlan (welcome)!"[33]
beaten back.[40] King Hussein of Jordan criticized Egyptian
President Gamal Abdel Nasser for failing to come to Jordan's aid,
and "hiding behind UNEF skirts".[41][42][43]

In May 1967, Nasser received false reports from the Soviet Union that Israel was massing on the Syrian
border.[44] Nasser began massing his troops in two defensive lines[45] in the Sinai Peninsula on Israel's
border (16 May), expelled the UNEF force from Gaza and Sinai (19 May) and took over UNEF positions
at Sharm el-Sheikh, overlooking the Straits of Tiran.[46][47] Israel repeated declarations it had made in 1957
that any closure of the Straits would be considered an act of war, or justification for war,[48][49] but Nasser
closed the Straits to Israeli shipping on 22–23 May.[50][51][52] After the war, U.S. President Lyndon
Johnson commented:[53]

If a single act of folly was more responsible for this explosion than any other, it was the
arbitrary and dangerous announced decision that the Straits of Tiran would be closed. The
right of innocent, maritime passage must be preserved for all nations.
On 30 May, Jordan and Egypt signed a defence pact. The following day, at Jordan's invitation, the Iraqi
army began deploying troops and armoured units in Jordan.[54] They were later reinforced by an Egyptian
contingent. On 1 June, Israel formed a National Unity Government by widening its cabinet, and on 4 June
the decision was made to go to war. The next morning, Israel launched Operation Focus, a large-scale,
surprise air strike that launched the Six-Day War.

Military preparation

Before the war, Israeli pilots and ground crews had trained extensively in rapid refitting of aircraft returning
from sorties, enabling a single aircraft to sortie up to four times a day (as opposed to the norm in Arab air
forces of one or two sorties per day). This enabled the Israeli Air Force (IAF) to send several attack waves
against Egyptian airfields on the first day of the war, overwhelming the Egyptian Air Force and allowed it
to knock out other Arab air forces on the same day. This has contributed to the Arab belief that the IAF was
helped by foreign air forces (see Controversies relating to the Six-Day War). Pilots were extensively
schooled about their targets, were forced to memorise every single detail, and rehearsed the operation
multiple times on dummy runways in total secrecy.

The Egyptians had constructed fortified defences in the Sinai. These designs were based on the assumption
that an attack would come along the few roads leading through the desert, rather than through the difficult
desert terrain. The Israelis chose not to risk attacking the Egyptian defences head-on, and instead surprised
them from an unexpected direction.

James Reston, writing in The New York Times on 23 May 1967, noted, "In; discipline, training, morale,
equipment and general competence his [Nasser's] army and the other Arab forces, without the direct
assistance of the Soviet Union, are no match for the Israelis. ... Even with 50,000 troops and the best of his
generals and air force in Yemen, he has not been able to work his way in that small and primitive country,
and even his effort to help the Congo rebels was a flop."[55]

On the eve of the war, Israel believed it could win a war in 3–4 days. The United States estimated Israel
would need 7–10 days to win, with British estimates supporting the U.S. view.[56][57]

Armies and weapons

Armies

The Israeli army had a total strength, including reservists, of 264,000, though this number could not be
sustained during a long conflict, as the reservists were vital to civilian life.[58]

Against Jordan's forces on the West Bank, Israel deployed about 40,000 troops and 200 tanks (eight
brigades).[59] Israeli Central Command forces consisted of five brigades. The first two were permanently
stationed near Jerusalem and were the Jerusalem Brigade and the mechanized Harel Brigade. Mordechai
Gur's 55th Paratroopers Brigade was summoned from the Sinai front. The 10th Armored Brigade was
stationed north of the West Bank. The Israeli Northern Command comprised a division of three brigades
led by Major General Elad Peled which was stationed in the Jezreel Valley to the north of the West Bank.

On the eve of the war, Egypt massed approximately 100,000 of its 160,000 troops in the Sinai, including all
seven of its divisions (four infantry, two armoured and one mechanized), four independent infantry brigades
and four independent armoured brigades. Over a third of these soldiers were veterans of Egypt's continuing
intervention into the North Yemen Civil War and another third were reservists. These forces had 950 tanks,
1,100 APCs, and more than 1,000 artillery pieces.[60]
Syria's army had a total strength of 75,000 and was deployed along the border with Israel.[61] Professor
David W. Lesch wrote that "One would be hard-pressed to find a military less prepared for war with a
clearly superior foe" since Syria's army had been decimated in the months and years prior through coups
and attempted coups that had resulted in a series of purges, fracturings and uprisings within the armed
forces.[62]

The Jordanian Armed Forces included 11 brigades, totalling 55,000 troops.[63] Nine brigades (45,000
troops, 270 tanks, 200 artillery pieces) were deployed in the West Bank, including the elite armoured 40th,
and two in the Jordan Valley. They possessed sizable numbers of M113 APCs and were equipped with
some 300 modern Western tanks, 250 of which were U.S. M48 Pattons. They also had 12 battalions of
artillery, six batteries of 81 mm and 120 mm mortars,[64] a paratrooper battalion trained in the new U.S.-
built school and a new battalion of mechanized infantry. The Jordanian Army was a long-term-service,
professional army, relatively well-equipped and well-trained. Israeli post-war briefings said that the
Jordanian staff acted professionally, but was always left "half a step" behind by the Israeli moves. The
small Royal Jordanian Air Force consisted of only 24 British-made Hawker Hunter fighters, six transport
aircraft and two helicopters. According to the Israelis, the Hawker Hunter was essentially on par with the
French-built Dassault Mirage III – the IAF's best plane.[65]

One hundred Iraqi tanks and an infantry division were readied near the Jordanian border. Two squadrons of
Iraqi fighter-aircraft, Hawker Hunters and MiG 21s, were rebased adjacent to the Jordanian border.[64]

The Arab air forces were reinforced by some aircraft from Libya, Algeria, Morocco, Kuwait, and Saudi
Arabia to make up for the massive losses suffered on the first day of the war. They were also aided by
volunteer pilots from the Pakistan Air Force acting in an independent capacity. PAF pilots like Saiful Azam
shot down several Israeli planes.[66][67]

Weapons

With the exception of Jordan, the Arabs relied principally on Soviet weaponry. Jordan's army was equipped
with American weaponry, and its air force was composed of British aircraft.

Egypt had by far the largest and the most modern of all the Arab air forces, consisting of about 420 combat
aircraft,[68] all of them Soviet-built and with a heavy quota of top-of-the-line MiG-21s. Of particular
concern to the Israelis were the 30 Tu-16 "Badger" medium bombers, capable of inflicting heavy damage
on Israeli military and civilian centres.[69]

Israeli weapons were mainly of Western origin. Its air force was composed principally of French aircraft,
while its armoured units were mostly of British and American design and manufacture. Some light infantry
weapons, including the ubiquitous Uzi, were of Israeli origin.
 Type Arab armies IDF
M50 and M51 Shermans, M48A3 Patton,
Egypt, Syria and Iraq used T-34/85, T-54, T-55, Centurion, AMX-13, M32 Tank Recovery
PT-76, and SU-100/152 World War II-vintage Vehicle. The Centurion was upgraded with the
Soviet self-propelled guns. Jordan used US British 105 mm L7 gun prior to the war. The
AFVs M47, M48, and M48A1 Patton tanks. Panzer Sherman also underwent extensive
IV, Sturmgeschütz III and Jagdpanzer IV (ex- modifications including a larger 105 mm
medium velocity, French gun, redesigned
German vehicles all used by Syria)[70][71]
turret, wider tracks, more armour, and upgraded
engine and suspension.
APCs/IFVs BTR-40, BTR-152, BTR-50, BTR-60 APCs M2, / M3 Half-track, Panhard AML
M50 self-propelled howitzer and Makmat
M1937 Howitzer, BM-21, D-30 (2A18) Howitzer,
160 mm self-propelled mortar, M7 Priest,
Artillery M1954 field gun, M-52 105 mm self-propelled
Obusier de 155 mm Modèle 50, AMX 105 mm
howitzer (used by Jordan)
Self-Propelled Howitzer
Dassault Mirage III, Dassault Super Mystère,
MiG-21, MiG-19, MiG-17, Su-7B, Tu-16, Il-28, Sud Aviation Vautour, Mystere IV, Dassault
Aircraft Il-18, Il-14, An-12, Hawker Hunter used by Ouragan, Fouga Magister trainer outfitted for
Jordan and Iraq attack missions, Nord 2501IS military cargo
plane
Helicopters Mi-6, Mi-4 Super Frelon, Sikorsky S-58
SA-2 Guideline, ZSU-57-2 mobile anti-aircraft
AAW MIM-23 Hawk, Bofors 40 mm
cannon
Uzi, FN FAL, FN MAG, AK-47, M2 Browning,
Infantry Port Said submachine gun, AK-47, RPK, RPD, Cobra, Nord SS.10, Nord SS.11, RL-83
weapons DShK HMG, B-10 and B-11 recoilless rifles Blindicide anti-tank infantry weapon, Jeep-
mounted 106 mm recoilless rifle

Fighting fronts

Air attack

The first and most critical move of the conflict was a surprise
Israeli attack on the Egyptian Air Force. Initially, both Egypt and
Israel announced that they had been attacked by the other
country.[72]

On 5 June at 7:45 Israeli time, as civil defence sirens sounded all

over Israel, the IAF launched Operation Focus (Moked). All but 12
of its nearly 200 operational jets[73] launched a mass attack against
Israeli troops examine destroyed
Egypt's airfields.[74] The Egyptian defensive infrastructure was
Egyptian aircraft
extremely poor, and no airfields were yet equipped with hardened
aircraft shelters capable of protecting Egypt's warplanes. Most of
the Israeli warplanes headed out over the Mediterranean Sea, flying low to avoid radar detection, before
turning toward Egypt. Others flew over the Red Sea.[75]

Meanwhile, the Egyptians hindered their own defence by effectively shutting down their entire air defence
system: they were worried that rebel Egyptian forces would shoot down the plane carrying Field Marshal
Abdel Hakim Amer and Lt-Gen. Sidqi Mahmoud, who were en route from al Maza to Bir Tamada in the
Sinai to meet the commanders of the troops stationed there. In any event, it did not make a great deal of
difference as the Israeli pilots came in below Egyptian radar cover and well below the lowest point at
which its SA-2 surface-to-air missile batteries could bring down an aircraft.[76]
Although the powerful Jordanian radar facility at Ajloun detected
waves of aircraft approaching Egypt and reported the code word
for "war" up the Egyptian command chain, Egyptian command
and communications problems prevented the warning from
reaching the targeted airfields.[75] The Israelis employed a mixed-
attack strategy: bombing and strafing runs against planes parked on
the ground, and bombing to disable runways with special tarmac-
shredding penetration bombs developed jointly with France,
leaving surviving aircraft unable to take off. The runway at the
Arish airfield was spared, as the Israelis expected to turn it into a Dassault Mirage at the Israeli Air
military airport for their transports after the war. Surviving aircraft Force Museum. Operation Focus
were taken out by later attack waves. The operation was more was mainly conducted using French
successful than expected, catching the Egyptians by surprise and built aircraft.
destroying virtually all of the Egyptian Air Force on the ground,
with few Israeli losses. Only four unarmed Egyptian training
flights were in the air when the strike began.[77] A total of 338 Egyptian aircraft were destroyed and 100
pilots were killed,[78] although the number of aircraft lost by the Egyptians is disputed.[79]

Among the Egyptian planes lost were all 30 Tu-16 bombers, 27 out of 40 Il-28 bombers, 12 Su-7 fighter-
bombers, over 90 MiG-21s, 20 MiG-19s, 25 MiG-17 fighters, and around 32 assorted transport planes and
helicopters. In addition, Egyptian radars and SAM missiles were also attacked and destroyed. The Israelis
lost 19 planes, including two destroyed in air-to-air combat and 13 downed by anti-aircraft artillery.[80] One
Israeli plane, which was damaged and unable to break radio silence, was shot down by Israeli Hawk
missiles after it strayed over the Negev Nuclear Research Center.[81] Another was destroyed by an
exploding Egyptian bomber.[82]

The attack guaranteed Israeli air supremacy for the rest of the war. Attacks on other Arab air forces by
Israel took place later in the day as hostilities broke out on other fronts.

The large numbers of Arab aircraft claimed destroyed by Israel on that day were at first regarded as "greatly
exaggerated" by the Western press. However, the fact that the Egyptian Air Force, along with other Arab
air forces attacked by Israel, made practically no appearance for the remaining days of the conflict proved
that the numbers were most likely authentic. Throughout the war, Israeli aircraft continued strafing Arab
airfield runways to prevent their return to usability. Meanwhile, Egyptian state-run radio had reported an
Egyptian victory, falsely claiming that 70 Israeli planes had been downed on the first day of fighting.[83]

Gaza Strip and Sinai Peninsula

The Egyptian forces consisted of seven divisions: four armoured, two infantry, and one mechanized
infantry. Overall, Egypt had around 100,000 troops and 900–950 tanks in the Sinai, backed by 1,100
APCs and 1,000 artillery pieces.[60] This arrangement was thought to be based on the Soviet doctrine,
where mobile armour units at strategic depth provide a dynamic defense while infantry units engage in
defensive battles.

Israeli forces concentrated on the border with Egypt included six armoured brigades, one infantry brigade,
one mechanized infantry brigade, three paratrooper brigades, giving a total of around 70,000 men and 700
tanks, who were organized in three armoured divisions. They had massed on the border the night before the
war, camouflaging themselves and observing radio silence before being ordered to advance.

The Israeli plan was to surprise the Egyptian forces in both timings (the attack exactly coinciding with the
IAF strike on Egyptian airfields), location (attacking via northern and central Sinai routes, as opposed to the
Egyptian expectations of a repeat of the 1956 war, when the IDF attacked via the central and southern
routes) and method (using a combined-force
flanking approach, rather than direct tank
assaults).

Northern (El Arish) Israeli division

On 5 June, at 7:50 am, the northernmost

Israeli division, consisting of three brigades
and commanded by Major General Israel Tal,
one of Israel's most prominent armour
commanders, crossed the border at two points,
opposite Nahal Oz and south of Khan Yunis.
They advanced swiftly, holding fire to
prolong the element of surprise. Tal's forces
assaulted the "Rafah Gap", a seven-mile
stretch containing the shortest of three main
routes through the Sinai towards El-Qantarah
el-Sharqiyya and the Suez Canal. The
Egyptians had four divisions in the area,
backed by minefields, pillboxes, underground
bunkers, hidden gun emplacements and
trenches. The terrain on either side of the
route was impassable. The Israeli plan was to
hit the Egyptians at selected key points with Conquest of Sinai. 5–6 June 1967
concentrated armour.[81]

Tal's advance was led by the 7th Armored Brigade under Colonel
Shmuel Gonen. The Israeli plan called for the 7th Brigade to
outflank Khan Yunis from the north and the 60th Armored Brigade
under Colonel Menachem Aviram would advance from the south.
The two brigades would link up and surround Khan Yunis, while
the paratroopers would take Rafah. Gonen entrusted the
breakthrough to a single battalion of his brigade.[84]

Initially, the advance was met with light resistance, as Egyptian

People in a bomb shelter at Kfar
intelligence had concluded that it was a diversion for the main
Maimon
attack. However, as Gonen's lead battalion advanced, it suddenly
came under intense fire and took heavy losses. A second battalion
was brought up, but was also pinned down. Meanwhile, the 60th
Brigade became bogged down in the sand, while the paratroopers had trouble navigating through the
dunes. The Israelis continued to press their attack, and despite heavy losses, cleared the Egyptian positions
and reached the Khan Yunis railway junction in a little over four hours.[84]

Gonen's brigade then advanced nine miles to Rafah in twin columns. Rafah itself was circumvented, and
the Israelis attacked Sheikh Zuweid, eight miles to the southwest, which was defended by two brigades.
Though inferior in numbers and equipment, the Egyptians were deeply entrenched and camouflaged. The
Israelis were pinned down by fierce Egyptian resistance and called in air and artillery support to enable
their lead elements to advance. Many Egyptians abandoned their positions after their commander and
several of his staff were killed.[84]
The Israelis broke through with tank-led assaults. However, Aviram's forces misjudged the Egyptians' flank
and were pinned between strongholds before they were extracted after several hours. By nightfall, the
Israelis had finished mopping up resistance. Israeli forces had taken significant losses, with Colonel Gonen
later telling reporters that "we left many of our dead soldiers in Rafah and many burnt-out tanks." The
Egyptians suffered some 2,000 casualties and lost 40 tanks.[84]

Advance on Arish

On 5 June, with the road open, Israeli forces continued advancing

towards Arish. Already by late afternoon, elements of the 79th
Armored Battalion had charged through the seven-mile-long Jiradi
defile, a narrow pass defended by well-emplaced troops of the
Egyptian 112th Infantry Brigade. In fierce fighting, which saw the
pass change hands several times, the Israelis charged through the
position. The Egyptians suffered heavy casualties and tank losses,
while Israeli losses stood at 66 dead, 93 wounded and 28 tanks.
Israeli reconnaissance forces from
Emerging at the western end, Israeli forces advanced to the the "Shaked" unit in Sinai during the
outskirts of Arish.[85] As it reached the outskirts of Arish, Tal's war
division also consolidated its hold on Rafah and Khan Yunis.

The following day, 6 June, the Israeli forces on the outskirts of Arish were reinforced by the 7th Brigade,
which fought its way through the Jiradi pass. After receiving supplies via an airdrop, the Israelis entered the
city and captured the airport at 7:50 am. The Israelis entered the city at 8:00 am. Company commander
Yossi Peled recounted that "Al-Arish was totally quiet, desolate. Suddenly, the city turned into a madhouse.
Shots came at us from every alley, every corner, every window and house." An IDF record stated that
"clearing the city was hard fighting. The Egyptians fired from the rooftops, from balconies and windows.
They dropped grenades into our half-tracks and blocked the streets with trucks. Our men threw the
grenades back and crushed the trucks with their tanks."[86][87] Gonen sent additional units to Arish, and the
city was eventually taken.

Brigadier-General Avraham Yoffe's assignment was to penetrate Sinai south of Tal's forces and north of
Sharon's. Yoffe's attack allowed Tal to complete the capture of the Jiradi defile, Khan Yunis. All of them
were taken after fierce fighting. Gonen subsequently dispatched a force of tanks, infantry and engineers
under Colonel Yisrael Granit to continue down the Mediterranean coast towards the Suez Canal, while a
second force led by Gonen himself turned south and captured Bir Lahfan and Jabal Libni.

Mid-front (Abu-Ageila) Israeli division

Further south, on 6 June, the Israeli 38th Armored Division under Major-General Ariel Sharon assaulted
Um-Katef, a heavily fortified area defended by the Egyptian 2nd Infantry Division under Major-General
Sa'adi Naguib (though Naguib was actually absent[88]) of Soviet World War II armour, which included 90
T-34-85 tanks, 22 SU-100 tank destroyers, and about 16,000 men. The Israelis had about 14,000 men and
150 post-World War II tanks including the AMX-13, Centurions, and M50 Super Shermans (modified M-4
Sherman tanks).

Two armoured brigades in the meantime, under Avraham Yoffe, slipped across the border through sandy
wastes that Egypt had left undefended because they were considered impassable. Simultaneously, Sharon's
tanks from the west were to engage Egyptian forces on Um-Katef ridge and block any reinforcements.
Israeli infantry would clear the three trenches, while heliborne paratroopers would land behind Egyptian
lines and silence their artillery. An armoured thrust would be made at al-Qusmaya to unnerve and isolate its
garrison.
 As Sharon's division advanced into the Sinai, Egyptian forces staged
successful delaying actions at Tarat Umm, Umm Tarfa, and Hill 181. An
Israeli jet was downed by anti-aircraft fire, and Sharon's forces came under
heavy shelling as they advanced from the north and west. The Israeli
advance, which had to cope with extensive minefields, took a large
number of casualties. A column of Israeli tanks managed to penetrate the
northern flank of Abu Ageila, and by dusk, all units were in position. The
Israelis then brought up ninety 105 mm and 155 mm artillery guns for a
preparatory barrage, while civilian buses brought reserve infantrymen
under Colonel Yekutiel Adam and helicopters arrived to ferry the
paratroopers. These movements were unobserved by the Egyptians, who
were preoccupied with Israeli probes against their perimeter.[89]
Major General Ariel Sharon
As night fell, the Israeli assault
during the Battle of Abu-
troops lit flashlights, each battalion
Ageila
a different colour, to prevent
friendly fire incidents. At
10:00 pm, Israeli artillery began a
barrage on Um-Katef, firing some 6,000 shells in less than twenty
minutes, the most concentrated artillery barrage in Israel's
history.[90][91] Israeli tanks assaulted the northernmost Egyptian
defences and were largely successful, though an entire armoured
Israeli Armor of the Six-Day War:
brigade was stalled by mines, and had only one mine-clearance pictured here the AMX 13
tank. Israeli infantrymen assaulted the triple line of trenches in the
east. To the west, paratroopers commanded by Colonel Danny
Matt landed behind Egyptian lines, though half the helicopters got lost and never found the battlefield,
while others were unable to land due to mortar fire.[92][93] Those that successfully landed on target
destroyed Egyptian artillery and ammunition dumps and separated gun crews from their batteries, sowing
enough confusion to significantly reduce Egyptian artillery fire. Egyptian reinforcements from Jabal Libni
advanced towards Um-Katef to counterattack but failed to reach their objective, being subjected to heavy
air attacks and encountering Israeli lodgements on the roads. Egyptian commanders then called in artillery
attacks on their own positions. The Israelis accomplished and sometimes exceeded their overall plan, and
had largely succeeded by the following day. The Egyptians suffered about 2,000 casualties, while the
Israelis lost 42 dead and 140 wounded.[92][93][94]

Yoffe's attack allowed Sharon to complete the capture of the Um-Katef, after fierce fighting. The main
thrust at Um-Katef was stalled due to mines and craters. After IDF engineers had cleared a path by
4:00 pm, Israeli and Egyptian tanks engaged in fierce combat, often at ranges as close as ten yards. The
battle ended in an Israeli victory, with 40 Egyptian and 19 Israeli tanks destroyed. Meanwhile, Israeli
infantry finished clearing out the Egyptian trenches, with Israeli casualties standing at 14 dead and 41
wounded and Egyptian casualties at 300 dead and 100 taken prisoner.[95]

Other Israeli forces

Further south, on 5 June, the 8th Armored Brigade under Colonel Albert Mandler, initially positioned as a
ruse to draw off Egyptian forces from the real invasion routes, attacked the fortified bunkers at Kuntilla, a
strategically valuable position whose capture would enable Mandler to block reinforcements from reaching
Um-Katef and to join Sharon's upcoming attack on Nakhl. The defending Egyptian battalion outnumbered
and outgunned, fiercely resisted the attack, hitting a number of Israeli tanks. However, most of the
defenders were killed, and only three Egyptian tanks, one of them damaged, survived. By nightfall,
Mandler's forces had taken Kuntilla.[86]
With the exceptions of Rafah and Khan Yunis, Israeli forces had initially avoided entering the Gaza Strip.
Israeli Defense Minister Moshe Dayan had expressly forbidden entry into the area. After Palestinian
positions in Gaza opened fire on the Negev settlements of Nirim and Kissufim, IDF Chief of Staff Yitzhak
Rabin overrode Dayan's instructions and ordered the 11th Mechanized Brigade under Colonel Yehuda
Reshef to enter the Strip. The force was immediately met with heavy artillery fire and fierce resistance from
Palestinian forces and remnants of the Egyptian forces from Rafah.

By sunset, the Israelis had taken the strategically vital Ali Muntar ridge, overlooking Gaza City, but were
beaten back from the city itself. Some 70 Israelis were killed, along with Israeli journalist Ben Oyserman
and American journalist Paul Schutzer. Twelve members of UNEF were also killed. On the war's second
day, 6 June, the Israelis were bolstered by the 35th Paratroopers Brigade under Colonel Rafael Eitan and
took Gaza City along with the entire Strip. The fighting was fierce and accounted for nearly half of all
Israeli casualties on the southern front. However, Gaza rapidly fell to the Israelis.

Meanwhile, on 6 June, two Israeli reserve brigades under Yoffe, each equipped with 100 tanks, penetrated
the Sinai south of Tal's division and north of Sharon's, capturing the road junctions of Abu Ageila, Bir
Lahfan, and Arish, taking all of them before midnight. Two Egyptian armoured brigades counterattacked,
and a fierce battle took place until the following morning. The Egyptians were beaten back by fierce
resistance coupled with airstrikes, sustaining heavy tank losses. They fled west towards Jabal Libni.[96]

The Egyptian Army

During the ground fighting, remnants of the Egyptian Air Force attacked Israeli ground forces but took
losses from the Israeli Air Force and from Israeli anti-aircraft units. Throughout the last four days, Egyptian
aircraft flew 150 sorties against Israeli units in the Sinai.

Many of the Egyptian units remained intact and could have tried to prevent the Israelis from reaching the
Suez Canal, or engaged in combat in the attempt to reach the canal. However, when the Egyptian Field
Marshal Abdel Hakim Amer heard about the fall of Abu-Ageila, he panicked and ordered all units in the
Sinai to retreat. This order effectively meant the defeat of Egypt.

Meanwhile, President Nasser, having learned of the results of the Israeli air strikes, decided together with
Field Marshal Amer to order a general retreat from the Sinai within 24 hours. No detailed instructions were
given concerning the manner and sequence of withdrawal.[97]

Next fighting days

As Egyptian columns retreated, Israeli aircraft and artillery attacked them. Israeli jets used napalm bombs
during their sorties. The attacks destroyed hundreds of vehicles and caused heavy casualties. At Jabal
Libni, retreating Egyptian soldiers were fired upon by their own artillery. At Bir Gafgafa, the Egyptians
fiercely resisted advancing Israeli forces, knocking out three tanks and eight half-tracks, and killing 20
soldiers. Due to the Egyptians' retreat, the Israeli High Command decided not to pursue the Egyptian units
but rather to bypass and destroy them in the mountainous passes of West Sinai.

Therefore, in the following two days (6 and 7 June), all three Israeli divisions (Sharon and Tal were
reinforced by an armoured brigade each) rushed westwards and reached the passes. Sharon's division first
went southward then westward, via An-Nakhl, to Mitla Pass with air support. It was joined there by parts
of Yoffe's division, while its other units blocked the Gidi Pass. These passes became killing grounds for the
Egyptians, who ran right into waiting Israeli positions and suffered heavy losses in both soldiers and
vehicles. According to Egyptian diplomat Mahmoud Riad, 10,000 men were killed in one day alone, and
many others died from hunger and thirst. Tal's units stopped at various points to the length of the Suez
Canal.
Israel's blocking action was partially
successful. Only the Gidi pass was captured
before the Egyptians approached it, but at
other places, Egyptian units managed to pass
through and cross the canal to safety. Due to
the haste of the Egyptian retreat, soldiers often
abandoned weapons, military equipment, and
hundreds of vehicles. Many Egyptian soldiers
were cut off from their units had to walk
about 200 kilometres on foot before reaching
the Suez Canal with limited supplies of food
and water and were exposed to intense heat.
Thousands of soldiers died as a result. Many
Egyptian soldiers chose instead to surrender to
the Israelis. However, the Israelis eventually
exceeded their capabilities to provide for
prisoners. As a result, they began directing
soldiers towards the Suez Canal and only
imprisoned high-ranking officers, who were
expected to be exchanged for captured Israeli
pilots.

According to some accounts, during the

Egyptian retreat from the Sinai, a unit of
Soviet Marines based on a Soviet warship in Conquest of Sinai. 7–8 June 1967
Port Said at the time came ashore and
attempted to cross the Suez Canal eastward.
The Soviet force was reportedly decimated by an Israeli air attack
and lost 17 dead and 34 wounded. Among the wounded was the
commander, Lt. Col. Victor Shevchenko.[24]

During the offensive, the Israeli Navy landed six combat divers
from the Shayetet 13 naval commando unit to infiltrate Alexandria
harbour. The divers sank an Egyptian minesweeper before being
taken prisoner. Shayetet 13 commandos also infiltrated Port Said
harbour, but found no ships there. A planned commando raid
Play media
against the Syrian Navy never materialized. Both Egyptian and
Newsreel from 6 June about the first
Israeli warships made movements at sea to intimidate the other side
Israeli-Egyptian fighting.
throughout the war but did not engage each other. However, Israeli
warships and aircraft did hunt for Egyptian submarines throughout
the war.

On 7 June, Israel began the conquest of Sharm el-Sheikh. The Israeli Navy started the operation with a
probe of Egyptian naval defences. An aerial reconnaissance flight found that the area was less defended
than originally thought. At about 4:30 am, three Israeli missile boats opened fire on Egyptian shore
batteries, while paratroopers and commandos boarded helicopters and Nord Noratlas transport planes for an
assault on Al-Tur, as Chief of Staff Rabin was convinced it was too risky to land them directly in Sharm el-
Sheikh.[98] However, the city had been largely abandoned the day before, and reports from air and naval
forces finally convinced Rabin to divert the aircraft to Sharm el-Sheikh. There, the Israelis engaged in a
pitched battle with the Egyptians and took the city, killing 20 Egyptian soldiers and taking 8 more
prisoners. At 12:15 pm, Defense Minister Dayan announced that the Straits of Tiran constituted an
international waterway open to all ships without restriction.[98]
On 8 June, Israel completed the capture of the Sinai by sending
infantry units to Ras Sudar on the western coast of the peninsula.

Several tactical elements made the swift Israeli advance possible:

1. The surprise attack that quickly gave the Israeli Air

Force complete air superiority over the Egyptian Air
Force.
2. The determined implementation of an innovative battle
plan. An Israeli gunboat passes through
the Straits of Tiran near Sharm El
3. The lack of coordination among Egyptian troops.
Sheikh.

These factors would prove to be decisive elements on Israel's other

fronts as well.

West Bank

Egyptian control of Jordanian

forces

King Hussein had given control of his

army to Egypt on 1 June, on which
date Egyptian General Riad arrived in
Amman to take control of the
Jordanian military.[a]

Egyptian Field Marshal Amer used

the confusion of the first hours of the
conflict to send a cable to Amman that
he was victorious; he claimed as
evidence a radar sighting of a
squadron of Israeli aircraft returning
from bombing raids in Egypt, which
he said was an Egyptian aircraft en
route to attack Israel.[100] In this
cable, sent shortly before 9:00 am,
Riad was ordered to attack.[b]
The Jordan salient, 5–7 June.

Initial attack

One of the Jordanian brigades stationed in the West Bank was sent to the Hebron area in order to link with
the Egyptians.

The IDF's strategic plan was to remain on the defensive along the Jordanian front, to enable focus in the
expected campaign against Egypt.

Intermittent machine-gun exchanges began taking place in Jerusalem at 9:30 am, and the fighting gradually
escalated as the Jordanians introduced mortar and recoilless rifle fire. Under the orders from General
Narkis, the Israelis responded only with small-arms fire, firing in a flat trajectory to avoid hitting civilians,
holy sites or the Old City. At 10:00 am on 5 June, the Jordanian Army began shelling Israel. Two batteries
of 155 mm Long Tom cannons opened fire on the suburbs of Tel Aviv and Ramat David Airbase. The
commanders of these batteries were instructed to lay a two-hour barrage against military and civilian
settlements in central Israel. Some shells hit the outskirts of Tel Aviv.[102]

By 10:30 am, Eshkol had sent a message via Odd Bull to King Hussein promising not to initiate any action
against Jordan if it stayed out of the war.[103] King Hussein replied that it was too late, "the die was
cast".[104] At 11:15 am, Jordanian howitzers began a 6,000-shell barrage at Israeli Jerusalem. The
Jordanians initially targeted kibbutz Ramat Rachel in the south and Mount Scopus in the north, then ranged
into the city centre and outlying neighbourhoods. Military installations, the Prime Minister's Residence, and
the Knesset compound were also targeted. Israeli civilian casualties totalled 20 dead and about 1,000
wounded. Some 900 buildings were damaged, including Hadassah Ein Kerem Hospital.[105]

At 11:50 am, sixteen Jordanian Hawker Hunters attacked Netanya, Kfar Sirkin and Kfar Saba, killing one
civilian, wounding seven and destroying a transport plane. Three Iraqi Hawker Hunters strafed civilian
settlements in the Jezreel Valley, and an Iraqi Tupolev Tu-16 attacked Afula, and was shot down near the
Megiddo airfield. The attack caused minimal material damage, hitting only a senior citizens' home and
several chicken coops, but sixteen Israeli soldiers were killed, most of them when the Tupolev crashed.[105]

Israeli cabinet meets

When the Israeli cabinet convened to decide what to do, Yigal Allon and Menahem Begin argued that this
was an opportunity to take the Old City of Jerusalem, but Eshkol decided to defer any decision until Moshe
Dayan and Yitzhak Rabin could be consulted.[106] Uzi Narkiss made a number of proposals for military
action, including the capture of Latrun, but the cabinet turned him down. Dayan rejected multiple requests
from Narkiss for permission to mount an infantry assault towards Mount Scopus. However, Dayan
sanctioned a number of more limited retaliatory actions.[107]

Initial response

Shortly before 12:30 pm, the Israeli Air Force attacked Jordan's two airbases. The Hawker Hunters were
refuelling at the time of the attack. The Israeli aircraft attacked in two waves, the first of which cratered the
runways and knocked out the control towers, and the second wave destroyed all 21 of Jordan's Hawker
Hunter fighters, along with six transport aircraft and two helicopters. One Israeli jet was shot down by
ground fire.[107]

Israeli aircraft also attacked H-3, an Iraqi Air Force base in western Iraq. During the attack, 12 MiG-21s, 2
MiG-17s, 5 Hunter F6s, and 3 Il-28 bombers were destroyed or shot down. A Pakistani pilot stationed at
the base, Saiful Azam, who was on loan to the Royal Jordanian Air Force as an advisor, shot down an
Israeli fighter and a bomber during the raid. The Jordanian radar facility at Ajloun was destroyed in an
Israeli airstrike. Israeli Fouga Magister jets attacked the Jordanian 40th Brigade with rockets as it moved
south from the Damia Bridge. Dozens of tanks were knocked out, and a convoy of 26 trucks carrying
ammunition was destroyed. In Jerusalem, Israel responded to Jordanian shelling with a missile strike that
devastated Jordanian positions. The Israelis used the L missile, a surface-to-surface missile developed
jointly with France in secret.[107]

Jordanian battalion at Government House

A Jordanian battalion advanced up Government House ridge and dug in at the perimeter of Government
House, the headquarters of the United Nations observers,[108][109][110] and opened fire on Ramat Rachel,
the Allenby Barracks and the Jewish section of Abu Tor with mortars and recoilless rifles. UN observers
fiercely protested the incursion into the neutral zone, and several manhandled a Jordanian machine gun out
of Government House after the crew had set it up in a second-floor
window. After the Jordanians occupied Jabel Mukaber, an
advance patrol was sent out and approached Ramat Rachel, where
they came under fire from four civilians, including the wife of the
director, who were armed with old Czech-made weapons.[111][112]

The immediate Israeli response was an offensive to retake

Government House and its ridge. The Jerusalem Brigade's Reserve
Battalion 161, under Lieutenant-Colonel Asher Dreizin, was given
the task. Dreizin had two infantry companies and eight tanks under
his command, several of which broke down or became stuck in the
mud at Ramat Rachel, leaving three for the assault. The Jordanians
mounted fierce resistance, knocking out two tanks.[113]

The Israelis broke through the compound's western gate and began
clearing the building with grenades, before General Odd Bull,
commander of the UN observers, compelled the Israelis to hold Israeli paratroopers flush out
their fire, telling them that the Jordanians had already fled. The Jordanian soldiers from trenches
Israelis proceeded to take the Antenna Hill, directly behind during the Battle of Ammunition Hill.
Government House, and clear out a series of bunkers to the west
and south. The fighting often conducted hand-to-hand, continued
for nearly four hours before the surviving Jordanians fell back to trenches held by the Hittin Brigade, which
were steadily overwhelmed. By 6:30 am, the Jordanians had retreated to Bethlehem, having suffered about
100 casualties. All but ten of Dreizin's soldiers were casualties, and Dreizin himself was wounded three
times.[113]

Israeli invasion

During the late afternoon of 5 June, the Israelis launched an

offensive to encircle Jerusalem, which lasted into the following
day. During the night, they were supported by intense tank,
artillery and mortar fire to soften up Jordanian positions.
Searchlights placed atop the Labor Federation building, then the
tallest in Israeli Jerusalem, exposed and blinded the Jordanians.
The Jerusalem Brigade moved south of Jerusalem, while the
mechanized Harel Brigade and 55th Paratroopers Brigade under
Mordechai Gur encircled it from the north.[114]

A combined force of tanks and paratroopers crossed no-man's land

near the Mandelbaum Gate. Gur's 66th paratroop battalion
approached the fortified Police Academy. The Israelis used
Silhouette of Israeli paratroops
bangalore torpedoes to blast their way through barbed wire leading
advancing on Ammunition Hill.
up to the position while exposed and under heavy fire. With the aid
of two tanks borrowed from the Jerusalem Brigade, they captured
the Police Academy. After receiving reinforcements, they moved
up to attack Ammunition Hill.[114][115]

The Jordanian defenders, who were heavily dug-in, fiercely resisted the attack. All of the Israeli officers
except for two company commanders were killed, and the fighting was mostly led by individual soldiers.
The fighting was conducted at close quarters in trenches and bunkers and was often hand-to-hand. The
Israelis captured the position after four hours of heavy fighting. During the battle, 36 Israeli and 71
Jordanian soldiers were killed.[114][115] Even after the fighting on Ammunition Hill had ended, Israeli
soldiers were forced to remain in the trenches due to Jordanian sniper fire from Givat HaMivtar until the
Harel Brigade overran that outpost in the afternoon.[116]

The 66th battalion subsequently drove east, and linked up with the Israeli enclave on Mount Scopus and its
Hebrew University campus. Gur's other battalions, the 71st and 28th captured the other Jordanian positions
around the American Colony, despite being short on men and equipment and having come under a
Jordanian mortar bombardment while waiting for the signal to advance.[114][115]

At the same time, the IDF's 4th Brigade attacked the fortress at Latrun, which the Jordanians had
abandoned due to heavy Israeli tank fire. The mechanized Harel Brigade attacked Har Adar, but seven
tanks were knocked out by mines, forcing the infantry to mount an assault without armoured cover. The
Israeli soldiers advanced under heavy fire, jumping between rocks to avoid mines and the fighting was
conducted at close quarters with knives and bayonets.

The Jordanians fell back after a battle that left two Israeli and eight Jordanian soldiers dead, and Israeli
forces advanced through Beit Horon towards Ramallah, taking four fortified villages along the way. By the
evening, the brigade arrived in Ramallah. Meanwhile, the 163rd Infantry Battalion secured Abu Tor
following a fierce battle, severing the Old City from Bethlehem and Hebron.

Meanwhile, 600 Egyptian commandos stationed in the West Bank moved to attack Israeli airfields. Led by
Jordanian intelligence scouts, they crossed the border and began infiltrating through Israeli settlements
towards Ramla and Hatzor. They were soon detected and sought shelter in nearby fields, which the Israelis
set on fire. Some 450 commandos were killed, and the remainder escaped to Jordan.[117]

From the American Colony, the paratroopers moved towards the Old City. Their plan was to approach it
via the lightly defended Salah al-Din Street. However, they made a wrong turn onto the heavily defended
Nablus Road. The Israelis ran into fierce resistance. Their tanks fired at point-blank range down the street,
while the paratroopers mounted repeated charges. Despite repelling repeated Israeli charges, the Jordanians
gradually gave way to Israeli firepower and momentum. The Israelis suffered some 30 casualties – half the
original force – while the Jordanians lost 45 dead and 142 wounded.[118]

Meanwhile, the Israeli 71st Battalion breached barbed wire and minefields and emerged near Wadi Joz,
near the base of Mount Scopus, from where the Old City could be cut off from Jericho and East Jerusalem
from Ramallah. Israeli artillery targeted the one remaining route from Jerusalem to the West Bank, and
shellfire deterred the Jordanians from counterattacking from their positions at Augusta-Victoria. An Israeli
detachment then captured the Rockefeller Museum after a brief skirmish.[118]

Afterwards, the Israelis broke through to the Jerusalem-Ramallah road. At Tel al-Ful, the Harel Brigade
fought a running battle with up to thirty Jordanian tanks. The Jordanians stalled the advance and destroyed
a number of half-tracks, but the Israelis launched air attacks and exploited the vulnerability of the external
fuel tanks mounted on the Jordanian tanks. The Jordanians lost half their tanks, and retreated towards
Jericho. Joining up with the 4th Brigade, the Israelis then descended through Shuafat and the site of what is
now French Hill, through Jordanian defences at Mivtar, emerging at Ammunition Hill.[119]

With Jordanian defences in Jerusalem crumbling, elements of the Jordanian 60th Brigade and an infantry
battalion were sent from Jericho to reinforce Jerusalem. Its original orders were to repel the Israelis from the
Latrun corridor, but due to the worsening situation in Jerusalem, the brigade was ordered to proceed to
Jerusalem's Arab suburbs and attack Mount Scopus. Parallel to the brigade were infantrymen from the
Imam Ali Brigade, who were approaching Issawiya. The brigades were spotted by Israeli aircraft and
decimated by rocket and cannon fire. Other Jordanian attempts to reinforce Jerusalem were beaten back,
either by armoured ambushes or airstrikes.
Fearing damage to holy sites and the prospect of having to fight in
built-up areas, Dayan ordered his troops not to enter the Old
City.[106] He also feared that Israel would be subjected to a fierce
international backlash and the outrage of Christians worldwide if it
forced its way into the Old City. Privately, he told David Ben-
Gurion that he was also concerned over the prospect of Israel
capturing Jerusalem's holy sites, only to be forced to give them up
under the threat of international sanctions.
An Israeli airstrike near the Augusta-
Victoria Hospital
The West Bank

Israel was to gain almost total control of the West Bank by the
evening of 7 June,[120] and began its military occupation of the West Bank on that day, issuing a military
order, the "Proclamation Regarding Law and Administration (The West Bank Area) (No. 2)—1967",
which established the military government in the West Bank and granted the commander of the area full
legislative, executive, and judicial power.[121][4] Jordan had realised that it had no hope of defence as early
as the morning of 6 June, just a day after the conflict had begun.[122] At Nasser's request, Egypt's Abdul
Munim Riad sent a situation update at midday on 6 June:[120]

The situation on the West Bank is rapidly deteriorating. A concentrated attack has been
launched on all axes, together with heavy fire, day and night. Jordanian, Syrian and Iraqi air
forces in position H3 have been virtually destroyed. Upon consultation with King Hussein I
have been asked to convey to you the following choices:

1. A political decision to cease fighting to be imposed by a third party (the USA,

the Soviet Union or the Security Council).
2. To vacate the West Bank tonight.
3. To go on fighting for one more day, resulting in the isolation and destruction
of the entire Jordanian Army.

King Hussein has asked me to refer this matter to you for an immediate reply."

An Egyptian order for Jordanian forces to withdraw across the Jordan River was issued at 10 am on 6 June;
however that afternoon King Hussein learned of the impending United Nations Security Council
Resolution 233 and decided instead to hold out in the hope that a ceasefire would be implemented soon. It
was already too late, as the counter-order caused confusion and in many cases, it was not possible to regain
positions that had previously been left.[123]

On 7 June, Dayan ordered his troops not to enter the Old City but, upon hearing that the UN was about to
declare a ceasefire, he changed his mind, and without cabinet clearance, decided to capture it.[106] Two
paratroop battalions attacked Augusta-Victoria Hill, high ground overlooking the Old City from the east.
One battalion attacked from Mount Scopus, and another attacked from the valley between it and the Old
City. Another paratroop battalion, personally led by Gur, broke into the Old City and was joined by the
other two battalions after their missions were complete. The paratroopers met little resistance. The fighting
was conducted solely by the paratroopers; the Israelis did not use armour during the battle out of fear of
severe damage to the Old City.

In the north, a battalion from Peled's division checked Jordanian defences in the Jordan Valley. A brigade
from Peled's division captured the western part of the West Bank. One brigade attacked Jordanian artillery
positions around Jenin, which were shelling Ramat David Airbase. The Jordanian 12th Armored Battalion,
which outnumbered the Israelis, held off repeated attempts to capture Jenin. However, Israeli air attacks
 took their toll, and the Jordanian M48 Pattons, with their external fuel
tanks, proved vulnerable at short distances, even to the Israeli-modified
Shermans. Twelve Jordanian tanks were destroyed, and only six remained
operational.[117]

Just after dusk, Israeli reinforcements arrived. The Jordanians continued to

fiercely resist, and the Israelis were unable to advance without artillery and
air support. One Israeli jet attacked the Jordanian commander's tank,
wounding him and killing his radio operator and intelligence officer. The
surviving Jordanian forces then withdrew to Jenin, where they were
reinforced by the 25th Infantry Brigade. The Jordanians were effectively
surrounded in Jenin.[117]

Jordanian infantry and their three remaining tanks managed to hold off the
David Rubinger's photograph
Israelis until 4:00 am, when three battalions arrived to reinforce them in the
of IDF paratroopers at afternoon. The Jordanian tanks charged and knocked out multiple Israeli
Jerusalem's Western Wall vehicles, and the tide began to shift. After sunrise, Israeli jets and artillery
shortly after its capture. The conducted a two-hour bombardment against the Jordanians. The
soldiers in the foreground Jordanians lost 10 dead and 250 wounded, and had only seven tanks left,
are (from left) Zion including two without gas, and sixteen APCs. The Israelis then fought
Karasenti, Yitzhak Yifat, their way into Jenin and captured the city after fierce fighting.[124]
and Haim Oshri.
After the Old City fell, the Jerusalem Brigade reinforced the paratroopers,
and continued to the south, capturing Judea and Gush Etzion. Hebron was
taken without any resistance. Fearful that Israeli soldiers would exact retribution for the 1929 massacre of
the city's Jewish community, Hebron's residents flew white sheets from their windows and rooftops and
gave up their weapons. The Harel Brigade proceeded eastward, descending to the Jordan River.

On 7 June, Israeli forces seized Bethlehem, taking the city after a

brief battle that left some 40 Jordanian soldiers dead, with the
remainder fleeing. On the same day, one of Peled's brigades seized
Nablus; then it joined one of Central Command's armoured
brigades to fight the Jordanian forces; as the Jordanians held the
advantage of superior equipment and were equal in numbers to the
Israelis.

Again, the air superiority of the IAF proved paramount as it

immobilized the Jordanians, leading to their defeat. One of Peled's
brigades joined with its Central Command counterparts coming
from Ramallah, and the remaining two blocked the Jordan river
crossings together with the Central Command's 10th. Engineering
Corps sappers blew up the Abdullah and Hussein bridges with
captured Jordanian mortar shells, while elements of the Harel
Brigade crossed the river and occupied positions along the east
bank to cover them, but quickly pulled back due to American
pressure. The Jordanians, anticipating an Israeli offensive deep into
Jordan, assembled the remnants of their army and Iraqi units in From left, General Uzi Narkiss,
Jordan to protect the western approaches to Amman and the Defense Minister Moshe Dayan, and
southern slopes of the Golan Heights. Chief of Staff Lt. General Yitzhak
Rabin in the Old City of Jerusalem
As Israel continued its offensive on 7 June, taking no account of after its fall to Israeli forces
the UN ceasefire resolution, the Egyptian-Jordanian command
ordered a full Jordanian withdrawal for the second time, in order to
avoid an annihilation of the Jordanian army.[125] This was complete by nightfall on 7 June.[125]

After the Old City was captured, Dayan told his troops to "dig in" to hold it. When an armoured brigade
commander entered the West Bank on his own initiative, and stated that he could see Jericho, Dayan
ordered him back. It was only after intelligence reports indicated that Hussein had withdrawn his forces
across the Jordan River that Dayan ordered his troops to capture the West Bank.[110] According to Narkis:

First, the Israeli government had no intention of capturing the West Bank. On the contrary, it
was opposed to it. Second, there was not any provocation on the part of the IDF. Third, the
rein was only loosened when a real threat to Jerusalem's security emerged. This is truly how
things happened on June 5, although it is difficult to believe. The end result was something
that no one had planned.[126]

Golan Heights

In May–June 1967, in preparation for

conflict, the Israeli government
planned to confine the confrontation
to the Egyptian front, whilst taking
into account the possibility of some
fighting on the Syrian front.[104]

Syrian front 5–8 June

Syria largely stayed out of the conflict

for the first four days.[127][128]

False Egyptian reports of a crushing

victory against the Israeli army[83] and
forecasts that Egyptian forces would
soon be attacking Tel Aviv influenced
Syria's decision to enter the war – in a
sporadic manner – during this
period.[127] Syrian artillery began
shelling northern Israel, and twelve
Syrian jets attacked Israeli settlements The Battle of Golan Heights, 9–10 June.
in the Galilee. Israeli fighter jets
intercepted the Syrian aircraft,
shooting down three and driving off the rest.[129] In addition, two Lebanese Hawker Hunter jets, two of the
twelve Lebanon had, crossed into Israeli airspace and began strafing Israeli positions in the Galilee. They
were intercepted by Israeli fighter jets, and one was shot down.[2][8]

On the evening of 5 June, the Israeli Air Force attacked Syrian airfields. The Syrian Air Force lost some 32
MiG 21s, 23 MiG-15 and MiG-17 fighters, and two Ilyushin Il-28 bombers, two-thirds of its fighting
strength. The Syrian aircraft that survived the attack retreated to distant bases and played no further role in
the war. Following the attack, Syria realised that the news it had received from Egypt of the near-total
destruction of the Israeli military could not have been true.[129]
On 6 June, a minor Syrian force tried to capture the water plants at
Tel Dan (the subject of a fierce escalation two years earlier), Dan,
and She'ar Yashuv. These attacks were repulsed with the loss of
twenty soldiers and seven tanks. An Israeli officer was also killed.
But a broader Syrian offensive quickly failed. Syrian reserve units
were broken up by Israeli air attacks, and several tanks were
reported to have sunk in the Jordan River.[129]

Other problems included tanks being too wide for bridges, lack of
radio communications between tanks and infantry, and units People in a bomb shelter at Kibbutz
ignoring orders to advance. A post-war Syrian army report Dan
concluded:

Our forces did not go on the offensive either because they did not arrive or were not wholly
prepared or because they could not find shelter from the enemy's aircraft. The reserves could
not withstand the air attacks; they dispersed after their morale plummeted.[130]

The Syrians bombarded Israeli civilian settlements in the Galilee Panhandle with two battalions of M-46
130mm guns, four companies of heavy mortars, and dug-in Panzer IV tanks. The Syrian bombardment
killed two civilians and hit 205 houses as well as farming installations. An inaccurate report from a Syrian
officer, however, said that as a result of the bombardment that "the enemy appears to have suffered heavy
losses and is retreating".[131]

Israelis debate whether the Golan Heights should be attacked

On 7 and 8 June, the Israeli leadership debated about whether to attack the Golan Heights as well. Syria
had supported pre-war raids that had helped raise tensions and had routinely shelled Israel from the
Heights, so some Israeli leaders wanted to see Syria punished.[132] Military opinion was that the attack
would be extremely costly since it would entail an uphill battle against a strongly fortified enemy. The
western side of the Golan Heights consists of a rock escarpment that rises 500 meters (1,700 ft) from the
Sea of Galilee and the Jordan River, and then flattens to a gently sloping plateau. Dayan opposed the
operation bitterly at first, believing such an undertaking would result in losses of 30,000 and might trigger
Soviet intervention. Prime Minister Eshkol, on the other hand, was more open to the possibility, as was the
head of the Northern Command, David Elazar, whose unbridled enthusiasm for and confidence in the
operation may have eroded Dayan's reluctance.

Eventually, the situation on the Southern and Central fronts cleared up, intelligence estimated that the
likelihood of Soviet intervention had been reduced, reconnaissance showed some Syrian defences in the
Golan region collapsing, and an intercepted cable revealed that Nasser was urging the President of Syria to
immediately accept a cease-fire. At 3 am on 9 June, Syria announced its acceptance of the cease-fire.
Despite this announcement, Dayan became more enthusiastic about the idea and four hours later at 7 am,
"gave the order to go into action against Syria"[i][132] without consultation or government
authorisation.[133]

The Syrian army consisted of about 75,000 men grouped in nine brigades, supported by an adequate
amount of artillery and armour. Israeli forces used in combat consisted of two brigades (the 8th Armored
Brigade and the Golani Brigade) in the northern part of the front at Givat HaEm, and another two (infantry
and one of Peled's brigades summoned from Jenin) in the centre. The Golan Heights' unique terrain
(mountainous slopes crossed by parallel streams every several kilometres running east to west), and the
general lack of roads in the area channelled both forces along east–west axes of movement and restricted
the ability of units to support those on either flank. Thus the Syrians could move north–south on the plateau
itself, and the Israelis could move north–south at the base of the Golan escarpment. An advantage Israel
possessed was the excellent intelligence collected by Mossad operative Eli Cohen (who was captured and
executed in Syria in 1965) regarding the Syrian battle positions. Syria had built extensive defensive
fortifications in depths up to 15 kilometers,[134] comparable to the Maginot Line.

As opposed to all the other campaigns, IAF was only partially effective in the Golan because the fixed
fortifications were so effective. However, the Syrian forces proved unable to put up effective defence
largely because the officers were poor leaders and treated their soldiers badly; often officers would retreat
from danger, leaving their men confused and ineffective. The Israelis also had the upper hand during close
combat that took place in the numerous Syrian bunkers along the Golan Heights, as they were armed with
the Uzi, a submachine gun designed for close combat, while Syrian soldiers were armed with the heavier
AK-47 assault rifle, designed for combat in more open areas.

Israeli attack: first day (9 June)

On the morning of 9 June, Israeli jets began carrying out dozens of

sorties against Syrian positions from Mount Hermon to Tawfiq,
using rockets salvaged from captured Egyptian stocks. The
airstrikes knocked out artillery batteries and storehouses and forced
transport columns off the roads. The Syrians suffered heavy
casualties and a drop in morale, with a number of senior officers
and troops deserting. The attacks also provided time as Israeli
forces cleared paths through Syrian minefields. However, the
Israeli tanks advancing on the Golan
airstrikes did not seriously damage the Syrians' bunkers and trench
Heights. June 1967
systems, and the bulk of Syrian forces on the Golan remained in
their positions.[135]

About two hours after the airstrikes began, the 8th Armored Brigade, led by Colonel Albert Mandler,
advanced into the Golan Heights from Givat HaEm. Its advance was spearheaded by Engineering Corps
sappers and eight bulldozers, which cleared away barbed wire and mines. As they advanced, the force
came under fire, and five bulldozers were immediately hit. The Israeli tanks, with their manoeuvrability
sharply reduced by the terrain, advanced slowly under fire toward the fortified village of Sir al-Dib, with
their ultimate objective being the fortress at Qala. Israeli casualties steadily mounted. Part of the attacking
force lost its way and emerged opposite Za'ura, a redoubt manned by Syrian reservists. With the situation
critical, Colonel Mandler ordered simultaneous assaults on Za'ura and Qala. Heavy and confused fighting
followed, with Israeli and Syrian tanks struggling around obstacles and firing at extremely short ranges.
Mandler recalled that "the Syrians fought well and bloodied us. We beat them only by crushing them under
our treads and by blasting them with our cannons at very short range, from 100 to 500 meters." The first
three Israeli tanks to enter Qala were stopped by a Syrian bazooka team, and a relief column of seven
Syrian tanks arrived to repel the attackers. The Israelis took heavy fire from the houses, but could not turn
back, as other forces were advancing behind them, and they were on a narrow path with mines on either
side. The Israelis continued pressing forward and called for air support. A pair of Israeli jets destroyed two
of the Syrian tanks, and the remainder withdrew. The surviving defenders of Qala retreated after their
commander was killed. Meanwhile, Za'ura fell in an Israeli assault, and the Israelis also captured the 'Ein
Fit fortress.[136]

In the central sector, the Israeli 181st Battalion captured the strongholds of Dardara and Tel Hillal after
fierce fighting. Desperate fighting also broke out along the operation's northern axis, where Golani Brigade
attacked thirteen Syrian positions, including the formidable Tel Fakhr position. Navigational errors placed
the Israelis directly under the Syrians' guns. In the fighting that followed, both sides took heavy casualties,
with the Israelis losing all nineteen of their tanks and half-tracks.[137] The Israeli battalion commander then
ordered his twenty-five remaining men to dismount, divide into two groups, and charge the northern and
southern flanks of Tel Fakhr. The first Israelis to reach the perimeter of the southern approach laid on the
barbed wire, allowing their comrades to vault over them. From there, they assaulted the fortified Syrian
positions. The fighting was waged at extremely close quarters, often hand-to-hand.[137]

On the northern flank, the Israelis broke through within minutes and cleared out the trenches and bunkers.
During the seven-hour battle, the Israelis lost 31 dead and 82 wounded, while the Syrians lost 62 dead and
20 captured. Among the dead was the Israeli battalion commander. The Golani Brigade's 51st Battalion
took Tel 'Azzaziat, and Darbashiya also fell to Israeli forces.[137]

By the evening of 9 June, the four Israeli brigades had all broken
through to the plateau, where they could be reinforced and
replaced. Thousands of reinforcements began reaching the front,
those tanks and half-tracks that had survived the previous day's
fighting were refuelled and replenished with ammunition, and the
wounded were evacuated. By dawn, the Israelis had eight brigades
in the sector.

Syria's first line of defence had been shattered, but the defences
beyond that remained largely intact. Mount Hermon and the Play media
Banias in the north, and the entire sector between Tawfiq and Universal Newsreel from 9 June
Customs House Road in the south remained in Syrian hands. In a about the war and UN reactions.
meeting early on the night of 9 June, Syrian leaders decided to
reinforce those positions as quickly as possible and to maintain a
steady barrage on Israeli civilian settlements.

Israeli attack: the next day (10 June)

Throughout the night, the Israelis continued their advance. Though it was slowed by fierce resistance, an
anticipated Syrian counterattack never materialized. At the fortified village of Jalabina, a garrison of Syrian
reservists, levelling their anti-aircraft guns, held off the Israeli 65th Paratroop Battalion for four hours before
a small detachment managed to penetrate the village and knock out the heavy guns.

Meanwhile, the 8th Brigade's tanks moved south from Qala, advancing six miles to Wasit under heavy
artillery and tank bombardment. At the Banias in the north, Syrian mortar batteries opened fire on
advancing Israeli forces only after Golani Brigade sappers cleared a path through a minefield, killing
sixteen Israeli soldiers and wounding four.

On the next day, 10 June, the central and northern groups joined in a pincer movement on the plateau, but
that fell mainly on empty territory as the Syrian forces retreated. At 8:30 am, the Syrians began blowing up
their own bunkers, burning documents and retreating. Several units joined by Elad Peled's troops climbed
to the Golan from the south, only to find the positions mostly empty. When the 8th Brigade reached
Mansura, five miles from Wasit, the Israelis met no opposition and found abandoned equipment, including
tanks, in perfect working condition. In the fortified Banias village, Golani Brigade troops found only
several Syrian soldiers chained to their positions.[138]

During the day, the Israeli units stopped after obtaining manoeuvre room between their positions and a line
of volcanic hills to the west. In some locations, Israeli troops advanced after an agreed-upon cease-fire[139]
to occupy strategically strong positions.[140] To the east, the ground terrain is an open gently sloping plain.
This position later became the cease-fire line known as the "Purple Line".

Time magazine reported: "In an effort to pressure the United Nations into enforcing a ceasefire, Damascus
Radio undercut its own army by broadcasting the fall of the city of Quneitra three hours before it actually
capitulated. That premature report of the surrender of their headquarters destroyed the morale of the Syrian
troops left in the Golan area."[141]

Conclusion
By 10 June, Israel had completed its
A week ago, the fateful campaign began. The existence of the
final offensive in the Golan Heights, State of Israel hung in the balance, the hopes of generations,
and a ceasefire was signed the day
and the vision that was realised in our own time... During the
after. Israel had seized the Gaza fighting, our forces destroyed about 450 enemy planes and
Strip, the Sinai Peninsula, the West hundreds of tanks. The enemy forces were decisively defeated
Bank of the Jordan River (including
in battles. Many fled for their lives or were captured. For the
East Jerusalem), and the Golan first time since the establishment of the state, the threat to our
Heights.[143] About one million security has been removed at once from the Sinai Peninsula,
Arabs were placed under Israel's the Gaza Strip, Jerusalem, the West Bank and the northern
direct control in the newly captured border.
territories. Israel's strategic depth
grew to at least 300 kilometres in the
south, 60 kilometres in the east, and – Levi Eshkol, 12 June 1967 (Address to Israeli
20 kilometres of extremely rugged Parliament)[142]
terrain in the north, a security asset
that would prove useful in the Yom
Kippur War six years later.

Speaking three weeks after the war ended, as he accepted an

honorary degree from Hebrew University, Yitzhak Rabin gave his
reasoning behind the success of Israel:

Our airmen, who struck the enemies' planes so

accurately that no one in the world understands how it
was done and people seek technological
explanations or secret weapons; our armoured troops
who beat the enemy even when their equipment was Play media
inferior to his; our soldiers in all other branches … Universal Newsreel from 13 June
who overcame our enemies everywhere, despite the about the war
latter's superior numbers and fortifications—all these
revealed not only coolness and courage in the battle
but … an understanding that only their personal stand against the greatest dangers would
achieve victory for their country and for their families, and that if victory was not theirs the
alternative was annihilation.[144]

In recognition of contributions, Rabin was given the honour of naming the war for the Israelis. From the
suggestions proposed, including the "War of Daring", "War of Salvation", and "War of the Sons of Light",
he "chose the least ostentatious, the Six-Day War, evoking the days of creation".[145]

Dayan's final report on the war to the Israeli general staff listed several shortcomings in Israel's actions,
including misinterpretation of Nasser's intentions, overdependence on the United States, and reluctance to
act when Egypt closed the Straits. He also credited several factors for Israel's success: Egypt did not
appreciate the advantage of striking first and their adversaries did not accurately gauge Israel's strength and
its willingness to use it.[145]

In Egypt, according to Heikal, Nasser had admitted his responsibility for the military defeat in June
1967.[146] According to historian Abd al-Azim Ramadan, Nasser's mistaken decisions to expel the
international peacekeeping force from the Sinai Peninsula and close the Straits of Tiran in 1967 led to a
state of war with Israel, despite Egypt's lack of military preparedness.[147]
After the 1973 Yom Kippur War, Egypt reviewed the causes of its loss of the 1967 war. Issues that were
identified included "the individualistic bureaucratic leadership"; "promotions on the basis of loyalty, not
expertise, and the army's fear of telling Nasser the truth"; lack of intelligence; and better Israeli weapons,
command, organization, and will to fight.[145]

Casualties

Between 776[9] and 983 Israelis were killed and 4,517 were wounded. Fifteen Israeli soldiers were
captured. Arab casualties were far greater. Between 9,800[12] and 15,000[13] Egyptian soldiers were listed
as killed or missing in action. An additional 4,338 Egyptian soldiers were captured.[14] Jordanian losses are
estimated to be 700 killed in action with another 2,500 wounded.[10][15] The Syrians were estimated to
have sustained between 1,000[148] and 2,500[18][20] killed in action. Between 367[14] and 591[19] Syrians
were captured.

Controversies

Preemptive strike v. unjustified attack

At the commencement of hostilities, both Egypt and Israel announced that they had been attacked by the
other country.[72] The Israeli government later abandoned its initial position, acknowledging Israel had
struck first, claiming that it was a preemptive strike in the face of a planned invasion by Egypt.[72][28] On
the other hand, the Arab view was that it was unjustified to attack Egypt.[149][150] Many commentators
consider the war as the classic case of anticipatory attack in self-defense.[151][152]

Allegations of atrocities committed against Egyptian soldiers

It has been alleged that Nasser did not want Egypt to learn of the true extent of his defeat and so ordered
the killing of Egyptian army stragglers making their way back to the Suez canal zone.[153] There have also
been allegations from both Israeli and Egyptian sources that Israeli troops killed unarmed Egyptian
prisoners.[154][155][156][157][158][159][160]

Allegations of military support from the US, UK and Soviet Union

There have been a number of allegations of direct military support of Israel during the war by the US and
the UK, including the supply of equipment (despite an embargo) and the participation of US forces in the
conflict.[161][162][163][164][165] Many of these allegations and conspiracy theories[166] have been disputed
and it has been claimed that some were given currency in the Arab world to explain the Arab defeat.[167] It
has also been claimed that the Soviet Union, in support of its Arab allies, used its naval strength in the
Mediterranean to act as a major restraint on the US Navy.[168][169]

America features prominently in Arab conspiracy theories purporting to explain the June 1967 defeat.
Mohamed Hassanein Heikal, a confidant of Nasser, claims that President Lyndon B. Johnson was obsessed
with Nasser and that Johnson conspired with Israel to bring him down.[170] The reported Israeli troop
movements seemed all the more threatening because they were perceived in the context of a US conspiracy
against Egypt. Salah Bassiouny of the Foreign Ministry, claims that Foreign Ministry saw the reported
Israeli troop movements as credible because Israel had reached the level at which it could find strategic
alliance with the United States.[171] During the war, Cairo announced that American and British planes
were participating in the Israeli attack. Nasser broke off diplomatic relations following this allegation.
Nasser's image of the United States was such that he might well have believed the worst. However Anwar
Sadat implied that Nasser used this deliberate conspiracy in order to accuse the United States as a political
cover-up for domestic consumption.[172] Lutfi Abd al-Qadir, the director of Radio Cairo during the late
1960s, who accompanied Nasser to his visits in Moscow, had his conspiracy theory that both the Soviets
and the Western powers wanted to topple Nasser or to reduce his influence.[173]

USS Liberty incident

On 8 June 1967, USS Liberty, a United States Navy electronic intelligence vessel sailing 13 nautical miles
(24 km) off Arish (just outside Egypt's territorial waters), was attacked by Israeli jets and torpedo boats,
nearly sinking the ship, killing 34 sailors and wounding 171. Israel said the attack was a case of mistaken
identity, and that the ship had been misidentified as the Egyptian vessel El Quseir. Israel apologized for the
mistake and paid compensation to the victims or their families, and to the United States for damage to the
ship. After an investigation, the U.S. accepted the explanation that the incident was friendly fire and the
issue was closed by the exchange of diplomatic notes in 1987. Others however, including the then United
States Secretary of State Dean Rusk, Chief of Naval Operations at the time, Admiral Thomas Moorer,
some survivors of the attack and intelligence officials familiar with transcripts of intercepted signals on the
day, have rejected these conclusions as unsatisfactory and maintain that the attack was made in the
knowledge that the ship was American.[174][175][176]

Aftermath
The political importance of the 1967 War was immense. Israel demonstrated again that it was able and
willing to initiate strategic strikes that could change the regional balance. Egypt and Syria learned tactical
lessons and would launch an attack in 1973 in an attempt to reclaim their lost territory.[177]

After following other Arab nations in declaring war, Mauritania remained in a declared state of war with
Israel until about 1999.[178] The United States imposed an embargo on new arms agreements to all Middle
East countries, including Israel. The embargo remained in force until the end of the year, despite urgent
Israeli requests to lift it.[179]

Israel and Zionism

Following the war, Israel experienced a wave of national euphoria, and the press praised the military's
performance for weeks afterwards. New "victory coins" were minted to celebrate. In addition, the world's
interest in Israel grew, and the country's economy, which had been in crisis before the war, flourished due
to an influx of tourists and donations, as well as the extraction of oil from the Sinai's wells.[180] The
aftermath of the war also saw a baby boom, which lasted for four years.[181]

The aftermath of the war is also of religious significance. Under Jordanian rule, Jews were expelled from
Jerusalem and were effectively barred from visiting the Western Wall, despite Article VIII of the 1949
Armistice Agreement demanded Israeli Jewish access to the Western Wall.[182][183] Jewish holy sites were
not maintained, and Jewish cemeteries had been desecrated. After the annexation to Israel, each religious
group was granted administration over its holy sites. For the first time since 1948, Jews could visit the Old
City of Jerusalem and pray at the Western Wall, the holiest site where Jews are permitted to pray, an event
celebrated every year during Yom Yerushalayim.[184] Despite the Temple Mount being the most important
holy site in Jewish tradition, the al-Aqsa Mosque has been under sole administration of the Jordanian
Muslim Waqf, and Jews are barred from praying on the Temple Mount, although they are allowed to visit
it.[185][186] In Hebron, Jews gained access to the Cave of the Patriarchs – the second-most holy site in
Judaism, after the Temple Mount – for the first time since the 14th century (previously Jews were allowed
to pray only at the entrance).[187] Other Jewish holy sites, such as Rachel's Tomb in Bethlehem and
Joseph's Tomb in Nablus, also became accessible.[188][189]

The war inspired the Jewish diaspora, which was swept up in overwhelming support for Israel. According
to Michael Oren, the war enabled American Jews to "walk with their backs straight and flex their political
muscle as never before. American Jewish organizations which had previously kept Israel at arms length
suddenly proclaimed their Zionism."[190] Thousands of Jewish immigrants arrived from Western countries
such as the United States, United Kingdom, Canada, France, and South Africa after the war. Many of them
returned to their countries of origin after a few years; one survey found that 58% of American Jews who
immigrated to Israel between 1961 and 1972 returned to the US. Nevertheless, immigration to Israel of
Jews from Western countries, which was previously only a trickle, was a significant force for the first
time.[191][192] Most notably, the war stirred Zionist passions among Jews in the Soviet Union, who had by
that time been forcibly assimilated. Many Soviet Jews subsequently applied for exit visas and began
protesting for their right to immigrate to Israel. Following diplomatic pressure from the West, the Soviet
government began granting exit visas to Jews in growing numbers. From 1970 to 1988, some 291,000
Soviet Jews were granted exit visas, of whom 165,000 immigrated to Israel and 126,000 immigrated to the
United States.[193] The great rise in Jewish pride in the wake of Israel's victory also fueled the beginnings
of the baal teshuva movement.[194][195][196] The war gave impetus to a Chabad campaign in which the
Lubavitcher Rebbe directed his followers to put tefillin on Jewish men around world.[197][198]

Jews in Arab countries

In the Arab nations, populations of minority Jews faced persecution and expulsion following the Israeli
victory, contributing to the ongoing Jewish exodus from Arab lands, which had been ongoing since 1948.
As a result, Jewish populations in Arab countries further diminished as many Jews emigrated to Israel and
other Western countries. According to historian and ambassador Michael Oren:[199]

Mobs attacked Jewish neighbourhoods in Egypt, Yemen, Lebanon, Tunisia, and Morocco,
burning synagogues and assaulting residents. A pogrom in Tripoli, Libya, left 18 Jews dead
and 25 injured; the survivors were herded into detention centres. Of Egypt's 4,000 Jews, 800
were arrested, including the chief rabbis of both Cairo and Alexandria, and their property
sequestered by the government. The ancient communities of Damascus and Baghdad were
placed under house arrest, their leaders imprisoned and fined. A total of 7,000 Jews were
expelled, many with merely a satchel.

Antisemitism against Jews in Communist countries

Following the war, a series of antisemitic purges began in Communist countries.[200][201] Some 11,200
Jews from Poland immigrated to Israel during the 1968 Polish political crisis and the following year.[202]

War of Attrition

Following the war, Egypt initiated clashes along the Suez Canal in what became known as the War of
Attrition.[203]

Palestinian terrorism
Due to Israel's defeat of Arab armies, the Palestinian leadership came to the conclusion that the Arab world
was unable to challenge Israel militarily in open warfare. Simultaneously, the Palestinians drew lessons
from movements and uprisings in Latin America, North Africa and Southeast Asia which led them to move
away from guerilla warfare in rural areas towards terrorist attacks in urban environments with an
international reach. This led to a series of aircraft hijackings, bombings and kidnappings which culminated
in the killings of Israeli athletes during the 1972 Munich Olympic Games.[204]

Peace and diplomacy

Following the war, Israel made an offer for peace that included the return of most of the recently captured
territories. According to Chaim Herzog:

On June 19, 1967, the National Unity Government [of Israel] voted unanimously to return the
Sinai to Egypt and the Golan Heights to Syria in return for peace agreements. The Golans
would have to be demilitarized and special arrangement would be negotiated for the Straits of
Tiran. The government also resolved to open negotiations with King Hussein of Jordan
regarding the Eastern border.[205]

The 19 June Israeli cabinet decision did not include the Gaza Strip and left open the possibility of Israel
permanently acquiring parts of the West Bank. On 25–27 June, Israel incorporated East Jerusalem together
with areas of the West Bank to the north and south into Jerusalem's new municipal boundaries.

The Israeli decision was to be conveyed to the Arab nations by the United States. The U.S. was informed
of the decision, but not that it was to transmit it. There is no evidence of receipt from Egypt or Syria, and
some historians claim that they may never have received the offer.[206]

In September, the Khartoum Arab Summit resolved that there would be "no peace, no recognition and no
negotiation with Israel". However, as Avraham Sela notes, the Khartoum conference effectively marked a
shift in the perception of the conflict by the Arab states away from one centred on the question of Israel's
legitimacy, toward one focusing on territories and boundaries. This was shown on 22 November when
Egypt and Jordan accepted United Nations Security Council Resolution 242.[207] Nasser forestalled any
movement toward direct negotiations with Israel. In dozens of speeches and statements, Nasser posited the
equation that any direct peace talks with Israel were tantamount to surrender.[208]

After the war, the entire Soviet bloc of Eastern Europe (with the exception of Romania) broke off
diplomatic relations with Israel.[209]

The 1967 War laid the foundation for future discord in the region, as the Arab states resented Israel's
victory and did not want to give up territory.

On 22 November 1967, the United Nations Security Council adopted Resolution 242, the "land for peace"
formula, which called for Israeli withdrawal "from territories occupied" in 1967 and "the termination of all
claims or states of belligerency". Resolution 242 recognized the right of "every state in the area to live in
peace within secure and recognized boundaries free from threats or acts of force." Israel returned the Sinai
to Egypt in 1978, after the Camp David Accords. In the summer of 2005, Israel withdrew all military forces
and evacuated all civilians from the Gaza Strip. Its army frequently re-enters Gaza for military operations
and still retains control of the seaports, airports and most of the border crossings.

Occupied territories and Arab displaced populations

There was extensive displacement of populations in the occupied territories: of about one million
Palestinians in the West Bank and Gaza, 280,000 to 325,000 were displaced from their homes.[31] Most of
them settled in Jordan,[210] where they contributed to the growing unrest. The other 700,000[211] remained.
In the Golan Heights, over 100,000 fled.[32] Israel allowed only the inhabitants of East Jerusalem and the
Golan Heights to receive full Israeli citizenship, applying its law, administration and jurisdiction to these
territories in 1967 and 1981, respectively. The vast majority of the populations in both territories declined to
take citizenship. See also Israeli–Palestinian conflict and Golan Heights.

In his book Righteous Victims (1999), Israeli "New Historian" Benny Morris writes:

In three villages southwest of Jerusalem and at Qalqilya, houses were destroyed "not in battle,
but as punishment ... and in order to chase away the inhabitants ... contrary to government ...
policy," Dayan wrote in his memoirs. In Qalqilya, about a third of the homes were razed and
about 12,000 inhabitants were evicted, though many then camped out in the environs. The
evictees in both areas were allowed to stay and later were given cement and tools by the Israeli
authorities to rebuild at least some of their dwellings.

But many thousands of other Palestinians now took to the roads. Perhaps as many as seventy
thousand, mostly from the Jericho area, fled during the fighting; tens of thousands more left
over the following months. Altogether, about one-quarter of the population of the West Bank,
about 200–250,000 people, went into exile. ... They simply walked to the Jordan River
crossings and made their way on foot to the East Bank. It is unclear how many were
intimidated or forced out by the Israeli troops and how many left voluntarily, in panic and fear.
There is some evidence of IDF soldiers going around with loudspeakers ordering West
Bankers to leave their homes and cross the Jordan. Some left because they had relatives or
sources of livelihood on the East Bank and feared being permanently cut off.

Thousands of Arabs were taken by bus from East Jerusalem to the Allenby Bridge, though
there is no evidence of coercion. The free Israeli-organized transportation, which began on
June 11, 1967, went on for about a month. At the bridge, they had to sign a document stating
that they were leaving of their own free will. Perhaps as many as 70,000 people emigrated
from the Gaza Strip to Egypt and elsewhere in the Arab world.

On July 2, the Israeli government announced that it would allow the return of those 1967
refugees who desired to do so, but no later than August 10, later extended to September 13.
The Jordanian authorities probably pressured many of the refugees, who constituted an
enormous burden, to sign up to return. In practice only 14,000 of the 120,000 who applied
were allowed by Israel back into the West Bank by the beginning of September. After that,
only a trickle of "special cases" were allowed back, perhaps 3,000 in all. (328–29)

In addition, between 80,000 and 110,000 Syrians fled the Golan Heights,[212] of which about 20,000 were
from the city of Quneitra.[213] According to more recent research by the Israeli daily Haaretz, a total of
130,000 Syrian inhabitants fled or were expelled from the territory, most of them pushed out by the Israeli
army.[214]

Long term

Israel made peace with Egypt following the Camp David Accords of 1978 and completed a staged
withdrawal from the Sinai in 1982. However, the position of the other occupied territories has been a long-
standing and bitter cause of conflict for decades between Israel and the Palestinians, and the Arab world in
general. Jordan and Egypt eventually withdrew their claims to sovereignty over the West Bank and Gaza,
respectively. Israel and Jordan signed a peace treaty in 1994.

After the Israeli occupation of these territories, the Gush Emunim movement launched a large settlement
effort in these areas to secure a permanent foothold. There are now hundreds of thousands of Israeli settlers
in the West Bank. They are a matter of controversy within Israel, both among the general population and
within different political administrations, supporting them to varying degrees. Palestinians consider them a
provocation. The Israeli settlements in Gaza were evacuated in August 2005 as a part of Israel's
disengagement from Gaza.

See also
Abba Eban, Israeli Foreign Minister
Hafez al-Assad, Syrian Defense Minister
Catch 67, a 2017 Israeli philosophy book on the West Bank occupation that launched a
public dialogue on the war's 50th anniversary
Israeli MIAs
Leonid Brezhnev, Soviet leader
List of modern conflicts in the Middle East
Robert McNamara, U.S. Defense Secretary
Syrian towns and villages depopulated in the Arab–Israeli conflict
U Thant, Secretary General of the United Nations

Notes
1. ^ Photograph:

It was twenty minutes after the capture of the Western Wall that David Rubinger shot his
"signature" photograph of three Israeli paratroopers gazing in wonder up at the wall
[Kaniuk, Yoram. "June 10, 1967 – Israeli paratroopers reach the Western Wall" (http://www.
digitaljournalist.org/issue0003/arm01.htm). The Digital Journalist. Retrieved 2 December
2008.]. As part of the terms for his access to the front lines, Rubinger handed the negatives
to the Israeli government, who then distributed this image widely. Although he was
displeased with the violation of his copyright, the widespread use of his photo made it
famous [Silver, Eric (16 February 2006). "David Rubinger in the picture" (http://www.thejc.c
om/arts/arts-interviews/david-rubinger-picture). The Jewish Chronicle. Retrieved 17 July
2010.], and it is now considered a defining image of the conflict and one of the best-known
in the history of Israel [Urquhart, Conal (6 May 2007). "Six days in June" (https://www.theg
uardian.com/world/2007/may/06/israelandthepalestinians.features1). The Observer.
Retrieved 2 December 2008.]

3.^ Both Egypt and Israel announced that they had been attacked by the other country.

1. Gideon Rafael [Israeli Ambassador to the UN] received a message from the Israeli foreign
office: "Inform immediately the President of the Sec. Co. that Israel is now engaged in
repelling Egyptian land and air forces." At 3:10 am, Rafael woke ambassador Hans Tabor,
the Danish President of the Security Council for June, with the news that Egyptian forces
had "moved against Israel". Bailey 1990, p. 225.
2. [At Security Council meeting of 5 June], both Israel and Egypt claimed to be repelling an
invasion by the other. Bailey 1990, p. 225.
 3. "Egyptian sources claimed that Israel had initiated hostilities [...] but Israeli officials – Eban
and Evron – swore that Egypt had fired first" Oren 2002, p. 196.
4. "Gideon Rafael phoned Danish ambassador Hans Tabor, Security Council president for the
month of June, and informed him that Israel was responding to a 'cowardly and treacherous'
attack from Egypt..." Oren, p. 198.

4. ^ Lenczowski 1990, pp. 105–15, Citing Moshe Dayan, Story of My Life, and Nadav Safran, From War
to War: The Arab–Israeli Confrontation, 1948–1967, p. 375

Israel clearly did not want the US government to know too much about its dispositions for
attacking Syria, initially planned for June 8, but postponed for 24 hours. It should be pointed
out that the attack on the Liberty occurred on June 8, whereas on June 9 at 3 am, Syria
announced its acceptance of the cease-fire. Despite this, at 7 am, that is, four hours later,
Israel's minister of defense, Moshe Dayan, "gave the order to go into action against Syria.

a. Shlaim writes: “To understand Hussein’s conduct during the June 1967 War it is essential to
recall that he had handed over command of his army to Egypt under the terms of his pact
with Nasser. On 1 June, General Riad arrived in Amman and assumed command of the
Jordanian armed forces.”[99]
b. On the initial Jordanian attack, Shlaim writes: “The cable was from First Vice-President and
Deputy Supreme Commander Field Marshal Abd al-Hakim Amer. Amer was a nincompoop
who largely owed his rapid promotion to his friendship with Nasser... He was inexperienced
in military affairs, impulsive, and prone to wishful thinking... Amer’s cable to Riad was a pack
of lies... On the basis of these alleged successes, Amer ordered Riad to open a new front
against the enemy and launch offensive operations. By the time Hussein arrived at the
headquarters, Riad had already given the orders for the artillery to move to the front lines
and bombard Israeli airbases and other targets; an infantry brigade to occupy the Israeli
enclave on Mount Scopus in Jerusalem; the two Egyptian commando battalions to infiltrate
enemy territory from the West Bank at dusk; and the air force to be put on combat alert and
commence airstrikes immediately. Although these decisions were made in his absence,
Hussein made no attempt to cancel them or to delay the opening of fire until the information
from Cairo could be checked. Jordan was thus committed to war by the decision of an
Egyptian general who was acting on the orders of a serial blunderer in Cairo.”[101]

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the 1967 Arab-Israeli war were filled with military purges associated with actual and
attempted coups that decimated and further fractured the military and party, resulting in an
inexperienced officer corps as well as a deep distrust between the rank and file and officers
in the army. In addition, there were uprisings by discontented elements of the Syrian
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normal practice of the U.N. to pass on threats from one government to another." However, as
"…this message seemed so important… we quickly sent it…and King Hussein received the
message before 10:30 the same morning.""
104. Shlaim (2000). The Iron Wall: Israel and the Arab World. pp. 243–244. "In May–June 1967
Eshkol's government did everything in its power to confine the confrontation to the Egyptian
front. Eshkol and his colleagues took into account the possibility of some fighting on the
Syrian front. But they wanted to avoid having a clash with Jordan and the inevitable
complications of having to deal with the predominantly Palestinian population of the West
Bank. The fighting on the eastern front was initiated by Jordan, not by Israel. King Hussein
got carried along by a powerful current of Arab nationalism. On 30 May he flew to Cairo and
signed a defense pact with Nasser. On 5 June, Jordan started shelling the Israeli side in
Jerusalem. This could have been interpreted either as a salvo to uphold Jordanian honour
or as a declaration of war. Eshkol decided to give King Hussein the benefit of the doubt.
Through General Odd Bull, the Norwegian commander of UNTSO, he sent the following
message the morning of 5 June: "We shall not initiate any action whatsoever against Jordan.
However, should Jordan open hostilities, we shall react with all our might, and the king will
have to bear the full responsibility of the consequences." King Hussein told General Bull that
it was too late; the die was cast."
105. Oren, pp. 185–87
106. Shlaim, 2001, p. 244.
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114. Oren, p. 222
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on 6 June], the Jordanians were informed that the UN Security Council was meeting to
consider a resolution for an unconditional ceasefire. On learning of this the Jordanian
command decided that the order for withdrawal had been premature, since if a ceasefire
went into effect that day they would still be in possession of the West Bank. Consequently,
the order was countermanded and those forces which had already withdrawn were asked to
return to their original positions... The Security Council ceasefire resolution was passed
unanimously at 11.00 p.m. on 6 June. However, Jordan's hope that this would enable it to
hold the West Bank was destroyed when Israel continued its offensive. On learning of this
Riad once again ordered a complete withdrawal from the West Bank as he feared that failure
to do so would result in the annihilation of the remains of the Jordanian Army. By nightfall on
7 June most elements of the army had withdrawn to the East Bank and by mid-day on 8
June Jordan was once again the Transjordan of King Abdullah, while Israel completed total
occupation of historical Palestine."
126. Shlaim 2001, p. 246.
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the Syrians were confused by what they slowly learned was the scale of the destruction on
the Egyptian front. They were astounded. They did not understand what was going on, nor
did they have the military experience and capability, especially in the officer corps, to react to
the new situation. With no air support, how could they move forward against Israel? They
reasoned that if they sat tight, they could emerge from this with little damage."
128. Mutawi 2002, p. 182: "When it came to war, Syria stood aside despite its defence pact with
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Further reading
al-Qusi, Abdallah Ahmad Hamid. (1999). Al-Wisam fi at-Ta'rikh. Cairo: Al-Mu'asasa al-
'Arabiya al-Haditha. No ISBN available.
Aloni, Shlomo (2001). Arab–Israeli Air Wars 1947–1982. Osprey Aviation. ISBN 978-1-
84176-294-4
Alteras, Isaac. (1993). Eisenhower and Israel: U.S.–Israeli Relations, 1953–1960 (https://boo
ks.google.com/books?id=ydRHCPWngioC&pg=PA246&dq=&ei=5TIBSaGOBI6UMajtqKcL
&client=), University Press of Florida. ISBN 978-0-8130-1205-6.
Bailey, Sydney (1990). Four Arab–Israeli Wars and the Peace Process. London: The
MacMillan Press. ISBN 978-0-312-04649-1.
Bar-On, Mordechai; Morris, Benny & Golani, Motti (2002). "Reassessing Israel's Road to
Sinai/Suez, 1956: A "Trialogue"". In Gary A. Olson (ed.), Traditions and Transitions in Israel
Studies: Books on Israel, Volume VI (pp. 3–42). SUNY Press. ISBN 978-0-7914-5585-2
Bar-On, Mordechai (2006). Never-Ending Conflict: Israeli Military History, ISBN 978-0-275-
98158-7
Bard, Mitchell G. (2002, 2008). The Complete Idiot's Guide to Middle East Conflict. NY:
Alpha Books. ISBN 978-0-02-864410-3. 4th Edition ISBN 978-1-59257-791-0. Chapter 14,
"Six Days to Victory" is reproduced online as The 1967 Six-Day War (https://www.jewishvirt
uallibrary.org/jsource/History/67_War.html). at the Jewish Virtual Library of the American-
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External links
The Photograph: A Search for June 1967 (http://www.azure.org.il/article.php?id=456).
Retrieved 17 July 2010.
The three soldiers – background to that photograph (http://www.sixdaywar.co.uk/news_articl
es-three-soldiers.htm)
Six Day War Personal recollections & Timeline (http://www.sixdaywar.co.uk/)
Video Clip: Sandhurst military historian analysing how King Hussein became involved in the
Six Day War. (https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=C4Ooaqtk-Cg) on YouTube
Video Clip: Analysis of Israel's Sinai Campaign in 1967 by Sandhurst military historian. (http
s://www.youtube.com/watch?v=OnsMfKmaizE) on YouTube
Video Clip: Military analysis of the attack on Jerusalem and the Jordanian defence. (https://w
ww.youtube.com/watch?v=OnsMfKmaizE) on YouTube
Six-Day War (http://i-cias.com/e.o/sixdaywr.htm) Encyclopaedia of the Orient
All State Department documents related to the crisis (https://history.state.gov/historicaldocum
ents/frus1964-68v19)
Letters from David Ben-Gurion on the Six-Day War (http://www.shapell.org/manuscript.aspx?
169472) Shapell Manuscript Foundation
UN Resolution 242 (https://web.archive.org/web/20151018141352/http://unispal.un.org/UNI
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w=article&id=110:the-status-of-jerusalem-legal-aspects&catid=115:the-status-of-jerusalem-l
egal-aspects). Retrieved 22 July 2014.
Legal Aspects The Six Day War – June 1967 and Its Aftermath – Professor Gerald Adler (htt
p://www.sixdaywar.co.uk/6_day_war_aftermath_prof_adler_intro.htm)
General Uzi Narkiss (http://www.isracast.com/narkiss.asx) – A historic radio interview with
General Uzi Narkiss taken on 7 June – one day after the Six-Day War, describing the battle
for Jerusalem
Liberation of the Temple Mount and Western Wall by Israel Defense Forces (https://web.arch
ive.org/web/20160201184820/https://www.isracast.com/article.aspx?id=374) – Historic Live
Broadcast on Voice of Israel Radio, 7 June 1967
How The USSR Planned To Destroy Israel in 1967 (http://imra.org.il/story.php3?id=18226)
by Isabella Ginor. Published by Middle East Review of International Affairs (MERIA) Journal
Volume 7, Number 3 (September 2003)
Position of Arab forces May 1967 (http://jafi.org/NR/exeres/4B21CC9B-BCD1-43FA-82F5-4
355BE6EED30). Retrieved 22 July 2014.

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