2.

1 RFID Technology:
2.1.1 Introduction:

RFID uses radio waves to wirelessly transmit the identity (a unique serial number)
and other information of an object that a RFID tag is affiliated. RFID has
substantially increased productivity and efficiency of its associated business [5].
As intelligent RFID technology continues to develop, in conjunction with
intelligent sensor technologies, RFID has been becoming one of the core
technologies of Internet of Thing (IoT) [6].
Research and developments of RFID has been rapid, however, challenges remain,
particularly in the development of standards, security compliance and privacy
concerns [7]. The implementation of RFID requires diligent assessment of the
need for RFID solutions in particular organizations. Therefore, it is important to
explore and review this technology in order to maximize its potential benefits and
reduce the risk of its implementation later on. Due to the complexity of most
indoor environments, Smartphones as RFID readers have been implemented for
both the iPhone and Android phones [8].

2.1.2 History of RFID development:

RFID was invented during the World War II and was first used by Britain to
identify and track aircraft using radar. It was during the 1960s that RFID was first
considered for the commercial world, RFID products started to be available in
1980s and its wide spread usage was only in recent years. Earlier RFID
applications were mainly applied to identifying assets in a single location. In
1998, researchers at the Massachusetts Institute of Technology (MIT) Auto-ID
Center began to investigate new ways to track and identify objects while they
were moving between different locations, which is generally considered as the
third era of RFID [6]. Since 2000, RFID has experienced a rapid evolution and
broad implementation throughout the economy. It has become a worldwide and
rapid-evolving technology, which has been combined with other emerging
technologies worldwide. Today, there are a variety of technical solutions, some
being simple and common, while others are complex and expensive but offer
better functionality and performance.

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2.1.3 RFID Architecture:

The architecture is a function of an incorporation/integration of already existing

infrastructures of different organizations, as long as they attain a reasonable level
of security, interoperability, management scalability, extensibility and a host of
others. This anywhere component of the architecture is a middleware/edge ware
platform.
There is also the hardware area where we have the devices, in the lower hardware
layer we have the RFID readers that read the RFID tags. The reading data is
transferred to the edge ware layer, which can then be implemented on a server in
a warehouse. The vital data for a higher layer is sent to the middleware installed
in the data center. The middleware plays the role of a bridge to business
applications in the back end.
2.1.4 Main components of a RFID system:

A typical RFID system is composed of one or more tags, one or more readers and
a server/host computer.

2.1.4.1 RFID Tags:

RFID tags can be classified into three types: passive, active and semi-passive (also
known as battery-assisted passive (BAP)) . A typical RFID tag consists of a
microchip attached to a radio antenna mounted on a substrate. The microchip can
store data from 26 bits to 128 kilobytes [9].
Although both active and passive tags use RF energy to communicate with a
reader, they are fundamentally different in the method of powering the tags.
An active tag uses an internal power source, usually batteries, within the tag to
continuously power the tag and its RF communication circuits, whereas a passive
tag completely relies on RF energy transferred from the reader. This distinction
may have significant impact on the functionality of the system [10],[11].
Semi-passive tags overcome two key disadvantages of pure passive RFID tags,
one is the lack of a continuous source of power for the circuits and the other is the
short reading range.

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 Figure 2.1 Some samples of active and passive RFID tags.

There are two basic types of chips available for RFID tags: read-only and read-
write. Read-only tags are cheaper and their required infrastructure is also less
expensive, they still deliver on one of the main promises of RFID, which is the
reduction of operator involvement.
The size of RFID tags varies largely with the purpose of applications.

2.1.4.2 RFID Readers

An RFID reader reads data from RFID tags and it acts as a conduit or bridge
between RFID tags and the controller or middleware. The most important feature
of a reader is its reading range, which can be affected by a number of factors such
as the frequency(decreasing with reading range), the antenna gain(increasing with
reading range), the orientation and polarization of the reader antenna, the
transponder antenna and the placement.

2.1.4.3 Host Computer, Middleware and Other Accessories:

The host computer can be a desktop or a laptop, positioned close to the readers. It
receives data from the readers and performs data processing such as filtering and
collation. It also serves as a device monitor for ensuring that the reader is
functioning properly, securely and with up-to-date instructions. The host
computer and the readers communicate with each other often via the WebSocket
Protocol [5].
RFID middleware is the software that facilitates communication between RFID
readers and enterprise systems. It also collects, filters, aggregates and applies

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business rules on data received from the readers. Middleware is also responsible
for providing management and monitoring functionality, ensuring that the readers
are connected, functioning properly, and being configured correctly. Middleware
may be implemented on a host computer, a centralized server or on intelligent
readers [15], [16].

2.1.5 principle of RFID technology :

The reader and the host computer communicate through either a wired or wireless
link, figure 2.3 shows the work principles of a typical passive RFID system
[4],[17], [18], [19]. The power source of a passive tag is provided by the reader.
When a radio signal is sent from a reader and the tag enters the signal field of the
reader, the tag will be powered on by the signal. The reader then captures the ID
and data from the tag and sends this information to the host computer. The
computer, with RFID middleware installed on, processes the data and sends it
back to the reader; the reader then transmits the processed data to the tag. Passive
RFID systems are normally used for applications in shorter reading ranges.

Figure 2.3 A typical passive RFID system

The principles of an active RFID system are slightly different from a passive
system as shown in Figure 2.4. An active RFID system usually uses active RFID
tags (with a battery built in) and each tag periodically transmits its data which
may contain identification and other application-specific information such as
location, price, color and date of purchase. The RFID reader will cross-reference
the tag's data within its self-contained database. Compared to a passive system,
an active RFID system can simultaneously read several tags in the field, its
reading range is longer and its power required is less [6], [20], [21].

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 Figure 2.4 A typical active RFID system

The principles of a semi-passive RFID system are similar to that of the passive
system, except that there is a battery embedded in the semi-passive tag. The
battery provides an on-board power source for the telemetry and sensor asset
monitoring circuits of the tag so that the tag has more power to communicate.
However, the on-board power is not directly used to generate RF electromagnetic
energy.

2.1.6 Reading range and frequency:

Nowadays, short-range communications have undeniably evolved along with

technological advances. As one of the use of short-range communication
technologies, RFID systems have operated at ranges from low and high
frequencies to microwaves and have provided much longer reading ranges than
other short-range communication technologies and services. Compared with other
short range technologies, RFID has a wider reading range and substantially
increases productivity and efficiency of the integrated business [5]. The specific
electromagnetic spectrum, frequency, wave-length and energy used for RFID are
shown in Figure 2.4 and Table 2.1 [6],[11].

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Figure 2.5 Electromagnetic spectrum, frequency, wave-length and energy for RFID

Table 2.1 RANGES OF RFID FREQUENCY AND WAVE-LENGTH TABLE

When RFID is used for short range communication (SRC), it can provide wider
reading range with cheaper deployment cost compared with other SRC
technologies. The different reading ranges between these popular SRC
technologies are shown in Figure 2.6.

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 Figure 2.6 RFID in the context of short range communications

RFID systems also operate in several regions of the RF spectrum and different
regions tend to be used for different applications. No one frequency is good for
all applications, all geographies, or all types of operating environments.

Generally, there are four primary frequency bands allocated for RFID uses: low
frequency (LF), high frequency (HF), ultra-high frequency (UHF) and super-high
frequency (SHF)/microwave. Research has shown that all the frequency bands
can be used for both passive and active tags. The characteristics and performance
of standard radio frequency ranges used for RFID are summarized in Table 2.2 ,
[11],[23].

Table 2.2 characteristics of different frequencies for RFID system

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2.1.7 Advantages and Disadvantages of using RFID:

2.1.7.1 The advantages :

1- Simplicity of the system.

2- Low-cost of the device.
3- High portability.
4- Ease of maintenance.
5- Capability of providing both identification and location.
6- Flexible in tag size.

2.1.7.2 The disadvantages :

1- One-way communication links.

2- Collision effects.
3- Unstable Received Signal Strength (RSS).
4- RFID signal frequencies across the world are non-standardized.
5- RFID is considered by many to be an invasive technology.
6- Interference occurs when devices such as walkies-talkies are in the vicinity
Thus, RFID has proven to be an important means of tracking and identification,
which has found large-scale commercial use in recent times. Though this
technology suffers from certain drawbacks, with more research and development,
it may be possible to eliminate the flaws, making it all the more useful in a diverse
array of sectors, including retail, transport, and the jewelry businesses.

2.1.8 RFID Applications:

• Product Tracking :

RFID tags are increasingly used as a cost-effective way to track inventory

and as a substitute for barcodes. For instance, bookstores such as Barnes
& Noble use RFID to identify books to be removed from shelves and
returned to publishing houses.

• Passports :

A number of countries, including Japan, the United States, Norway, and

Spain incorporate RFID tags into passports to store information (such as a
photograph) about the passport holder and to track visitors entering and
exiting the country.

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 • Identification :

RFID chips can be implanted into animals and people to track their
movements, provide access to secure locations, or help find lost pets.

• Libraries :

Libraries use RFID tags in books and other materials to track circulation
and inventory, store product information (such as titles and authors), and to
provide security from theft. Because RFID tags can be scanned without
physically touching the item, checking books in and out, plus doing
laborious tasks such as shelf inventory, can be accomplished quickly and
efficiently using RFID technology.

• Shipping :

Large shipments of materials, such as retail goods, often utilize RFID tags
to identify location, contents, and movement of goods. Wal-mart is one of
the largest consumers of this technology to assist in tracking shipments of
merchandise.

• Other uses :

RFID tags are employed in numerous other ways, including implantation

in Saguaro cacti to discourage black-market traders, placement in car tires
to transmit road condition information to the onboard computer, and
placement around cities (such as Tokyo) to transmit tourist information to
visitor cell phones.

2.2 Wi-Fi technology:

2.2.1 Introduction:

Wi-Fi, stands for “wireless fidelity”, is a technology that allows an electronic

device to exchange data or connect to the Internet wirelessly using microwave
signals in 2.4 GHz and 5.0 GHz bands. It has been widely used for

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communications and entertainments for more than 10 years and has facilitated the
rapid growth of modern social media services. Wi-Fi provides services in private
homes, businesses, as well as in public spaces. Organizations wishing to provide
advanced services or for advertising purposes, such as at airports, hotels and
shopping malls, often provide free use of Wi-Fi access to attract and provide a
service to customers. In recent years, Wi-Fi has become a default feature of all
smartphones. Consequently, society has become increasingly dependent on their
phones as the main source of telecommunication, entertainment.

Wi-Fi is one of the biggest revolutions to the way we use computers since the PC
was introduced. It not only frees people to work on a laptop while remaining
connected, but also provides an alternative to broadband services at locations that
are too remote to justify cables. Furthermore, this technology offers a new way of
tracking people/moving objects wirelessly.

2.2.2 Wi-Fi component:

Before knowing all these significant functions from Wi-Fi, it is necessary to

introduce the basic principle of a Wi-Fi network. The structure of a Wi-Fi system
is not complex and it normally contains the following components:

1. An Access Point (AP) is a wireless Local Area Network (LAN) transceiver

or base-station that can connect a group of wireless devices to an adjacent wired
LAN. It resembles a network hub, relaying data between connected wireless
devices in addition to a usually single connected wired device, most often an
Ethernet hub or switch, allowing many wireless devices to communicate with
other wired devices through the Internet.

2. Wireless network interface card (WNIC) or adapter. The WNIC allows

devices to connect to a wireless network and accept the wireless signal and
relay information. most newer laptop computers and smartphones had been
equipped with built-in internal adapters.

3. Ethernet cable: is used for physically connecting a wired LAN router and an
AP.

4. Other components such as Wireless LAN controller, firewall and anti-virus

software are also required in practice for protecting the network from unstable
operating, uninvited users and keep information secure.

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 To connect to a Wi-Fi LAN, a computer or another device has to be equipped
with a wireless network interface controller. The combination of the device and
interface controller is called a station.

All stations share a single radio frequency communication channel. Transmissions

on this channel are received by all stations within the range. The hardware does
not signal the user that the transmission has been delivered and is therefore called
a best-effort delivery mechanism. A carrier wave is used to transmit the data in
packets, referred to as "Ethernet frames". Each station is constantly tuned in on
the radio frequency communication channel to pick up available transmissions.
Figure 2.7 descripts the working principles of a typical Wi-Fi network.

Figure 2.7 the principle of Wi-Fi network technology.

2.2.3 Wi-Fi standard:

In all data communication, standardized protocols are important for the

interoperability among equipment from different vendors. The Institute of
Electrical and Electronics Engineers (IEEE) has published a family of Wireless
Local Area Network (WLAN) standards, known as IEEE 802.11. In addition, the
non-profit organization the Wi-Fi Alliance is testing and certifying that 802.11
equipment work together. Thus, WLANs utilizing 802.11 standardized equipment
are commonly referred to as Wi-Fi networks. Although there were early attempts
at wireless networking, the 802.11 standard is the family of wireless networking
devices based on and is thrashed out by the IEEE. The IEEE 802.11 standard is
not a single specification but an evolving set of specifications with names such as

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802.11a, 802.11b, 802.11g, 802.16 and 802.11n. A summary of the Wi-Fi
standards is shown in Table 2.4 [24]. The version of 802.11b/g/a are the most
popular three standards widely accepted by industries.

Table 2.4 A summary of the Wi-Fi standards

2.2.4 Wi-Fi security:

The main issue with wireless network security is its simplified access to the
network compared to traditional wired networks such as Ethernet, with wired
networking one must either gain access to a building (physically connecting into
the internal network) or break through an external firewall. To enable Wi-Fi, one
needs to be within the wireless range of the Wi-Fi network. Most business
networks protect sensitive data and systems by attempting to disallow external
access. Enabling wireless connectivity reduces security if the network uses
inadequate or no encryption [25]. A common measure to deter unauthorized users
involves hiding the access point's name by disabling the Service Set Identifier
(SSID) broadcast. While effective against the users, it is ineffective as a security
method because the SSID is broadcast in the clear response to a client SSID query.
Another method is to only allow computers with known Media Access Control
(MAC) addresses to join the network, but determined eavesdroppers may be able

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to join the network by spoofing an authorized address. A Wi-Fi-enabled device
can connect to the Internet when it is within the range of a wireless network.
The radio signals from a single AP can be transmitted up to 100 m in outdoor free
space. The coverage of one or more interconnected APs can extend from an area
as small as a few rooms to as large as many square miles. Wi-Fi also connects
places that normally don't have network access, such as lifts and storage
warehouse. Coverage in the larger area may require a group of access points with
overlapping coverage.

2.2.5 Advantages and Disadvantages of Wi-Fi :

2.2.5.1 The advantages :

1. Convenience :

The ability of computers to communicate over the airwaves opened up the way
to today’s world of mobile computing. Wireless networking allows you to place
19 desktop systems in parts of a building where they couldn’t go before and
lets laptops, tablets and smart phones roam freely without losing their
connections to the local network and through it to the Internet.

2. Mobility:

With the emergence of public Wi-Fi networks, users can access the internet
even outside their normal work environment. Most chain supermarkets, for
example, offer their customers a wireless connection to the internet at no cost.

3. Productivity:

Users connected to a Wi-Fi network can maintain a nearly constant affiliation

with their desired network as they move from place to place. For example, an
employee can potentially be more productive as his or her work can be
accomplished from any convenient location (e.g., on a train).

4. Deployment:

A wired network, has the additional cost and complexity of actual physical
cables being run to numerous locations (which can even be impossible for hard-
to-reach locations within a building). A wireless network, on the other hand,
requires little more than a single access point for the Initial infrastructure setup.

5. Expandability:

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 Wi-Fi networks can serve a suddenly-increased number of clients with the
existing equipment. In a wired network, additional clients would require
additional wiring.

6. Versatility:

Unlike mobile phones, any standard Wi-Fi device will work anywhere in the
world. Different competitive brands of access points and client network-
interfaces can inter-operate at a basic level of service. Along with the price of
chipsets for Wi-Fi continues to drop, manufacturers are building wireless
network adapters into more devices, making it an economical networking
option everywhere [26].

2.2.5.2 The disadvantages :

Due to the fact that Wi-Fi is still relatively new there are exist some limitations to
users. Some of the limitations have little impact on positioning and tracking:

1. Security:

Some of the more commonly utilized encryption methods, however, are known
to have weaknesses that a dedicated adversary can compromise. Free access
points can be used by the malicious to anonymous to initiate an attack that
would be extremely difficult to track beyond the owner of the access point.

2. Reliability:

Like any radio frequency transmission, Wi-Fi signals are subject to a wide
variety of interference, as well as complex propagation effects that are beyond
the control of the network administrator.

3. Speed:

The speed on most wireless networks (typically 1-54 Mbps) is far slower than
even the slowest common wired networks (100Mbps up to several Gbps).

4. The spectrum assignments and operational limitations are not consistent

worldwide.

5. Power consumption:

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 Is fairly high compared to some other standards, making the battery life and
heat a concern to some users. The following two points of Wi-Fi limitation are
more relative to positioning and location tracking.

6. Range:

The typical range of a common 802.11 network may be sufficient for a typical
home, it will be insufficient in a larger structure (e.g. a large public space). To
obtain additional range, repeaters or additional APs will have to be purchased.
Costs for these items can add up quickly.

7. Interference:

The use of 2.4 GHz Wi-Fi band does not require a license in most countries
provided that it stays below limit of 100mW and one accepts interference from
other sources; including interference which causes the users devices to no
longer function.

2.2.6 Typical Wi-Fi Applications

Wi-Fi provides service in private homes, businesses, as well as in public spaces

at Wi-Fi hotspots set up either free-of-charge or commercially, often using a
captive portal webpage for access. Organizations and businesses, such as airports,
hotels and shopping malls, often provide free-use hotspots to attract customers.
Enthusiasts or authorities who wish to provide services or even to promote
business in selected areas sometimes provide free Wi-Fi access. Many
commercial devices, such as personal computers, smartphones (including those
based on Android, BlackBerry, Windows phone, Symbian, and ISO phones etc.),
smart watches, laptops and gas meters, have a built-in capability of this sort,
which has made Wi-Fi application spread to a comprehensive industrial fields.
These can connect to a network resource such as the Internet via a wireless
network AP.

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 Figure 2.8 selected end-user devices possibly connected via Wi-Fi network.

2.3 WLAN Architecture:

2.3.1 Traditional WLAN:

A Wireless Local Area Network (WLAN) can be designed and deployed with
different levels of complexity. Basically, a traditional WLAN architecture
consists of four main components. These components are depicted in Figure 2.9.

Figure 2.9 Components in a traditional WLAN

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The purpose of a WLAN is to transfer information wirelessly between stations.
These stations are typically laptops or other mobile terminals that are equipped
with a wireless interface. The communication is done through a wireless medium.
The stations communicate with access points, which are connected to a wired
distribution system or backbone network. Hence, the access points perform a
wireless-to-wired bridging function [13].
A group of stations that communicate with each other is called a Basic Service
Set (BSS). An access point and all the stations that are able to communicate with
each other within the coverage area of the access point, is said to be in an
Infrastructure Basic Service Set.
Two stations can also communicate directly with each other, without using an
access point. Several stations communicating directly together, form an ad-hoc
network or an Independent Basic Service Set (IBSS). Figure 2.10 illustrates how
the stations communicate with each other in the independent and infrastructure
BSSs.

Figure 2.10 Communication between stations in Infrastructure BSS and IBSS

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