SECTION I EXPLORE

Daoism: Its Definition, Origins, and Development

ilosophical version of Daoism and its later development as a religion. As such,

When we speak of Daoism, we actuallv refer to a combination of the edy

philosophical

we can understand Daoism specifically as philosophical or ritualistic (religious).

Chronologically, philosophical Daoism (DaoChia) was prevalent in 300 B.C.E., while

we

ritualist

insist on a a sharp distinction between the two, since Daoist philosophy partly emerged

Chronolog

ritualistic Daoism (DaoChiao) emerged after 100 CE. However, we do not have to

insist on .

from ancient Chinese rituals, and the religious practices are considered to be based on

the philosophical insights of Daoism (Molloy 2005, 211-212).

commonly translated as "The Way." As we shall see in the section on Contucianism,

even Confucians speak of the Dao in various ways and even Daoists offer different

explanations of the Dao. Although there is no specific definition of the Dao, it can be

argued that the concept of the Dao is more prominent in the Daoist system than in

other philosophical or religious systems. The Dao remains to be the most significant

concept of the philosophical systems of Laozi and Zhuangzi.

TRIVIA BOX

Laozi and the Da odejing

Daoism's early philosophical orientations are attributed to the

legendary Laozi, which means "old master." Recognized as a wise man, he

was asked to write on his thoughts, and he produced the Daodejing. After

giving the text, he left China, never to be seen again (Molloy 2005, 213). The

Daodejing or "Classic of the Dao considered as the scripture of Daoism-is

as controversial as its alleged author

According to Ssu-ma Chien's Shi-chi or "Records of the Historian,"

Laozi was born in Chu kingdom, his real name was Li Erh, and he was a

keeper of the archives. When he grew old he decided to leave China, but

the gatekeeper at the Great Wall asked him to put his thoughts into writing

before leaving. So he dictated the 5000 Chinese characters that were said to

Comprise what we now know as Daodejing (Wildish 2000, 6). Some scholars,
however, believe that the text was written by several people over centuries,

while others believe it is authored by one person. In 1973, some archaeologists

found two silk scrolls, dated 168 B.C.E., that contain the text of the LDaodejing.

Iwenty years later, an older copy written on three bundles of bamboo was

found in a tomb from about 300 B.C.E. (Kleeman and Barrett 2005, 84). The text commonly accepted
today has 81 chapters, most of which is in verse

form (Kleeman and Barrett 2005, 85).

It is composed of short, catchy statements, speculatively based on

popular sayings based on common folk wisdom.

Laozi is recognized by most scholars as a historical figure, but again,

what is controversial is whether he really wrote the Daodejing. It is possible

that like Confucius, it was Laozi's followers who recorded his teachings and

Wrote them in the Daodejing (Wildish 2000, 7).

Another great figure in Daoism is Zhuangzi, who lived around 300

B.C.E. His book, named after him, contains his own developments of the

Daoist philosophy. Unlike Daodejing, which is more poetic, Zhuangzi is filled

with stories highlighting the themes of early Daoism (Molloy 2005, 216).

Laozi

Daoism has had great influence over Chinese society, in general, and individual

lives, in particular Chinese civilization and the Chinese character would have

been terly different if the books of Laozi and Zhuangzi had never been written
Even Confucianism, the dominant system in Chinese history and thought, as

well as Buddhism, the influential toreign religion, would not have been the same

Confucianism and Buddhism have never escaped Daoist influence in the course of

their development. For example, Ch'an Buddhism (Zen) found its point of departure

and inspiration in Daoism, and Neo-Confucianism established its theory of cosmic

structure on some aspects of Daoism. In short, no one can hope to understand Chinese

philosophy, government, art, or medicine without a real appreciation of Daoism. Let

us look at the influence of Daoist philosophy on society and then look at the practice

and doctrines of Daoist religion.

Daoist philosophy has influenced Chinese culture deeply and broadly, but its

essential importance may lie in its presentation of values and in its ways of thinking

and living that differ from Confucianism. Daoism teaches people to view human strife from perspective
of the world universe. In other words, people should not take the difference between gain and loss,
glory and humiliation, or success and failure too seriously.

Daoist Beliefs and Practices

llmen

lies in harmonizing with the Dao, which is generally conceived as patterns in

(Adler 2002, 15). As such, what needs to be recovered to have a harmonious

is not the relationship between one man and another, but the relationshim L ety

human beings and nature. The supposed model for ideal behavior is nature m

earlier, possibly ancient, society (as in Confucianism) (Adler 2002, 43).

For Daoists, human beings are essentially natural beings, and human fuleu. ature
an

Dao

As evident in the title of its main text, the Daodejing revolves around the Dao. Thus

it is only common sense to begin by asking what this Dao is. Ironically, the first chapterof

the book begins with saying that the Dao is undefinable (Kleeman and Barrett 2005, 86

The Dao cannot be put into words; it is nameless" because it has no form. It is the source

of everything and manifests itself through everything (Molloy 2005, 214). The Dao makes

nature be what it is, and so it could be considered the natural rhythm of things.

Thus, Dao can be understood to mean both the Way of Nature and Way of Life. So

the message of the Daodejing is to live a life patterned after the Way of Nature (Adler

2002, 45).

Wu Wei

Another central teaching of Daoism is wu wei, or non-action. The Dao is so powerful

that it never acts for a purpose. "It behaves so naturally that it is even called non-action."

(Kleeman and Barrett 2005, 87). This is not to say that people are asked to do literally

nothing, but they are encouraged to act spontaneously, according to the rhythm of

nature. This could be seen with trees and animals that undergo a cycle of life, and even

the land and the seas that regulate themselves naturally. This is because "Nature works

to accomplish only what is necessary, but no more(Molloy 2005, 217). Since human

beings are also natural beings, they must also act according to the Way of Nature.

In line with this, Daoists are inclined to adopt simplicity of lifestyle. They tend
to distrust formal education, because it is artificial and complex (Molloy 2005, 217).

Contemporary Daoists would likely reject the use of mobile phones and the internet

due to their artificiality; they are beyond what a human being naturally needs.

Longevity and Chi

The Way, according to some interpretations of the, Daodei.

possible natural life by living in harmony With one's socialar

(Adler 2002, 47). In light of this, some Daoist practices aim atural environment."

dejing, is "to live the longest

the life force or the chi of the person. One of them is intern to prolong and enhance

ernal alchemy." A particular

version teaches exercises which

move the life force from its origin at the base of the Spine upwards to the head. From

ia the heaxercises, and practices of mental imagery.

there it circles back, via the heart, to tts Origin. This movement is

through certain postures, muscular exercise and practices of mental imagery. Some Daoists have held
that these techniques of internal alchemy can create an entity-the
"immortal embryo"-that can survive the death of the body. (Molloy 2005, 219)

The Ym-Yang

The chi or eternal life force manifests itselt through constant transformation

hetween the yang and the yin. As stated, the yang and yin are complementaries; the

vang moves upwards, represents the heavens, and theretore "pure and light," while

the yin flows downwards, torms the earth, and so "turbid and heavy (Wildish 12

Again, this is not to say that one is better than the other; that the yin is negative while

vang is positive. They are considered opposite qualities of the chi. As seen in the figure

of the yin-yang, they constantly intertwine with each other. In the yang there is yin; in

the yin there is yarng

One must not understand the yin and yang to be in conflict with each other. Rather,

the Dao manifests itself in these complementary qualities. Thus if we are to apply this

complementarity, we must be both receptive and active, feminine and masculine, light

and heavy. We are in a constant cycle of change, from yang to yin, from yin to yang.

We clearly see this in nature, in the cycle of seasons, in the life patterns of creatures, in

the waning and growing of the moon. These have their natural flow through wu wei,

and these processes exhibit the fluid dynamicity of one state rising from the other. As

such, "It is when a true understanding of this process is realized within us-when loss

and gain have the same meaning-that we can achieve true tranquility of the spirit"

(Wildish 2000, 15).

TRIVIA BOX
Varieties of Daoism

As stated, there are two forms of Daoism: Daoist philosophy and Daoist

religion, and early Daoism was primarily philosophical. Only later did it

develop into an organized religion. The contemporary ritualistic Daoism

Could possibly be attributed to Chang Dao-Ling (c. 150 C.E.) who organized

Daoism into a hierarchical structure. This religious order is called "Way of

the Heavenly Masters," and they are most active in laiwan and southeast

mainland China (Molloy 2005, 219). In short, Daoist religion is that unique

Chinese orgarnized indigenous movement that, including

Buddhism and

Confucianism, forms part of the "Three Teachings of China."

alled "Complete Perfection," whicl

ich veloped

from monasteries of celibate monks. It deliberately blends

Buddhism, Confucianism, and Daoism.

Religious Daoism continues in Taiwan

China, as well as in other cour

Chinese government dimini.

There is also a sect calle

from

and some arts of mainlan

with Chinese communiti With the

ion to religion, Daoist rituals

nishing their aversion

Chap

:Conhicianism and Daoism

Chinese medicine believes in the Daoist notion that our health depends

on the flow of chi through our body, and so subject to the balance of vang

(energy) and yin (rest). One must still the mind to relax the tense mind in order

to moderate one's desires and control one's emotions, so that the chi flows

harmoniously. So familiar techniques such as acupuncture, meditation, and the

internal martial arts tai chi are inspired by the yin-yang (Wildish 2000, 135-137).

The superstition of fengshui is also inspired by this balance of yin-yang.

harmonious energy levels and lifestyle" in order to enhance one's living.

Here we see again the receptivity to the way of nature. "The ideal is to fit the

individuals into a space so they can live.comfortably and happily," rather

than to modify the natural space according to the interests of the individual

(Wildish 2000, 146).

On the one hand, most scholars believe that philosophical Daoism was

started by Laozi in the 6th century B.C.E. and developed in the 2nd century

B.C.E. It includes the Zhuangzi school and the Huanglao school, and perhaps

the school of Hsuanhsueh as well. The essential doctrine of early Daoism is

that the Dao is the unique source of the universe and determines all things,

that everything in the world is composed of positive and negative parts, that

opposites always transform in each other, and that people should take no

unnatural action (wu wei) but follow the natural law.

On the other hand, religious Daoism possesses some specific features.

Although influenced by Buddhism, religious Daoism represents an indigenous

Chinese religion. Its polytheistic system includes worship of both gods and

acestors. In its popular forms, it is represented by a pantheon of gods, spirits,

nosts, and it has absorbed almost every ancient practice known to the

unese people, such as offering sacrifices to ancestors, praying for a tavorable

wcui and dispelling evil spirits. Unlike other religions, religious Daoism is

COncened with life after death. It seems that Daoism is unique among a
egions of China in that it almost wholly pursues longevity and physical

rtalty. In many Chinese folk stories, Daoist gods-especially female

descend to the moral world to communicate with laypeOple and

OCcasionally, to marry and live a worldly life.

nChina, there are basically two main sects of religious Dao1sm: tne

Orthodox Unity (Cheng-1) sect, which originated from the Five Pecks of Kice

Sect (Wu-tou-mi Dao), founded by Chang Dao Ling in the later Han sty

2-220 C.E.), and the Complete Purity Sect (Ch uan Chen), which was

TOunded by Wang Che, a Daoist reformer in the Chin dynasty (111-1

and his apprentice, Ch'iu Chu-chi (1148-1227). The former is more promine

in laiwan and the latter in mainland China. Like Buddhist monks, priests

of the Complete Purity Sect live in monasteries and convents, wear ro

and have a restricted diet, whereas priests of the Orthodox Unity sect are

allowed to eat a regular diet, are not forced to cover their hair or leave hOme

and are commonly known as the "Daoist priests living at homes.

SECTION II EXPLORE

Confucianism: Its Definition, Origin, and Development

Learning to be human, in the Confucian perspective, entails a broadening an

Through an ever-expanding

The fundamental concern of the Confucian traditon 1s learning to be human

modalities of existence defining the human condition. Inrough an ever-expandine

deepening of thought and being that acknowledge the interconnectedness of all tho

network relationships, the Confucian seeks to realize humanity in its all-embracin

fullness. Self-cultivation is an end in itself and its primary purpOse is self-realization

As such, a defining characteristic of Confucianism is taith in the creative transformation

of our human condition as a communal act and as a dialogical response to Heaven

This involves the integration of the four dimensions of humanity: selt, community

nature, and Heaven. According to Tu Wei-Ming (1993), understanding Confucianism

necessitates understanding the self as a creative transtormation, the community as a

necessary vehicle for human flourishing, nature as the proper home for our form of

life, and Heaven as the source of ultimate self-realization.

TRIVIA BOX

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Confucius

Confucius was born in 551 B.C.E. in China as Kung Chiu, but his followers

called him Kung Fu Tzu (fu for respect; tzu means "master") or "Great Master

Kung." It was the Catholic missionaries that visited China who used the more

Latin-sounding name "Confucius" (Kleeman and Barrett 2005, 76-77).

His family was once noble, but they had to flee due to political danger,

and they fell into poverty. His father died when he was a child, and so his

mother raised him as an educated gentleman. He began his career as a

government official, but after the period of mourning for his mother's death

in his late teens, he became a teacher (Molloy 2005, 228).

Confucius was born when China was undergoing radical changes in

society. Traditionally, one's career was already determined by what one's

parents and ancestors have been doing, for example, the son of an emperor's

servant will be an emperor'S servant; and the daughter of a weaver will be

a weaver. By the time of Confucius' birth, this system of inheriting your

ancestor's work was being challenged. People outside nobility, those who are

not direct descendants of the current emperor, have been making attempts to

succeed the throne. Fanmilies of soldiers, farmers, and even merchants have

produced officials of the government. What matters is no longer to which family you belong and what
kind of work they have been doing, but whether

you are capable of doing a particular job (Kleeman and Barrett 2005, 77).

This political and social reform was dangerous to society, according to

2005, 78). He believed that the "ideal" order has been achieved in the past, but

was lost then. This ideal is for him the Dao or "The Way," and he believes it is

his mission to bring back the Dao in the Chinese society (Adler 2002, 14). But

since the society and the government consist of people, it is important to have

excellent individuals first, so that they may lead the society into the Dao. 1hus,

Confucianism focuses on two ideals: "producling] individuals who could be

sOCial leaders, and... creat[ing) a harmonious society" (Molloy 2005, 229).

He claimed to his followers that he was teaching old ways, not new

ones. Nevertheless, his followers admired him so much that they compiled

much ot his teachings in the book Analects. He would welcome students

regardless of social class, and not care much about payment. He would get

excited in teaching that he would forget his troubles, and would help his

students on their problems-only partially though, because he would let

them figure out the rest on their own (Kleeman and Barrett 2005, 78,80).

Despite his success in teaching, his goal was to become "the trusted

adviser of one of the kings who were vying to re-establish a unified China,"

but he did not succeed. He held minor government positions, but he was

never able to fulfill his lifelong dream (Adler 2002, 31).

Comfucian Beliefs, Practices and Values

Confucius was a teacher, and so the Analects consist of primarily advices on what
to do in order to become a good individual and to harness an orderly society. Therefore,

Confucianism is mostly ethical philosophy. Confucianism is often thought of as a system for

regulation of social groups, but it is also a system for the transformation of the individual.

Undergirding Confucianism is not just an ideal of an orderly society, but also the ideal of a

perfect human being-the junzi.

Confucius values individualS and understand them as interwoven with many

people. Human beings are their relationships. While all relationships are important,

their degrees of importance are not the same. The distinctions are determined by

personal factors, or some social tactors. The five great relationships are father-son

(which represents the family), elder brother-younger brother (where the elder must

assume responsibility for raising the younger siblings), husband-wife (where each

person is responsible for the other's care), elder-younger (where the older people have

responsibility for the younger), and ruler-subject. This is the context of the Confucian

rectification of names.

He also promotes the following virtues: Ren, Hsiao, Shu, and Li.

Ren. Before Confucius, ren usually would refer to kindness or benevolence,

and until now, some scholars would translate ren to "goodness" or "benevolence."

However, Confucius considered this the cardinal virtue, because ren represents thee

"perfection of what it means to be human (Adler 2002 33). Thus, most translations

use ren as "humanity or "humaneness, also understood as consideration for others.

which is often translated as "gentleman or "superior man." The original meaning of

chuntzu is "son of a noble," but since Confucian nobility is not about lineage but about

benevolence, a son of a noble is the person that strives to be humane.

Hsiao. But what exactly does it mean to be good, to be benevolent, to be humane?

Confucius would say it is to "love others'" or to "care for others" (Analects 12:22). This

love for others has its starting point in another important virtue tor Confucianism:

hstao or filial piety. Since the love for parents is innate mignt we not say that filial piety and respect for
elders constitute the root of benevolence? (Analects 1:2), Hsin.

is not only about one's parents and siblings, but also about respect for elders, and

veneration for one's ancestors (Molloy 2005, 236).

Shu. In shu or reciprocity, we see a practical advice on ren; that which you want to

realize for yourself, you must also help others realize for themselves (Analects 6:30). A

famous reformulation of this is the Golden Rule: Do not do unto others what you do

not want to be done unto you (Analects 15:24).

Li. Li or "propriety used to refer only to observing rituals of sacrifice to ancestors

properly. But Confucius extended its meaning to the proper behavior called for in

every situation (Adler 2002, 33). In short, li is putting ren into practice (Molloy 2005,

234). This is why proper behavior is useless without benevolençe: "Aman who is not

benevolent-what has he to do with rituals?" (Analects 3:3) Kin dntu

ao

Kin dnes
THE FIVE CLASSICS

The Book of History (Shu Jing) is an anthology of historical material about kings from

earliest times up until the early Zhou period (c.1100-256 B.C.E.)

The Book of Poetry (Shi Jing) is a collection of 300 poems of the Zhou period.

The Book of Changes (Yi Jing) speaks of the basic patterns of the universe.

The Book of Rites (Li ji) lists ancient ceremonies and their meaning.

The Spring and Autumn Annals (Chun Qiu) comprises historical records of the state of

Lu, where Confucius lived, and ends with a commentary.

THE FOUR BOOKS

The Analects (Lun Yu) are the sayings of Confucius and his conversations with

followers.

The Great Learning (Da Xue) is a short discussion of the character and influence

of the noble person

The Doctrine of the Mean (Zhong Yong) speaks in praise of the mean, or equilib-
rium.

The Mencius (Mengzi) is a long collection of the teachings of Mencius, a Confu-

cian who lived several centuries after Confucius.