PROJECT REPORT

“THREE PHASE FAULT ANALYSIS WITH AUTO RESET ON

TEMPORARY FAULT AND PERMANENT TRIP OTHERWISE”

Submitted in partial fulfillment of the requirement for degree of Bachelor of

Engineering in Electrical Engineering from University of Jammu

Submitted By
Shakir Shafi
Aatif Yousuf Wani
Mohd Hussain Para
Danish Maqbool Naik
Rayees Yousuf

Submitted to
Rajeev Kumar Bali
(HOD Electrical Department)

Department of Electrical Engineering

1
 Government College of Engineering & Technology Jammu

CERTIFICATE

This is to certify that the Project Report for “THREE PHASE FAULT
ANALYSIS WITH AUTO RESET ON TEMPORARY FAULT
OTHERWISE PERMENENT TRIP” submitted by following students for the
partial fulfillment of the requirement for the award of the degree of B.E in
Electrical Engineering of GCET Jammu is a record of the bona-fide work
carried out by them under my supervision and guidance. The work submitted, in
my opinion, has reached to a level required for being accepted for the
examination. The matters embodied in this dissertation work, to the best of my
knowledge, has not been submitted to any University or institute for the award
of any degree of diploma.
Sr.No Name Enrollment No.
1 SHAKIR SHAFI 129/17
2 AATIF YOUSUF WANI 117/17
3 DANISH MAQBOOL NAIK 126/17
4 MOHD HUSSAIN PARA 192/17
5 RAYEES YOUSUF 76/17

Project Guide: Head of Department

Er. Bhawna Gupta. Er. Rajeev Kumar Bali

Department of Electrical Engineering

2
 TABLE OF CONTENTS
1) Certificate II
2) Table of Contents III
3) List of Figures V
4) List of Tables VI
5) Acknowledgement VII

CHAPTER: 1 INTRODUCTION
1.1 Problem Summary And Introduction 8
1.2 Aim And Objectives Of The Project 10
1.2.1 Description Of The Project 10

CHAPTER :2 PROJECT DETAILS

2.1 Block diagram 11

2.2 Circuit diagram 12
2.3 Hardware used 13

CHAPTER:3 LITERATURE SURVEY

3.1 Literature Review 14
3.2 Key Activities 15
CHAPTER: 4 IMPLEMENTATION
4.1 Introduction To 3 Phase Faults 16
4.2 Fault Analysis 16
4.2.1 Active Fault 16
4.2.2 Passive Fault 16
4.2.3 Types Of Fault On A Three Phase System 17
4.2.4 Transient & Permanent Fault 18
4.2.5 Symmetrical & Asymmetrical Fault 18
3
 4.3 Hardware Components 18
4.3.1 Transformers 19
4.3.2 Voltage Regulator 23
4.3.3 Timer 27
4.3.4 Diode 32
4.3.5 Relay 34
4.3.6 Resistor 38
4.3.7 Capacitor 40
4.3.8 Comparator 43

CHAPTER:5 OPERATION
5.1 Working 45

CHAPTER:6 ADVANTAGES, DISADVANTAGES & APPLICATIONS

6.1 Advantages And Disadvantages 48
6.2 Applications 49

 REFERENCE: 50

4
 LIST OF FIGURES

Figure No. Figure Description Page

No.

2.1 Block diagram 11

2.2 Circuit diagram 12
3.1 Types of fault 17
3.2 Transformer circuit 19
3.3 Transformer 21
3.4 Voltage regulators 24
3.5 Timer 27
3.6 Timer as buffer 30
3.7 1N4007 Diode 32
3.8 PN junction diode 33
3.9 Relay 37
3.10 Resistor 39
3.11 Capacitor 41
3.12 Types of capacitors 42
3.13 Comparator 44
4.1 Three Phase Fault Detector 46

5
 LIST OF TABLES

Table No. Table Description Page No.

3.1 Pin configuration of Timer 29

6
 ACKNOWLEDGMENT
We express our sincere gratitude to our guide, Er Bhawna Gupta for his
continuous support during our dissertation study and writing of this report, for
her patience, motivation and immense knowledge. Her guidance helped us for
our dissertation work and writing of this report. We could not have imagined
having a better advisor and mentor for our dissertation study.

Besides our guide, we offer our special gratitude to Er Rajeev Kumar Bali,
Electrical Engineering Department, for his valuable guidance for the dissertation
work and writing of this report.

We would like to thank the Principal and all the faculty members of Department
of Electrical Engineering for their help and support. We thank all our friends
for providing us such a warm atmosphere to make our study more delightful and
memorable.

We would like to thank all the people who have helped, motivated and inspired
us during our dissertation study.

Shakir Shafi
Aatif Yousuf Wani
Mohd Hussain Parra
Danish Maqbool Naik
Rayees Yousuf

7
 CHAPTER – 1
INTRODUCTION
[1.1]. PROBLEM SUMMARY AND INTRODUCTION:
Generally we are transmitting power from the generating
station through the transmission line. Mainly, there are two type of transmission
lines.
1. Overhead transmission lines
2. Underground transmission lines
As from the latest research 70% to 90% of faults are
occurred in overhead transmission line which are transient. There are many
fault due to some kind of error or natural error.
Mainly there are three types of faults as following way.
A transient fault, such as an insulator flashover.
Different type of fault in 3 phase is:
1. L-L fault (line to line fault)
2. L-G fault (line to ground fault)
3. 2L-G fault (double line to ground fault)
Is a fault which is cleared by the immediate tripping of one or more circuit
breakers to isolate the fault, and which does not recur when the line is re-
energized?

Faults tend to be less transient (near the 80% range) at lower, distribution
voltages and more transient (near the 90% range) at higher, sub transmission
and transmission voltages.

Lightning is the most common cause of transient faults, partially resulting from
insulator flashover from the high transient voltages induced by the lightning.
Other possible causes are swinging wires and temporary contact with foreign
objects.
8
 Thus, transient faults can be cleared by momentarily de -energizing the line, in
order to allow the fault to clear. Auto reclosing can then restore service to the
line that‟s why we make this made this project.

The project is designed to develop an automatic tripping mechanism for the

three phase supply system. The project output resets automatically after a
brief interruption in the event temporary fault while it remains in tripped
condition in case of permanent fault.

The electrical substation which supply the power to the consumer‟s i.e.
industries or domestic can have failures due to some faults which can
be temporary or permanent. These faults lead to substantial damage to the
power system equipment. In India it is common to observe the failures
in supply system due to the faults that occur during the transmission or
distribution.

The faults might be LG (Line to Ground), LL (Line to Line), 3L (Three

lines) in the supply systems and these faults in three phase supply
system can affect the power system. To overcome this problem a system
is built, which can sense these faults and automatically disconnects the
supply to avoid large scale damage to the control gears in the grid sub-
stations.

This system is built using three single phase transformers which are wired
in star input and star output, and 3 transformers are connected in delta
connections, having input 220 volt and output at 12 volt. This concept
low voltage testing of fault conditions is followed as it is not advisable to create
on mains line. 555 timers are used for handling short duration and long duration
fault conditions.

9
 A set of switches are used to create the LL, LG and 3L fault in low
voltage side , for activating the tripping mechanism. Short duration fault
returns the supply to the load immediately called as temporary trip
while long duration shall result in permanent trip.

[1.2]. AIM AND OBJECTIVES OF THE PROJECT:

This project is aimed to design reduce the outage time
due to faults and provide a higher level of service continuity to the
customer.
Furthermore, successful high-speed reclosing auto reclosing. On transmission
circuits can be a major factor when attempting to maintain system stability.
For those faults that are permanent, auto reclosing will reclose the
circuit into a fault that has not been cleared, which may have adverse
effects on system stability (particularly at transmission levels).

[1.2.1]. DESCRIPTION OF PROJECT:

Aim: The main aim of this project is to make transmission line more
reliable and clearing the fault.
Design: The project consists of transformer, voltage regulator, relay, filter, 555
timer, diode, resistor, capacitor etc. In this circuit six number of step down
transformer are used forming the star and delta connection. Their input is
220 volt and gives output in 12 volt. This is due to low voltage testing of fault
and detect the fault condition and operate circuit breaker and other device
to limit the loss of service due to failure.

Costs: The costs include Capital costs, Installation costs, Commissioning costs,
Maintenance and Servicing costs etc.

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 CHAPTER 2
PROJECT DETAILS
[2.1] BLOCK DIAGRAM

Fig 2.1 Detailed block diagram of three phase fault analysis with auto reset for temporary
and trip for permanent.

11
[2.2] CIRCUI DIAGRAM

Fig 2.2 Detailed circuit diagram of three phase fault analysis with auto reset for
temporary and trip for permanent

12
 [2.3] HARDWARE USED

1. TRANSFORMERS 17
2. VOLTAGE REGULATOR (LM7805)
3. FILTER (capacitive)
4. RECTIFIER
5. 555 TIMER 32
6. LM358
7. RELAYS
8. IN4007
9. BC547
10. RESISTOR
11. CAPACITOR
12. PUSH BUTTONS

13
 CHAPTER:3
LITERATURE SURVEY
[3.1]. LITERATURE REVIEW:
[1] Vinesh Gamit, Vivek Karode, Karan Mistry, “FAULT ANALYSIS ON
THREE PHASE SYSTEM BY AUTO RECLOSING
MECHANISM”, IJERA, eISSN: 2319-1163, Volume:04 Issue:05,
May-2015, pp: 292-298
Conclusion:
Various faults have been Simulated to develop an automatic
tripping mechanism for the three phase supply system while temporary fault
and permanent faults occur. Here timer 555 has been used with relay for the
fault analysis. Short duration fault back to the supply to the load immediately
called as temporary trip while long duration shall result in permanent trip.

[2] Sathish Bakanagari1, A. Mahesh Kumar2, M. Cheenya, “Three Phase

Fault Analysis with Auto Reset for Temporary Fault and Trip for
Permanent Fault”, IJERA, eISSN: 2248-9622, Volume: 3 Issue: 6 , NOV-
DEC 2013, pp: 1082-1086
Conclusion:
This project is designed in the form of Hardware for three
single phase transformers 230v to12V of output for to develop an automatic
tripping mechanism for the three phase supply system while temporary fault
and permanent fault occurs. Here we used 555 timer with relay for the fault is
temporary or permanent.Short duration fault returns the supply to the load
immediately called as temporary trip while long duration shall result in
permanent trip. The concept in the future can be extended to developing a
mechanism to send message to the authorities via SMS by interfacing a
GSM modem.

14
 [3] Deendayal Nagar1 Deep Singh Bhalla2 Deepesh Paliwal, “Three Phase
Auto Recloser Scheme”,, IJERA, eISSN: 2321-0613,
0613, Volume: 4 Issue: 1 , 2016,
pp: 820-8022
Conclusion:
This project is designed in
in the form of Hardware for three single phase
transformers 230v to 12V of output for to develop an automatic tripping
mechanism for the three phase supply system while temporary fault and
permanent fault occurs. Here we are using 555 -timer
timer with relay for the
determination wheather the fault is temporary or permanent. Short duration
fault returns the supply to the load immediately called as temporary trip
while long duration shall result in permanent trip.
The concept in the future can be extended to developing
developing a mechanism to send
message to the authorities via SMS by interfacing a GSM modem

[3.2].
.2]. KEY ACTIVITIES:
The key activities to be carried out are as follows:

Testing of project
Commissioning ofproject
project

15
 CHAPTER – 4
IMPLEMENTATION
[4.1] INTODUCTION TO THREE PHASE FAULT:
Six numbers of steps down transformers are used for forming star and
delta secondary‟s at low voltage output. Fault condition is created with a
set of switches to input LL, LG, 3L fault the circuit. This triggers a 555 timer
in monostable to reset after fault clearance in a short duration temporary
fault or permanently trip the output in case of prolonged fault. We know
that if the fault accurse then it creates many problems to the load. Many
times load is damaged. So it is very important to protect the system again
the faults.
Different type of fault in 3 phase is:
1. L-L fault (line to line fault)
2. L-G fault (line to ground fault)
3. 2L-G fault (double line to ground fault)
[4.2] FAULT ANALYSIS:
Faults are classified into two parts, Active and Passive Fault.
[4.2.1] ACTIVE FAULT:
When current passing from one phase to another phase or phase to
ground is known as Active fault. This fault must be cleared as quickly as
possible otherwise its damages to the conductor or line or the equipment.
[4.2.2] PASSIVE FAULT:
Passive faults are stressing the system beyond its design and long duration
fault which ultimately results in active fault.
Examples are:
 Overloading – When load increased its results in voltage increased and
insulation is overheating.
 Overvoltage – Voltage is increased to its rated voltage and stressed to

16
 the insulation.
 Under frequency – Frequency goes below to its rated frequency it
results in plant to behave incorrectly.
 Power swings – generators outage and loss of synchronism.
[4.2.3] TYPES OF FAULTS ON 3 PHASE SYSTEM:
Faults occurred on a three phase A.C. system shown in fig – 2.1 are as
follows:
A) Single line to ground fault
B) Phase-to-phase fault
C) Phase-to-phase-to-earth fault
D) Three phase fault
E) Three phase-to-earth fault

Figure: [3.1] Types of faults

 Single line to ground fault:
The single line-to-ground fault is usually referred as “short circuit”
fault and occurs when one conductor falls to ground or makes
contact with the neutral wire.
 Line-to-Line Fault :
A line-to-line fault may take place either on an overhead and/or
underground transmission system and occurs when two conductors are
short-circuited. One of the characteristic of this type of fault is that its
fault impedance magnitude could vary over a wide range making very

17
 hard to predict its upper and lower limits. It is when the fault
impedance is zero that the highest asymmetry at the line-to-line fault
occurs.
[4.2.4] TRANSIENT AND PERMENENT FAULT:
Transient faults are didn‟t damage the insulation of wire and there
are small in time duration and after that period circuit is re-energized. These
faults are occur on outdoor equipment because the air is main medium to take
place the transient fault. Example of transient fault are insulator flashover and
lightning stroke, when it happen the circuit is de-energized or open by
circuit breaker and after a brief interval it will reclose. Permanent fault as
name suggest it is the permanent fault, which damage permanently to the
insulation. In this period line will permanent de-energized and repaired.
[4.2.5] SYMMETRICAL AND ASYMMETRICAL FAULT:
A symmetrical fault is a balanced fault which are occurred on three
phase. These three phase has same value of fault current. Magnitude of all fault
current is same. These faults are same in three line or three line to ground fault.
An asymmetrical fault has a D.C. offset, transient in nature and unbalanced
fault. They are occur on single line, double line or single line to ground or
double line to ground.
[4.3] HARDWARE COMPONENTS:

1) Transformer
2) voltage regulator
3) 555 timer
4) diode
5) relay
6) resistor
7) capacitor
8) comparator
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 [4.3.1] TRANSFORMERS:

A transformer is a static electrical device that transfers energy by

inductive coupling between its winding circuits. A varying current in the
primary winding creates a varying magnetic flux in the transformer's core and
thus a varying magnetic flux through the secondary winding. This varying
magnetic flux induces a varying electromotive force (emf) or voltage in the
secondary winding. Transformers can be used to vary the relative voltage of
circuits or isolate them, or both. Transformers range in size from thumbnail
sized used in microphones to units weighing hundreds of tons interconnecting
the power grid. A wide range of transformer designs are used in electronic
and electric power applications. Transformers are essential for the transmission,
distribution, and utilization of electrical energy.

Figure [3.2] Transformer circuit

The ideal transformer model assumes that all flux generated by the primary
winding links all the turns of every winding, including itself . In practice,
some flux traverses paths that take it outside the windings. Such flux is
termed leakage flux , and results in leakage inductance in series with the
mutually coupled transformer windings. Leakage flux results in energy
being alternately stored in and discharged from the magnetic fields with each
cycle of the power supply.
19
 It is not directly a power loss (see Stray losses below), but results in
inferior voltage regulation, causing the secondary voltage not to be
directly proportional to the primary voltage, particularly under heavy
load. Transformers are therefore normally designed to have very low leakage
inductance. Nevertheless, it is impossible to eliminate all leakage flux
because it plays an essential part in the operation of the transformer.

The combined effect of the leakage flux and the electric field around
the windings is what transfers energy from the primary to the secondary.
In some applications increased leakage is desired, and long magnetic
paths, air gaps, or magnetic by pass shunts may deliberately be introduced
in a transformer design to limit the short-circuit current it will supply.
Leaky transformers may be used to supply loads that exhibit negative
resistance, such as electric arcs, mercury vapor lamps, and neon signs or for
safely handling loads that become periodically short-circuited such
as electric arc welders.

The conducting material used for the windings depends upon the
application, but in all cases the individual turns must be electrically
insulated from each other to ensure that the current travels throughout
every turn. For small power and signal transformers, in which currents are
low and the potential difference between adjacent turns is small, the coils
are often wound from enameled magnet wire, such as Formvar wire.
Larger power transformers operating at high voltages may be wound with
copper rectangular strip conductors insulated by oil-impregnated paper
and blocks press board.

20
 Figure [3.3] Transformer

High-frequency transformers operating in the tens to hundreds of

kilohertz often have windings made of braided Litz wire to minimize
the skin-effect and proximity effect losses. Large power transformers use
multiple-stranded conductors as well, since even at low power
frequencies non-uniform distribution of current would otherwise exist
in high-current windings. Each strand is individually insulated, and the
strands are arranged so that at certain points in the winding, or
throughout the whole winding, each portion occupies different relative positions
in the complete conductor. The transposition equalizes the current flowing
in each strand of the conductor, and reduces eddy current losses in the
winding itself. The stranded conductor is also more flexible than a solid
conductor of similar size, aiding manufacture.

The windings of signal transformers minimize leakage inductance and

stray capacitance to improve high-frequency response. Coils are split into
21
 sections, and those sections interleaved between the sections of the other
winding. Power-frequency transformers may have taps at intermediate
points on the winding, usually on the higher voltage winding side, for
voltage adjustment. Taps may be manually reconnected, or a manual or
automatic switch may be provided for changing taps. Automatic on-load
tap changers are used in electric power transmission or distribution, on
equipment such as arc furnace transformers, or for automatic voltage
regulators for sensitive loads. Audio-frequency transformers, used for the
distribution of audio to public address loudspeakers, have taps to allow
adjustment of impedance to each speaker. A center-tapped transformer is
often used in the output stage of an audio power amplifier in a push-pull
circuit. Modulation transformers in AM transmitters are very similar.

Dry-type transformer winding insulation systems can be either of standard

open-wound 'dip-and-bake' construction or of higher quality designs that
include vacuum pressure impregnation (VPI), vacuum pressure encapsulation
(VPE), and cast coil encapsulation processes. In the VPI process, a
combination of heat, vacuum and pressure is used to thoroughly seal, bind,
and eliminate entrained air voids in the winding polyester resin insulation
coat layer, thus increasing resistance to corona. VPE windings are similar to
VPI windings but provide more protection against environmental effects,
such as from water, dirt or corrosive ambient, by multiple dips including
typically in terms of final epoxy coat. Closed-core transformers are
constructed in 'core form ' or ' shell form'.

When windings surround the core, the transformer is core form; when
windings are surrounded by the core, the transformer is shell form . Shell
form design may be more prevalent than core form design for
distribution transformer applications due to the relative ease in stacking
22
 the core around winding coils. Core form design tends to, as a general
rule, be more economical, and therefore more prevalent, than shell form
design for high voltage power transformer applications at the lower end of
their voltage and power rating ranges (less than or equal to, nominally,
230 kV or 75 MVA). At higher voltage and power ratings, shell form
transformers tend to be more prevalent. Shell form design tends to be preferred
for extra high voltage and higher MVA applications because, though more
labor intensive to manufacture, shell form transformers are characterized as
having inherently better kVA-to-weight ratio, better short-circuit strength
characteristics and higher immunity to transit damage.

[4.3.2] VOLTAGE REGULATOR:

A voltage regulator is designed to automatically maintain a constant
voltage level. A voltage regulator may be a simple “feed-forward” design or
may include negative feedback control loops. It may use an electromechanical
mechanism, or electronic components. Depending on the design, it may be
used to regulate one or more AC or DC voltages. Electronic voltage regulators
are found in devices such as computer power supplies where they
stabilize the DC voltages used by the processor and other elements. In
automobile alternators and central power station generator plants, voltage
regulators control the output of the plant. In an electric power distribution
system, voltage regulators may be installed at a substation or along
distribution lines so that all customers receive steady voltage independent of
how much power is drawn from the line.

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 Figure [3.4] Voltage Regulator
Load regulation is the change in output voltage for a given change
in load current ( for example: "typically 15 mV, maximum 100 mV for load
currents between 5 mA and 1.4 A, at some specified temperature and
input voltage"). Line regulation or input regulation is the degree to which
output voltage changes with input ( supply ) voltage changes - as a ratio of
output to input change (for example "typically 13 mV/V"), or the output
voltage change over the entire specified input voltage range (for example
"plus or minus 2% for input voltages between 90 V and 260 V, 50-60
Hz"). Other important parameters are: Temperature coefficient of the output
voltage is the change with temperature (perhaps averaged over a given
temperature range).

Initial accuracy of a voltage regulator (or simply "the voltage

accuracy") reflects the error in output voltage for a fixed regulator
without taking into account temperature or aging effects on output accuracy.
Drop out voltage is the minimum difference between input voltage and

24
 output voltage for which the regulator can still supply the specified current. A
low drop-out (LDO) regulator is designed to work well even with an input
supply only a volt or so above the output voltage.

The input-output differential at which the voltage regulator will no longer

maintain regulation is the drop out voltage. Further reduction in input
voltage will result in reduced output voltage. This value is dependent on load
current and junction temperature. Absolute maximum ratings are defined
for regulator components, specifying the continuous and peak output
currents that may be used (sometimes internally limited) , the maximum
input voltage, maximum power dissipation at a given temperature, etc.
Output noise (thermal white noise) and output dynamic impedance may
be specified as graphs versus frequency, while output ripple noise (mains
"hum" or switch-mode "hash" noise) may be given as peak-to-peak or RMS
voltages, or in terms of their spectra.

Quiescent current in a regulator circuit is the current drawn internally,

not available to the load, normally measured as the input current while
no load is connected (and hence a source of inefficiency; some linear
regulators are, surprisingly, more efficient at very low current loads than switch-
mode designs because of this). Transient response is the reaction of a
regulator when a (sudden) change of the load current (called the load transient
) or input voltage (called the line transient ) occurs. Some regulators will
tend to oscillate or have a slow response time which in some cases might
lead to undesired results.

This value is different from the regulation parameters, as that is the

stable situation definition. The transient response shows the behavior of the
regulator on a change. This data is usually provided in the technical
25
 documentation of a regulator and is also dependent on output
capacitance. Mirror-image insertion protection means that a regulator is
designed for use when a voltage, usually not higher than the maximum
input voltage of the regulator, is applied to its output pin while its input
terminal is at a low voltage, volt-free or grounded. Some regulators can
continuously withstand this situation; others might only manage it for a
limited time such as 60 seconds, as usually specified in the datasheet.
This situation can occur when a three terminal regulator is incorrectly
mounted for example on a PCB, with the output terminal connected to
the unregulated DC input and the input connected to the load. Mirror-
image insertion protection is also important when a regulator circuit
is used in battery charging circuits, when external power fails or is not
turned on and the output terminal remains at battery voltage. A simple
voltage regulator can be made from a resistor in series with a diode (or
series of diodes). Due to the logarithmic shape of diode V-I curves, the
voltage across the diode changes only slightly due to changes in current
drawn or changes in the input.

When precise voltage control and efficiency are not important, this design
may work fine. Feedback voltage regulators operate by comparing the
actual output voltage to some fixed reference voltage. Any difference is
amplified and used to control the regulation element in such a way as to
reduce the voltage error. This forms a negative feedback control loop;
increasing the open-loop gain tends to increase regulation accuracy but reduce
stability (avoidance of oscillation, or ringing during step changes).

There will also be a trade-off between stability and the speed of the response
to changes. If the output voltage is too low (perhaps due to input voltage
reducing or load current increasing), the regulation element is
26
 commanded , up to a point , to produce a higher output voltage – by dropping
less of the input voltage (for linear series regulators and buck switching
regulators), or to draw input current for longer periods (boost-type
switching regulators); if the output voltage is too high, the regulation
element will normally be commanded to produce a lower voltage. However,
many regulators have over-current protection, so that they will entirely
stop sourcing current (or limit the current in some way) if the output
current is too high, and some regulators may also shut down if the input
voltage is outside a given range (see also: crowbar circuits).

[4.3.3] TIMER:
IC Depending on the manufacturer, the standard 555 package
includes over 20 transistors, 2 diodes and 15 resistors on a silicon chip
installed in an 8-pin mini dual-in-line package (DIP-8). Variants available
include the 556 (a 14-pin DIP combining two 555s on one chip), and the 558
(a 16-pin DIP combining four slightly modified 555s with DIS & THR
connected internally, and TR falling edge sensitive instead of level sensitive).

Figure [3.5] Timer

Ultra-low power versions of the 555 are also available, such as the 7555 and
TLC555. The 7555 is designed to cause less supply flitching than the classic
555 and the manufacturer claims that it usually does not require a “control”
capacitor and in many cases does not require a power supply bypass capacitor.

27
 The 555 has three operating modes:
 Monostable mode:
In this mode, the 555 functions as a “one-shot”. Applications include
timers, missing pulse detection, bounce free switches, touch switches,
frequency divider, capacitance measurement, pulse-width modulation
(PWM) etc.
 Astable – free running mode:
The 555 can operate as an oscillator. Uses include LED and lamp
flashers, pulse generation, logic clocks, tone generation, security alarms,
pulse position modulation, etc.

 Bistable mode or Schmitt trigger:

The 555 can operate as a flip-flop, if the DIS pin is not connected and no
capacitor is used. Uses include bounce free latched switches, etc.

28
 Usage

The connection of the pins is as follows:

Pins Name Purpose

1 GND Ground low level (0 V)

2 TRIG OUT rises, and interval starts,

when this input falls
below 1/3V CC
3 OUT This output is driven to
+V CC or GND
4 RESET A timing interval may be
interrupted by driving
this input to GND.
5 CTRL “Control” access to the
internal voltage divider
(by default, 2/3V CC).
6 THR The interval ends when
the voltage at THR is
greater than at CTRL.
7 DIS Open collector output;
may discharge a
capacitor between
intervals.
8 V+,V CC Positive supply voltage
is usually between 3 and
15 V.
Table [3.1 pin configuration]

29
 555 Basics
The 555 timer IC is a sim plea 8 pin DIL package IC. It can:
1) be used as a monostable
2) be used as an astable
3) source or sink 100 Ma
4) use supply voltages of 5v to 15v disrupt the power supply- use a
decoupling capacitor

Using the 555 as a buffer

A buffer circuit allows an input circuit to be connected to an output
circuit, it is like an interface between one circuit and another. The buffer
circuit requires very little input current but should be able to supply
adequate output current. The 555 can supply in excess of 100Ma of
current and so can be used as a convenient buffer for logic gates which
cannot supply much current. The 555 can also “sink” a similar amount of
current.
The circuit used is:

Figure: [3.6] TIMER AS A BUFFER

30
 The circuit acts like an inverter or NOT gate. When the input is held low, the
output is high and will provide (source) current. When the input is held
high, the output is low and will sink current. Remember, for a buffer for
even higher power devices that require even larger currents, the 555 buffer can
be used to drive a relay or a transistor circuit.
Using the 555 as a nonstable:

1) The 555 can be used as a monostable using the circuit shown:

2) The output is normally low but will go high for a short length of
time depending on the values of the other components.
3) R and C determine the time period of the output pulse.
4) The input is normally high and goes low to trigger the output (falling
edge triggered).
5) The length of the input pulse must be less than the length of the output
pulse.
6) The 47Uf capacitor „decouples‟ the supply to avoid affecting other parts
of the circuit.
7) It is standard to add a 10Nf capacitor from pin5 to gnd.
T = 1.1 R C
T–seconds, R–ohms, C–Farads
The minimum value of R should be about 1k to avoid too much current
flowing into the 555. The maximum value of R should be about 1M so
that enough current can flow into the input of the 555 and there is also
current to allow for the electrolytic capacitors leakage current. The
minimum value of C = 100Pf to avoid the timing equation being too far
off. The maximum value of C should be about 1000µF as any bigger
capacitors will discharge too much current through the chip. These maximum
and minimum values give a minimum period of 0.1 µs and a maximum
period of 1000s.

31
 [4.3.4] DIODE:
Diodes are used to convert AC into DC these are used as half wave
rectifier or full wave rectifier. Three points must he kept in mind while
using any type of diode.
1. Maximum forward current capacity
2. Maximum reverse voltage capacity
3. Maximum forward voltage capacity

Figure [3.7]: 1N4007 Diode

The number and voltage capacity of some of the important diodes available in
the market are as follows:

Diodes of number IN4001, IN4002, IN4003, IN4004, IN4005, IN4006 and

IN4007 have maximum reverse bias voltage capacity of 50V and maximum
forward current capacity of 1 Amp. Diode of same capacities can be used in
place of one another. Besides this diode of more capacity can be used in
place of diode of low capacity but diode of low capacity cannot be used in
place of diode of high capacity. For example, in place of IN4002; IN4001 or
IN4007 can be used but IN4001 or IN4002 cannot be used in place of
IN4007.The diode BY125 made by company BEL is equivalent of diode

32
 from IN4001 to IN4003. BY 126 is equivalent to diodes IN4004 to 4006 and
BY 127 is equivalent to diode IN4007.

Figure: [3.8] P-N junction Diode

 PN JUNCTION OPERATION:

Now that you are familiar with P- and N-type materials, how these
materials are joined together to form a diode, and the function of the
diode, let us continue our discussion with the operation of the PN
junction. But before we can understand how the PN junction works, we
must first consider current flow in the materials that make up the junction
and what happens initially within the junction when these two materials
are joined together.
 Current Flow in the N-Type Material:

Conduction in the N-type semiconductor, or crystal, is similar to

conduction in a copper wire. That is, with voltage applied across the
material, electrons will move through the crystal just as current would
flow in a copper wire. The positive potential of the battery will attract the
free electrons in the crystal. These electrons will leave the crystal and
flow into the positive terminal of the battery. As an electron leaves the
33
 crystal, an electron from the negative terminal of the battery will enter
the crystal, thus completing the current path. Therefore, the majority current
carriers in the N-type material (electrons) are repelled by the negative side
of the battery and move through the crystal toward the positive side of the
battery.
 Current Flow in the P-Type Material:
Current flow through the P-type material is illustrated. Conduction in the
P material is by positive holes , instead of negative electrons. A hole
moves from the positive terminal of the P material to the negative
terminal. Electrons from the external circuit enter the negative terminal of
the material and fill holes in the vicinity of this terminal. At the positive
terminal, electrons are removed from the covalent bonds, thus creating new
holes. This process continues as the steady stream of holes (whole current)
moves toward the negative terminal.
[4.3.5] RELAY:

A relay is an electrically operated switch. Many relays use an

electromagnet to operate a switching mechanism mechanically, but other
operating principles are also used. Relays are used where it is
necessary to control a circuit by a low-power signal (with complete
electrical isolation between control and controlled circuits), or where
several circuits must be controlled by one signal. The first relays were
used in long distance telegraph circuits, repeating the signal coming in
from one circuit and re-transmitting it to another. Relays were used
extensively in telephone exchanges and early computers to perform logical
operations. A type of relay that can handle the high power required to
directly control an electric motor or other loads is called a contactor. Solid-
state relays control power circuits with no moving parts, instead using a
semiconductor device to perform switching. Relays with calibrated

34
 operating characteristics and sometimes multiple operating coils are used
to protect electrical circuits from overload or faults; in modern electric
power systems these functions are performed by digital instruments still
called "protective relays".

A simple electromagnetic relay consists of a coil of wire wrapped around

a soft iron core, an iron yoke which provides a low reluctance path for
magnetic flux, a movable iron armature, and one or more sets of contacts
(there are two in the relay pictured). The armature is hinged to the yoke
and mechanically linked to one or more sets of moving contacts. It is
held in place by a spring so that when the relay is de-energized there
is an air gap in the magnetic circuit. In this condition, one of the two sets of
contacts in the relay pictured is closed, and the other set is open.

Other relays may have more or fewer sets of contacts depending on

their function. The relay in the picture also has a wire connecting the
armature to the yoke. This ensures continuity of the circuit between the
moving contacts on the armature, and the circuit track on the printed circuit
board (PCB) via the yoke, which is soldered to the PCB.

When an electric current is passed through the coil it generates a magnetic

field that activates the armature, and the consequent movement of the
movable contact(s) either makes or breaks (depending upon construction)
a connection with a fixed contact. If the set of contacts was closed
when the relay was de-energized , then the movement opens the contacts
and breaks the connection, and vice versa if the contacts were open.
When the current to the coil is switched off, the armature is returned by a
force, approximately half as strong as the magnetic force, to its relaxed
position. Usually this force is provided by a spring, but gravity is also
35
 used commonly in industrial motor starters. Most relays are
manufactured to operate quickly. In a low-voltage application this reduces
noise; in a high voltage or current application it reduces arcing.

When the coil is energized with direct current, a diode is often placed
across the coil to dissipate the energy from the collapsing magnetic field
at deactivation, which would otherwise generate a voltage spike
dangerous to semiconductor circuit components. Some automotive relays
include a diode inside the relay case. Alternatively, a contact protection
network consisting of a capacitor and resistor in series (snubber circuit) may
absorb the surge. If the coil is designed to be energized with alternating
current (AC), a small copper "shading ring" can be crimped to the end of
the solenoid, creating a small out-of-phase current which increases the
minimum pull on the armature during the AC cycle.

A solid-state relay uses a thermistor or other solid-state switching device,

activated by the control signal, to switch the controlled load, instead of a
solenoid. An opto coupler (a light-emitting diode (LED) coupled with a photo
transistor) can be used to isolate control and controlled circuits.
 Relays are used for:
Amplifying a digital signal, switching a large amount of power with a small
operating power. Some special cases are:
1) A telegraph relay, repeating a weak signal received at the end of a long
wire.
2) Controlling a high-voltage circuit with a low-voltage signal, as in
some types of modems or audio amplifiers,
3) Controlling a high-current circuit with a low-current signal, as in
the starter solenoid of an automobile , Detecting and isolating
faults on transmission and distribution lines by opening and closing
36
 circuit breakers (protection relays),

Figure: [3.9] Relay

A DPDT AC coil relay with “ice cube” packaging

Isolating the controlling circuit from the controlled circuit when the two
are at different potentials, for example when controlling a mains-powered
device from a low-voltage switch. The latter is often applied to control
office lighting as the low voltage wires are easily installed in partitions,
which may be often moved as needs change. They may also be controlled
by room occupancy detectors to conserve energy, Logic functions. For
example, the Boolean AND function is realized by connecting normally
open relay contacts in series, the OR function by connecting normally open
contacts in parallel. The change-over or Form C contacts perform the XOR
(exclusive or) function. Similar functions for NAND and NOR are
accomplished using normally closed contacts. The Ladder programming
language is often used for designing relay logic networks.
1) The application of Boolean Algebra to relay circuit design was
formalized by Claude Shannon in A Symbolic Analysis of Relay
and Switching Circuits
2) Early computing. Before vacuum tubes and transistors, relays were used
as logical elements in digital computers. See electro-mechanical co
mputers such as ARRA (computer), Harvard Mark II, Zeus Z2, and Zuse
Z3.
37
 3) Safety-critical logic. Because relays are much more resistant than
semiconductors to nuclear radiation, they are widely used in safety-
critical logic, such as the control panels of radioactive waste-handling
machinery.
Time delay functions. Relays can be modified to delay opening or delay
closing a set of contacts. A very short (a fraction of a second) delay
would use a copper disk between the armature and moving blade
assembly. Current flowing in the disk maintains magnetic field for a
short time, lengthening release time. For a slightly longer (up to a minute)
delay, a dashpot is used. A dashpot is a piston filled with fluid that is
allowed to escape slowly. The time period can be varied by increasing or
decreasing the flow rate. For longer time periods, a mechanical clockwork
timer is installed. Vehicle battery isolation. A 12v relay is often used to
isolate any second battery in cars , 4WDs, RVs and boats. Switching to a
standby power supply.

[4.3.6] Resistor:
A resistor is a passive two-terminal electrical component that
implements electrical resistance as a circuit element. The current through a res
istor is in direct proportion to the voltage across the resistor‟s terminals. This
relationship is represented by Ohm's law:
I=
Where I is the current through the conductor in units of amperes, V is
the potential difference measured across the conductor in units of volts, and R is
the resistance of the conductor in units of ohms.

he ratio of the voltage applied across a resistor's terminals to the intensity

of current in the circuit is called its resistance, and this can be assumed to be a
constant (independent of the voltage) for ordinary
38
 resistors working within their ratings.

Resistors are common elements of electrical networks and electronic circuits

and are ubiquitous in electronic equipment. Practical resistors can be made
of various compounds and films, as well as resistance wire (wire made of a
high-resistivity alloy, such as nickel-chrome). Resistors are also implemented
within integrated circuits, particularly analog devices, and can also be
integrated into hybrid and printed circuits.

Figure [3.10] Resistors

The electrical functionality of a resistor is specified by its resistance:
common commercial resistors are manufactured over a range of more than
nine orders of magnitude. When specifying that resistance in an electronic
design, the required precision of the resistance may require attention to
the manufacturing tolerance of the chosen resistor , according to its
specific application . The temperature coefficient of the resistance may also be
of concern in some precision applications. Practical resistors are also specified
as having a maximum power rating which must exceed the anticipated power
dissipation of that resistor in a particular circuit: this is mainly of concern in
power electronics applications. Resistors with higher power ratings are

39
 physically larger and may require heat sinks.

In a high-voltage circuit, attention must sometimes be paid to the rated

maximum working voltage of the resistor. While there is no minimum
working voltage for a given resistor, failure to account for a resistor's
maximum rating may cause the resistor to incinerate when current is run
through it. Practical resistors have a series inductance and a small parallel
capacitance; these specifications can be important in high-frequency
applications.

In allow-noise amplifier or pre-amp, the noise characteristics of a resistor may

be an issue. The unwanted inductance, excess noise, and temperature
coefficient are mainly dependent on the technology used in
manufacturing the resistor. They are not normally specified individually
for a particular family of resistors manufactured using a particular
technology . A family of discrete resistors is also characterized according
to its form factor, that is, the size of the device and the position of its
leads (or terminals) which is relevant in the practical manufacturing of
circuits using them.

[4.3.7] CAPACITORS:
A capacitor is a passive electronic component consisting of a pair of
conductors separated by a dielectric (insulator). When there is a potential
difference (voltage) across the conductors, a static electric field develops
in the dielectric that stores energy and produces a mechanical force
between the conductors. An ideal capacitor is characterized by a single
constant value, capacitance, measured in farads. This is the ratio of the
electric charge on each conductor to the potential difference between
them.
40
 The capacitance is greatest when there is a narrow separation between
large areas of conductor, hence capacitor conductors are often called
"plates", referring to an early means of construction. In practice the
dielectric between the plates passes a small amount of leakage current
and also has an electric field strength limit, resulting in a breakdown
voltage, while the conductors and leads introduce an undesired inductance
and resistance.

Figure [3.11]: Capacitor

An ideal capacitor is characterized by a single constant value,
capacitance, which is measured in farads. This is the ratio of the electric
charge on each conductor to the potential difference between them. In practice,
the dielectric between the plates passes a small amount of leakage current. The
conductors and leads introduce an equivalent series resistance and the dielectric
has an electric field strength limit resulting in a breakdown voltage.

The properties of capacitors in a circuit may determine the resonant

frequency and quality factor of a resonant circuit, power dissipation and
operating frequency in a digital logic circuit, energy capacity in a high-
power system, and many other important aspects.

41
 A capacitor (formerly known as condenser) is a device for storing electric
charge. The forms of practical capacitors vary widely, but all contain at
least two conductors separated by a non-conductor. Capacitors used as
parts of electrical systems, for example, consist of metal foils separated
by a layer of insulating film.

Figure [3.12]: Types of capacitors

A capacitor (originally known as a condenser) is a passive two-terminal
electrical component used to store energy electrostatically in an electric
field. The forms of practical capacitors vary widely, but all contain at least
two electrical conductors separated by a dielectric (insulator); for example,
one common construction consists of metal foils separated by a thin layer
of insulating film. Capacitors are widely used as parts of electrical circuits in
many common electrical devices.

When there is a potential difference across the conductors, an electric field

develops across the dielectric, causing positive charge to collect on one plate
and negative charge on the other plate. Energy is stored in the electrostatic
field. An ideal capacitor is characterized by a single constant value, capacitance.
This is the ratio of the electric charge on each conductor to the potential
difference between them. The SI unit of capacitance is the farad, which is
42
 equal to one coulomb per volt.

The capacitance is greatest when there is a narrow separation between

large areas of conductor, hence capacitor conductors are often called
plates, referring to an early means of construction. In practice, the
dielectric between the plates passes a small amount of leakage current
and also has an electric field strength limit, the breakdown voltage.

The conductors and leads introduce an undesired inductance and resistance.

Capacitors are widely used in electronic circuits for blocking direct
current while allowing alternating current to pass. In analog filter networks,
they smooth the output of power supplies. In resonant circuits they tune radios
to particular frequencies. In electric power transmission systems they stabilize
voltage and power flow.

[4.3.8] COMPARATOR:
How an op-amp can be used as a comparator?

Potential dividers are connected to the inverting and non-inverting

inputs of the op-amp to give some voltage at these terminals. Supply voltage
is given to +Vss and –Vss is connected to ground. The output of this
comparator will be logic high (i.e., supply voltage) if the non-inverting
terminal input is greater than the inverting terminal input of the
comparator. i.e., Non inverting input (+) > inverting input (-) = output is
logic high If the inverting terminal input is greater than the non-inverting
terminal input then the output of the comparator will be logic low (i.e., gnd) i.e.,
inverting input (-) > Non inverting input (+) = output is logic low

43
 Figure [3.13]: Comparator

44
 CHAPTER :5
OPERATION OF PROJECT:
[5.1]Working:
The project uses 6 numbers step-down transformers for handling the
entire circuit under low voltage conditions of 12v only to test the 3
phase fault analysis. The primary of 3 transformers are connected to a 3
phase supply in star configuration, while the secondary of the same is
also connected in star configuration. The other set of 3 transformers with its
primary connected in star to 3 phase have their secondary‟s
connected in delta configuration. The output of all the 6 transformers are
rectified and filtered individually and are given to 6 relay coils. 6 push
buttons, one each connected across the relay coil is meant to create a
fault condition either at star i.e. LL Fault or 3L Fault. The NC contacts of
all the relays are made parallel while all the common points are grounded. The
parallel connected point of NC are given to pin2 through a resistor R5 to a
555 timer i.e. Wired in monostable mode. The output of the same timer is
connected to the reset pin 4 of another 555 timer wired in a stable mode. LED‟s
are connected at their output to indicate their status. The output of the U3
555 timer from pin3 is given to an Op-amp LM358 through wire 11 and
d12 to the non-inverting input pin3, while the inverting input is kept at a
fixed voltage by a potential divider RV2. The voltage at pin2 coming from
the potential divider is so held that it is higher than the pin3 of the
Op-amp used as a comparator so that pin1 develops zero logic that fails to
operate the relay through the driver transistor Q1. This relay Q1 is
„3CO‟ relay i.e. is meant for disconnecting the load to indicate fault conditions.

45
 Figure:[4.1]: Three phase fault detector
Operating procedure:
While the board is powered from a 3 phase supply all the 6 relay
coils get DC voltage and their common point disconnects from the NC and
moves on to the NO points there by providing logic high at pin2 of
555 timer U1 i.e. that is kept on monostable mode. While any push
button across the relay is pressed it disconnects that relay and in the
process in common contacts moves to the NC position to provide a
logic low at trigger pin of 555 timer to develop an output that brings
the U3 555 timer which is used in a stable mode for its reset pin to
high such that the astable operation takes place at its output which is
also indicated by flashing D11 LED. If the fault is off temporary in
nature i.e. if the push button pressed is released immediately the U1
monostable disables U3 the output of which goes to zero in the event
of any push button kept pressed for a longer duration the monostable
output provides a longer duration active situation for U3 the astable
timer the output of which charges capacitor C13 through R11 such
that the output of the comparator goes high that drives the relay to
switch off three phase load. The output of Op-amp remains high
indefinitely through a positive feedback provided for its pin1 to pin3 through
46
 a forward biased diode and a resistor in series. This results in the relay
permanently switched on to disconnect the load connected at its NC contacts
permanently off. In order to maintain the flow of DC supply the star connected
secondary set DC‟s are paralleled through D8 , D9 & D10 for
uninterrupted supply to the circuit voltage of 12v DC and 5v DC
derived out of voltage regulator IC 7805.

47
 Chapter: 6
ADVANTAGES, DISADVANTAGES & APPLICATION
[6.1] ADVANTAGES AND DISADVANTAGES:
Advantages of three phase fault analysis with auto reset
on temporary fault and permanent trip otherwise as follows:
 This invention will accurately identifies hazardous faults requiring
line de-energization, and also accurately discriminates, or distinguishes,
a hazardous fault from other events for which the line should remain
energized.
 The invention encompasses such a load analysis system which minimizes
unnecessary power service interruptions and outages.
 By using this system the secondary arc current can be abruptly reduced.
 This system is even appropriate for long transmission line transmitting
high voltage.
 A timer is also provided to identify weather the fault is temporary
or permanent . By doing so frequent tripping of the system can be
avoided as temporary faults are self-correcting.
 A individual re-closure to every phase so that if there is fault in
any one phase then that phase only is deactivated keeping the other
phases in working condition.by doing so the efficiency of the system
increases .
 This invention provides relatively low cost and reliable
apparatus for the intended purpose.
 The invention will respond correctly to phase-ground faults occurring
simultaneously on two of the three phase lines.
 By using this proposed circuitry work should be completed time to
time . Also auto reclosing can significantly reduce the outage time due

48
 to faults and provide a higher level of service continuity to the customer.
It helps to maintain system stability.
Disadvantages:

 If any fault occurs due to natural calamities then this invention

will not able to overcome the fault.

[6.2] APPLICATIONS:
 Substation
 Transformer
 Drives & Relay
 Transmission Line.

49
REFERENCE:

 Fault Analysis On Three Phase System By Auto Reclosing Machanism- Vines Gamit,
Vivek Karode, Karan Mistry, Pankaj Parmar, Ashish Chaudhari

 Three Phase Fault Analysis with Auto Reset for Temporary Fault and Trip for
Permanent Fault- Sathish Bakanagari, A. Mahesh Kumar, M. Cheenya

Auto Reset And Tripping Technique For Temporary And Permanent Fault Analysis-
Mr. Bhushan K. Dhuve, Ms. Priyanka M. Dhawade , Mr. Swapnil C. Naghate, Ms. Ashvini
B. Nagdewate

 Analysis Of Power Systems Under Fault Conditions-Jorge Santamaria (B.S., Universidad

Centro americana “Jose Simeon Canas”, El Salvador, 2006)