Electrocomponent Science and Technology, 1981, Vol. 9, pp.

51-57 (C) 1981 Gordon and Breach Science Publishers, Inc.

0305-3091/81/0901-0051 $06.50/0 Printed in Great Britain

NICHROME THIN FILM TECHNOLOGY AND ITS

APPLICATION
JOACHIM ROLKE
Siemens A G, Munich, W-Germany

NiCr thin film resistors are widely used in the current resistor technology. Ranging from discrete resistors up to highest
performance hybrid integrated circuits, vacuum deposited NiCr alloys cover extreme areas of application. Depending
upon NiCr composition, process parameters, substrate and conductor materials, resistors with extremely low
temperature coefficient of resistance (TCR) and high stability, low noise and distortion can be produced. NiCr
resistors therefore offer particular advantages for applications with special demand for high stability as well as low
TCR-like selected circuits for measuring equipment, data processing, telecommunication, etc.

1. INTRODUCTION should consider:

One of the characteristics of the transition metal alloys a) The behaviour of a "real" resistor is determined
is their interesting behaviour concerning applications as not only by the performance and reliability of the
resistive material: resistive material itself; rather the properties of the
resistors include the influence of the terminations, the
Comparative high resistivity interconnections, the substrate, layout design, sealing,
Low Temperature Coefficient of Resistance (TCR) environment, etc.
High stability of electrical properties b) The performance of thin film resistors can be
influenced positively by suitable vacuum processes,
This behaviour led to wide application of these alloys
specific vacuum conditions and careful choice of all
(sometimes alloyed with Fe, A1, Cu) as resistive materials from a metallurgical point of view. NiCr thin
material for wire wound resistors. 1,1 film circuits are produced generally by applying the
well known thin film process steps:
TABLE Vacuum deposition
Resistivity and TCR of bulk NiCr alloys Photolithographic processing
Stabilisation
Composition Resistivity TCR
Trimming
wt-% pohmcm ppm/K Assembling
Ni(80) Cr(20) 110 + 85 Sealing
Ni(76) Cr(20) AI(2) Fe(2) 133 -+ 5
Next, we will discuss some selected and characteristic
aspects of NiCr technology with respect to production,
performance and reliability.
The knowledge about the favorable properties of
Ni-Cr alloys for electrical applications obviously
initiated intense work to deposit them by vacuum 2. NiCr RESISTOR FILMS
techniques in form of thin films, at first surely not fully
understanding and appreciating the additional 2.1. Deposition
electrical advantages of vacuum deposited thin films,
such as higher resistivity and lower TCR. Some electrical properties of NiCr films strongly
Discussing the behaviour of thin NiCr films we depend on the NiCr ratio (Figures 1, 2). It is well known
51
52 J. ROLKE
Ptot 1,3 10 -7 Pa

A" Before Thermal Aging

B After Thermal Aging
(350C/0.5h at Air)

3Wo 32 3’4 36 mln’’ 3’8

Time
A Evacuation
B Evaporation NiCr

FIGURE 3 Partial pressure of H20 and H before and

during evaporation.

Residual atmosphere and deposition rate 2,3,4,5 (Figure

4).
Substrate temperature during deposition 12
Film thickness11
10 20 40 60 70 80 Substrate material and surface 1,12
Wt % Ni

120
FIGURE 1 Influence of NiCr composition on TCR. ppmlK
100
150

T 4O sot
a: 30

2O
100

50
/ TCR

J
60

4O
-
0

20

20 50 3 4 nmls
30 40 60 70 80
Evaporation Rate
Wt % Ni
FIGURE 4 Influence of evaporation rate on TCR and
FIGURE 2 Influence of NiCr composition on resistance resistivity.
change during stabilization treatment (350C, 0.5 h).

that thermal evaporation of NiCr from a finite mass of Of some major importance is- due to the affinity of
molten alloy causes a film composition change away Cr for oxygen the influence of the latter on structure
from the composition of the source. Besides the film and electrical behaviour (TCR, stability, resistivity).
composition changes from run to run. Therefore flash The main source of oxygen and other detectable
evaporation of NiCr powder or wires or sputtering impurities during deposition are constituents of the
are recommended methods to ensure reproducibility. residual atmosphere: Oxygen, originated by splitting
But in order to understand the behaviour of thin NiCr HaO-molecules as is shown by mass spectra analysis
resistor films completely, we have to take into account during deposition (Figure 3). Therefore, a strict control
some phenomena such as incorporated impurities, of vacuum and deposition data is absolutely necessary
imperfections, crystal structures, etc. In this connection to produce thin film NiCr resistors with closely
the following process parameters are of’special interest: tolerated and reproducible electrical behaviour.
 NICHROME THIN FILM RESISTORS APPLICATIONS 53
On the other hand, it is possible to utilize the strong
oxygen dependence by reactive sputtering in an
Ar/O2-mixture. By choice of a suitable oxygen partial
pressure, followed by a sufficient post deposition heat
treatment, stable resistors with low and closely
tolerated TCR can be produced 2 (Figure 5).
Incorporating a third metallic constituent is another
way to produce resistors with near zero TCR. Ternary
alloys of NiCrSi 6 and NiCrAu7 of suitable composition
are reported to provide films with low TCR and high
stability too.

-
100
ppm K Without 0 2 A: High Vacuum (10-7Pa)
8O
B Air
60
FIGURE 6 Change of TCR and resistivity during heat
treatment. Temperature: 350C.
P0210-7
5 Pa
8x10 Pa
0 9,x 10- 7 Pa (Cr203) with negative TCR. Figure 1 shows the
composition influence on TCR change during heat
Omin
-20 treatment. There is a considerable increase of TCR for
40 Ni rich films, due to precipitation and oxidation of Cr
during annealing. 4
60
The structure of thin NiCr film depends considerably
80 upon the deposition conditions. The equilibrium phase.
-100 diagram of bulk NiCr shows a large immiscibility gap
between two solid solutions (Figure 7):
-120
bcc -Cr with incorporated Ni
fcc r-Ni with incorporated Cr
FIGURE 5 Influence of 0 2 partial pressure and stabilization
time on TCR. Annealling temperature" 350C.
Weight Per Cent Nickel
10 20 30 40 50- 60 70 80 90
2000
c 18800
Llquldus
2.2. Thermal aging and film structure 1800

Freshly deposited thin films generally contain a great 1600

1455
number of structural defects, which considerably 1400
Solid
determine the electrical behaviour of the film. Being Solutionj
12oo
greatly beyond thermodynamic equilibrium, such
imperfect films show a tendency of self annealing by
minimizing their total energy. Generally, this leads to a
remarkable change in resistivity and TCR. Thus,
1000

coo !
/
Two Phase
R’glo fcc
Solid ’-Solution
Ni

thermal aging during and/or after deposition is 600

necessary to stabilize the film properties. 400
As Figure 6 (A) shows, NiCr films annealed in high *,

vacuum, show a remarkable increase of TCR and a 2O0

decrease of resistivity. It is assumed that this change is
due to grain-size growth and decrease of 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90 100
Atomic Per Cent Nickel Ni
grain-boundary area.
In presence of oxygen (Figure 6 (B)), the increase of Metastable Phases 181
TCR is diminished due to formation of an oxide phase FIGURE 7 Phase diagram of bulk NiCr.
54 J. RtLKE
This wide immiscibility, the relatively deep eutectic
and the capability of NiCr to form metallic compounds
are reported to favour the appearance of metastable Glass and Glazed
phases. 8,9 In Figure 7 star-shaped marks show the Alumina Substrates
compositions and substrate temperatures at which
metastable phases have been detected. It should be
mentioned, that their formation is limited to very
particular conditions (substrate type and temperature,
Thin Film
deposition rate, film thickness, pressure, etc); Alumina Substrates
therefore, in practice, in many cases they don’t occur. (A203 99,5 o
But if they are present in the film, their considerable
influence on resistivity and stability has to be taken into
account. As deposited NiCr films show, depending
upon the substrate temperature during deposition, an
amorphous, highly distorted or fine-grained structure 10
Thic! Film
Alumina Substrates
96 %)
can result. By heat treatment at air, grain-size growth
and oxidation is enforced. 13 Thereby, film stability
increases by anticipation of otherwise spontaneously
occurring processes. The best stabilization conditions
may be determined empirically by measuring stability
versus time and temperature of heat treatment. 14

100
2.3. Substrates 20 10 0 % 10 20
The electrical properties and the stability of NiCr &RIR
resistor films are considerably influenced by physical FIGURE 8 Influence of surface roughness on resistor
and chemical interactions between film and substrate spread. One substrate for each substrate type. (73 resistors).
surface. 5,16,8 Thus, the yield of production greatly
depends upon the uniformity and reproducibility of
substrate properties, such as surface roughness (Figures
8, 9), texture, flatness, chemical composition, etc. Any
choice of substrate material for a particular application 9
is determined by such quite different aspects as power Glass and Glazed
Alumina Substrates
dissipation, required stability, TCR, costs, etc. Thus, in 8
thin film technology alternative materials are used:
Borosilicate glasses
Polycrystalline alumina, glazed or as fired
Silicon wafers
Polyimide a7
Alumina Substrates
Advantages and disadvantages of the above /Surface Roughness
4
materials are discussed shortly: / 3-4 pinch

Borosilicate glasses: High uniformity and 3

reproducibility of resistance, (Figure 9), low TCR, high
resistor stability, low thermal conductivity, low 2 /Alumina Substrates
\/" Surface Roughness
mechanical strength, fairly low costs.
As fired thin film alumina (99.5%): High thermal
conductivity, high mechanical strength, lower
uniformity (Figure 9), reproducibility and stability -20 -15 -10 -5 0 % 5 10 15 20
(Figure 10) of resistor parameters, fairly high costs. ARIR
Glazed alumina: Properties and costs between glass FIGURE 9 Influence of surface roughness on resistor
and as fired alumina, reduced mechanical strength due uniformity and reproducibility across 50 substrates (3650
to the glaze. resistors) for each substrate type.
 NICHROME THIN FILM RESISTORS APPLICATIONS 55
Oxidized silicon wafers: High performance material, TABLE II
but also high costs. Properties and reliability of NiCr resistors
Polyimide: A recent development, cheap in mass
production by continuous band processing,
Nevertheless considerable high resistor performance. 17

3. TERMINATIONS AND CONDUCTOR

MATERIALS
Sheet resistance
Resistance
Tolerance
TCR
Tracking of TCR
Stability zlR/R b
Tracking of ZkR/R b
Units

ohm/sq
ohm
%
ppm/K
ppm/K
%o
%o
Range

_
30-300
10-10 M
+_0.01
0 10-50
1-3
0.5c-2d
0.2-0.4
Current noise index A dB -40
A "real" thin film resistor consists of three parts: the Distortion index A dB 120c-150df
resistor film, the conductor and an interracial film
between both. Technological shortcomings concerning aLaser trimmed
these films and/or insufficient layout design may impair bStorage at 125C, 0.5 h
CAlkali free glass
the high performance of the resistive material by d99,5% Alumina (as fired)
increasing TCR and current noise, and decreasing the eA 20 log E1/U Measurement method DIN 44049
long term stability. 19 To insure an adequate bond to the /A 20 log U1/E3, Measurement method DIN 44049
resistive film, usually a chemically active material (e.g.
Ti, Cr) is deposited between resistor and conductor
film. By combining metallurgically unsuitable
range the resistance drive AR/R is proportional to 1/n
with n between 225 and 4, depending upon processing
materials, a remarkable increase of interfacial and film structure 26 (Figure 10). Concerning the
resistance may occur due to interdiffusion, forming
temperature dependence, a linear relationship exists
intermetallic compounds with high resistivity. Further, between log AR/R and l/T, being typical for thermal
conductor films, evaporated at higher angles of activated processes. This can be used to predict long
incidence, may show a porous structure, thus term stability at the operation temperature: We found
supporting electrocorrosion or oxidation of the by thermal analysis and extrapolation a resistance drift
adhesion layer. 2 The adhesion strength of such of NiCr films on as fired alumina (Figure 10) less than
conductors may decrease and a higher current noise can 1% after 15 years operation at 70C.
occur.
In practice, long term stability may be deteriorated
Besides metallurgical processes at the resistor/
by superimposed additional processes like
conductor interface, similar processes on top of the ion-migration, chemical or electrochemical corrosion.
conductor have to be considered. Depending upon The former process may occur due to choice of
the assigned assembling techniques (bonding, unsuitable (e.g. sodium rich) substrate material. 24 The
soldering), demands for high frequency stability (e.g.
MIC’s) and cost efficiency, different metallizations for
different applications are usual. Thus, in NiCr thin film 20
technology a wide spectrum of materials and
combinations of materials can be found for conductor
application, e.g.: ml, 21 Cu, 17 Au, 16 PdAu, 22 NiAu. 14 .
Storage at 125C, No Load

"o9
gg,5 % Alumina (As ),2,,,
Fir,ed
4. NiCr RESISTOR PROPERTIES AND
RELIABILITY
The main advantage of NiCr thin film resistors is their Corning 7059
high stability in combination with very low TCR, an 0,5

indispensable requirement for circuits with demand for

extremely high stability of electrical function. Table II
shows typical data of NiCr resistors in hybrid integrated 500 1.000 2.000 5.000 10.000 h 100.000
circuits: A Laser Trimmed
Resistor stability is usually evaluated by accelerated B: Untrimmed
life tests at elevated temperatures with or without FIGURE 10 Resistor stability for different substrate
additional electrical load. Within limited temperature materials, zR/R 1/3
56 J. ROLKE
latter is related to the sensitivity of Ni- and Cr- oxides (or
the resistor/conductor interface) to electrochemical
attack in presence of condensed moisture, possibly
participating residual chemicals from etchants or gasses
of industrial environment. 21 Therefore, the carefully
rinsed circuits generally have to be sealed with coatings
either on silicone basis, or silicon monoxide,-dioxide,
-nitride, borosilicate glass, etc. 21,23,24,27 Circuits
operating frequently below dew point conditions
should be mounted into hermetically sealed packages,
and the residual vapor content has to be low enough to
safely prevent moisture condensation at the lowest
possible storage- or operation temperature.

5. APPLICATIONS

NiCr alloys, deposited by vacuum methods, are widely

used in the current resistor technology. NiCr films FIGURE 12 Voltage divider for X-Y-plotter.
cover extreme areas of application reaching from
discrete resistors to highest performance integrated
resistor networks. 28,29 choice technology for resistors and hybrids for
In detail, we find large volume production of discrete measuring equipment, for data processing and for
NiCr film resistors at adequate quality and low cost for special applications in the telecommunication field with
main requirements, on the other hand high quality demand for high stability of electrical function.
resistors with low TCR, high stability and low tolerance Typical applications therefore may be voltage
of TCR and resistance. dividers (Figure 12) or instrumentation amplifiers for
In the hybrids field NiCr thin film resistors offer measuring equipment, R-2R-ladder networks (Figure
specific advantages by the combination of very low 13) and reference circuits for A/D and D/A
TCR with high stability, low noise and distortion converters, 3,31 submerged repeaters or attenuation
(Figure 1 1). Thus, NiCr thin film technology is the networks for long-range communication, 25 or to some
extent active filters for telecommunication. 31
Concerning the latter, highly stable filters can be built
T150 up by combining NiCr resistors of zero TCR with NPO
chip capacitors; 31,2 and this, for small production runs,

.- 140

130

120

110

-50 0 100 200 300 ppmlK 500

TCR
FIGURE 11 TCR vs. distortion index A 3. FIGURE 13 R-2R-ladder for D/A converter.
 NICHROME THIN FILM RESISTORS APPLICATIONS 57
at adequate costs. But an analysis of costs also shows 9. C. Sarbu et al, Thin Solid Films, 28, 311-322 (1975).
that at increasing production rates integrated R-C thin 10. G.W.A. Dummer, Materials for Conductive and Resistive
film technologies become increasingly economical. This Functions, Hayden Book Company, New York, 246-247.
11. D. S. Campbell and B. Hendry: Brit. J. Appl. Phys. 16,
is due to the fact that the cost per capacitor chip 1719 (1965).
decreases very slowly with increasing quantities. On the 12. H. Delfs and E. Salzmann, Aufgedampfte
other hand, integrated components start with high cost Diinnschichtschaltungen auf keramischen Substraten
at small volume production, but decrease rapidly as the BMFF, Forschungsbericht T 76-26 (1976).
13. G. Nocerino and K. E. Singer, J. Vac. Sci. Technol. 16, (2)
additional investment is spread across a large 147-150 (1979).
production. Further cost reduction is caused by less 14. I. Ahern and K. Heid, IEEE Trans. PHP-8, June 72, No.
effort in assembling, due to the reduced number of 2, 10.
components to be mounted. Thus, for filters, oscillators 15. H.P. Lorenz and H. W. P6tzlberger, Nachrichtentechn. Z.
or similar applications integrated thin film (and 27, 190-195 (1974).
16. I. J. Faith and I. W. Jennings, Microelectronics and
increasingly thick film) hybrid technologies are Reliability, 14, 41-48 (1975).
preferred. Among these, tantalum-based thin film 17. K. H. Houska European Hybrid Microelectronics
technologies are of importance, due to the excellent Conference 1979, 399-409.
suitability of tantalum for both resistor- and thin film 18. H. J. Degenhart and J. H. Pratt, Trans. Vac. Syrup. lOth
Boston, 480 (1963).
capacitor fabrication. 32 In the past, we therefore 19. J. S. Fisher and P. M. Hall, Proceedings oflEEE,
developed parallel to NiCr an integrated hybrid R-C 1418-1424 Oct (1971).
technology with TaAI resistors and TaA1-Oxid/SiO 2 20. J.J. Garido, D. Gerstenberg and R. W. Berry, Thin Solid
dielectric for capacitors to cover the above Films, 41, 87-103 (1977).
applications. 33 21. C.H. Lane, Nichrome Resistor Properties and Reliability,
Report RADC-TR-73-181, 6/73.
To round up the picture, it should be mentioned that 22. J. M. Morabito, J. H. Thomas and N. G. Lesh, IEEE
NiCr is used for some other applications, for example Trans. on Parts, Hybrids, and Packaging, Vol. PHP-11,
radiation hardened circuits, 34 fusible links in No. 4 (1975).
23. G. Zinsmeister, European Hybrid Microelectronics
PROM’s, 21 resistance standards (e.g. 1000 M with
TCR of less than 3 ppm/K!) 35 and recently thermal Conference 1979, Ghent, 149-160.
24. U. Smith and R. Hofmann, Electrocomponent Science and
printheads. 23 Technology, 5, 159-164 (1978).
25. D. O. Spiller, Proceedings European Hybrid
Microelectronic Conference Bad Homburg, May 1977,
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