Unit 1: School Culture, Leadership and Management

▪ Concept, need and importance of school culture, organist ion

and management.
▪ School environment – physical, social, psychological and
academic.
▪ Leadership – meaning, types and appropriate leadership
system.
▪ Teacher – role, qualities and professional code of conduct.
▪ Head of intuition – duties and responsibilities.
▪ Role of school activates such as assemblies, annual days etc
in the creation of school culture.

UNIT 2: Structure and processes of the India Education

System
▪ Types of school within different administrative bodies.
▪ Role and responsibilities of education functionaries of Block
and Cluster, Recourse center.
▪ Understanding and interpreting educational policies that
impact schools. (important features of NPE-86, SSA and RTE
Act-2009 in brief)

UNIT 3: Institutional Planning and Classroom Management.

▪ Meaning and concept of institutional planning and classroom
management.
▪ Steps involved in institutional planning.
▪ Factors responsible for effective classroom management.
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UNIT 4: Schools Effectiveness and School Standards
▪ Meaning and concept
▪ Understanding and development standards in education (as per
RTI norm)
▪ Management of learning recourse – school time table, its
features and preparation of an effective time table, school
library, co-curricular activates.
▪ Utilization of community recourse.
▪ Involvement of school in community development.
▪ Organization of meeting of parent-teacher Association,
Mother-Teacher Association, School Management Committee
etc.

Unit 5: Maintenance of School Records

▪ Need and importance
▪ Type of school records
▪ Use of the record

UNIT-I

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SCHOOL CULTURE, LEADERSHIP AND
MANAGEMENT
Introduction
The word “culture” describes a wide range of influences on
how people behave in organizations, communities and even
nations. In general, culture refers to a set of common values,
attitudes, beliefs and norms, some of which are explicit and
some of which are not. Just as water surrounds and
envelopes fish shaping their perspectives and determining
their courses of action, culture surrounds and envelopes
teachers forming their perspectives and influencing their
decisions and actions. Teachers work within a cultural
context that influences every aspect of their pedagogy, yet
this pervasive element of schools is elusive and difficult to
define. Culture influences all aspects of schools, including
such things as how the staff dresses, what staff talk about in
the teachers’ lounge, how teachers decorate their classrooms,
their emphasis on certain aspects of the curriculum, and
teachers’ willingness to change.
As Donahue (1997) states, “If culture changes, everything
changes “

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Concept of school culture
Imagine entering a school. What do you see? What do you
hear the teachers and other staff members saying? What do
the bulletin boards look like? How easy was it to enter the
school? What are the children saying and doing? How noisy
is it? Do you feel welcome or afraid? What is the general
“feel” of the environment? All these questions and more
pertain to the underlying stream of values and rituals that
pervade schools. This underlying stream is the culture of that
particular school. Culture is the stream of “norms, values,
beliefs, traditions, and rituals built up over time”. It is a set
of tacit expectations and assumptions that direct the
activities of school personnel and students.

Need and importance of School Culture

A school culture influences the ways people think, feel, and
act. When a school has a positive, professional culture, one
finds meaningful staff development, successful curricular
reforms and the effective use of students performance data.
In an environment of positive school culture, staff and
student learning thrive. In contrast, a school with negative or
toxic culture that dose not value professional learning,
resists change or devalues staff development hinders success
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school culture will have either a positive or a detrimental
impact on the quality and success of staff development.
School with positive culture often have a common
professional language, communal stones of success,
extensive opportunities for quality professional development
and ceremonies that celebrate improvement, collaboration
and learning. All of these elements build commitment, forge
motivation and foster learning for staff and students.

Definition of Organization
The dictionary definition of organization is “Structure” or
“the mode in which something is organized” or systematic
arrangement for a definite purpose.
At the root of any organization there are group of people.
The organization involves the people coming together, to
realize certain definite objectives. These objectives give the
distinctiveness to organizations. For example, When the
objective is to disseminate knowledge, we have
organizations like school and when objectives is to lead a
life under some controlling laws and regulations we have the
organization of state type.
Robbins defines organization in terms of “ a consciously
coordinated social unit composed of two or more people,
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that function on a relatively continuous basis to achieve a
common goal or set of goals.”

Meaning of School organization

Theoretically speaking the “ Organization of the school is the
administrative expression of educational theory. The school
organization may be viewed as the structure or the
framework within which the teachers and supervisors/
headmasters operate so that the activities of school may be
carried on. The organization of school is dependent on the
objectives, curriculum, methods etc, which constitute
education theory for it.

Administration vs organization:
• The organization is a structure or a plan.The creation of
organization is a function of administration.
• The administration develops educational policy of
principles which underline a philosophy of education.
The organization is required to operate in accordance
with the accepted theory.

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 • The techniques or procedure which are employed in
operating the organization in accordance with the
established policies constitute administration.
• Thus, administration is responsible for creating the
organization as well as the basic policies. The basic
policies create the need for organization and also
identify some of the essential elements which
organization should have.

Concept of management:
In the words of Henry Fayol, to manage is to forcast and to
plan, to organize, to command, to coordinate and to
control, to foresee and to provide means to examine the
future and drawing up the plan of action. To organize means
building up the dual structure, material and human. To
command means maintaining activity among the personnel.
To coordinate means binding together, unifying and
harnessing all activity and effort. To control means seeing
that everything occurs in conformity with established rules
and expressed command.
Management entails the coordination of human effort and
material resources towards the achievement of
organizational objectives as well as the organization of the
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productive functions essential for achieving stated or
accepted goals.
Educational management is a field of study and practice with
the operation of educational organization. Educational
management may be defined as a process of creating an
educational environment where individuals and the head, the
staff, other members of the organization) working together
can perform effectively and efficiently towards the
attainment of the set educational aims. It is concerned with
spelling out the educational objectives, planning process,
staffing pattern, organizational process, budgeting,
financing, directing activities and evaluating performance.

Characteristic of management:
• Management is a process.
• Management is an art as well as science.
• Management aims at the optimum utilization of resources-
material as well as human.
• Management is always goal directed.
• Management involves the need for leadership.
• Management involves organized and coordinated acts.

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Need and importance of management:
Management is needed everywhere and every walk of our
life. It is needed to bring discipline and order in the work.
It is important because of the following few reasons:
• It helps in achieving objectives of the organization or
institution.
• It helps in utilizing available resources judiciously and
productively.
• Reduces costs and increases output.
• Maintains equilibrium.
• Benefits the students.
• It helps in coordination, administration and control.
• Helps in planning and innovations.
• Guides routine working and supervision to achieve
target.

School management:
School management is a specified procedure whose work is
to modify the human and physical resources of the school in
dynamic organized unites. School management implies
systematic arrangement or framework of school devoted to
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ensuring unity of effect, efficiency, good will and proper
use of resources for the all round development of all the
learners.
School management may be compared to a lens that brings
everything about the educational system or the community,
faculty and students. If it is a poor lens, the image is fussy
and obscure and no one in the educational system or the
community gets a clear picture of the educational system
becomes a clear-cut and vivid projection of the ideals and
ideas that have been envisaged to bring into being.
School management has four aspects :
• Management of Material Equipment: This includes
material things like furniture and other goods.
• Management of School Plan: This includes school
building, laboratories, playground student.
• Management of Human Resources: School staff, pupils
and their parents, VEC members.
• Management of Ideals and Principles: This means
organization of ideas and principles into school system,
curriculum, time schedule, norms of achievement, co-
curricular activities etc.

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Definitions of Leadership:

• Leadership is “the process of guiding followers in a

Certain direction in pursuit of a vision, mission or
goals” (Gold and Evans, 1998).
• Leadership is “the ability to provide direction to a group
of people and influence those people to follow the
direction and act accordingly” (Samson Itoje).
• Leadership is the ability to bring out the best in
everyone.

Types of Leadership:
There are many theories about the types of educational
leadership. In order to provide an overview of the different
theories, below are brief definitions of the types of
leadership, including Transformational Leadership and
Pedagogical Leadership which are key to school
improvement. However, it is important to note that the
context of the school and the particular situation you face
would determine the type of leadership you use. As head
teachers, you might need to be transactional leaders on one
occasion, and, on other occasions, you might need to be
bureaucrats; however, research and experience show that if
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you focus on Pedagogical Leadership, your school
improvement efforts are more likely to be successful.
• Instructional leadership
Instructional leadership focuses on the role of the head
teacher in coordinating, controlling, supervising and
developing curriculum and instruction in the school.
• Bureaucratic leadership
Bureaucratic leadership focuses on the role of the
head teacher in mandating tasks and outcomes.
Management systems that emphasize supervision,
evaluation and incentives support this type of
leadership.

• Visionary leadership
Visionary leadership focuses on the role of the head
teacher in providing a vision for the school. The
visionary leader does this by motivating and inspiring
schools to change.

• Entrepreneurial leadership
Entrepreneurial leadership focuses on the role of the
head teacher in encouraging competition, providing
incentives for winning and disincentives for losing.
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 • Transactional leadership
Transactional leadership focuses on the role of the head
teacher in providing rewards (e.g salary and other
extrinsic rewards that the head teacher controls to a
certain degree) in exchange for services (e.g. from a
teacher).

• Transformational leadership
Transformational leadership focuses on developing
leadership capacity within the organization rather than
limiting leadership to the head teacher. It focuses on
capacity development of school community members in
order to bring about improvement in teaching and
learning. This is in contrast to instructional leadership,
where the head teacher focuses on directly improving
classroom teaching and learning. Transformational
leadership stresses on the head teacher’s moral role.
Transformational leadership is linked with change and
improvement and it is seen when leaders:
a. Stimulate interest among colleagues to view their
work from new perspectives
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 b. Generate awareness of the mission and vision of the
team and organization
c. Develop colleagues to higher levels of ability and
potential
d. Motivate colleagues and followers to look beyond
their own interests towards those that will benefit the
group

Leadership Styles :
Bill Reddin classifies leadership style into four basic basic
types. Each basic leadership style has sub leadrship styles.

Basic leadership styles Sub-Basic leadership styles

Integrative Type Compromiser
Executive
Related Type Missionary
Developer
Dedicated Type Autocratic
Benevolent Autocratic
Separated Type Deserter
Bureaucratic
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On the basis of emotion, there are six types of leadership
styles, called emotional leadership styles :
1. The visionary leadership styles
2. The Affillative leadership styles
3. The coaching leadership styles
4. The Democratic leadership style
5. The Pace setting leadership style
6. The Commanding leadership style
The most leadership style in context of Indian situation is
Democratic leadership style.
In case of democratic leadership style, ‘We feeling’ prevails
in the school. Democratic leadership style looks upon the
school personnel as socially equal.it does not believe in
taking decisions by itself but with the school family.
Responsibility and accountability are shares in managing the
school. A code of conduct is prepared and all constituents of
school family are bound to this code. No body is allowed to
enjoy any special privilege. An environment of trust
becomes the corner stone of the management.

Teacher- role, qualities and professional code of conduct

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 H.G.Wells, a great thinker and historian, has said, “ The
teacher is the real maker of history”. The teachers are
considered literally the arbiters of the nation’s destiny.
In the srimad Bhagwat Gita, Sri Krishna says to Arjun, his
disciple, “ without having a Guru(Teacher), you can not get
true knowledge”. Teacher is one who removes darkness and
leads the man towards liberation. The teacher is an
embodiment of knowledge and paragon of all virtues.
The teacher is the main dynamic force in the school. He is
the person upon whom depends all the activities of the
school. The importance of material resources can’t be
denied, but they are all meaning less in absence of good
teachers.
The Kothari Commission has given a place of importance
to the teachers status. It maintains that of the different factors
which influence the quality of education and its contribution
to national development, the quality, competence and
character of teachers undoubtedly the most significant.
Qualities of a Teacher:
The qualities of a good teacher may be listed as follows:
1. Love for the children.
2. Well adjusted personality.
3. Interest in community activities and events.
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 4. A high sense of professional prestige.
5. Knowledge of child psychology.
6. good command over the subject matter.
7. A teacher must be studious and updated.
8. Professionally trained.
9. Have high character.
10. Patriotism.
11. Leadership traits.
12. tolerance and patience.
13. Imagination.
14. Reflective.
15. Emotional stability .
16. Constructiveness.
17. Sense of Humor.
18. Interest in Co-Curricular activities.
19. Free from complexity.
20. Good health.

Role and Functions of Teacher

A teacher play an important role in the progress and welfare
of society. A teacher is a member of the society. They live
and work in the society yet, in view of their special
responsibilities and roles, they are expected to rise above the
average member of society. Their general attitude in society
should be of enthusiasm and optimism. They are expected to
be quite sensitive to its needs. They should be guided by the
idea of Democracy, Secularism and Socialism. They are to
be sufficiently appreciative of the changing needs and
problems of society and plays a dynamic and positive role.

A teacher plays their role in two ways :

(I) Inside the school by preparing students for effective
citizen.
(II) Outside the school by assuming the role of a social
worker and agent of social change.
Beside this, teachers play very important role in school
management and administration, elimination of social
tension and conflict and contributes towards international
understanding. The major function of a teacher is to teach.
They are expected to give the best of themself to their
students. Before the teacher can give the best of himself,
they should acquire the best for themself. Beside teaching
there are a number of other functions which a teacher must
perform. These are in relation to the creation of effective
teaching –learning situation. They may be described as
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 working in close co-operation with the supervisor, the co-
curricular activities, the guidance activities, helping the
headmaster in administrative works, improvement of
curriculum, keeping records and preparing reports,
maintaining public relation, maintaining good relation in
school with staff, the utilization of school plant and school
equipment, development of leadership quality among
students.

Professional code of conduct for teachers :

Whoever adopts teaching as a profession, is under an
obligation to conduct himself in accordance with the ideals
of the profession. A teacher is constantly under the scrutiny
of his students and society at large. Therefore, every teacher
should see that there is no incompatibility between his
precepts and practice.

1.Code of conduct in relation to students:

• Teacher should respect the right and dignity of the
students in expressing his/ her Opinion.
• Teacher should deal justly and impartially with students
regardless of their religion, caste, political, economic,
social and physical characteristics.
 • Teacher should recognize the difference in aptitude and
capabilities among students and strive to meet their
individual needs.
• Teacher should be affectionate to the students and not
behave in a vindictive manner towards any of them for
any reason.
• Teacher should pay attention to only the attainment of
the students in the assessment of merit.
• Teacher should make themselves available to the
students even beyond their class hours and help and
guide students without any remuneration or reward.
• Teacher should aid students to develop an understanding
of our national heritage and national goals.
• Teacher should refrain from instigating students against
other students, colleagues or administration.

2. Code of conduct in relation to the colleague:

Teachers should:
• Treat other members of the profession in the same
manner as they themselves wish to be treated;
• Speak respectfully to other teachers and render
assistance for overall professional betterment;

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 • refrain from lodging unsubstantiated allegations against
colleagues to their higher authorities; and
• Refrain from allowing considerations of caste, creed,
religion, race or sex to influence their professional
working.

A.Teachers and Authorities:

Teachers should:
• discharge their professional responsibilities according
to the existing rules and adhere to procedures and
methods consistent with their profession in initiating
steps through their own institutional bodies and / or
professional organizations for change of any such rules
detrimental to the professional interest;

• refrain from undertaking any other employment and

commitment including private tuitions and coaching
classes which are likely to interfere with their
professional responsibilities.

• co-operate in the formulation of the policies of their

institution by accepting various offices and discharge
the responsibilities which such offices may demand.
 • co-operate through their organizations in the
formulation of policies of the other institutions and
accept offices; as necessary.

• co-operate with the authorities for the betterment of

the institutions keeping in view the overall interest and
in conformity with the dignity of the profession;

• give and expect due notice before a change of position

is made;

• refrain from availing themselves of leave except on

unavoidable grounds and as far as practicable with
prior intimation, keeping in view their particular
responsibility towards the completion of the academic
schedule.

B.Teachers and Non Teaching Staff:

• Teachers should treat the non teaching staff as
colleagues and equal partners in a co-operative
undertaking, within every educational institution, and

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 • Teachers should help in the functioning of the Joint staff
Councils covering both teachers and the non-teaching
staff.

C.Teachers and Guardians:

Teachers should try to see through teachers bodies and
organizations that institutions maintain contact with the
guardians of their students send reports of their performance
to the guardians whenever necessary and meet the guardians
in meeting convened for the purpose for mutual exchange of
ideas and for the benefit of the institution.

D.Teachers and society:

Teachers should:
• recognize that education is a public service and strive to
keep the public informed of the educational programmes
which are being provided;
• work to improve education in the community and
strengthen the community’s moral and intellectual life;
• be aware of social problems and take part in such
activities as would be conducive to the progress of
society and hence the country as a whole;
 • perform the duties of citizenship, participate in
community activities and shoulder responsibilities of
public offices;
• refrain from taking part in or subscribing to or assisting
in any way, activities which tend to promote feeling of
hatred or enmity among different communities, religious
or linguistic groups but actively work for national
integration;

3. Code of conduct in relation to self:

Teachers should:
• adhere to a responsible pattern of conduct and demeanor
expected of them by the community,
• manage their private affairs in a manner consistent with
the dignity of the profession;
• strive for continuous professional growth through study
and research;
• express free and frank opinion when participating in
professional meetings seminars and conferences;
• maintain active , membership of professional
organizations and strive to update their knowledge
through them;

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 • perform their duties in the form of teaching, tutorials
practical and seminar work conscientiously and with
dedication;
• co-operate and assist in carrying out functions relating to
the educational responsibilities of the schools, the Board
of School Education such as assisting in appraising
application for admission advising and counselling
students as well as assisting in the conduct of Board and
School examinations, including supervision,
invigilation and evaluation, and
• participate in extension, co-curricular and extra-
curricular activities including community service.

Duties, functions and responsibilities of headmaster:

The headmaster has large number of academic,
organizational and administrative duties and responsibilities.
But, for convenience shake, these can be classified into the
following:
a. Planning.
b. Teaching.
c. Organizing and administering.
d. Supervising and guiding.
 e. Maintaining discipline and relations.

a. Planning:- Planning is the first step in any academic and

administrative assignment. The headmaster was to plan
all kinds of his activities in time for implementing
various programs with success. He is required to plan his
duties and functions throughout the year, but mainly at
the following stages:

(1) before opening of the school

(2) On the opening day and during the first week of the
session
(3) during the session,
(4) at the end of the session.

With a view to planning effectively, the headmaster should

involve all including his staff, students, guardians and
parents. He has to convene the meetings of staff council,
managing committee, parent-teacher association and
students’ council for holding discussions and arriving at the
decision for implementation. Planning should embrace all
activities, curricular, co-curricular projects and community
service.
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1. Planning before the opening of the school:- Unless proper
planning is made before opening of the school , there will be
a chaotic condition in the school. There may teachers
without students, classes without teachers and so on due to
lack of timely planning. The headmaster should, therefore,
plan all arrangements before opening of the school so that
everything is found ready and as per the needs and
conditions. The following tasks will be taken up at this stage:
• The headmaster should announce the opening of the
session after the summer vacation, the date of
application for admission tests for that purpose and so
on. All these may be notified on the Notice Board of the
school and/or advertised in the newspaper.
• He should make plans for admission either on the basis
of class promotions or holding necessary tests or
adopting certain procedures and criteria. This has to be
planned according to the prescribed intake capacity,
available accommodation and teacher’s strength.
• He should ensure physical verification of all kinds of
stock of the school like equipment, furniture, library
books and journals, etc.
 • Necessary registers and files should be opened or made
up to date according to programmes and projects being
or to be undertaken during the session.
• A calendar of activities should be prepared for the whole
session in advance. It includes, inter alia, rates for
admission tests and other examinations, for admission,
for applying, for fee concessions and so on, school
calendar and students diaries can be printed if funds and
necessary information should be given in these
publications.
• Steps should be taken for appointment of new staff
members due to additional sections/ classes, death and
transfer of teacher.
• If the school is government aided, necessary proposals
should be submitted to Government earlier, e.g. for
creation of posts, releasing grants/sanctions and so on.

2. On the Opening Day and during the First Week of the

Session:
Planning should be made as regards the following:
• Teacher-wise, student-wise, and room-wise time tables
should be prepared.

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 • Individual teachers should develop their scheme of
lesions/activities.
• Earlier to this, distribution of work, particularly teaching
assignments should be done lamong the staff.
• Making arrangements for necessary physical facilities
like furniture equipment etc. should be done.
• Students assemblies may be convened to orient the new
students and giving necessary instructions.
• Announcements should be made for purchase of text-
books, note-books, etc.

3. During the Session: The following tasks should be

planned by the headmaster throughout the year:
• Organization of the instructional work.
• Organization of various projects/co-curricular activities.
• Organization of the evaluation/examination.
• Organizing extramural
• Organizing class-supervision and verification of records,
students works, etc.
• Organizing guidance services, school broadcast
programmes and so on.
 • Making correspondence, furnishing proposals to
Government for improving infrastructure and academic
programmes.

4. At the end of the session: The headmaster has to make

planning for the following works:
• Holding annual sports, prize distribution ceremonies,
etc.
• Preparing abstracts of attendance, enrolment, fee
collection, expenditure statement, etc.
• Recording supervision remarks, making class promotion,
etc.
• Preparing Annual Reports.
• Taking preliminary steps for the next session.
In this context it may be noted that the headmaster should
plan mainly for two kinds of work:
(I) maintenance,
(II) development.
Any headmaster has to manage the school planning some
routine activities. But the innovative and resourceful head
teacher should make plans for new projects, developmental
programmes and improvement of the school programmes
and improvement of the school plans.
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b. Teaching
The headmaster is the head of teachers. He should be the
teacher first and then everything else. He should take some
classes, give guidance to teachers and see that teaching work
and standard in the school is not impaired in any way. He
should command due respect and play a leadership role only
by making himself good in teaching and better in knowledge
and understanding the teachers’ problems. He, of course,
cannot be an expert in all subjects or fields, but he should
have skills, interests, and positive attitude towards academic
activities.
It is, however, found that many headmaster keep themselves
so much engaged in administrate and non-academic work
that they do not spare time for academic and teaching
activities, They thus become the administrative head, not the
academic head which is more essential than anything else.
They should realize the standards of students and teaching
work of teachers, their problems and difficulties, so that they
can render necessary guidance for improving the conditions,
They should act as the light-house of knowledge and
inspiration.
There cannot be any hard and fast principles or criteria
regarding the number of periods, higher or lower classes,
subjects of teaching and so on to be taken up by the
headmaster. It depends on the volume of his administrative
and supervisory responsibility, his expertise in the subjects,
nature of school and so on. On the whole, the headmaster has
to take up some teaching work according to his interest and
convenience.

c. Organizing and Administering: The headmaster,

besides planning, is required to organize and administer
various programmes and projects in the schools. At the
outset, he must procure adequate furniture, equipment
and instrument for the school. He has set the old
equipment and furniture repaired, set-up libraries,
workshops and other physical facilities in an effective
and improved manner.
The headmaster has to develop curricular preparation
classify pupils distribute teaching jobs among teachers,
allotting other duties among staff through discussion and
deliberation. He should organize sports, school broadcasts,
festival, scouting, redcross, parent-teacher association,
faculty, meeting, staff meeting and so on.

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Office work is also an important competent of the
headmaster’s responsibilities. He has to make budgeting
correspondence accounting verification, checking the up-to-
date entries in the registers and documents of the school.
Unless it is alert in the matter, there may be forgery,
corruption, misappropriation and other difficulties in the
school administration. Office is the life centre of the school
and the headmaster has to maintain it properly.

d. Supervision and Guiding

In traditional sense supervising and guiding are taken as
components of administration and organization. But, in the
modern days supervision has acquired new significance and
needs skills and insight. Administration, for example, means
providing physical facilities and ensuring successful
functioning of the institution, whereas supervision is
concerned with improving the total teaching-learning
situation. Modern supervision is not “fault-finding”,
encouraging and guiding the teachers and students, even the
parents for improving quality of the educational process.
A headmaster should supervise the work of teachers in order
to help encourage and guide, not to criticize and find faults.
He can do this through participation and in a spirit of co-
operation. His supervision should be regular and continuous.
The headmaster is required to supervise the following work
in the school:

• Supervision of the teaching work: The headmaster

should supervise the teaching work done by the teachers
regularly and in actual situations. Sometimes he may be
required to demonstrate through teaching any difficulty
point or concept. He should discuss any defects found in
teaching of a teacher afterwards in his awn office-room
not in the class-room in the presence of students. His
attitude should be friendly and co-operative. He should
instruct by way of guidance.
The headmaster should also supervise the work of students.
He may prepare a schedule according to which the monitors
will submit the note-books of students to the headmasters.
He should give his brief remarks regarding the nature and
extent of correction and suggestions for improving the
situations. The standard and neatness of the students’ writing
should be evaluated by the headmaster who can give his
views for guidance.

• Supervision of the Practical and Out-door Work:

Students are required to do map-work, conduct surveys,
36
 undertake projects, carry on practical and craft- work in
and outside the school. They play games and sports, hold
meetings and go on picnics and field trips. The
headmaster should supervise these activities every now
and then and extent necessary co-operation as well as
guidance.

• Supervision of Welfare Services: Provision of adequate

physical facilities and welfare for better teaching-
learning activities. For example, physical facilities like
water and light, seating accommodation and furniture,
hostel provision, for board and lodging and services like
medical inspection. Some other facilities like cycle-stad,
common-room, canteen, etc. are necessary. All these
facilities are and services have to be supervised regularly
by the headmaster.

• Supervision of the Office Work: An office as mentioned

earlier is an important as the heart of a body. It has to
keep communication both vertical and horizontal. It has
to deal with admission, attendance, maintaining registers
and accounts, etc. The headmaster should supervise all
these office work and check-up the files and registers
 from time to time for ensuring proper maintenance and
regular drawal as well as disbursement. Otherwise,
indifference and callousness on the part of headmaster
will create problems for many, seriously affecting the
discipline and morale of the personnel.

• Maintaining Discipline and Inter-Human Relations:

Discipline is of vital importance functioning of the
school. It mostly depends upon the competency of the
headmaster. It is not a particular functioning or duty of
the headmaster. It is an overall outcome of all his
activities, dealings and rapport with others. The
headmaster has, therefore, to maintain his proper
relations with others-staff, students, parents and
community.
(a) Staff: He must be just and sympathetic towards staff
members. He is not an autocrat, but a democratic leader.
He should show respect to others’ personality and
maintain human relationship as congenial as possible.
He must recognize the individual difference and
capitalize the uniqueness in everybody. He should
participate in the actual situation himself and share the
burden of the work as well as responsibility. He must
give instruction and at the same time seek advice and
38
 suggestions from teachers both individually as well as
jointly. For this purpose, both personal
interviews/discussion as well as staff meetings are to be
held as frequently as possible.
(b) Students:- The headmaster is not only the leader of the
staff but also a well-wisher of pupils. Through
democratic administration he should promote willing
participation and sharing of pupils in the management
and organization of both curricular and co-curricular
programs. The headmaster should take keen interest in
students’ welfare activities and provide all facilities for
all round development of their personality. He should
maintain friendly relations with students in order to
encourage and inspire them.

(c) Parents:- The headmaster should maintain both direct

and indirect contacts with guardians. It has been found
that teachers close relationship with parents and students
achievement as well as behaviour are positively
correlated. Parents- teacher association may be formed
for the purpose and the headmaster should involve
guardians in the annual functions and occasional
celebrations in the school. The headmaster should be co-
operative, sympathetic, and courteous toward them.
(d) Community:- Since the school is regarded as the centre
of community development, headmaster should maintain
close and they can be invited to schools to give talks and
demonstrate their work to students and teachers. The
headmaster should keep contacts with various voluntary
agencies and philanthropic organizations to enlist their
help and co-operation for promotion of school
improvement.

Role of School activities in the creation of school culture

Most of the school activities are co-curricular in nature.
Earlier, these activities were regarded as extracurricular and
so much emphasis was not given on organizing the same.
But of late, attitude towards these changed and all round
development of the child has been the goal of education.
The value of school activities are multifarious and
important from educational and cultural point of view.
Modern culture is evaluated by the criteria of leisure time
activities. It is said that one’s culture is known by the way
his leisure is used. Unless the students are taught how to
utilize their leisure most usefully, they can not contribute to

40
cultural growth satisfactorily and enjoy their life to the
optimum.

Activities that contribute to the creation of school

culture:
(a) School assembly: Pupils through assembly learn how to
behave in public meetings, to get accustomed to be
speakers as well as audience which is a kind of
citizenship training and contributes a lot towards positive
school culture.
(b) Debate, Discussion, Seminars an Symposia : The pupil
get confidence and speak with the presence of mind,
learn oratory or art of elocution through participation in
these activities and finally contribute towards
enrichment of school culture.
(c) Dramatics : Dramatics is a playful activity in which
both creative expression and artistic imitation
combines. It helps to get themselves acquainted with
various subjects like music, staging, decorating and so
on. All these finally provide greater inputs for
enrichment of school culture.
(d) Literary activities : The literary activities are useful
means of promoting creative writing And self
 expression. It is an important means of projecting the
school culture.
(e) Games and sports : Games and sports are important for
conservation of health of children, development of good
habits, promoting personality. Traits-like alertness,
confidence, Judgement. Co-operation, team-spirit and
finally contributes towards the development of Positive
school culture and citizenship qualities.

UNIT-2
STRUCTURE AND PROCESSES OF THE INDIAN
EDUCATION SYSTEM
Introduction
We are familiar with various aims of education such as
democratic aims, cultural aims, moral aims, vocational
aims, idealistic aims of education and the like. But
sometimes, questions come to our mind that how can we
achieve these aims through the process of education? Is
there any strategy or system formulated for this?
There must be some strategies to achieve the aims. So in
order to achieve the aims of education various

42
strategies are being devised. These strategies provide a
technical base for understanding and realization of aims of
education. In this unit we deal with structure and Processes
of Indian education system which provides strategies to
achieve the aims of education.
Educational Structure
The structure/ladder of education may be said as the skeleton
of any educational system. It implies to the number of stages
into which the course is divided. Its total duration for each
stage and types of institution at different stages are specified.
The systematic educational structure in India was first
introduced by the Wood’s Despatch of 1854, The Despatch
emphasized on the establishment of the graded schools that
constitute of four stages, namely, the primary, the middle,
the high schools, colleges and universities. Several
committees and commissions suggested new pattern of
education. As a result, the new pattern of education i.e.
10+2+3 has been introduced in several schools of our
country.

New Pattern Of Education (10+2+3):

43
The concept of new pattern of education(10+2+3) was first
recommended by the Calcutta University Commission
(1917-19) Which is also known as Sadler Commission. It
suggested the introduction of examination at the end of
matriculation, intermediate course (+2 course) and first
degree course (+3 course). The university commission
(1948-49) headed by Radhakrishnan repeated the idea of
10+2+3 educational structure. The secondary Education
Commission (1952-53) also pondered over the problem of
10+2+3+ educational structure. By the time the education
commission was appointed under the chairmanship of Dr.
D.S. Kothari, there were four patterns of educational
structure in our country, namely:- 10+2+3, 10+2+2,
11+1+2, 11+1+3. Thus, the Kothari Commission (1964-66)
emphasized on the introduction of a uniform educational
structure on 10+2+3 which was supported by the National
Policy Statement issued by the Central Government in 1968.
The pattern of Education(10+2+3) implies that:
(1) General education is to be imparted to the child for a
period of 10 years. Out of 10 years of school education,
8 years of schooling are for Elementary Education which
generally is divided into Lower Primary and Upper
Primary and two years of secondary school. The study of
 three languages, science, mathematics and social
sciences is made compulsory.
(a) Ten years of schooling is followed by two years of
Higher Secondary Education. This +2 education is taken
up the students who wanted to continue their formal
education. At this stage emphasizes given on vocational
and academic courses. Courses are diversified and
specialized courses are also provided with more
emphasis on vocationalization.
(b) After completion of 10+2 education, the aspiring
students can go for first degree courses of three years run
by the university. It is known as +3 stage.

National policy on education (1986) and structure of

education
The NPE-1986 on Education was adopted by Parliament in
may 1986, It is a landmark in the history of education in the
post independence India. It aimed at promoting national
progress, sense of common citizenship and culture, and at
strengthening national integration. It laid stress on the need
for a radical reconstruction of the education system and on
improving its quality in all stages. It gave much attention to

45
science and technology, the cultivation of moral values and a
closer relation between education and life of the people.
Relating to the structure of education, the common structure
i.e. 10+2 structure was made part the NPE-1986. The NPE
made recommendation for a uniform pattern of duration in
respect of the three sub-stages of first ten years of schooling.
It has stipulated that +2 stage should be brought within
school system gradually. The structure of education
suggested by NPE- 1986 is as follows:-
• Pre-Primary Education.
• Primary education for a period of 5 years i.e. class-I to
class-V.
• Upper primary Education should be for a period of three
years i.e. class –VI to class VIII --Secondary Education
for a period of two years i.e. classes- IX and- X.
• Higher Secondary Education for a period of two years
i.e. class –XI and class-XII.
• First degree course for a period of three years.
 Educational ladder suggested by NPE - 1986.

First Degree Course ( 3 years )

Higher Secondary Education ( 2 years )

Secondary Education ( 2 years )

Secondary Education ( 2 years )

Primary Education ( 5 years )

Pre — Primary Education

Roles and Responsibilities of Educational

Functionaries of Block and Cluster Resource Centre
Block Resource Centers (BRCs) and Cluster Resource
Centers (CRCs) were established in each block of every

47
district under SSA to conduct in-service teacher training and
to provide academic support to teachers and schools on a
regular basis as well as to help in community mobilization
activities. BRCs are headed by BRC coordinators and CRCs
are headed by CRC coordinators. The BRC coordinator is
academic coordinator/facilitator at Block level who is
responsible for in-service training of teachers and providing
guidance to the CRC coordinators. They also organize
training programmes for members of Village Education
Committees (VEC) and School Development and
Monitoring Committees (SDMCs). BRC coordinators also
collect material from District Project Office for distribution
among the teachers, SDMCs etc. through CRCs and provide
continuous support to teachers while monitoring
implementation of pedagogical and other intervenes at
school level.

The task of CRC co-ordinator include providing constant

support to the teachers, monitoring their performance,
identifying their needs both in formal schools and alternative
education centers and liaising with the SDMCs, the
community and NGOs working in
the area of education. Monthly meetings at cluster level are
held and periodic visits to schools are made by CRC co-
ordinators to monitor teachers performance and to provide
them on site support.
In nutshell, role of BRC/CRC is a mixed set of academic,
supervisory, managerial, networking and creative activities.
It goes beyond routine monitoring and supervision work as it
encompasses providing support to schools and teachers
through teacher training and teacher mentoring for their
professional growth, strengthening community school
linkage, providing resource support and carrying out action
research.

Understanding and interpretation of educational policies

that impact schools
Important features of NPE(1986):
NPE-1986 was the outcome of Kothari Commission
recommendation and the NPE1968. The NPE 1986 was
reviewed and revised in its plan of action POA(1992). These
were the result of board consensual consultation with
national and state representatives.
The important features that emerge from NPE-1986 and its
plan of action, 1992, may be summarized in the following
sequence:-
(a) Administration of Education will be decentralized.
(b) Sufficient resources will be made available for the
organization of education.
(c) 10+2+3 pattern of education will be implemented in the
whole country.
(d) Education at different level will be organized.
(e) Pre-Primary education will be organized.
(f) The goal of free and compulsory education will be
achieved as soon as possible.
(g) Secondary education will be organized.
(h) Higher education will be expanded and uplifted.
(i) Technical and Management education will be reformed.
(j) Examination system and evaluation process will be
uplifted.
(k) Educational technology will be used at all level of
education.
(l) Concrete steps will be taken for the Equality of
Educational opportunity.
(m) Special attention will be paid on women education.
(n) Education for ST and SC will be properly organized.
(o) Special attention will be paid on the education of the
children of minorities.
(p) Education for handicapped and mentally retarded
children will be organized.
In nutshell, both NPE and its POA have provided
significant direction for implementation of policies on school
education.

Sarva Shiksha Abhiyan:

It was in 1998 that the conference of Education Ministers of
the states recommended the launch of a major programme
for Universalization of Elementary Education. They
recommended the pursuance of a holistic and convergent
approach for achieving the goal of UEE in a mission mode
within a defined time frame. It resulted in the launch of the
massive government programme for UEE, the Sarva Shiksha
Abhiyan (SSA).
The Sarva Shiksha Abhiyan (SSA) was launched in the
year 2000-01 to achieve the goal UEE through a time bound
integrated approach, in partnership with states. The SSA
programme aims at providing elementary education to all
children in the 6-14 age group by 2010, by improving the
performance of the school system and providing community-
owned quality elementary education in the mission mode. It
also envisages bridging of gender and social disparities at the
elementary level. The SSA has a special focus on the
educational needs of girls and children belonging to SC and
ST groups including children in difficult circumstances.
The Sarva Shiksha Abhiyan is expected to accord the highest
priority to community monitoring, transparency in
programme planning and implementation of capacity
building at all levels as also to the adaptation of a mission
approach by the mainstream Education Department
functionaries.

Objectives of Sarva Shiksha Abhiyan:--

• All children in school, education guarantee Centre,

alternate school, ‘back-to-school’ camp by 2003(now
revised to December 2005).
• All children complete five years of primary schooling by
2007.
• All children complete eight years of elementary
schooling by 2010.
• Focus on elementary education of satisfactory quality
with emphasis on education for girls
 • Bridge all gender and social category gaps at primary
stage by 2007 and at
• Elementary education level by 2010.
• Universal retention by 2010.
RTE Act 2009
The recent “The Right of Children to Free and Compulsory
Education Act, 2009” marks a historic moment for the
children of India. Children have been guaranteed their right
to quality elementary education by the state with the help of
their families and communities. It came into force on 1st
April 2010.
Important features can be best understood by the major
provisions given in the act:--
• The right of children to free and compulsory education
of elementary education in a Neighborhood school.

• It clarifies that ‘compulsory education’ means obligation

of the appropriate government to provide free
elementary education and ensure compulsory admission,
attendance and completion of elementary education to
every child in the six to fourteen age group. ‘Free’
means that no child shall be liable to pay any kind of fee
 or charges or expenses which may prevent him or her
from pursuing and completing elementary education.

• It makes provisions for a non-admitted child to be

admitted to an age appropriate class.

• It specifies the duties and responsibilities of appropriate

Governments, local authority and parents in providing
free and compulsory education and sharing of financial
and other responsibilities between the central and state
Governments.

• It lays down the norms and standards relating to, inter

alia, Pupil Teacher Ratios (PTRs) buildings and
infrastructure, school working days, teacher working
hours.

• It provides for rational deployment of teachers by

ensuring that the specified pupil teacher ratio is
maintained for each school, rather than just as an
average for the State or District or Block, thus ensuring
that there is practically no urban-rural imbalance in
teacher postings. It also prohibits deployment of teachers
 for non- educational work, other than decennial census,
elections to local authority, state legislatures,
parliament, and disaster relief.

• It provides for appointment of appropriately trained

teacher, i.e. teachers with the requisite training and
academic qualifications.

• For children in 6-14 age group it prohibits:

(i) physical punishment and mental harassment,
(ii) screening procedures for admission.
(iii) capitation fees,
(iv) private tuition by teacher
(v) Running of schools without recognition.

• It provides for following penalties:-

(a) For charging capitation fee: fine up to 10 times
the capitation fee charged;
(b) For resorting to screening during admission:
Rs.25, 000 for first contravention Rs. 50,000 for
each subsequent contravention; and
(c) For running a school without recognition: fine
up to Rs one lakh and in case Of continuing
 contravention Rs. 10, 000 for each day during which
the contravention countries.

• It provides for development of curriculum in consonance

with the values enshrined. In the constitution and which
would ensure the all round development of the child,
building on the child’s knowledge, potentiality and talent
and making the child free from fear, trauma and anxiety
through a system of child friendly and child centered
learning.

• All private schools have to admit 25 percent children

from disadvantaged groups from their neighborhoods
for free education, which can be extended if the number
is not filled up with the customary one km radius-every
year in the class in which they induct new children

• It provides for protection and monitoring of the child’s

right to free and compulsory education and redressal of
grievances by the National and State Commissions for
Protection of Child Rights, which shall have the powers
of a civil court.
UNIT-3
INSTITUTIONAL PLANNING AND CLASSROOM
MANAGEMENT
Meaning and Concept of Institutional planning
Institutional planning, which is the basis of educational
planning emphasizes programme of qualitative
improvement. In fact, education, qualitative and
quantitative both, presupposes Planning .Institutional
planning necessitates the involvement of not only teachers
but even parents and students and provides adequate scope
for initiative, creativity, freedom and experimentation by
teachers It is also helpful in breaking down the authoritarian
and conservative attitude of the educational administration
which is generally impervious to change.

Our country embarked upon a big programme of educational

planning and expansion soon after Independence but failed
to achieve success to the extent expected of them. It is
because of the following reasons :
• The plans were prepared only by a few officials of the
Planning Commission at the center and the state. The
teachers, parents and the students were hardly consulted.
The result was that the plans lacked the whole hearted
 and willing cooperation and involvement of these
groups.
• Major stress was laid on the utilization of finances.
Planning was expenditure oriented.
• Planning did not influence the classroom situation very
much.
Institutional planning aims at removing these short comings.
Mr. M.B.Buch (1969, p.4 ) has succinctly defined
institutional planning as, “An institutional plan is a set of
programmes prepared by an educational institution on the
basis of felt needs and the knowledge of its resources—
available and likely to be available—with a view to improve
the school standards and practices and with a view to provide
for the future development of the Institution”. The
institutional plan may be for a duration, either longer or
shorter, and is based on the principle of optimum utilization
of the resources available in the school and the community.

Objectives of Institutional planning

The main objectives if institutional planning are
improvement and modernization of academic infrastructure
and its optimum utilization innovating the transactional
techniques and making the school a centre of community
activity.

Nature and Characteristics of institutional plan

According to Mr. M.B. Buch, the following are the nature
and characteristics of an Institutional plan:
• It is need Based
• Specificity
• It is based on optimum utilization of resources.
• Augmenting Human Efforts
• It is goal oriented
• Co-Operative in nature
• It has dual aspects
(i) Improvement (ii) Development
• Reflects the state and National Educational Policy.
• Flexibility
• Seeks Community support
Advantages of Institutional Planning:
• Planning at Institutional level is based on realism and
real requirements.
 • Institutional planning is more economical and effective.
Planning done from the center becomes bureaucratic in
nature, whereas planning done from below is
democratic in spirit as it involves those who are going to
be affected by the planning.

• Institutional planning is goal based as well as need

based.

• It is psychologically much more sound and having more

intrinsic motivation.

• Institutional planning provides adequate scope for

initiative, creativity, freedom and Experimentation by
the teachers who are personally involved in the process.
It also emphasizes human resources more than physical
resources. As such it reduces the expenditure which our
plans have wrongly acquired through the past years.
Steps in Preparing an Institutional Plan
There are no hard and fast rules for preparing an institutional
plan. No rigid steps are to be followed for the purpose
because like an individual, one institution differs from
another in its background, tradition, size, location, strength,
staff, equipments, furniture and so on. Therefore plan for all
institution cannot be the same or even uniform, rather every
institution will have a unique plan of its own improvement
and development. However, some guidelines may be
suggested as regards the broad steps to be taken for
preparing institutional plans.
They are as follows :
• Study of the Background : Before preparing a plan for an
institution, it is essential to study the background as
regards the lines of growth over a period of last five to
ten years. The tradition, the extended co-operation of the
community, the level of pupils’ performance, the rate of
teachers’ turn over etc. should be studied. These data
through the past years would provide practical
guidelines for planning for the future improvement and
development of the institution.

• Goals to be achieved should be determined : Every

institution should have its unique personality.
It should have an image of individual features.
Accordingly, it should have its own philosophy of doing
things or administration. Such philosophy and image
determine certain values, which are ultimate goals for
 the school to achieve in course of next ten to twenty
years. Hence, institutional planning should keep these
goals in view.

• Assessment of needs : An important prerequisite of

planning is the knowledge of needs and awareness of
problem faced by the institution. The head teachers, his
colleagues, students, management and the community
should sit together and make an assessment of the needs
and the problems. They have to decide the priorities and
area of improvement over a period of next few years.
These need survey of the institution should have two
steps;
(i) The improvement of needs
(ii) The development and expansion of needs.

• Survey of Resources : After the assessment of needs and

problems, a survey is made of the resources both
material as well as human, available in the school and in
the community. Sometimes, it is found that teachers and
management are not conscious of the potentialities of the
person working in the institution. Teachers of a school
have different abilities, interests, or hobbies and
 variegated experiences, which should be taken into
account while making plans for institutional
improvement of the school.

• Planning : After the survey of resources, steps for

planning should be taken up. In view of the urgency in
the subjects or areas as identified by the staff,
improvement programmes should be chalked out taking
availability of resources into account. All teachers who
are interested in planning improvement programmes
should be involved in the planning the programmes.
Different teachers may be entrusted to take up different
improvement programmes according to their interest and
experiences.
Since a series of projects will constitute an improvement
programme, each project should be under the following
heads :
(I) Definition of the project,
(II) The objectives,
(III) Procedures and target,
(IV) Educational aids required, and
(V) Method of Evaluation.
• Implementation : This is an important stage , where an
improvement plan on paper will be translated into
action. There will be a flow-chart or a chain of activities
to be performed in course of implementing a project.
Here, different human and physical resources are to be
utilized and activities are to be co-ordinated. The teacher
working on a project should meet periodically and
discuss their problems and progress of the project. All
the activities should with certain flexibility under the
changing circumstances.

• Evaluation : At this stage an assessment will be made of

failure and success of the project. It should be made at
different levels and at different times. Such evaluation
may be made by the teachers concerned or by a
committee of teachers involved in planning these
projects. This is called internal evaluation. Some
outsiders like BRCC, CRCC or any person in the
community interested in the project should be involved
in the evaluation. This is an external evaluation. This
external evaluation require to be held by a committee.
Lastly, the findings of the committee along with pupils’
opinion and teachers’ judgement should be studied
 together in order to arrive at a definite conclusion about
the success of a project or an improvement programme
as a whole.

Classroom Management :
The classroom management refers to a process that
guarantee the classroom instruction, the order, the
effectiveness and management of time and space . The
traditional view point was that, the purpose of classroom
management is to deal with student’s misbehavior. In this
sense classroom management is a way to manage student’s
behaviour and activity. It is a way of dealing with a school
class that reduces complexity, it is compensation for
disadvantages that arise from having to learn with several
people all at the same time.

Some Definitions of Classroom Management :

According to British Council, “ Classroom Management is
the ability to plan, control and facilitate interaction in the
classroom that is appropriate to the activity and promotes
learning and takes into account different needs and abilities
of learners and demonstrates an awareness of equal
opportunities and diversity issues”.
In the words of Alberto and Troutman, “ It can be defined as
the teacher’s ability to cooperatively manage time , space,
resources and student roles and student behaviour to
provide a climate that encourages learning.”

According to Richards, “ Classroom management are the

way i which student behaviour, movement and interactions
during a lesson are organized and controlled by the teacher
to enable teaching to take place most effectively”.

Concept of Classroom Management

The concept of classroom management can be easily
understood in the light of the following dimensions :
(a) Physical Dimension : A teacher is a manager has to look
into the physical settings of classroom as seating
arrangement, desk and benches, light and air
management, blackboard etc. which should be favorable
to learning.
(b) Psychological Dimension :Psychological dimension
plays an important role i students’ participation and
learning. No learning can take place in the absence of
 motivation. Teacher motivates his students verbally and
Non-verbally.
(c) Social and Cultural Dimension : A classroom
management involves relationship of social and cultural
environment which depends upon different factors as
relationship between teacher and student, relationship
among students, relationship among teachers
.relationship between teacher and head of the institution.
A teacher should know the back ground of the students.
(d) Ethical Dimension : Ethical dimension of classroom
management is concerned with feeling, attitudes and
ethical aspect of the students.

The effective classroom management can be summed up in

these words : FIRM, FAIR and FRIENDLY.
Firmness implies strength, organization, resilience and
leadership rather than rigidity.
Fairness implies equal respect for all kinds of learners and
learning styles.
Friendlness implies a readiness and joy of learning and
association with knowledge, engagement with the process
and appreciation of each other.
Factors Responsible for effective classroom management
:
There are many factors included in the classroom
management. It is a dynamic process. Its success depends
upon the efficiency of the teacher. Classroom management:
• Personality Traits of the Teacher: The personality of the
teachers is also an important factors which affects
classroom management. If the teacher has self-
confidence, impartiality, optimistic outlook, sense of
humour, good intellect, enthusiasm, industrious,
wisdom, etc. Then the classroom management will be
more effective.
• General Academic Qualities Of The Teacher: The
teacher with mastery of the subject matter, adequate
general knowledge, thirst for the knowledge, fluency in
expression, etc. can manage the classroom effectively.

• Modes of Teaching: Generally there are four modes of

teaching as conditioning, training, instruction and
indoctrination. Every mode of teaching has its own
classroom management efficiency. Conditioning and
training are used for developing habits, skills and
 conduct of the pupils i.e. to fulfil the psychomotor and
affective objective whereas instruction and
indoctrination are used for developing knowledge,
feelings, attitudes, beliefs and value aiming the student.
It depends upon the teacher that what type of modes he
will use for classroom management.

• Condition of Teaching : Conditions of learning

determine the structure of classroom management. The
basic conditioning of teaching is stimulus response
which is fundamental to learning. The teacher’s attitude
to provide different learning situations in the class helps
in providing effective classroom management.

• Strategies of Teaching: The classification of strategies of

teaching is based on management approach of teaching.
The various strategies are available as teacher- centered
strategies, learner centered strategies, action centered
strategies, group centered strategies, etc. It depends
upon the teacher that what type of strategies he wants to
opt according to the abilities of the students as well as
situation of the class. Today, the thinking is that use of
 learner centered strategies are more effective for
classroom management.

• Type of Discipline : Classroom management is also

influenced by the type of discipline opted by the teacher.
The teacher should be just and fair, avoid sarcastic
remarks, avoid threats, attend to minor problems before
they become major ones, etc. Self-discipline is the best
type of discipline. He should try to opt this philosophy, I
like you even though, I do not like what you do.

• Teaching Skills: Teaching skills of the teacher greatly

influence motivation. It is difficult to mention all the
skills but commonly identified skills in the teaching
learning process may be listed as under:
(a) Skill in introducing the lesson.
(b) Skill in dealing with pupils’ answers.
(c) Skill in the use of chalkboard.
(d) Skill in handling teaching aids and other equipments.
(e) Skill in stimulus variation.
(f) Skill in reinforcement.
(g) Skill in explanation.
(h) Skill in the use of illustration with examples
(i) Skill in using appropriate methods of teaching.
(j) Skill in encompassing group discussion.
(k) Skill in the closure of the lesson.

• Motivation: Motivation is regarded as the heart

of teaching learning process. Adequate
motivation influences classroom management,
because the students will remain in discipline,
active, cooperation, enthusiastic etc. It will help
in arousing curiosity, interest and enthusiasm in
the students. For motivation the teacher can use
reward and punishment, active participation,
competition, audio-visual aids, etc.

• Interest: Teachers own interest in the subject

also influences classroom management. The
teacher must be interested in what he is teaching
and in the children whom he is teaching. It may
be said that a teacher who has been teaching the
same subject to the same class for years tends to
lose the interest, but this is not the fact. The
subject matter may be the same but the children
are not the same. Even the subject matter is
changing and developing.
 • Social Environment of the Class:-Classroom
management depends upon the social
environment in the class. The teacher should
encourage cooperation among the students. It
helps in better understanding and better
discipline in the class.

• Physical Environment Of The Classroom: It is

essential for effective classroom management
because it helps in creating proper teaching
learning environment. It includes:

a. Proper classroom size.

b. Adequate light and ventilation
c. Adequate furniture and seating arrangement.
d. Cleanliness of the classroom.
The teacher should keep in mind the above factors while
managing the class effectively and efficiently.

UNIT- 4
SCHOOL EFFECTIVENESS AND SCHOOL
STANDARDS
School Effectiveness – Meaning and Concept:
Martin Luther once said, "We can get along without
burgomasters, princes and noblemen but we can not do
without schools for they must rule the world"(Ashwani
Kumar, 1984). Schools are indispensable. They are the
human resource development centers. The objective of
education given at any level is expected to be the
improvement in the quality of the life of the learners.
Several committees and commissions have reviewed the
educational problems and made recommendations for
bringing about the desired improvement in the quality of
education.

The question of quality education has baffled man since

time immemorial. As such, a variety of attempts have
been made over the ages to fix the meaning of school
effectiveness. The most basic element of an effective
school is to stir up and strengthen the pleasure and
power of every child to work hard and uninterruptedly
for optimum realization of his veritable potentialities
through the process of education. It will make children,
by the end of their primary education, well-informed,
skilled, well-behaved and balanced persons, keen and
eager to perceive and pursue the further vistas of their
education and life stage. It will offer maximum
motivation for its children to learn maximally through
its programmes and activities, methods and content. It
will exploit the total school environment including
community resources for enhanced learning
achievement and development of children.

Kerawalla, G.J. and Pandya, S.R. (1996) have defined

that school effectiveness is the contribution, which the
school makes to the students' educational performance
in terms of their academic achievement.

Mortimore (1983) has defined an effective school as one

in which students progress further than might be
expected from consideration of its intake. An effective
school then adds an extra value to its students' outcomes
in comparison with other schools serving similar
intakes.

According to Brookever et al (1979) an effective school

is one, characterized by high evaluations of students,
high expectations, high norms of achievement with the
appropriate pattern of reinforcement and instruction in
which students acquire a sense of control over their
environment and overcome the feelings of futility.

Definitions of school effectiveness are thus various. Yet

there is now a much greater degree of agreement
amongst school effectiveness researchers concerning
appropriate methodology for school effectiveness
studies about the need to focus explicitly on student
outcomes and in particular, on the concept of the 'value
added' to students' outcomes in comparison with other
schools serving similar intakes.

According to Lee Baldwin, Freeman Coney, Diane Fridg and

Roberta Thomas School Effectiveness is determined by the
following components:
a. Effective Instructional leadership
b. Clear and focused mission
c. Safe and orderly environment
d. Positive School climate
e. High expectations
f. Frequent assessment/monitoring of student
assessment
g. Emphasis on basic skills
h. Maximum opportunity for learning
 i. Parent/community involvement
j. Strong professional development
k. Teacher involvement in decision-making

Factors related to school effectiveness

Definitions of school effectiveness show that effective
schools are characterized by a variety of factors. Some of the
factor related to school effectiveness are given below :
• Appropriate learning climate.
• Overcoming inequalities in socio-economic status
• Use of local resources
• Health programme
• Home- school partnership
• School- community relationship
• Learner- centered teaching
• Improved attendance
• Emphasis on basic skills
• Adequacy of competent teachers, pupil- teacher
ratio.
• High attendance
• Adequate academic learning time
• Instructional Technology, Concern with at-risk
students, Performance - based education to help
student achieve.
• Caring Staff, Students satisfaction and retention
• Interaction of head-teacher with staff and parents,
Sound resource management, state Intervention,
Proper use of teachers
• Strengthening of Operation Blackboard Scheme,
Collegial interaction of teachers and head teacher,
Order and discipline
• Substitute teacher availability, Punctuality,
Monitoring, Utilization of available facilities and
obtaining the maximum return
• Emphasis on universal learning, Reward
accomplishment
• Safety and discipline
• Shared decision making
• Clear instructional mission
• Faculty council
• Teacher supervision by Headmaster, Practice-
oriented staff development at school site and
effective instructional arrangement and
implementation.
In a nutshell, Effective schools include students,
teachers, parents, and principals who are willing to
assume leadership roles and play a very important role
in the functioning of school. Since effectiveness of
schools are measured in terms of achievements of its
objectives and learning outcomes of its students, the
main focus of its objectives the learning culture of the
schools need to be focused. In other words, the effective
functioning of an organization lies in a strong School
Learning Culture and Leadership Behaviour of the head
of the school.

School Standards : Understanding and Developing

standards in education as per RTE Norms:
The Standards define what students should know and be
able to do at each level. The Standards can be used as a
reference point for planning teaching and learning
programs, and for assessing student progress. Standards
should help teachers set targets and monitor
achievement and develop programs that support and
improve student learning.
Norms and standards for school as per RTE Norms:
• No school shall be established, or recognized,
under section 18, unless it fulfils the norms and
standards specified in the Schedule.

• Where a school established before the

commencement of this Act does not fulfil the norms
and standards specified in the Schedule, it shall take
steps to fulfil such norms and standards at its own
expenses, within a period of three years from the
date of such commencement.

• Where a school fails to fulfil the norms and

standards within the period specified under sub-
section (2), the authority prescribed under sub-
section (1) of section 18 shall withdraw recognition
granted to such school in the manner specified
under sub-section (3) thereof.
• With effect from the date of withdrawal of
recognition under sub-section (3), no school shall
continue to function.

• Any person who continues to run a school after the

recognition is withdrawn, shall be liable to fine
which may extend to one lakh rupees and in case of
continuing contraventions, to a fine of ten thousand
rupees for each day during which such
contravention continues.
43
Management of Learning Resources:
Learning resources are texts, videos, software, and
other materials that teachers use to assist students to
meet the expectations for learning defined by local or
contextualized curricula. Before a learning resource is
used in a classroom, it must be evaluated and approved
at either the provincial or local level. Evaluation criteria
may include curriculum fit, social considerations, and
age or developmental appropriateness. Chalk, board,
duster, charts, AV-aids, educational software, library
and instructional material are the examples of learning
resources.
Definition of Resources
According to Owoko (2010), the term resources refers
not only to teaching methods and materials but also the
time available for instruction, the knowledge and skills
of teachers acquired through training and experience.
Therefore, School Time-Table is also a Teaching
Learning resource.

Definition of Learning Resources:

At this juncture, it is important to define the learning
resource. Various agencies described learning resources in a
different manner. Some relevant explanations are as follows:
According to Department of Education, Canada
“Learning Resources” refer to any person(s) or any
material (whether acquired or locally produced) with
instructional content or function that is used for formal
or informal teaching learning purposes. Learning
resources may include, but are not limited to, print and
non-print materials; audio, visual, electronic, and
digital hardware/software resources; and human
resources.

This can be interpreted from the above definition that in

a broader perspective learning resources includes human
resource as well as physical resources. In this section,
we will discuss a child’s ideas, ideas of community
resource, Resources from immediate environment, ICT
as learning resource.

Various learning resources :

• Child’s Ideas as Learning Resources
This is one of the most important components of
learning. Ideas of children can be learning resources
for a teacher. Children develop abstract ideas from
 their physical surroundings and they select the idea
relevant to them based on their objects/needs. It is
important to understand that learning involves
abstract thinking and the children have the ability to
develop abstract concepts from their world. They
develop this ability by interaction with the
environment during games and other activities.
They find new ways to represent objects and
experiences and generalize those experiences; that’s
how children learn to think abstractly. This skill
allows the children to build theories about their
world.

• Community Members as Learning Resource

The role of community is very vital in creating a
conducive learning environment. The families begin
to create the kinds of connections that address both
intellectual and emotional needs of children. The
subjects taught in school are related to our daily life
and therefore the concepts that a child learns, are
not only in the class but outside the class too. A
child interacts with his/her siblings, parents,
guardians and other members of the community.
 These interactions are vital learning resources. For
example, village children get information about the
crops from their elders. They develop the ability to
identify different types of crops and crop cycle. It is
easy to understand that the ideas and thoughts
generated from community and its members may be
used as important resource of learning to optimize
the learning experience of the learners.

• Resources from Immediate Surroundings

Teaching-learning of concepts is highly correlated
with surroundings. The process of learning cannot
be far removed from the immediate surroundings of
the children. Different resources from immediate
surroundings/environment are an essential part of
the teaching-learning process. The relevant content
available locally should be well utilized by the
teachers. This content should be a part of the
teaching-learning process ideally, to transact
through activities drawn from the local resources.
As a teacher, we should accept the importance of
community members because most of the time
children interact with them and there is a great
 impact of neighbors, friends and family members on
their thought processes. Their daily life experiences
help in developing a scientific attitude towards life.
Children critically observe and explore the social
reality around them while simultaneously enabling
them to experience human and scientific values. The
ideas given here demonstrate how the learning of
science can be enjoyable and exploratory and how
the science class can help in raising the awareness
of learners about issues related to their environment,
encouraging them to be instruments of change.
• ICT as learning resource:
Now days, it is being observed that there is a
paradigm shift in the teaching learning process and
therefore in the support system that we use for
effective teaching and learning. Information and
communication technology is going through rapid
and continuous change and therefore use of ICT is
highly common in the teaching learning process.
These changes are reflected by the change in the
learning strategy of learners. Different researches
proved that new generation of children are using
these resources extensively and they share, use,
 develop and process information and technology for
different purposes. According to Meiers (2009), the
teachers are required to possess all the skills that are
essential to utilize ICT resources effectively. In this
digital age, there is a growing body of evidence that
use of ICT in the classroom can enhance learning. It
is essential that the contemporary teacher has good
ICT skills and is able to integrate ICT into the
teaching and learning processes. It is highly
recommended that after a good teacher education
Programme, the newly appointed teacher
demonstrates current knowledge and proficiency in
the use of ICT in the following areas:

• Basic operational skills

• Information-technology skills
• Effective use of the internet
• Software-evaluation skills
• Pedagogical skills for classroom management.

Different ICT resources includes

1. ICT based learning objects-It refers to any digital
resource that can be reused to support learning.
2. Multimedia Learning Resources- Computer-based
multimedia learning environments - consisting of
images, text and sound offer a potentially powerful
setting for improving learner understanding.

3. Mobile Learning- The terms “M-Learning” and

“Mobile Learning” are usually used to refer to
teaching and learning with mobile technologies.
It has following characteristics :
• Spontaneous
• Personal
• Informal
• Contextual
• Portable
• Ubiquitous (available everywhere)
• Pervasive (so integrated with daily activities that it
is hardly noticed)

4. The Internet and Social Networking – Internet is a

rich resource for teaching and learning. Web 2.0
refers to a more recent 2nd generation collection of
web-based tools, usually involving social
networking (sites like facebook) and amateur
 publishing (like blogs and YouTube). Interactive
whiteboards, slide/PowerPoint presentations – In
most of the schools, interactive whiteboards is used
to deliver multimedia presentations in a classroom
environment. Presentation software, such as
Microsoft PowerPoint or Apple’s Keynote, plays an
important role in many fields, especially in
learning.

• Library as a learning resource : Library is also a

learning resource because there are books in the
library that helps students learn stuff like math
books, science books and lots other books. The
Library of a school is considered as part and parcel
of the academic set-up. It is created and maintained
to serve and support the educational activities of the
school. The recommendations of numerous
commissions and committees established by the
Government of India and various other states for
the improvement of school education can bring in
desired results provided the school has the full
complement of library resources, personnel, and
necessary infrastructure. So far the school library
has not been given its rightful place in the scheme
 of things. Nevertheless, Libraries can play a very
important role and help the school in achieving the
educational objectives. If we recognize the value
and importance of informal system of education,
then library method of self-education is sure to get
its due place.

The school Library provides information, inculcates

ideas, and develops knowledge that is so essential to
functioning successfully in today’s information and
knowledge based society. It is fundamental to school
library to equip students with life long learning skills
and develop in them creative thinking and imagination,
and enabling them to live as ideal and responsible
citizens.

Thus, the school library must be made the hub of all the
activities planned and executed in school. It can be used
by students to prepare for their next class period, home
examination, general education, information,
competitions, recreation and inspiration. To cater to the
wide varieties of demands of students and teachers it has
to judiciously select and procure the prescribed/
recommended text-books and other reading material
from different sources, technically process it by making
use of a standard scheme of classification, catalogue it
to provide various access points, organize the collection
on scientific lines, circulate the documents and
disseminate the information in the manner most liked by
the students and teachers. In addition, the school library
has to serve as a resource center as well.

School Time-Table
Timetable is a pre-arranged and systematic scheme of
studies and activities of an institution. It is a plan
showing the daily allotment of time among various
subjects, topics, activities and classes. It shows
distribution of time for each teacher, his teaching load,
the length of each period, time –interval and total
duration of work along with the time allotted to different
items of work load. A time table is also called the
second clock of the institution on the face of which are
shown the hours of work, intervals in-between, the kind
of activity in progress in each class, the recess and
recreation as well as the time for assembly and
dispersal. It also shows time for various co-curricular
activities, art and craft, community work, social
service, games and sports. Time table is thus a mirror
that reflects all kinds of programmes being organized
under the control of school.

Features of a good timetable

• They assign at most one course to each teacher for
every time period.
• They are compact for the students, i.e. there are no
empty slots in the student schedules.
• They are complete in the sense that they cover all
courses required by the student curriculum and for the
required amount of time periods per course.
• The timetable of each class-section is balanced, in the
sense of “time spent at school” throughout the week.
• All courses are scheduled for at most one time period
per day, with the exception of those courses that
specifically require consecutive time periods. –
• A school time table should serve, not constrict, its
curriculum. It must enable the desired curriculum to be
provided with by allowing all school resources,
human and material both, as efficiently as possible.
• The preparation of time table must be open and must
involve all teachers.
Basic principles of time table construction:
Time table gives a clear vision and comprehensive
picture of school activities i.e., what work is being done
during which period, where, by whom and when. It is a
complicated task because it is determined by a number
of factors and conditions which change from place to
place and from school to school.
The following principles have to be kept in mind during
preparation of a good time table:
• Type of School:
Firstly, see whether the school is girls/boys oriented
or co-educational, rural or urban, secondary or
senior secondary. Then determine the nature of
activities involved in the school accordingly special
needs of a school is to be taken into consideration
while framing the time table.
• Department Regulations:
The state department of education fixes length of
the school year, and its terms i.e., when an academic
year starts and when it ends, the duration of the
school day and even the number of periods for each
subject.

• Amount of time available:

Time table is framed keeping in view available time
i.e., the length of the school year and total number of
holidays.

• Principle of Justice:
While assigning work, special care has to be taken that
a. Each teacher is assigned those subjects who
he/she feels his/her best qualified to teach.
b. He/she does not teach in more than two
departments. Teaching load for every teacher is
about equal to that of others.
• Relative Importance and Difficulty Value of Subjects:
The time dedicated to a subject should be at per the
importance of it and its difficulty value. There are
certain socio-economic considerations that determine the

95
 importance of a subject in the school curriculum and
accordingly, time is allotted to them in the time table.
• Incidence of Fatigue:
The element of fatigue influences the construction of
school time-table a number of ways. Children arc
fatigued at certain periods or certain days. It is not only
physical but also psychological in nature. It results in a
definite weakening of attention and diminishing interest
and effects of learning.

a. Work Rate: Some subjects are more fatiguing

than others. They involve more mental strain
and effort. Such subjects are taught during
early hours when the student’s mind is fresh.

b. Mental freshness is the greatest in the

morning. This is also true after recess. The
order of subjects causing strain is as follows:
▪ Mathematics
▪ English
▪ Hindi
▪ Science
▪ Social Sciences
 ▪ Science Practical’s
▪ Drawing/Physical Education.

c. The fatigue principle is true for days of the

week also. Tuesdays and Wednesdays are
considered to be the best days in which
maximum work can be done.

d. Younger children are more quickly fatigued.

The duration of a class period for them does
not exceed 30 to 35 minutes.

e. Seasons too cause fatigue. In summer due to

heat we do not like to work.

▪ Principle of Variety:
It has been seen experimentally that change of room,
seat and posture usually is an antidote against weakness.
It is applied on both students and teachers. Variety can
be introduced in the following manners:
a. No subject except science practical should
be kept for two consecutive periods.

97
 b. The same class should not set in the same
room for the whole day.
c. The same teacher should not have two
consecutive periods in the same class.
d. If a subject is taught only 2/3 times a
week, periods should follow at intervals.
e. The physical training periods, science
practical and drawing work allow a
change.

▪ Free Periods for Teachers:

We should provide free periods for teachers so as to
increase their efficiency and also to provide time for
their correction work.

▪ Principle of Play and Recreation:

Careful attention needs to be given to provide for rest
and recreation and provision for various co-curricular
activities should also be made in the time table, to avoid
monotony.
▪ Maximum Utilization of Resources:
 The qualification, experience, room size should always
be kept in mind so as to make the maximum use of all
the resources and avoided wastage or under-utilization of
resources.
▪ Elasticity: The time table should have a flexibility so as
to work the teachers smoothly.

Co-Curricular activities:
Co-curricular refers to activities, programs, and learning
experiences that complement, in some way, what students
are learning in school—i.e., experiences that are connected
to or mirror the academic curriculum. Co-curricular
activities (CCAs) earlier known as Extracurricular Activities
(ECA) are the components of the non-academic curriculum
that helps to develop various facets of the personality
development of the child and students. For all-round
development of the child, there is a need for emotional,
physical, spiritual and moral development that is
complemented and supplemented by Co-curricular
Activities.

Co-curricular Activities are defined as the activities that

enable to supplement and complement the curricular or main
99
syllabi activities. These are a very important part and parcel
of educational institutions to develop the students’
personality as well as to strengthen classroom learning.
These activities are organized after the school hours, so
known as extra-curricular activities. Cocurricular Activities
have a wide horizon to cater to the cultural, social, aesthetic
development of the child.

Examples and Types of Co-curricular Activities

Sports, Musical activities, debate, Art, Music, Drama,
Debate and discussion, Declamation, Story writing
competition, Essay writing competition, Art craft, Recitation
competition, Wall magazine decoration, Writes ups for
school magazine, Folk songs, Folk dance, Flower show
School decoration, Sculpture making, Fancy dress
competition, Preparation of chart & models
Album making, Photography, Clay modeling, Toy making,
Soap making, Basket making, organization exhibitions,
Celebration of festivals.
Role of co-curricular activities in students’ life:
Co-curricular activities are the true and practical experiences
received by students. To a greater extent, theoretical
knowledge gets strengthened when a relevant co-curricular
activity is organized related to the content taught in the
classroom. Intellectual aspects of personality are solely
accomplished by the Classroom, while aesthetic
development, character building, spiritual growth, physical
growth, moral values, creativity, etc. are supported by co-
curricular activities.
Frankness and clarity in language and personality is
supported by these activities. It helps to develop co-
ordination, adjustment, speech fluency, extempore
expressions, etc. among students both at the school as well
as college levels.

Importance and Benefits of Co-curricular Activities

• Co-curricular activities stimulate playing, acting,
singing, recitation, speaking and narrating in students.
• Activities like participation in-game debates, music,
drama, etc., help in achieving the overall functioning
of education.

101
• It enables the students to express themselves freely
through debates.
• Games and Sports help to be fit and energetic to the
child.
• It helps to develop the spirit of healthy competition.
• These activities guide students on how to organize and
present an activity, how to develop skills, how to co-
operate and co-ordinate in different situations-all these
helps in leadership qualities.
• It provides the avenues of socialization, self-
identification, and self-assessment when the child
comes in contact with organizers, fellow participants,
teachers, people outside the school during cultural
activity.
• Inculcate the values to respects other’s views and
feelings.
• It makes you perfect in decision making.
• It develops a sense of belongingness.
• CCA provides motivation for learning.
• CCA develop values like physical, psychological,
Ethical, academic, civic, social, aesthetic, cultural
recreational and disciplinary values
Utilization of community resources

What is community ?
According to Ottaway (1962), “ A community is everybody,
adults and children, social and nonsocial person, living in a
certain territory where all share a mode of life, but not all
conscious of its organization purpose. A society is a kind of
community (or a part of a community ) whose members have
become socially conscious of their mode of life and united
by a common set of aims and values.”

It turns out from the above definition that there is a fine

difference between community and society. The members of
a community are not conscious of their life styles and
purposes of life and members of a society are conscious of
their life styles and aims of life. For example community of
children, the members are not conscious of their life styles
and aims of life, Whereas the Oju Mission Welfare society is
well aware of their social life and more integrated
emotionally. The society has well defined aims.

Community resources and its utilization:

There are vast resources of community which can be utilized
for the improvement of schools. The community, even at the
103
stage of its under- development possesses abundant
resources like firms and farms, temples and monuments,
flora and fauna, fair and festivals, rivers and hills which can
be utilized for the benefits of schools, particularly, for
effective learning experiences. A community may be
backward and poor in economic conditions, but, may be rich
in natural resources. The teacher should recognize these
assets for their utilization by organizing curricular and co-
curricular programmes and activities.

Similarly, there are human resources in the community

whose services can be utilized for providing learning
experiences in schools. There are local artisans, carpenters,
blacksmiths, ironsmiths, painters etc. whose expertise can be
utilized for teaching learning purposes. They can be invited
to the schools for demonstration of their skills and taking
classes. Retired teachers, doctors engineers etc. as well as
unemployed educated youth may be engaged for taking
classes. Such employment of local human resources leads to
bring about awareness of the needs, deficiencies and paucity
of resources. This helps in collecting funds and supplying
equipments etc. on the one hand and ensuring better school-
community relation on the other hand.
Involvement of school in community development:
We can not deny of the fact that both the resources, physical
and human, of the school belongs to the community. The
teachers, the students and other staff members come from
the community. All the physical facilities are provided by
the community either directly or indirectly through
government. There should not be any difficulty in utilizing
these resources for the well-being of the community. Rather,
there are many advantages in it. The learning experiences
should not be confined to the four walls of the class room.
The school should provide all kinds of experiences by
allowing students to participate in the community activities.
The services for participation of children in the community
work are, for example, literacy drives, health campaigns,
road construction etc. This will break the barriers between
the school and the community and make the school life
lively, realistic and meaningful.

The school halls can be used for organizing village meetings

and marriage reception, the school play ground can be
utilized for village sports and games, the school furniture
and equipments can be borrowed fro holding meetings and
community functions. In this regard, the remarks made by
the Education Commission (1964-66) worth mentioning
105
here, “ The commission remarked that since it is very costly
to provide and maintain the physical plant of educational
institutions, it is necessary to utilize it fully as far as possible
for longest period on each day and for all the days in the year
by making suitable administrative arrangement. The
libraries, laboratories, workshops etc. can be utilized for the
community programmes.”

Organization of meeting of PTA, MTA and SMC:

Parent-Teacher Association:
It has been rightly observed by George Tomlinson, ” In
particular, remember that any clash between parents and
teachers must always be harmful to the child. Harmonious
working together can alone bring us the result we want”.
Parent-Teacher Association is an effective formal
organization for facilitating the school community
collaboration and interaction. It should be formed in every
school for the purpose of exchanging ideas that will help
them in understanding each other’s point of view and will
also help in the common task of giving a better, more
rational, more healthy and sympathetic deal to children.
Both parents and teachers are custodians of children’s
development, physical, mental, emotional and moral. Unless
they join their hands most cordially, the common goal can
not be reached and it will elude the grasp.

Constitution of PTA and its programmes and functions:

• It is a voluntary organization; Any kind of imposition or
restriction may harm rather helping the purpose.
• All teachers and parents will automatically be the
members of the association.
• Since, it is a democratic organization, its office – bearers
including president and secretary should be elected by
the parents and teachers.
• The PTA should sit at least twice or thrice in a year and
the progress, problems and programmes of the pupils
should constitute the main agenda for discussion.
• The proceeding should be properly maintained and all
should be encouraged to participate in the proceedings.
• Everybody should be allowed to express his/her ideas,
feelings and opinions about matters frankly and openly.
• The PTA in its meeting should discuss the academic
problems. However, more focus should be on
administrative and supervisory problems which have
bearing on the academic ones like, performance of
students, supply of textbooks, procurement of
107
 equipments and audio-visual aids etc. and solution be
found out in an objective manner.
• The PTA may appoint a sub-committee to go into some
problems of crucial importance and suggest measures for
improving the situations with fact finding data.
• Some important functions of local and national
importance may be organized by PTA. For example,
Parents’ Day, Teachers’ Day etc.

School Management Committee:

According to RTE Act Committee:
1. A school, other than a school specified in sub-clause
(iv) of clause (n) of section 2, of RTE Act, 2009, shall
constitute a School Management Committee consisting
of the elected
representatives of the local authority, parents or guardians
of children admitted in such school and teachers:
a) Provided that at least three-fourth of members of
such Committee shall be parents or guardians.
b) Provided further that proportionate representation
shall be given to the parents or guardians of
children belonging to disadvantaged group and
weaker section.
c) Provided also that fifty per cent. Of Members of
such Committee shall be women.

2. School Management Committee shall perform the

following functions, namely:—
• Monitor the working of the school;
• Prepare and recommend school development
plan;
• Monitor the utilization of the grants received
from the appropriate Government or local
authority or any other source; and

• Perform such other functions as may be

prescribed. Provided that the School Management
Committee constituted under sub-section (1) in
respect of, —
 a. A school established and administered by
minority whether based on religion or
language; and

b. All other aided schools as defined in sub-

section (ii) of clause (n) of section 2, shall
perform advisory function only.]

Function of SMC:
1. Every School Management Committee, except the
School Management Committee in respect of a school
established and administered by minority, whether
based on religion or language and an aided school as
defined in sub-clause(ii) of clause(n) of section-2,
constituted, under sub-section-1 of section-21 shall
prepare a School Development Plan, in such manner as
may be prescribed.
2. The School Development Plan so prepared under sub-
section-1 shall be the basis for the plans and grants to be
made by the appropriate Government or local authority,
as the case may be.

Unit-5
110
MAINTENANCE OF SCHOOL RECORDS

Need and importance of school records:

School is a such type of social institution which has much
social responsibilities than any other agency. On one side the
school is to maintain the past social traditions and on the
other hand it has to prepare future citizens according to the
aims of society. Besides it the school is to develop a
maximum amount of social values among the youngsters. It
is social institution answerable to parents, managing
committee, educational department, Community and to
pupils. All this makes keeping and maintaining of records
essential.
The following points highlight the need and importance of
school records:

• Financial Needs: Every school is required to keep an

accurate and complete account of each and every pupil
on its rolls and submit periodically reports based on the
records. The school has to supply these facts and figures
as they are the basis for receiving school grants. The
 budgetary statement of financial needs are prepared and
submitted to the higher authorities.

• Legal Requirements: School records are used to satisfy

the legal requirements of the State Education
Department, Examination Board etc. Every school has
to maintain and supply annual reports regarding
enrolment, growth and development of school from all
aspects. Such records contain the following information
year wise as:-
a) Total number of students in the school.
b) Number of students newly admitted and struck.
c) Number of students transferred.
d) Students coming from SC, ST, OBC, rural and
urban areas etc.
e) Income from fees, grant-in-aid and other
sources.
f) Expenditure.
g) Staff statement.
h) School equipment etc.

• Administrative Needs: Records are needed from

administration point of view also. These data help in

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 proper planning for efficient school organization and
administration.

• To evaluate Effectiveness of the Program: School

records assist us in assessing the weaknesses and
strengths of the educational programs. They will depict
the progress made by pupils in curricular and co-
curricular activities, work done by the teachers, the
guidance given by the headmaster and other authorities
and the facilities provided by them and their utilization.
Educational reforms can be undertaken only when the
school records provide comprehensive data to those who
are asked to shoulder the responsibility of educational
reforms.

• Essential for All-round Development:- The school is

entrusted with the task of all-round development of the
personality of each child. It is absolutely essential to
keep record of his/her growth and development.
• For Research Purposes:- Records provide
comprehensive data to those who want to undertake the
responsibility of educational researches, M.Ed. students,
Ph.D. scholars, M.Phil. students, Universities, Boards,
and other government and non-government agencies
under take research in various problems of school
education and for this require data from the schools.
Sometimes some progressive teachers initiate action
research in their own subject or area and for that also
they need school records.

• Assessment of an Institution: School records are helpful

to assess the progress and needs of particular locality.
Any people from the society can evaluate the progress of
an institution on the basis of these records and can
suggest ways for its improvement.

• Future Reference:- It is only through records that the

history of the school can be written. Past records may
also in improving the tone of the school and its
performance. The plans for the future progress can be
made.

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• Efficient Management:- On the basis of records, needed
reforms are made in the structure of organization and
management of the school.

• Satisfaction of the management:- In private institution,

managing committee manage the affairs of the schools
and are responsible for its efficient functioning. School
can provide records of its functioning and it will provide
satisfaction to the management for its smooth
functioning.

• To Issue Different Type of Certificate:- Students

including ex-students need a variety of certificates for
appearing in competitive examinations, applying for
admission, jobs, etc. On the basis of records these
certificates can be issued to them.
• To Establish Closer Contacts Between Home and
School:- These records help in providing information
regarding the progress, merits and shortcomings of their
children to the parents from time to time. Conference
with parents about their children are based on definite
information obtained from school records. They help in
establishing closer contacts between the home and the
school.

• Guidance and Counselling:- Records of performance of

students on psychological tests and measurement prove
very helpful in the counselling process and guiding for
the future prospects.

• Satisfaction to Society:- School is a miniature society

and is set up by the society. The society wants to know
whether the school is fulfilling the objectives for which
it has been established. Records, are therefore, needed to
satisfy the society.

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• Helpful For Students:- Students are promoted on the
basis of records. Records are also needed for awarding
scholarships to the students because they maintain the
record of achievements of the students time to time in
curricular as well as co-curricular activities.

• Records And Grants-in-aid: Sometimes certain

conditions are laid down by the department for the
payments of grants in-aid to schools. This requires the
supply of certain facts and data and for this it becomes
necessary to keep the records up-to-date.

• To Measure Accountability:-
Records are needed to fix up responsibility of
performance.

• Efficient Functioning:-
School records facilitate the efficient functioning of the
school. The pupils, teachers, and others become
conscious of the fact that their activities, achievements
and failures are being recorded regularly. They make
better efforts to make a better record of themselves.
 • Satisfaction to Government:-
The school through records provide information to the
government that public funs are being best utilized for
the cause of education, norms, and standards. The
directions given by the government are being observed
honestly and efficiently.

Use of school records

Recorded information is of great advantage to different
section that are interested in educational matters directly as:
A. Advantage to School Authorities:
• Records help the school authorities:
• To find if all legal requirements are met.
• To find if school funds are adequate and wisely used.
• To reduce retardation and failure to a minimum.
• To determine if any administrative or other charges are
desirable.
• To locate each pupil quickly.
• To explain and remove undesirable conditions.
• To make available the significant information about each
pupil.
• To issue certificates to the pupils.

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 • To provide promotion to its teachers and other
personnel.
• To make important investigations and case studies
possible.
• 11.To enable the background information of the students
to ensure that the school property and equipments are
kept in order.

B. Advantage to teachers:
Records help the teachers:
• To determine learning activities according to the need of
each pupil.
• To determine what work a pupil is capable of doing.
• To identify and make proper provisions for the mentally
slow pupils.
• To make assignments to committee work and monitorial
positions.
• To explain the behavioral characteristics or unhappy
conditions of any pupil.
• To formulate a basis for the intelligent guidance of
pupils.
• To make periodic reports correctly.
 • To make records in time.
• To be properly informed when conferring with parents
and others about a pupil.
• To bring changes in their methodologies of teaching on
the basis of achievement records of students.
• To make proper classroom managements.

C. Advantages to the pupils:

Records help the pupils-
• To do his best in making a record.
• To make progress in accordance with his abilities.
• To secure development of his natural capabilities.
• To get proper guidance.
• To receive proper adjustment.

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 • To secure transfer of correct information to other schools
when desired.
• To receive certificates whenever they needed.
• To receive fair consideration in his classification.

D. Advantages for children with special Needs:

Brown has suggested the following benefits of records for
children with special needs:-
• Improvement in self-concept.
• Pride in recording and in celebrating personal
success.
• Making specific suggestions as to how the pupil may
improve.
• Talking points to highlight personal interests and
thus encouraging communication
• Skills.
• Recognizing achievements outside the core and
foundation subjects of the national Curriculum.
• Providing a basis for discussion at the annual
review.
• Reporting on subjects and profile components in the
national curriculum.
• Encouraging stronger links with the pupils’ home.
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Types of school records:
School records come in many different forms and formats.
Some are personal records and some are institutional
records, and both types will be found in a wide variety of
places. Some will be in family hands, some in local libraries
and /or historical societies, some in school or school district
offices, some in manuscript collections, and some in state
literature and/or state archives. Various records are kept in
schools ranging from mandatory to non-mandatory ones.
The keeping of some records may affect students’ academic
achievement. Such records include: Attendance register,
scheme of work, record book, lesson note-book and terminal
report books/card work.
Every school is required to maintain a large number of
records which can be broadly classified as under:-
• General Records
a. School calendar.
b. Log book.
c. Visitor book.
d. Service book of teachers and other personal.
e. Staff duty register.
f. Staff address register.
g. Teachers’ personal files.
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 h. General order book.
i. Memo book.
j. Staff meeting records.

• Financial Records
a. Cash book for daily receipts and expenditure.
b. General ledger or classified abstract of the monthly
totals.
c. Register of pay bill.
d. Government grant register.
e. Expenditure order book.
f. Bill register.
g. Duration register.
h. Students fund register.
i. Fee collection register.
j. Contingency register.
Scholarship register.
• Equipment Records
a. Stock book of furniture and school appliances.
b. Furniture issue register.
c. Stationary issue register.
d. Sports register.
e. Craft stock register.
f. Laboratory equipment register.
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 g. Stationary account register.

• Library Records
a. Library
catalogue.
b. Accession register.
c. Issue book.
d. Register of newspapers, magazines, journals, etc.
received.
e. Library stock register.

• Correspondence Records
a. ’Forms’ and ‘to’ register.
b. File of departmental orders, circulars.
c. Register of casual leave granted.
d. Memo book.
e. School education board circular file.

• Records Dealing with Curriculum and Daily Work

a. Class time table.
b. Teachers’ time table.
c. General time table’

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 d. Register related with monthly and term wise program
of work.
e. Teachers diaries.
f. Home work register.
g. Teacher free period time table.
h. Activities allotment register.
i. Pupils’ attendance register.
j. Teachers’ attendance register.
k. Private tuition register.
l. Register of corporal punishment.
m. Staff participation in oriental courses.

• Records Dealing with Admission

a. Admission register
b. Withdrawal and transfer certificate register

• Records Dealing With Examinations

a. Annual examination result
b. Monthly progress
c. Board/University examination result
d. Cumulative record

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• Records Dealing with Supervision and Inspection
a. Head supervision register
b. Honors roll register
c. Head instruction book
d. Applied health and physical record
e. Hobbies record
f. Guidance record
g. Punishment register

• Records Related to Service Matters

a. Personal files
b. Service condition rules register

• Records Related to Vacational/Production or Socially

Useful Production Work.
a. Craft work book
b. Producers’ register
c. Art-work record
d. Mid-day meal register
e. Free uniform distribution register
f. Farm work

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This list is in no way a complete and comprehensive. It
includes only those registers which are commonly used and
an addition will have to be made to suit the needs and
requirements of records.

The adequate keeping of these records may motivate the

teacher or the student as the case may be to work towards
the achievement of school goals which include the students’
academic performance. Not only that there are some records
as well may increase the administrative efficiency of the
organization such as movement book, stock records, cash
book, time book etc. If all these records are properly kept,
they may go a long way to enhance the achievement of
school goals.
The records can be grouped according to the following
categories:
• Pupils
• Teachers
• General staff
• Materials
• Finances
Information in the above mentioned subjects can be recorded
in different ways with varying amounts of detail, depending
on a particular records function
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