Retreading of Tyres

Chapter 1

INTRODUCTION
Tyres are an essential component to the establishment of the automobile mechanism.
Tyres can be viewed as having the following four functions, bearing a load (support),
Acting as a spring (absorption), Conveying driving and braking forces (transmission),
Facilitating steering of the vehicle (turning). These are vital functions in which the tyres
as part of the vehicle serve as an intermediary in establishing a mutual relationship
between the vehicle and the surface of the road. The history of tyre technology is the
history of developments carried out to achieve these functions. This technology is
expansive in extent, combining many materials to form the mechanics of the tyre, which
in turn plays a complex role being incorporated as a component into the automobile
mechanism. Thus, tyre technology is expansive and has come to hold an important place
in the industry.

The tyres may be with tube or tubeless. In the former, the tube is inside the tyre and
contains air at high pressure. In tubeless tyre there is no tube and tyre itself contains air at
high pressure. They also transfer the braking and driving torque to the road. The motion
of the automobile becomes possible only when the friction acts between the tyre surface
and the road surface. This friction is required for the stability of the moving automobile.
The friction must not go beyond a particular limit as it will cause wastage of power
output from the engine and loss of money in the form of wastage of fuel. The tyres also
absorb the vibrations due to the uneven road surface. The road may be dry or wet, it may
be a concrete road, or may be paved with gravel or asphalt. Sometimes automobile may
be required to move on a 'rough' road. The tyres must be capable of providing stability to
the automobile in all these varying conditions.

Grooves are an important part of the tyre which is present on the tyre surface. These
grooves which are cut on the tyre surface are called tread. These treads ensure the
gripping action between the road surface and tyre. Retreading is the technology which
takes a worn casing of good structural quality and putting it back through a process which
completely renews the tread of the tyre and sometimes the sidewall rubber.

After the use of tyre the depth of treads becomes less and a slippery action takes place
between road surface and tyre. The co-efficient of friction becomes less. This tyre is in no
more condition to be used again. Now, here becomes the choice either to replace the tyre
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with a new one which is very expensive or to retread the tyre which is less expensive as
compared to the cost of new tyre. This condition tyre is then subjected to a curing process
where the new rubber is vulcanized to the casing and the tread pattern is formed. .
Retreading process can also rectify minor cuts or defects on the side walls of tyre, beads
and punctures in a single stage. A tyre can be retreaded or not, this is entirely dependable
on the type of use of tyre and condition of tyre.

The tread provides traction while the body provides containment for a quantity of
compressed air. The materials of modern tyres are synthetic rubber, natural rubber, fabric
and wire, along with carbon black and other chemical compounds. Rubber is present as
milky liquid or latex in the bark of rubber tree, hevea brasiliensis. Natural rubber
combines with carbon, oil, sulphur and the chemicals at a temperature of 100-140𝑜 C and
undergoes a number of stages of processes.

Retreading of tyre is important because tyre is made up of 100 percent rubber as main
ingredient, 20 percent is only used in worn out tyres rest 80 percent is tyre carcass. For
retreading, only 5 litres of crude oil is needed but for making a new tyre about 28 litres is
needed. So a retreaded tyre costs less to produce than a new tyre and sells for less -
usually between 30 and 50 percent of the comparable new tyre price. Retreading is an
effective way to lower the tyre costs. Retreading is a highly practical and efficient form
of recycling. Retreading makes it possible to re-use worn tyres. Instead of dumping tyres
with worn out tread and good sidewalls, they can be rebuilt and put back to work again,
and again.

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Chapter 2

LITERATURE REVIEW
Several studies and research have been carried out in the past years for the usefulness and
application of retreading. Some of the works have been studied and the outcome are
summarized in this literature review.

S. Ajeeth Kumar, [2016], has done study on tyre retreading by hot retreading process.
Tyre Retreading is a new technology, where the old tyres are made serviceable by
removing worn out and damaged treads and replacing it with new treads. He concluded
that for retreading only 5 litres of crude oil is needed but for making a new tyre about 28
litres is needed. Another thing is that exploitation parameters of tyre, where the accent is
put on distribution of probability of number of retreading and travelled distance after
certain (number) of retreading. To make final decision to retread or not, it is necessary
that for each such problem proper data bases for each tyre are provided and statistic
analysis are made.

Hardik V. Patel et.al., [2015], he has made study on design and analysis of tyre
envelope expander for tyre retreading process. In Enveloping process the envelope is
attached and removed from it. This process is held by conventionally or done by labour.
Review paper describes the rapid development of tyre retreading process and overall cost
of retreaded tyre. He concluded that the retreaded tyre is not used for expensive and
precise items, per km cost of tyre is reduced by using retreaded tyre, without varying the
outer diameter of tyre and by changing, the strength of tyre can be increased.

Vankar Bharat A. et.al., [2015], he has made an experimental analysis on life cycle of
tyre retreading. The aim of this paper is to investigate the life of new and retreaded tyre.
Retreading is one of the best process to increase the life of tyre. In practice, firms
involved with commercial vehicles exploitation have to decide whether to retread used
tyres or not, depending on the number of retreading of used tyres and travelled distances
after each retreading. Analysis is performed on database of tyre's exploitation from a
company of public passenger transportation and the statistical results are used as inputs to
the proposed model. The results obtained according to the proposed model provide a
good basis when it comes to making a decision whether to retread or not a used tyre. The
experimental results show that retreading cost is 28 percent and life is 75 percent
compared to new tyre. This paper gives the better approach of energy conservation.

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Mehta Divyesh S. et.al., [2015], has made a Case Study on Tyre Retreading of S. T.
Workshop. The aim of this thesis is to study the tyre retreading process of tyre of ST
Buses. Old worn out tyres of ST buses retreaded by different method of tyre retreading &
use old tyre instead of purchasing new tyre. This paper also presents the study of life
cycle of this retreaded tyre of ST Govt. buses. This Retreading of tyre of buses give cost
benefit to the government by reuse of old tyre and it also decrease the wastage of tyre. In
case of ST Bus of Gujarat state are very wide transport areas in the different region of
Gujarat.

Avid Boustani et.al., [2010], has made study on tire remanufacturing and energy
savings. He has assumed that the use-phase energy consumption of tyres was determined
by utilizing return factor/energy ratio as opposed to experimental analysis, the
contribution of rolling resistance is equally distributed amongst tyres. The study assumes
that tyres operate with proper tyre inflation pressure and constant vehicle load.

B. E. Lindemuth, [2006], he has made an overview on tyre technology. Tyres are highly
engineered structural composites whose performance can be designed to meet the vehicle
manufacturers’ ride, handling, and traction criteria, plus the quality and performance
expectations of the customer. He has explained the tyre construction, its types,
composition of nylon and radial tyres. He has also explained about the tyre
manufacturing and consumer care.

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Chapter 3
TYRE BASICS
3.1 Function
3.1.1 Vehicle to Road Interface

The primary function of passenger car tyres is to provide the interface between the
vehicle and the highway. The rubber contact area for all four tyres for a typical mid-size
car is less than that of an 8½ x 11inch sheet of paper; each tire has a footprint area of
about the size of an average man’s hand. Yet we expect those small patches of rubber to
guide us safely in a rain storm, or to allow us to turn fast at an exit ramp, or to negotiate
potholes without damage.

3.1.2 Supports Vehicle Load

Vehicle load causes tyres to deflect until the average contact area pressure is balanced by
the tyres’ internal air pressure. Assuming a typical passenger tyre is inflated to 35psi,
then a 350lb load would need an average of 10sq. inches of contact area to support the
load. Larger loads require more contact area (more deflection) or higher tyre pressures. A
larger contact area usually requires a larger tyre. Fortunately, industry standards exist for
these requirements.

3.1.3 Road Surface Friction

The ability of vehicles to start, stop and turn corners results from friction between the
highway and the tyres. Tire tread designs are needed to deal with the complex effects of
weather conditions: dry, wet, snow-covered and icy surfaces. Slick racing tyres or bald
tyres may have good traction on dry surfaces, but may be un-driveable in wet, rainy
conditions due to hydroplaning. Tyre tread designs enable water to escape from the tire-
road contact area (the tire footprint) to minimize hydroplaning, while providing a
reasonable balance between the sometimes conflicting requirements of good dry traction,
low wear and low noise.

3.1.4 Absorbs Road Irregularities

This attribute is a key benefit of the pneumatic tyre. In effect, tyres act as a spring and
damper system to absorb impacts and road surface irregularities under a wide variety of
operating conditions.

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3.2 Tyre Structure

The construction of off-the-road depends, to a large extent, on the intended use of tyres.
However, common components to all off-the-road tyres are the tread, carcass, beads,
breakers, and sidewalls. Tubeless type tyres also have an inner liner as shown in Fig. 3.1

Fig. 3.1 Structure of Tyre

1. Tread: The tread is the outermost covering of the tyre, and is the only part that
normally comes in contact with the road surface. It, therefore, must be designed to protect
the body of the tyre from cuts and wear. Depending on the intended use of the tyre, the
rubber compound applied to the tread will be changed to customize cut tread pattern also
has a large effect on the performance of the tyre. A number of tread patterns are available
for different types of operations. These patterns feature excellent cut resistance, traction
and longer serviceability. These factors are taken into consideration when recommending
a tyre best suited for the operation.

2. Sidewall: The side walls are composed of flexible, crack resistant rubber, and protect
the carcass from damage. For jobs where chuck holes, large rocks, etc. are a problem,
tyres with high cut resistant sidewalls can be used. The sidewalls are designed to cushion
the body plies from shock and cutting, while being able to flex and bend without
cracking. The sidewall must also be able to withstand the ravages of the weather without
deterioration.

3. Plies: A tyre is composed of a number of layers or plies. These plies are high tensile
nylon cords which are loosely woven together and coated on both sides with a rubber

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compound. These layers of plies help contain the inflation pressure of the tyre in
supporting the load. The high-tensile nylon cords have a greater resistance to shock,
cutting and heat. This improves the durability of the tyre.

4. Carcass or Cord Body: The compressed air in a tyre supports the load placed on the
tyre. The carcass forms a semi-rigid frame for the compressed air, but it is flexible
enough to absorb some shocks and jolts. The carcass of the Bias tyre consists of a number
of rubber- coated layers of fabric called piles. The carcass determines the strength of the
tyre and the ability to flex.

5. Bead: The beads fix the tyre to the rim to support the load.

6. Belts: In radial tyres stabilizer bias ply belts under the base rubber gives an added
protection to the radial plies underneath and determine the shape of the footprint.

7. Liner: In tubeless tyres, this is composed of two or more layers of rubber, designed to
retain air or liquid under pressure. The inner walls of tubeless tyres are lined. The liner is
made of an air-impermeable rubber compound and is comparable to tubes used in tube
type tyres. Tubeless tyre generally weigh less than comparable tube type tyres and are
simpler to maintain tube and flap are eliminated.

A proper tread design improves traction, improves handling and increases durability. It
also has a direct effect on ride comfort, noise level and fuel efficiency. Each part of the
tread of your tyre has a different name, and a different function and effect on the overall
tyre. Your tyres might not have all these features, but here's a rundown of what they look
like, what they're called and why the tyre manufacturers spend millions each year fiddling
with all this stuff. Below Fig. 3.2 shows the construction of tyre.

Fig. 3.2 Construction of Tyre Tread

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1. Sipes: These are the small, slit-like grooves in the tread blocks that allow the blocks to
flex. This added flexibility increases traction by creating an additional biting edge. Sipes
are especially helpful on ice, light snow and loose dirt.

2. Grooves: These create voids for better water channelling on wet road surfaces.
Grooves are the most efficient way of channelling water from in front of the tyres to
behind it. By designing grooves circumferentially, water has less distance to be
channelled.

3. Blocks: These are the segments that make up the majority of a tyre's tread. Their
primary function is to provide traction.

4. Ribs: These are the straight-lined row of blocks that create a circumferential contact
"band."

5. Dimples: These are the indentations in the tread, normally towards the outer edge of
the tyre. They improve cooling.

6. Shoulders: These provide continuous contact with the road while maneuvering. These
shoulders wrap slightly over the inner and outer sidewall of a tyre.

3.3 Types of Tyres

There are two basic types of tyre construction that mud, all terrain and street tyres use as
their foundation. They are bias-ply and radial designs. Each type of tyre construction has
its own unique set of characteristics that are the key to its performance, whether on road
or off road and these characteristics can help to define the purpose of the tyre. The
following information and Fig. 3.3 will explain what identifies the difference between a
bias ply tyre and a radial type tyre.

Fig. 3.3 Radial and Bias-ply Type Tyres

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3.3.1 Radial Tyres

The radial is a type of tyre that is constructed with rubber coated, reinforcing steel cable
belts that are assembled parallel and run from side to side, bead to bead at an angle of 90
degrees to the circumferential centreline of the tyre. (As opposed to the 30 degree
alternating application lengthwise as in bias ply tyres). This makes the tyre more flexible
which reduces rolling resistance to improve fuel economy. Then numerous rubber coated
steel belts are then constructed into the “crown” of the tyre under the tread to form a
strong stable two-stage unit.

3.3.2 Bias Ply Tyres

The bias ply tyre construction utilizing rubber-coated layers known as plies composed of
textile cords, usually nylon and sometimes Kevlar. The plies layered diagonal from one
bead to the other bead at about a 30 degree angle. One ply is set on a bias in one direction
as succeeding plies are set alternately in opposing directions as they cross each other and
the ends are wrapped around the bead wires, anchoring them to the rim of the wheel. The
layers of plies are them covered with more rubber to form the tread of the tyre. Bias ply
tyres are sometimes called cross-ply tyres.

3.3.3 Other Types of Tyres

1. Tyre with Cotton (Reinforcement) Carcass: In the starting phase of proper Bias or
Cross ply tyre, cotton plies were used as main reinforcing material (end of 19th and early
20th Century). Cotton reinforcing material had inherent problems of low strength and
high moisture re-gainer. The tyre leads to large number of plies to get the requisite casing
strength for the tyre weight of the tyre and poor heat dissipation. This, in turn, gave an
adverse impact on Tyre weight and buck rendering poor performance.

2. Tyre with Nylon (Reinforcement) Carcass: Persuent to development and

introduction of Polyamide (Nylon) the strength and flexing behaviour of reinforcing
materials improved substantially resulting in further reduction of number of plies,
consequently the weight of the tyres. This development substantially improved the heat
and impact resistance of the carcass leading to better tyre performance and higher
durability. Nylon casing gave a boost to retread-ability. Thus effective cost of the tyre in
operation became much more economical. Development of Tyre Technology due to
change in Reinforcing material is basically in the case of Cross Ply or Bias Tyres. Bias

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tyre has cotton, Rayon or Nylon Cords, bound as plies and each ply (i.e. Cords) cross
each other at a definite angle anchoring at the bead.

3. Radial (Construction) Tyre - Textile/Textile belt (Rayon/Nylon/Polyester): In-

spite of continuous development in Bias Tyre Technology, inherent problem of high heat
development and poor life remains a continuous challenge. In early 1950s new concept of
Tyre design was developed namely "RADIAL" wherein plies were made highly flexible
by keeping the cords at 90 and in order to improve tyre life, inextensible (stiff) belts were
placed on the top of the Carcass under the tread. This led to stiffer tread portion, leading
to higher tread life (Mileage) and much more comfortable ride due to flexible carcass.
This was the beginning of 'Revolution' in tyre technology. Initially Radial tyres were
introduced with Casing Plies as well as belt material of textiles. Continuous development
in Radial Concept led to further improvements as explained below.

4. Radial (Construction) Tyre - Textile/Steel Belts: Once Steel Tyre cord got
developed it found its immediate application in Belt material, keeping casing plies of
Textile, to further improve durability.

5. Low Aspect Ratio (Cross Ply or Bias) Tyre: A new concept of low aspect ratio (ratio
between section height and section width) of the tyre in cross ply construction was
introduced for higher speed and better performance.

6. Tubeless Tyre (Cross Ply): Concept of tubeless tyre in cross ply construction wherein
an inner liner compound based on chloro-butyl or Halo Butyl which is impermeable to
gases, was introduced eliminating the usage of tubes. However, Tubeless tyres are
produced for Export Market. Gradually this concept will become fully acceptable with
the advent of new generation vehicles and improved service facilities.

7. Radial (Construction) Tyre: All Steel In developed countries, radial Truck/Bus tyres
use steel wires in casing as well as in Belts to achieve the optimum advantage of radial
construction. In India also this construction was tried since late 1970s by Indian
Companies using tyres of collaborators. This could not succeed. Indian companies started
experimentally since late 1980s (themselves or with collaborators) which continues and
the product has found gradual entry into low load application. It is usually used in low
load vehicles and cannot be used in high load vehicles. The strength of radial tyre is low
when compared to nylon tyres as there are chances of developing air in radial tyres when
used for high load vehicles.
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3.4 Tyre Materials

1. Natural rubber, or poly-isoprene is the basic elastomer used in tyre making.
2. Styrene-butadiene co-polymer (SBR) is a synthetic rubber that is often substituted in
part for natural rubber based on the comparative raw materials cost.
3. Poly-butadiene is used in combination with other rubbers because of its low heat-
build-up properties.
4. Halo-butyl rubber is used for the tubeless inner liner compounds, because of its low
air permeability. The halogen atoms provide a bond with the carcass compounds
which are mainly natural rubber. Bromo-butyl is superior to chloro-butyl, but is more
expensive.
5. Carbon Black, forms a high percentage of the rubber compound. This gives
reinforcement and abrasion resistance.
6. Silica used together with carbon black in high performance tyres, as a low heat build
up reinforcement.
7. Sulphur cross-links the rubber molecules in the vulcanization process.
8. Vulcanizing Accelerators are complex organic compounds that speed up the
vulcanization.
9. Activators assist the vulcanization. The main one is zinc oxide.
10. Antioxidants and antiozonants prevent sidewall cracking due to the action of sunlight
and ozone.
11. Textile fabric reinforces the carcass of the tyre.
In order to produce 1Kg of styrene-butadiene rubber (synthetic rubber) it requires 0.4Kg
of styrene and 1.2Kg of butadiene. As such, in order to produce 1Kg of synthetic rubber
requires 33MJ for producing the required amount of Styrene, 77.8MJ for producing
required amount of Butadiene, and 8.93MJ for the polymerization process. This results in
energy cost of 119.8MJ energy required to extract raw materials and produce 1Kg of
synthetic rubber.

3.4.1 Energy Intensity of Raw Materials

1. Natural Rubber: Natural rubber requires much less energy than synthetic rubber since
the raw ingredients of natural rubber is isoprene (C5H8), which is directly extracted from
sap of the para rubber tree.

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2. Carbon Black: Carbon black is utilized in automobile tyres as a pigment and

reinforcing agent. In addition, carbon black assists the thermal extraction from the tread
and the belt, hence, reducing thermal damage and increasing tire lifetime. Carbon black is
a form of amorphous carbon that has high surface area to volume ratio, which is
generated from incomplete combustion of heavy petroleum products from catalytic
cracking.

3. Steel: Steel is used in producing beads in tire manufacturing. Beads are high-tensile-
strength bands of steel wire encased in a rubber compound. The steel beads provide
mechanical strength between the tyre and the wheel. Steelmaking is one of the most
conventional industrial processes in ferrous metallurgy, which primarily designed to
utilize carbon-rich pig iron into steel.

4. Synthetic Rubber: Synthetic rubber (styrene-butadiene rubber) is predominantly

made from styrene and butadiene amongst other polymeric additives. Styrene is an
organic compound with the chemical formula C6H5CH=CH2 that is generated mostly
from the benzene product from crude oil. Styrene is produced industrially from ethyl
benzene, which in turn is produced from alkylation of benzene with ethylene.

5. Plasticizers and Fillers: Fillers and elastomer products are supplied in tyre
manufacturing to increase plasticity of tyres. More specifically fillers are developed to
mate with the beads to be a cushion between bead and the inner liner of the tire.

6. Fabric: The body ply of a tire consists of multiple sheets, which is typically one layer
of rubber, one layer of reinforcing fabric, and a second layer of rubber. The fabric utilized
in earlier times was cotton, but recently this has changed to materials such as rayon,
nylon, poly-ester, and Kevlar.

Table 3.1 Energy Intensity of Raw Materials Assembled in a Tyre

Tyre Material Energy Intensity (MJ/Kg Material)

Natural Rubber 9.3
Synthetic Rubber 119.8
Carbon Black 126.5
Steel 25
Plasticizers 42
Fabric 43.5

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3.5 Tyre Designation and Sizes

The size of a tyre must satisfy some basic conditions. The bead diameter must suit the
wheel rim diameter, section width must be suitable for use on the wheel rim and large
enough to have a suitable load-carrying capacity for the vehicle, the overall tyre size must
allow sufficient clearance between the tyre and the vehicle frame as shown in Fig. 3.4.
All manufacturers mould information about the tyre into its sidewall.

Fig. 3.4 Tyre Dimensions

(1) 7.00 R 12

Where 7.00 = Nominal section width in inches.

R = Radial Ply construction.

12 = Nominal Rim diameter in inches.

(2) 7.00 - 12 12R

Where 7.00 = Nominal section width in inches.

12 = Nominal Rim diameter in inches.

12R = Ply Rating.

(3) 18 × 7 - 8 14PR

Where 18 = Nominal overall diameter in inches.

7 = Nominal section width in inches.

8 = Nominal Rim diameter in inches.

14PR = Ply Rating.

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Table 3.2 Different Tyre Sizes

Sl. No Tyre size Tyre Name

1 4.00 - 8 6PR Auto Rickshaw

2 4.50 - 10 8PR Ape

3 6.00 - 16 6PR Jeep

4 10.00 - 20 Lorry

5 9.00 - 16 16PR Tractor Trailer

6 12.4 - 28 Tractor

7 13.00 - 24 12PR Escort Crane

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Chapter 4

RETREADING
The reason for retreads is simple, money retreads save a lot of money, because retreading
a worn tyre costs far less than buying a new one. On a fleet basis, the use of retreads can
substantially reduce overall tyre costs. And that can make a big difference on the bottom
line. That’s why almost all major commercial fleets today use retreads.

Retreads are so dependable, all major airlines use them, and you can imagine the stress
airplane tyres receive during landing and takeoff. Many of those tyres have been
retreaded 8 to 10 times. Even high- tech, sophisticated jet fighters like the F-16 use
retreads.

A worn tyre is a proven tyre. If there is a weakness in a new tyre, it invariably shows up
early in the tyre’s first life. By the time it has run its original tread life, you know you
have a good casing -one that could be retreaded once, twice, or even more times. Many of
today’s retreads are outperforming the original new tyre in wear, efficiency, and traction.

4.1 Retreading Materials

4.1.1 Hot Cap and Cold Cap Rubber Material
Rubber material as shown in Fig. 4.1 is lined with cushion gum before applying to a
buffed casing using the hot cap method of retreading. This rubber material is cured or
vulcanized using a mould to obtain tread.

Pre-cured rubber, usually of high density and available in various tread designs, is lined
with cushion gum before applying to a buffed casing using the cold cap method of
retreading. Recently it has been applied in some hot cap moulds employing a smooth
matrix or other modifications.

Fig. 4.1 Hot cap and Cold Cap Rubber Material

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4.1.2 Rubber Cement

Rubber cement is an adhesive made from elastic polymers (typically latex) mixed in
a solvent such as acetone, hexane, heptane or toluene to keep them fluid enough to be
used. Water-based formulae, often stabilised by ammonia, are also available. This makes
it part of the class of drying adhesives: as the solvents quickly evaporate, the "rubber"
portion remains behind, forming a strong, yet flexible bond. Often a small percentage of
alcohol is added to the mix.

4.1.3 Patches

The cold patch required buffing the inside of the tyre and applying cement. Then the
correct sized patch as shown in Fig. 4.2 was placed over the injury and a special tool was
used to "stitch" the patch to the tire. That doesn't mean stitching in the sense it was sewn
on, but that this special tool was rolled over the patch until it was sealed against the tyre.
The drawback to this method was if you didn't do everything perfectly, the patch would
leak.

Fig. 4.2 Patches of Size 5, 4 and 3

4.1.4 Curing Bag

The Rubber Curing Bags as shown in Fig. 4.3 are used for tyre retreading purpose. Each
size of tyre requires Rubber Curing Bag of same size and thus it is supplied in various
sizes to meet different requirements. For conventional and pre-cured retreading, rubber
Curing Bag is a mandatory item. This is commonly used in providing internal pressure
for pneumatic vehicle tyres during their vulcanization. Different pressures are used for
different sizes of curing bag. The thickness of curing bag is also more when compared to
a normal flap and tube because during curing process the heat added to the tyre for curing
is high.

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Fig. 4.3 Curing Bag with Flap

4.2 Vulcanization of Rubber

Vulcanization or curing is a chemical process for converting natural rubber or
related polymers into more durable materials by the addition of sulphur or other
equivalent curatives or accelerators. These additives modify the polymer by
forming cross-links (bridges) between individual polymer chains as shown in the Fig. 4.4.
Vulcanized materials are less sticky and have superior mechanical properties. The
term fibre refers to cellulose that has been treated in a zinc chloride solution to cross-
link the cellulose fibres.

Fig. 4.4 Sulphur Vulcanization of Rubber

Vulcanization of rubbers by sulphur alone is an extremely slow and inefficient process.

The chemical reaction between sulphur and the Rubber Hydrocarbon occurs mainly at the
C = C (double bonds) and each crosslink requires 40 to 55 sulphur atoms (in the absence
of accelerator). The process takes around 6 hours at 140°C for completion, which is
uneconomical by any production standards. The vulcanizates thus produced are extremely
prone to oxidative degradation and do not possess adequate mechanical properties for

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practical rubber applications. These limitations were overcome through inventions of

accelerators which subsequently became a part of rubber compounding formulations.

An accelerator is defined as the chemical added into a rubber compound to increase the
speed of vulcanization and to permit vulcanization to proceed at lower temperature and
with greater efficiency. Accelerator also decreases the quantity of Sulphur necessary for
vulcanization and thus improving 'aged' properties of the rubber vulcanizates.

Table 4.1 Classification of Accelerators

Accelerators Chemical Group Vulcanization Speed

BA, HMT Aldehyde Amine Slow
DPG, DOTG Guanidine Slow
MBT,MBTS,ZMBT Thiazole Semi Ultra fast
ZBDP Thio-phosphate Ultra fast
CBS,TBBS,MBS,DCBS Sulfenamides Fast-Delayed action
ETU,DPTU,DBTU Thiourea Ultra fast
TMTM,TMTD,DPTT,TBzTD Thiuram Ultra fast
ZDMC,ZDEC,ZDBC,ZBEC Dithio carbonate Ultra fast
ZIX Xanthates Ultra fast

4.3 Classification of Retreading

There are many types of tyres such as Radial tyres and Cross-ply (sometimes called as
nylon) tyres. For radial and nylon tyres, there are two types of retreading processes.

1. HOT RETREADING PROCESS (MOULD CURE):

Raw rubber is applied to the tire casing and it is then placed in a

mould where tread is formed. A dedicated mould is required for each tyre size and treads
design. It involves the vulcanization of a tyre in a mould at a temperature of around
1500 C. A wide range of chambers and moulds are required which in turn increases the
investment, which will be needed to be regularly updated.

2. COLD RETREADING PROCESS (PRECURE):

Pre-cure or cold retreading involves vulcanisation without a mould at a

temperature of between 950 C and 1100 C. The tyre is put together using a pre-vulcanised
tread liner and a non-vulcanised bonding gum layer. The bond between the carcass, the

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bonding gum and the pre-cured tread is created in an autoclave. Less number of chambers
are required and there are no expensive moulds which decreases the investment on the
part of the retreading plant. A wide range of tread types are available, allowing the
optimum tread to be selected for the tyre application.

4.3.1 Hot Retreading Process

Hot retreading process is also called as mould cure process. This process is divided into
number of stages and is shown in Fig. 4.5.

1. Initial Inspection.

2. Buffing.

3. Repairing/Casing Preparation.

4. Cementing and Tread application.

5. Building.

6. Curing or Vulcanizing.

7. Final Inspection.

Fig. 4.5 Process of Hot Retreading of Tyre

1. Initial Inspection:

Before retreading, every used tyre casing must pass inspection. The casing is carefully
examined by an inspector on a specific automatic inspection machine. It must be kept in
mind that inspection is always a matter of trained judgment. The most sophisticated
equipment cannot replace the inspector’s decision. Therefore the human element always
plays an important part in the process of retreading. The primary reason is to ensure the
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tyre casing will be able to be retreaded and it is safe to return to operation. Tire
manufacturers design tyre to provide service greater than the thread will last, but due to
operating conditions or damaged to the tyre casing, a tyre may not be safe to return to
service. Inspector, begins when the tire is placed on a mechanical spreader and a drop-
light is used to make the inside visible to the inspector. As the casing is rotated, the
inspector checks inside and outside with his hands and eyes.

Some of the things an inspector looks for that could cause rejection of a casing are:

1. Cuts and Snags. 5. Impact break.

2. Inner liner cracking. 6. Under wear.

3. Sidewall separation. 7. Too much friction.

4. Tread separation. 8. Air formation.

Any of these problems could be reason for casing rejection, and these are just some of the
ones that can be seen or felt.

2. Buffing:

Buffing is simply the removal of previous tread material and the shaping, sizing and
texturing of the casing surface to receive the new tread. It is best performed on a lathe-
type machine as shown in Fig. 4.6.

Fig. 4.6 Traditional and Lathe Type Automatic Buffing Machine

The casing is mounted on the machine, inflated, and rotated as it is worked on. A
powered buffing rasp removes material. The casing is buffed as flat as possible so there
will be good tread-to-road contact. It is buffed to a predetermined crown width, radius
and symmetrical profile. Often a buffed casing will end up more true and round than the
original tyre. The buffing wheel is the actual carrier of the compound or rouge as shown
in Fig. 4.7. It becomes the transferring agent between the abrasive compound, and the

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work piece. The construction of the buff becomes important to the desired performance;
therefore it is important to match the construction of the buff to the work piece as shown
in Fig. 4.8.

Fig. 4.7 Buffing Hub Set

Tyres that need repairs are marked for the kind of repair needed, or marked “RAR”
(return as received - the casing is beyond repair) or “RAB’ (repair after buffing). Nail
holes can be repaired at this stage, other repairs are made after buffing. Bias tyres are
“vented”. Small holes are placed in the bead and shoulder areas to reduce build-up of air
pressure within the tire cords while curing.

Fig. 4.8 Buffing Process of Tyre

3. Repairing/Casing Preparation:

There are four basic types of repair which is usually found in tyres. They are as follows:
nail hole, spot repair, reinforcement repair, and section repair as shown in the following
Table 4.2.

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Table 4.2 Different Types of Repair

A nail hole repair is an injury
1
′′ or less in diameter in the
4

crown area that penetrates 50

NAIL HOLE REPAIR percent or more of the plies.
Nail holes in the bead area of a
tire cannot be repaired.

A spot repair is the removal

and replacement of rub- ber in
an injury that is larger than a
nail hole, but involves less
SPOT REPAIR
than 25 percent of the actual
body plies.

A reinforcement repair is
repair of an injury through 25
REINFORCEMENT
percent but less than 75
REPAIR
percent of the body plies.
Over-the-road bias drive tyres
may not have more than one
reinforcement repair in each
quarter-section of the tyre.

A section repair is a repair

made when an injury extends
SECTION REPAIR
through 75 percent or more of
the body plies or completely
through the casing in the tread
and sidewall areas.

Injuries remaining in the tyre casing after buffing can be repaired if the damage is within
acceptable limits. The repair professional is trained to recognize which injuries can be
repaired and which cannot. Where injuries are too extensive, the casing must be rejected.
The repair operation is a crucial step in the tyre retreading process. A properly repaired
tyre is intended to last the life of the new tread being applied.

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Once an injured area has been evaluated, cleaned, and prepared, a repair can be applied as
shown in Fig. 4.9. A repair is intended to extend the life of the tyre and provide a safe
quality product for your operation. Any other voids are filled with rubber to ensure a flat
surface with no voids for the thread rubber to be applied.

Repairing is well worth the effort. There is such a wide difference between the cost of a
new tire and a re-tread, even major repairs such as re-belting are cost efficient.

Fig. 4.9 Installation of Patch

4. Cementing and Tread Application:

After repairs are made, the casing is then sprayed with cement to enhance adhesion
between the new tread material and the casing. Vulcanized rubber solvent is placed over
the surface of tyre .the solvent is prepared by mixing black vulcanizing cement and petrol
,here petrol is used for reducing the viscosity of the solvent so that they can be applied on
the tyre smoothly In this way it spreads uniformly. Take another dip of solvent if
required. When the cement dries to a tacky consistency, it is ready for the tread.

At this stage, the new tread material is fitted to the casing. It must be the precise size and
it must be centred on the casing. The proper length of tread is cut, and a layer of
cushioning gum is added to the back of the tread. The cushioning gum is the bonding
agent between tyre and tread casing. The bond becomes the strongest part of tyre. It
reduces the chances of tread separation and increases the reliability of the retread. The
tread may be applied manually or with the help of machine as shown in the Fig. 4.10.
After tread application it is taken to pressing process.

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(i) (ii)
Fig. 4.10 Application of Tread (i) Manually (ii) Machine

5. Building:

The rubber with solution and the tyre with solution is fixed for process and with the help
of machine which gives some force to tyre for making them fixed as shown in Fig. 4.11.
The tyre is all ready for curing.

(i) (ii)
Fig. 4.11 Rolling Machine (i) Motorized (ii) Hand Operated

6. Curing or Vulcanizing:

Time, temperature and pressure are the keys to proper retread curing. Even small
variations in the correct level in one of these could lead to poor retread performance or
failure.

Tyres with green rubber thread (tread) are placed into a mould which exerts the pressure
and heat to force the un-cured rubber into the mould’s thread pattern and cure the green
rubber as shown in the Fig.4.12. The green rubber is changed from its original state (soft,
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tacky, stretchy) into a tough and hard rubber state. This mould cure process creates a
denser thread and greater bond resulting in better performance than any other method.

Air pressure is maintained at about 50 atm so that it expands uncured material takes the
position of the mould temperature of 150° C the tread and after some time the mould is
opened and tyre is taken from the mould. Therefore the tyre from the vacuum system is
ready for use and it taken from the system carefully.

(i) (ii)
Fig. 4.12 Curing Machine (i) Manual (ii) Automatic

The mould used for the hot retreading is different for different tyres. The mould used for
moulding is as shown in Fig. 4.13.

(i) (ii)
Fig. 4.13 Mould for Curing Machine (i) Manual (ii) Automatic

7. Final Inspection: A final inspection of the finished retread is then made. Inspection is
made while the tyre is hot, separations and other flaws are easier to see then. The inside is
checked to make sure all patches are properly bonded.

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4.3.2 Cold Retreading Process

Cold retreading process is also called as pre- cure process. This process is divided into
number of stages which is similar to hot retreading process.

1. Initial Inspection.

2. Buffing.

3. Repairing/Casing Preparation.

4. Cementing and Tread application.

5. Building.

6. Curing or Vulcanizing.

7. Final Inspection.

All the stages are similar to hot retreading except tread application and curing. The tread
used is a pre-cured rubber as shown in Fig. 4.14. The tread rubber used in this process is
moulded and pre-cured by the tread rubber manufacturer. The re-treader selects the
appropriate treads in strips or full circles of various designs, widths and thicknesses. In
the pre-cure retreading process, a cushion gum bonding layer is placed between the tread
and the casing. The proper tread width is applied to the prepared casing in a straight and
even fashion. The tire then moves to the chamber for curing.

Fig. 4.14 Tread Application in Pre-Cure Process

In the pre-cure process, curing takes place within a chamber as shown in Fig. 4.15. The
unit is pressurized and the air is heated by electricity, steam or hot liquid, such as oil
moving through a radiator-like heat exchanger at a temperature between 95𝑜 𝐶 - 110𝑜 𝐶.
With the new rubber in place, the prepared casing is put into a rubber envelope or

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membrane much like an inner tube with valve used to suck out air, creating vacuum and
physical pressure on tread.

It is then put into the chamber where pressure and temperature, applied over the correct
length of time, cure the cushion gum layer and bond the pre-cured tread to the tyre.

Fig. 4.15 Curing Chamber

For vulcanization made in autoclaves are usually designed to process up to 22 tyres. This
process takes approximately 4 percent to 5 hours. After the curing time all tyres in the
autoclave are finished simultaneously.

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Chapter 5

RETREADING LIFE
5.1 Experimental Analysis
In order to find out the life cycle of retreading tyre, a novel test setup was designed and
prepared by fabrication for particular tyre as shown in the Fig. 5.1. The test setup is based
on a tyre on tyre principle, which makes the setup quite simple and less expensive.
Moreover, the tyre rolling deformation approaches better the deformation of a tyre rolling
on a flat road. The test setup performs highly repetitive and controllable impact excitation
tests under various operating conditions.

Fig. 5.1 Experimental Test Rig

The tyres used in the tests are radial tyres with symmetrical tread pattern of size
175/65R15 and the steel rims are rigidly clamped at the wheel hub. Figure 5.1 shows the
test setup with the one tyre mounted. Since one identical tyre is used, the tyre
deformations equal to the deformation of a tyre rolling on a flat road. The tyre is driven
by a 2HP, three-phase induction motor. The tachometer is used to measures the rpm of
the wheel against different time in sec and load in mm. The tyre is mounted on the axle
spindle which is connected to motor shaft with the help of pulley variac. The rotation
speed is controlled by a pulley variac. Different speed was given by pulley and at
different speed, the tyre was rotated and wear was measured in mm at different interval.
Same procedure was done for new and retreaded tyre. The tread wear against different
speed and different load and compared the result for both tyres.

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Table 5.1 Input Parameter for Testing

Fig. 5.2 and Fig. 5.3 show plots of travelling distance and tread wear. The normal
pressure is distributed symmetrically around the centreline. The tyre surface and the track
surface are both considered smooth.

Fig. 5.2 Mean Value of Tread Wear in mm for Different Travelling Distance of New and 1st Time
Retreaded Tyre

From the graphs it is concluded that the for same travelling distance of new and retreaded
tyre, the tread wear is different, i.e the tread wear for new tyre is less than the retreaded
tyre. Because the rubber ply is hard for new tyre and also the wear resistance is high for
it. Whereas for retreaded tyre, the rubber ply is soft compare to new tyre and also the
wear resistance is low for it.

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Fig. 5.3 Mean Value of Tread Wear in mm for Different Travelling Distance of New and 2nd Time
Retreaded Tyre

Fig. 5.4 Sum of the Total Travelled Distances in Function of Number of Retreading

By analysing the Fig. 5.4 it can be noted that the travelling distance is decreasing by
increase of number of retreading.

By analysing the Fig. 5.5 it can be noted that the total travelling distance of retreaded tyre
is more than that of new tyre.

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Fig. 5.5 Comparison for Total Travelling Distance of Retreading and New Tyre

Fig. 5.6 Comparison for Total Cost Saving on Retreading and New Tyre

By analysing the Fig. 5.6 it can be noted the cost per kilo-meter is less for retreaded tyre
compare to new tyre because of we can do retreading on same tyre for number of times.
Also the cost of retreading is 25-30 percent of the new tyre. So that the total travelling
distance is more and cost per kilo-meter is less for retreaded tyre.

Total Travelling Distance of New and Retreaded Tyres with Different Manufacturers are
shown in the Table 5.2. New tyre (900×20) of Ceat company has high mileage when
compared to Birla, J.K and Vikrant. But retreading life of Vikrant tyres is high when
compared to J.K, Ceat and Birla.

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Table 5.2 Different Retread Tyre Analysis

5.2 Preventive Maintenance

If selecting the right tyre is the crucial first step in a good retreading program,
maintenance is the second. A tyre that is not maintained will soon be ready for the scrap
pile, and that’s the end of the line for your tire investment.

The most important factor in the tyre maintenance is proper inflation. More tyres are lost
to under- inflation or over-inflation than any other cause. The tyre gauge and tread depth
gauge are the most important tools in any tyre program. The Fig. 5.7 shows what effect
improper inflation can have on a tyre.

5.2.1 Effect of Over-inflation and Under-inflation

Driving on tyres that aren’t properly inflated is unsafe, and can result in extensive tyre
damage. Let’s first look at what over-inflation can do to a tyre. When a tyre is
overinflated, it’s more rigid. The more rigid the tyre, the less able it is to absorb road
shock, and the more vulnerable it is to road hazards that can lead to cuts, snags, punctures
and body breaks.

Overinflated tyres also wear faster. Many times, drivers overinflate tyres on purpose,
trying to compensate for overloading the vehicle. But the truth is no matter how much air
you add to a tyre, you’ll never increase the tyre’s carrying capacity above the maximum
rated load. The only way to effectively address the overloading issue is to use more tyre,
not more air. When a tyre is overinflated, it’s more rigid. The more rigid the tire, the less
able it is to absorb road shock, and the more vulnerable it is to road hazards that can lead
to cuts, snags, punctures and body breaks. Effects of inflation are shown in Fig. 5.7.

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Fig. 5.7 Effects of Inflation

While over-inflation is serious, under-inflation is especially hazardous. It is the most

common condition because no tyre or tube is completely impervious to air loss. Sooner or
later, air will have to be added. The reason under-inflation is devastating to a tyre is heat.
Abnormal deflection of an underinflated tyre causes friction within tyre components
which elevates temperature. Heat is the primary cause of pre-mature tyre failure, and it
doesn’t take much of an increase to make a difference in the life cycle of the tyre. A
graph is shown in Fig. 5.8 which shows the effect of inflation in tyre service.

Fig. 5.8 Effect of Inflation on Tyre Service

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5.2.2 Maintaining the Vehicle

There are many vehicle factors which have a major effect on tyre life, including the
condition of the braking system, condition of the suspension system, and maintenance
and placement of the 5th wheel. However, the vehicle factor that has the most direct
effect on tread wear is axle alignment. The importance of proper axle alignment can
hardly be overstated. A national survey indicates as many as 80 percent of Class 8 trucks
may have front wheel alignment problems, and 70 percent have problems with rear
alignment. Proper axle alignment delivers three important benefits: reduced tread wear,
better vehicle handling and control, and less fuel consumption. Alignment not only refers
to the various angles of the steering axle geometry but also to the tracking of all axles on
the vehicle.

Alignment is extremely important to the life cycle of tyres. It is another key to a good
tyre maintenance program. Complete alignment information and settings can be obtained
from the vehicle manufacturer. Preventive maintenance is an investment in the future. By
taking care of tyres today, they may live to see tomorrow as a retread and life cycle cost
will be lower.

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Chapter 6

ADVANTAGES, DISADVANTAGES AND

APPLICATIONS
6.1 Advantages

1. Retreading is highly environment friendly. Also, it reduces carbon dioxide

emission and saves millions of gallons of oil which is required to manufacture
new tyres.
2. There are many economical benefits of retreading as the retreaded tyres are less in
price in comparison with the new ones.
3. Retreads are quite safe and are being used in all kind of vehicles nowadays. May
be taxis or trucks, school buses or military vehicles, retreading is being used in all
of them.

6.2 Disadvantages

1. Retreading of tyre depends on the condition of tyre such as its air complaint,
punctures, defect on side wall and bead.
2. Radial tyres cannot be retreaded again and again as it becomes condemn tyre after
first retreading.
3. Structural ability of body of the tyre should be strong enough for retreading.

6.3 Applications

1. Some applications for retreaded tyres are airplanes, racing cars, buses and
delivery trucks.
2. Retreading plays a particularly important role in aircraft tyres, which are
subjected to extreme stresses.

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Chapter 7

SUMMARY
Retreading is an established and well- regulated process for producing high quality
remanufactured tyres. Retreaded tyres are subject to stringent quality certification that
matches new tyre regulations. Because tyre casings are so thoroughly inspected and
tested and because the pre-cured tread or mould cure rubber compound is chosen with the
projected use in mind, retreaded tyres often have a longer life than new tyres and can
have a lower rate of failure. Tyre retreading saves raw material that is rubber. A tyre is
made up of 100 percent rubber approximately as main ingredient 20 percent is only used
in worn out tyres rest 80 percent is tyre carcass. A retreaded tyre costs less to produce
than a new tyre and sells for less - usually between 30 and 50 percent of the comparable
new tyre price. Retreading is an effective way to lower the tyre costs. Retreading is a
highly practical and efficient form of recycling. Retreading makes it possible to re-use
worn tyres. Instead of dumping tyres with worn out tread and good sidewalls, they can be
rebuilt and put back to work again, and again.

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REFERENCES
[1] B. E. Lindemuth, “An Overview of Tire Technology”, U.S. Department of
Transportation, National Highway Traffic Safety Administration, pp 1-27, 2006.
[2] Vankar Bharat A, Gosai Dipak C, Shah Amit V, “An Experimental Analysis on
Life Cycle of Tyre Retreading”, International Journal of Advance Research In
Science And Engineering, Vol. No.4, Special Issue (01), pp 30-39, 2015.
[3] S. Ajeeth Kumar, “Tyre Retreading by Hot Retreading Process”, International
Journal of Applied Science and Engineering, pp. 61-65, 2016.
[4] Mehta Divyesh S, Gohil Sachin A, Shah Amit V, Patel Vipul R, “A Case Study
on Tyre Retreading Of S. T. Workshop”, - International Journal for Scientific
Research & Development, Vol. 3 Issue 02, pp 131-134, 2015.
[5] Avid Boustani, Sahni Sahni, Timothy Gutowski, Steven Graves, “Tire
Remanufacturing and Energy Savings”, Environmentally Benign Manufacturing
Laboratory, pp 1-78, 2010.
[6] Yasuhiro Ishikawa, “Systematic Review of Tyre Technology”, National Museum
of Nature and Science, Vol.16, pp 1-137, 2011.
[7] Hardik V. Patel, Brijesh D. Kayasth, “A review on Design and Analysis of Tyre
Envelope Expander for Tyre Retreading Process” International Journal of
Engineering Innovation and Scientific Research, Vol.1 (1), P.P-65-68 ISSN:
2395-6372, 2015.

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