PARTICLE NATURE OF MATTER

All matter is made of elements that are fundamental substances that cannot be broken down by chemical
means. An element is a substance that cannot be further reduced as to simpler substances by ordinary
processes. In essence, an element is a substance consisting of one type of atom. A compound is a pure
substance composed of two or more different atoms chemically bonded to one another. That means that it
cannot be separated into its constituents by mechanical or physical means and only can be destroyed by
chemical means. A mixture is a material containing two or more elements or compounds that are in close
contact and are mixed in any proportion.  

MATTER

Matter is anything that occupies space and has mass. All physical objects are composed of matter, and an
easily observed property of matter is its state or phase. The classical states of matter are solid, liquid and gas.
Several other states, including plasma and Bose-Einstein condensate, do exist, but it is the classical states that
can transition directly into any of the other classical states.

For example, an ice cube (solid water) left on a bench at room temperature quickly changes to liquid water,
whereas a jet of steam (gaseous water) from the spout of a boiling kettle changes to liquid water when directed
onto a cold surface.

Classifying matter
Another way of thinking about matter is from the chemist’s viewpoint. The following diagram shows a way of
classifying matter with elements and compounds very much in mind.
Matter from a chemist’s viewpoint
This diagram classifies matter according to the uniformity of its composition.

To see how this classification system works, let us take two examples:

 How does milk fit into this system? Milk has a uniform composition, and it is a solution (homogeneous).
Filtering the milk will separate out suspended solids (proteins and lipids), leaving behind a clear liquid.
The application of various separation techniques to this liquid yield numerous categories of
chemical compound. Milk is a complex mixture of substances.
 How does golden beach sand fit into this system? Most of the grains of golden beach sand are either
light-colored feldspar or clear quartz. Beach sand has a non-uniform composition, but the grains can be
physically separated into mineral groupings. Sand minerals are chemical compounds.

Kinetic-molecular theory of matter

Solids, liquids, and gases each have their own characteristic properties. To explain how these properties,
come about, the kinetic-molecular theory has been developed.

According to this theory, all matter is made up of extremely small particles (atoms, molecules, or ions), which
are in constant motion:

 In solids, these particles are tightly packed together, usually in a regular array, and vibrate back and
forth.
 In liquids, the particles are still tightly packed, but as well as vibrating, they can move over and in
between one another.
 In the gaseous state, the particles are spaced out relative to one another and are moving around with
rapid, random motion.
  Kinetic model of matter
 The three classical states of matter compared at the molecular level. In solids, the particles
vibrate about fixed positions. In liquids, the particles vibrate and move over and in between
one another. Gas particles are widely spaced and move with rapid, random motion.

 For each of these states, the higher the temperature, the faster the particles move.

Relationships between states of matter

 The classical states of matter (solid, liquid and gas) can transition directly into any of the
other classical states. Either adding heat to the system or removing heat from the system
can achieve this.

 Relationships between states of matter

 This diagram shows how solids, liquids, and gases – the three classical states of matter – can
interconvert.

Two other states of matter

 When a gas is heated to very high temperatures, the gaseous atoms are stripped of their
outer electrons. This creates ‘ionized’ gas that consists of a highly energetic mix of positive
ions, electrons, and atoms. The gas has been converted into plasma, often referred to as
the ‘fourth state of matter’.
  In the 1920s, two scientists, Satyendra Bose and Albert Einstein, predicted the existence of
a state of matter at the extreme low-energy end of the temperature scale. They called this
state ‘Bose-Einstein condensate’. There are only a few selected elements and subatomic
particles that can reach this state. It was not until 1995 that two scientists, Cornell and
Weiman, were able to make this condensate from atoms of rubidium.

 States of matter concept map

 States of matter concept map showing the classical states along with two other states known
as plasma and Bose-Einstein condensate. As students construct concept maps, they make
sense of the ideas and the relationships between them

Nature of science
 In scientific terms, a theory implies that something has been proven and is generally accepted as being
true.
 Scientific theories are well established, highly substantiated, internally consistent systems of
explanation. The kinetic-molecular theory of matter provides such a system of explanation for the
observed properties of matter.
Atoms to Molecules
What is your brain made of?
Everything you can see, touch, smell, feel, and taste is made of atoms. Atoms are the basic building-block
of all matter (including you and me, and everyone else you’ll ever meet), so if we want to know about what
Earth is made of, then we have to know a few things about these incredibly small objects.
Atoms
Everyday experience should convince you that matter is found in myriad forms, yet all the matter you have
ever seen is made of atoms, or atoms stuck together in configurations of dizzying complexity. A
chemical element is a substance that cannot be made into a simpler form by ordinary chemical means. The
smallest unit of a chemical element is an atom, and all atoms of a particular element are identical.
Parts of an Atom
There are two parts to an atom ( Figure below ):
 At the center of an atom is a nucleus made up of two types of particles called protons and
neutrons.
o Protons have a positive electrical charge. The number of protons in the nucleus
determines what element the atom is.
o Neutrons are about the size of protons but have no charge.
 Electrons, much smaller than protons or neutrons, have a negative electrical charge, move at
nearly the speed of light, and orbit the nucleus at exact distances, depending on their energy.

Major parts of an atom. What chemical element is this? (Hint: 3 protons, 3 electrons)

Atomic Mass
Because electrons are minuscule compared with protons and neutrons, the number of protons plus neutrons
gives the atom its atomic mass. All atoms of a given element always have the same number of protons but
may differ in the number of neutrons found in the nucleus.
Ions
Atoms are stable when they have a full outermost electron energy level. To fill its outermost shell, an atom will
give, take, or share electrons. When an atom either gains or loses electrons, this creates an ion. Ions have
either a positive or a negative electrical charge. What is the charge of an ion if the atom loses an electron? An
atom with the same number of protons and electrons has no overall charge, so if an atom loses the negatively
charged electron, it will have more protons, therefore, a positive charge. Ions with a positive charge are
referred to as a cation. What is the charge of an ion if the atom gains an electron? If the atom gains an
electron, there will be more electrons and will have a negative charge. Anions are ions that have a negative
charge.

Molecules
In the previous section we said that many atoms are more stable when they have a net charge: they are more
stable as ions. When a cation gets close to an anion, they link up because of their different net charges —
positive charges attract negative charges and vice versa. When two or more atoms link up, they create
a molecule. A molecule of water is made of two atoms of hydrogen (H) and one atom of oxygen (O).
The molecular mass is the sum of the masses of all the atoms in the molecule. A collection of molecules is
called a compound.

Summary

 An atom has negatively charged electrons in orbit around its nucleus, which is composed of
positively charged protons and neutrons, which have no charge.
 An atom that gains or loses electrons is an ion. Positively charged ions are cations, negatively
charged ions are anions.

STATES OF MATTER

Anything that has mass is made up of matter – an all-encompassing word for atoms

and molecules that make up our physical world. We describe this matter as existing in states
(sometimes referred to as phases). Most people are familiar with three states of matter – solids,
liquids, and gases – but there are two more that are less commonly known but just as important –
plasmas and Bose-Einstein condensates.

Three states of matter

Solids, liquids, and gases are three states of matter. In solids, the particles are tightly packed
together. In liquids, the particles have more movement, while in gases, they are spread out. Particles
in chemistry can be atoms, ions, or molecules.

It is important to understand the particle nature of matter. The particles that make up matter are
not ‘small bits of solid’ or ‘small drops of liquid’ but atoms and molecules. The physical
characteristics of those atoms and molecules decide its state.

Solid
Gallium crystal
Gallium is an uncommon metal that exists in a liquid and solid form. This gallium crystal would melt if
you handled it.

Something is usually described as a solid if it can hold its own shape and is hard to compress
(squash). The molecules in a solid are closely packed together – they have a high density.

Right now, you are probably sitting on a chair, using a mouse or a keyboard that is resting on a
desk – all those things are solids.

Liquid
In liquids, the molecules can move around and slide past each other. A liquid will take on the
shape of the container it is being held in. While a liquid is easier to compress than a solid, it is still
quite difficult – imagine trying to compress water in a confined container!

Water is an example of a liquid, and so is milk, juice and the petrol you put in the car.

Gas
In gases, the atoms are much more spread out than in solids or liquids, and the
atoms collide randomly with one another. A gas will fill any container, but if the container is not
sealed, the gas will escape. Gas can be compressed much more easily than a liquid or solid.

Right now, you are breathing in air – a mixture of gases containing many elements such
as oxygen, nitrogen, and carbon.

Plasma
Plasma is very similar to gas, in fact, the easiest way to describe plasma is as a gas that can
carry an electrical charge. Plasma is a form of matter that exists when atoms are in an excited
state. They are so excited that they jump an energy level and, in doing so, give off light. Plasma
particles are spread out and move around randomly, but unlike gas, they contain some
free ions and electrons, which gives plasma its ability to conduct electricity.

On Earth, plasmas are commonly found in some kinds of fluorescent lights and neon signs.
Another form of plasma on Earth happens during storms as lightning.

Lightning
A lightning storm is an example of plasma, one of the known states of matter. Plasma is atoms in a
very excited state and giving off light.

Auroras are another form of plasma, where atoms in the upper atmosphere are affected by
particles coming in from outer space. The most common form of plasma is in the stars – our Sun
exists in the plasma state. Overall, plasmas are the most common state of matter – they make up
99% of the visible universe.

Find out more about gases and plasmas in this article.

Bose-Einstein condensate (BEC)

To understand a Bose-Einstein condensate (BEC), you must first know a bit about temperature.

There is a temperature at which molecular motion (therefore everything) stops, this is

called absolute zero (0K or around -273°C). Just a fraction above this temperature – and only for
some elements – a BEC occurs. The atoms start behaving like little waves and start overlapping
one another until they eventually act like one wave and essentially become a super atom. They
are not bonded or mixed – they have become indistinguishable from one another, having the
same qualities and existing in the same place.

Daniel Kleppe from the Massachusetts Institute of Technology has a great description. He says
the “particles have lost their identity – they all think they are everywhere”. One atom cannot tell
itself from another.

Changing states
It is important to understand that matter exists in all states and that matter can also change
states. It does this by either using or releasing energy, and it is usually associated with changes
in temperature and pressure.

A simple example is water. If you have a block of ice, you have solid water. Add heat (a form of
energy) and the ice melts into liquid water that you could drink (it has reached its melting point).
Continue to apply heat, and the water will evaporate and turn into steam, which is water in a
gaseous state (it has reached boiling point). This works backwards, too. Gas can cool down (by
losing energy) and condense back into liquid water and cool down further into a solid. There is
even a process called sublimation where a solid can turn straight into a gas when heat is applied.

Gas can also change state to a plasma or BEC:

 In plasma TVs, little pockets of gas are excited with electricity disrupting the normal
balance of atoms so there are lots of free ions and electrons, turning them into plasma,
which creates a light.
 If your super cool gas, you get a BEC super atom wave. Warm it up, and the wave will
return to a gas.

PARTICLE NATURE OF MATTER

Matter is anything that has mass and occupies space.

• As you were observing each sample of matter in Activity 1, you were focusing on characteristics. These
characteristics that describe a sample of matter are called properties.
• All matter has mass and volume. There are other properties of matter such as hardness, texture,
color, flexibility, malleability, and electrical conductivity which vary from one sample to another.

What makes up matter?

• If you hammer the stone you used in Activity 1 into much smaller pieces, what would you get?
• If you turn the sugar into very fine powder, what will result?
• Ice, liquid water, and steam are all the same substance, which is water, yet you can observe that they
look different from each other? How can this be explained?

Long, long time ago…

• Democritus believed that any piece of matter can be divided and subdivided into very small particles
but that this process ended at some point when a piece is reached that could not be further divided.
• He called this particle, Atomos, a Greek word which means indivisible particle.

At present…
• An atom is the smallest particle of an element that has all the properties of the element. Today, we
know that although atoms are very small, they are not indivisible as Democritus thought, rather they
consist of still smaller particles.
• In Grade 7, you learned about elements. Atoms of most elements can combine with other atoms.
Different elements have different properties because the combining atoms are different and the way the
atoms are joined together are different.

Meanwhile…
• A molecule is a particle consisting of two or more atoms combined in a specific arrangement.
• For example, a molecule of water consists of an oxygen atom combined with two hydrogen atoms.
• Atoms of the same element can also combine to form a molecule. For example, oxygen in the air
consist of oxygen molecules which are made up of two oxygen atoms.