The current issue and full text archive of this journal is available at

www.emeraldinsight.com/0144-3577.htm

IJOPM
30,11 An investigation of the adoption
and implementation
of benchmarking
1140
Dotun Adebanjo
E-Business and Operations Management,
Received March 2009
Revised November 2009, The University of Liverpool Management School,
May 2010 Liverpool, UK, and
Accepted May 2010
Ahmed Abbas and Robin Mann
Centre for Organisational Excellence Research,
Massey University, Palmerston North, New Zealand

Abstract
Purpose – The purpose of this paper is to use survey data collected from 453 respondents, from over
40 countries, to determine the current levels of use of benchmarking as an improvement technique.
It identifies where and how benchmarking is implemented within organisations and compares the
popularity of benchmarking against other improvement tools. Finally, it provides an evidence based
opinion on whether benchmarking is a fad or an established management technique.
Design/methodology/approach – An on-line questionnaire was used to collect data. The
questionnaire was translated into five languages and promoted by the Global Benchmarking
Network, a network of benchmarking competency centres, representing 21 countries. The data were then
analysed using SPSS statistical software.
Findings – The analysis suggests that benchmarking (informal and formal) is used by a majority of
organisations although best practice benchmarking is only used by a core minority. Benchmarking
effectiveness compares favourably with effectiveness of other improvement tools and a majority of
respondents intend to continue using benchmarking in the future.
Research limitations/implications – The responses from some of the countries that participated
were small in number. This study also relied on a single respondent from each organisation. Inter-country
comparisons were not carried out.
Practical implications – Benchmarking will continue to be used to support the improvement of
operations. For organisations that currently use benchmarking the paper provides some insights into
how to obtain the full benefits from benchmarking. For those that do not use benchmarking the paper
highlights how other organisations are using benchmarking to obtain operational benefits.
Originality/value – The paper presents a multinational survey of benchmarking. Carried out a
quarter century after the start of benchmarking’s growth, it helps to establish if benchmarking is an
established improvement tool or a management fad. It also positions benchmarking relative to other
improvement tools and is the most complete study on benchmarking adoption to date.
Keywords Benchmarking, Operations management, Quality management
Paper type Research paper

International Journal of Operations &

Production Management Introduction
Vol. 30 No. 11, 2010
pp. 1140-1169 Benchmarking was one of the most popular and widely adopted management
q Emerald Group Publishing Limited techniques of the 1980s and 1990s and it gained a lot of credit for helping organisations to
0144-3577
DOI 10.1108/01443571011087369 improve their competitive advantage.
 Twenty-five years after the prominence of benchmarking in the mid-1980s the Global Benchmarking
Benchmarking Network (GBN) initiated a project, undertaken by researchers in
universities in New Zealand and the UK, to evaluate the current status of benchmarking
worldwide. The GBN is a membership-based association consisting of benchmarking
competency centres from 21 countries. This project included a multinational survey of
benchmarking awareness, use and effectiveness, representing views of respondents
from more than 40 countries. Furthermore, it enabled the determination of whether 1141
benchmarking as a technique is an established operations management technique or a
fad of the 1980s and 1990s.

Limitations of previous benchmarking research

According to Talluri and Sarkis (2001), benchmarking has proven to be an effective
tool for organisations that seek to improve their operations. It has been described as
a popular tool which was adopted universally and was found to be one of the top
five management tools in a 1999 survey (Wong and Wong, 2008). The popularity of
benchmarking was also evident in the number of publications associated with the
concept (Dattakumar and Jagadeesh, 2003). Yasin (2002) found that more than 2,000
articles relating to benchmarking had been published in both academic and practitioner
journals between 1986 and 2000. The authors found more than 1,500 benchmarking
publications in academic journals. These publications show that benchmarking has
been applied to a wide variety of processes and products in all types of industries and
countries. Examples of processes and products that have been subject to benchmarking
studies include lead benchmarking (McAdam et al., 2008), financial product lending
(Delpachitra and Beal, 2002), logistics (Hannan, 1997; van Landeghem and Persoons,
2001), quality function deployment (QFD; Ginn and Zairi, 2005), field services (Behara
and Lemmink, 1997), hotel services (Min and Min, 1997), preventive maintenance (Chen,
1994), operating theatres (Longo and Masella, 2002), information and communication
technology practice (Wainwright et al., 2005) and business process re-engineering (BPR)
(Yung and Chan, 2003). Other studies have focused on the application of benchmarking
in particular business sectors. These sectors include higher education (Jackson, 2001),
automotive (Delbridge et al., 1995), manufacturing (Sweeney, 1994; Voss et al., 1994),
health (Fowler and Campbell, 2001), finance (Vermeulen, 2003), construction
(Sommerville and Robertson, 2000; Love et al., 1999) and food (Adebanjo and Mann,
2000). However, according to Fernandez et al. (2001), benchmarking is but one of the
improvement techniques that have been used by organisations. Most of the available
benchmarking publications, by focusing narrowly on individual processes or business
sectors or countries, fail to enable an understanding of benchmarking from a wider
perspective. In particular, there is no empirical data to indicate perceptions of how
benchmarking compares to other improvement tools from the perspective of industry.
Consequently, its relative levels of adoption and effectiveness remain unknown.
The authors’ review of literature agrees with the earlier observation by Talluri and
Sarkis (2001) that most of the literature has focused on the management and methodology
for the execution of benchmarking. There have also been few studies that have focused on
multiple business sectors, most have focused on one sector. Furthermore, the available
multi-national studies such as those by Voss et al. (1997) and Meyer et al. (1999) have been
limited in scope and/or the numbers of participating countries. In addition, it does not
appear that they clearly defined the different types of benchmarking to the survey
IJOPM respondents and so it is unclear as to what type of benchmarking the respondents
30,11 are undertaking. Therefore, it is difficult to conclude with any certainty, how
benchmarking is viewed across a range of countries and whether it is truly deployed by
most organisations. While there are studies to suggest a high proportion of organisations
in individual countries use benchmarking (Davies and Kochhar, 1999; Maire et al., 2005;
Tyler, 2005), there is no empirical evidence to suggest a high degree of deployment across
1142 many countries. Rather, there are various studies that anecdotally describe benchmarking
as “popular” (Ungan, 2004; Dattakumar and Jagadeesh, 2003; Rohlfer, 2004). The paper
presents findings from a study that examines current levels of adoption of benchmarking
and reasons for adoption or non-adoption. It also identifies how benchmarking is
deployed and the areas or processes in organisations to which it primarily applies. The
study is a multinational study that had the support of 21 countries through the GBN and
ultimately obtained survey responses from more than 40 countries in North America,
Asia, Africa, Europe and Australasia. The study also involved organisations in multiple
business sectors including manufacturing, education, government, finance, utilities,
health, construction and transportation.

Timing of this study

The timing of the study is also important. The credit for developing benchmarking into
the management technique it is today is given to Xerox Corporation who first started
using the technique in 1979. Camp’s (1989) book Benchmarking: The Search for Industry
Best Practices that lead to Superior Performance – the first book on benchmarking –
describes Xerox’s processes and experiences. According to Talluri and Sarkis (2001), the
growth of benchmarking practices started in the early 1980s and by the late 1980s and
early 1990s, it had become a very popular management technique (Kumar and Chandra,
2001; Hinton et al., 2000; Ahmed and Rafiq, 1998). According to Ahmed and Rafiq (1998),
while benchmarking had been widely used by many organisations, a small but
significant minority considered it to be a management fad. Davies and Kochhar (2002)
also cast doubt on the ability of benchmarking to deliver improved performance.
Furthermore, Yung and Chan (2003) suggested that there is a danger that organisations
would discard benchmarking once initial improvements have been made.
This study was carried out 25 years after the start of benchmarking’s growth and it
therefore, enables understanding of whether the technique is well established as a
business and operations improvement technique or whether it was a management fad of
the past. This clarification is important as some studies have questioned the status and
effectiveness of benchmarking although the majority of studies consider it to be an
effective improvement technique.
The following section reviews the literature. Subsequent sections present the research
questions, methodology and respondents’ characteristics, followed by statistical analysis
and discussion. The managerial implications and conclusions are described in the last
section.

A review of benchmarking
The review of literature carried out in this section focuses on the issues related to the
study carried out. It is not the intention of this paper to provide a broad based review of
the literature on benchmarking as there are already several publications that have done
this (Yasin, 2002; Kumar and Chandra, 2001; Wainwright et al., 2005).
 It is important to start with an understanding of what benchmarking means. Talluri and Benchmarking
Sarkis (2001) suggested that benchmarking is still not well defined. According to Nandi and
Banwet (2000), 49 definitions for benchmarking had been found. Anand and Kodali (2008)
attributed the variations to emphasis on different themes such as measurement,
comparison, identification of best practices, implementation and improvement. However,
Anderson and McAdam (2007) argued that that many of the definitions essentially share
the same common ideas. They proposed two indicative definitions which are as follows: 1143
Benchmarking is the search for industry best practices that will lead to superior
performance (Camp, 1989):
[. . .] a process that facilitates learning and understanding of the organisation and its
processes (Fernandez et al., 2001).

Criticism of benchmarking
Although benchmarking is commonly regarded as popular and well established
and beneficial to organisations, a number of studies have questioned various
aspects of benchmarking perception and deployment. Fong et al. (1998) suggested that
benchmarking suffered from a lack of consensus about its classifications and that some of
the models used in deploying benchmarking had significant shortcomings. Other studies
have criticised the lack of involvement of employees in the benchmarking process (Bhutta
and Huq, 1999; Davies and Kochhar, 1999). Some studies have identified financial
performance as the key reason for benchmarking (Maiga and Jacobs, 2004; Cassell et al.,
2001), but however, according to Anderson and McAdam (2004), focusing benchmarking
on financial performance is backward looking and more predictive measures of
performance need to be applied to benchmarking. These criticisms indicate that while
benchmarking is acknowledged to be a useful technique, there are still doubts about how
and why it is deployed. There is need therefore for a study to clarify the current state of the
use of benchmarking.

Approaches to benchmarking
The literature on benchmarking is equally undecided about the different approaches
to benchmarking. While McGaughey (2002) suggested that there are three types of
benchmarking – internal, external and best practice, Behara and Lemmink (1997)
classified benchmarking on the basis of what is being benchmarked (functional,
performance, generic, process and strategic) or who is being benchmarked (internal,
competitive or non-competitive). On the other hand, Fong et al. (1998) classified
benchmarking on the basis of who is being benchmarked (internal, competitor, industry,
generic, global), content of benchmarking (process, functional, performance, strategic)
and purpose of the relationship (competitive and collaborative). However, because this
study compares adoption of benchmarking to other management practices, in addition
to the dangers of misinterpretation that may arise from cultural differences in a
multinational study, a more widely accepted distinction between best practice
(or process) and performance (or results) benchmarking is adopted. According to Hinton
et al. (2000), a benchmarking process can be either process or performance benchmarking
and they further suggested that most benchmarking carried out is performance
benchmarking and not process benchmarking. Sweeney (1994) similarly asserted that
the benchmarking of processes is a different task from comparing equivalent financial
results. Delpachitra and Beal (2002) described process benchmarking as the analysis of
IJOPM discrete work processes with the aim of identifying the most effective operating practices
30,11 from many companies that perform similar work functions. Adebanjo and Mann (2007)
described performance benchmarking as the comparison of performance levels or
results without taking into account, the practices that led to such performance.

1144 Formal and informal benchmarking

Although benchmarking is considered to be a formal process involving the use of
comparison approaches and models, this study took a view, based on the authors’
experiences with various organisations and taking into account the view of members
of the GBN, that informal approaches to benchmarking should be included. Therefore,
we introduce the term “informal benchmarking” into this study. The definitions of
benchmarking adopted in the survey of the two types of benchmarking, informal and
formal benchmarking are as follows:
(1) Informal benchmarking – this is benchmarking that does not follow a process
or a procedure. It refers to the type of benchmarking that everyone does at work,
often unconsciously, involving comparing and learning from the behaviour and
practices of others. Learning from informal benchmarking typically comes from
the following:
.
Talking to work colleagues and learning from their experience.
.
Consulting with experts who have experience of implementing a particular
process or activity in many business environments.
.
Networking with other people from other organisations at conferences,
seminars and Internet forums.
.
On-line databases/web sites and publications that share benchmarking
information provide quick and easy ways to learn of best practices and
benchmarks.
The definition of informal benchmarking provided in this survey was
“Actively encouraging employees to learn from the experience and expertise
of other colleagues and organisations through comparing practices and
processes. For example, through best practice tours, conferences, best
practice websites and networking”.

(2) Formal benchmarking of which there are two types – performance

benchmarking and best practice Benchmarking. With these types of
benchmarking, there can be a subset of internal, competitive or functional
organisation comparison:
.
Performance benchmarking describes the comparison of performance data
obtained from studying similar processes or activities. Performance
benchmarking may involve the comparison of financial measures (such as
expenditure, cost of labour, cost of buildings/equipment) or non-financial
measures (such as absenteeism, staff turnover, complaints, call centre
performance). The definition in this survey was “Comparing performance levels
of a process/activity with other organisations – therefore comparing against
benchmarks”.
 .
Best practice benchmarking describes the comparison of performance data Benchmarking
obtained from studying similar processes or activities and identifying,
adapting and implementing the practices that produced the best performance
results. The definition in this survey was “Following a structured process for
comparing performance levels and learning why better performers have
higher levels of performance and adapting/implementing those better
practices”. 1145
The deployment of benchmarking models
The structured nature of best practice benchmarking has led to the development of a
number of benchmarking models. Behara and Lemmink (1997) identified some of the
available models to include such as Baxter’s seven-step model, AT&T’s nine-step model
and Xerox’s 12-step model. Partovi (1994) while identifying other models including
Spendolini’s five-step model, Alcoa’s six-step model and IBM’s 14-step model, strongly
argued that the core of the different models is the same. Adebanjo and Mann (2007)
compared different methodologies including Camp’s, Codling’s and Mann’s. While the
study by Anand and Kodali (2008) acknowledged that 60 different models had been
identified, they could be classified into three based on their origin. These three
classifications are:
(1) Academic/research-based models – developed mainly by academics with an
inclination to a theoretical and conceptual perspective.
(2) Consultant/expert-based models – developed from personal opinion, experience
and judgment and validated using client organisations.
(3) Organisation-based models – developed or proposed by organisations based on
their experience and knowledge.

The large numbers of benchmarking models and the differences in their origins implies
that there is little clarity or empirical data to inform academia and practitioners about
the relative levels of used and perceived levels of effectiveness of the different types of
models.

Benefits of benchmarking
Another dimension of benchmarking that has generated much academic debate is the
level of benefits to be derived from benchmarking. There is general consensus among
most academic research that benchmarking can lead to significant benefits for
organisations that adopt it. A study by Voss et al. (1997) found a strong direct link
between benchmarking and improved operational and business performance. They
suggested that benchmarking promotes higher performance by identifying practices
and setting challenging performance goals. It also helps organisations understand their
strengths and weaknesses relative to competitors. A similar argument was made by
Ulusoy and Ikiz (2001) who found that organisations that implemented more best
practices were better business and operational performers. In a study of the application
of benchmarking in the logistics process, it was possible to identify the logistics
performances that were deficient and areas of best practice that were underused in the
tested organisations (van Landeghem and Persoons, 2001). Sommerville and Robertson
(2000) studied the use of benchmarks in the construction industry and found that they
facilitated business performance improvements.
IJOPM From the above, it can be summarized that benchmarking is highly regarded as a
technique that promotes and enables operational and business improvement.
30,11 Consequently, it is widely adopted by organisations of different sizes and in different
sectors in many parts of the world. It also generates great academic interest particularly
with regard to its nature and modes of deployment. However, 25 years after the growth of
modern benchmarking began, there is a need for an empirical study to investigate the
1146 continued relevance of benchmarking as an improvement tool and consequently,
determine whether its use is increasing or not. In essence, can benchmarking be
considered an established management technique or has it become a fad? In addition to
addressing this issue, this study provides insight into current industrial perceptions of
benchmarking and why and how it is used. In the next section, a review of the literature
on management fads is presented.

Benchmarking and management fads

Carson et al. (1999) proposed the following definition for management fads:
[. . .] managerial interventions which appear to be innovative, rational and functional and are
aimed at encouraging better organisational performance.
They further suggested that fads have a four step life-cycle comprising invention,
acceptance, disenchantment and decline. They suggested that reasons for fad adoption
include a need to conform and a pressure to react to market and competitor activities.
Van der Wiele et al. (2000) asserted that most fads fade away after a short period of time.
The disenchantment with fads and their short life span are encouraged by the realization
that the expected benefits were not attained (Ehigie and McAndrew, 2005). Kumar et al.
(2008) suggested that faddish ideas tend to be simple, prescriptive and transient while
Naslund (2008) cautioned against following fads by suggesting that they lead to
organisational problems.
However, fads are not simply good or bad and characterizing new management
theories and practices as fads was described as a tactic used by critics who wish to
undermine the legitimacy of new developments in management practice (Parker and
Ritson, 2005; Kumar et al., 2008). Many academics are in agreement that some “fads”
become established management principles or techniques and according to Towill
(2006), fads can become management paradigms. To make this transformation and
become effective, the fad must survive over time and become incorporated in the
day-to-day fabric of an organisation.
There is no empirical evidence to date to confirm or disprove benchmarking as an
established management technique. However, Carson et al. (1999) suggested that
benchmarking was a fad while Ahmed and Rafiq (1998) wrote that a minority of
management theorists considered it to be a fad. The findings from this study provide
evidence on whether benchmarking is indeed a fad or an established management
technique. On the basis of the literature presented in this section, two criteria will be
fundamental in making this judgement. First, has benchmarking survived over the past
25 years and how does it rank against other management theories and second, does it
deliver operational and business benefits when adopted.
In summary, our review of literature has identified some gaps in our current
understanding of benchmarking. First, there are no empirical studies that compare
benchmarking to other improvement techniques, particularly across many countries.
Second, while there is an acceptance that there are different types of benchmarking, there
is no data on the relative use of the different types of benchmarking and their relative Benchmarking
benefits. Third, there is little understanding of why many organisations are not currently
using benchmarking and, therefore, potential approaches to address any obstacles are
not necessarily based on empirical data.
This study addresses these issues by means of a questionnaire survey involving
organisations in several countries. The study seeks to identify improvement tools that
are applied and how benchmarking ranks in comparison. It also seeks to understand in 1147
what parts of the organisation and in what ways benchmarking is deployed. In addition,
the questionnaire investigated employee involvement in benchmarking and obstacles to
benchmarking. Consequently, it enables an understanding of how benchmarking has
evolved and how it is used across several countries.

Research aim and questions

The overall aim of this study was to carry out a multi-national study of the adoption and
implementation of benchmarking and consequently, provide data to ascertain whether
the technique is an established management technique. The objectives for the research
were as follows:
(1) Evaluate the levels of use and effectiveness of a range of improvement techniques
and compare benchmarking with these techniques.
(2) Present the largest study, to date, to provide an understanding of awareness
and use of benchmarking across several countries.
(3) Identify changes, over the years, to the use of benchmarking in terms of how
and where it is used in organisations that have deployed it.
(4) Evaluate perceptions of the relative effectiveness of different types of
benchmarking models.

Resulting from the literature study and in support of the study aim and objectives, it
was important to formulate a number of research questions. The first two questions
relate to adoption of the technique and are presented as follows:
RQ1. To what extent are organisations using the technique of benchmarking and
how does its use compare with other management techniques?
RQ2. What are the challenges that characterize the adoption and effective
implementation of benchmarking?
From the literature we identified that early studies suggested that benchmarking could
lead to operational and business benefits for adopters. However, the literature on
management fads suggests that such benefits fail to materialize after the initial
enthusiasm and the technique or theory in question can be considered a fad. This leads to
the formulation of our third research question:
RQ3. What are the operational and business benefits that organisations currently
attribute to the implementation of benchmarking and can we consequently
conclude that benchmarking is an established management technique that
continues to provide value to adopters?
The final research question relates to where and how benchmarking is carried out.
This question is particularly important within an operations management context as it
IJOPM enables confirmation of continuing applicability of benchmarking to operational
30,11 activities in organisations. The question was formulated as:
RQ4. Which aspects of the organisation are the subjects of benchmarking projects and
what are the context and factors that typify the deployment of benchmarking?

Research methodology
1148 The research methodology adopted for this study was the use of questionnaires.
The questionnaire study was carried out between March and June 2008. The initial
design of the questionnaire was undertaken by the research team. The first draft of the
questionnaire was then presented at the annual meeting of the GBN in December 2007.
The meeting had representatives from eight countries and the attendees included
Dr Robert Camp, the Honorary President of the GBN. The purpose of presenting the
first draft of the questionnaire was twofold – first, to get feedback on its design and
second, to solicit assistance in promoting the questionnaire in the home countries of the
GBN members. With respect to the first purpose, a review team consisting of two
researchers and three GBN members was given the task of reviewing the questionnaire
during one of the workshop sessions of the GBN meeting. The review team provided
improvement suggestions and proposed new questions. Subsequently, the suggested
changes were made to the questionnaire and the modified questionnaire was then sent
to the GBN members as well as other academics for further comment. This resulted in
another three months of iterative development and fine-tuning of the questionnaire
before a final version was ready for distribution.

Focus and style of questions

The questionnaire asked questions related to the awareness, use and effectiveness of 20
improvement techniques including best practice benchmarking, performance
benchmarking and informal benchmarking. Definitions were provided for all the
techniques to ensure that the respondents had the same understanding of each technique.
The questionnaire also sought information on the involvement of employees
in benchmarking projects, processes/functions that are subject to benchmarks and
benchmarking projects, as well as identified benefits from benchmarking. Other
questions focused on the deployment of best practice benchmarking projects.
The style of the questions varied significantly. For the questions that related to the
20 improvement techniques, each respondent was allowed to choose multiple answers
where applicable. The option to choose multiple answers was also available to some of
the other questions (for example, questions relating to benefits from benchmarking and
functions/processes that were subject to benchmarking). Other questions comprised a
combination of attribute-based (yes/no or yes/perhaps/no) and qualitative descriptive
rankings. The descriptors used varied depending on the particular question.

Deployment of the questionnaire

The completed questionnaire was deployed in two ways. First, the questionnaire was
converted to a web survey and placed on BPIR.com, a membership-based on-line
resource with a global audience. Emails were then sent to BPIR members and contacts
at monthly intervals encouraging them to complete the questionnaire. Second, the
questionnaire was sent to all GBN members and they were encouraged to send it to as
many of their contacts as possible or alternatively, to direct them to BPIR.com.
To encourage completion and respondent friendliness, the questionnaire was translated Benchmarking
from English to five other languages – Hungarian, Arabic, German, Chinese and
Russian – with the assistance of the GBN members. The overall focus of deployment
was to get as many respondents as possible in as many countries as possible to complete
the questionnaire. As a result of the deployment being carried out by multiple
organisations in different countries (BPIR.com and GBN members), it is not possible to
say with certainty how many organisations were ultimately approached or encouraged 1149
to complete the questionnaire.

Validity and reliability

The research data are considered to be valid and reliable principally due to the rigorous
process used to develop the questions. The following were the actions that enabled this:
.
The questionnaire was presented at the GBN conference to representatives from
eight countries and with extensive benchmarking knowledge. A dedicated team
spent time evaluating the questionnaire to provide input on its design.
.
Clear definitions were given in the questionnaire of the types of benchmarking
and improvement tools to ensure respondents clearly understood the
questions.
.
The questionnaire was iteratively developed by obtaining feedback from academics
with benchmarking experience and from GBN members in 21 countries. Eleven
iterations over a three month period enabled assurance of consistency of
understanding and the questionnaire validity.
.
The GBN members that provided input into the development of the questionnaire
were responsible for its translation to other languages in order to ensure
consistency.

Analysis
Analysis was carried using SPSS software package. Descriptive statistics which
involved the use of frequency tables, charts and cross-tabulations were the primary
methods of analysis used. Triangulation using responses from more than one question
to arrive at an informed opinion was also used during analysis.

Findings from the survey

A total of 453 completed questionnaires from 44 countries were received. Table I shows
the breakdown of completed questionnaires by country. Although some countries
provided more responses than others, all of the questionnaires were analysed since the
study intended to find out as much as possible about how benchmarking is being used in
as many organisations in as many countries as available. Of these, 39 (8.9 per cent) were
completed by micro-sized organisations (one to nine employees), 75 (17.2 per cent) were
completed by small-sized organisations (ten to 49 employees), 50 (11.5 per cent)
were completed by medium-sized organisations (50-250 employees), 272 (62.4 per cent)
were completed by large organisations (. 250 employees) while the remaining 17
(3.8 per cent) were missing data on company size. In addition 124 (27 per cent)
organisations were public sector based, 283 (63 per cent) were private sector organisations
while 44 (10 per cent) were not-for-profit or community based organisations. Figure 1
shows the distribution of organisations by industrial classification. The responses also
IJOPM
All countries Frequency Valid per cent
30,11
New Zealand 53 11.7
The UK 53 11.7
India 44 9.7
Germany 43 9.5
1150 Canada 33 7.3
Taiwan 32 7.1
Australia 28 6.2
Hungary 22 4.9
Mauritius 20 4.4
Saudi Arabia 19 4.2
Singapore 15 3.3
The USA 11 2.4
China 10 2.2
Bahrain 9 2.0
UAE 7 1.5
Iran 5 1.1
Ireland 5 1.1
Mexico 5 1.1
Greece 3 0.7
Switzerland 3 0.7
Syria 3 0.7
Turkey 3 0.7
Austria 2 0.4
Botswana 2 0.4
Jordan 2 0.4
Pakistan 2 0.4
Russia 2 0.4
Belgium 1 0.2
Cyprus 1 0.2
Czech Republic 1 0.2
Egypt 1 0.2
Ethiopia 1 0.2
Iraq 1 0.2
Israel 1 0.2
Italy 1 0.2
Malaysia 1 0.2
Namibia 1 0.2
The Netherlands 1 0.2
Philippines 1 0.2
Portugal 1 0.2
Qatar 1 0.2
Romania 1 0.2
Table I. Slovakia 1 0.2
Breakdown of South Africa 1 0.2
responses by country Total 453 100

indicated that 51 (11 per cent) of the organisations had been in operation for five years
or less, 64 (14 per cent) had operated for six to ten years, 65 (14 per cent) had operated for
11 to 15 years, 29 (6 per cent) had operated for 16 to 20 years while 243 (54 per cent)
had operated for more than 20 years.
 Manufacturing Benchmarking
Personal and other services
Government administration and defence
Education
Health and community services
Finance and insurance
Construction
Property and business services
1151
Electricity, gas and water supply
Transport and storage
Communication services
Agriculture, forestry and fishing
Cultural and recreational services
Wholesale trade
Retail trade
Accommodation, cafes and restaurants
Mining
Figure 1.
Other
Breakdown of respondents
0% 5% 10% 15% 20% 25% 30% by industrial classification
Note: n = 451

Awareness and use of benchmarking in comparison to other improvement tools

Figure 2 shows the level of moderate-to-high awareness of different improvement
tools from 453 respondents. It shows very high awareness of informal benchmarking
(75 per cent) and relatively high awareness of performance benchmarking (66 per cent)
and best practice benchmarking (60 per cent). This places awareness of benchmarking
below awareness of tools such as customer surveys (86 per cent), strengths, weaknesses,
opportunities and threats (SWOT) analysis (83 per cent) and quality management
systems (81 per cent) but above awareness of BPR (57 per cent), lean management
(52 per cent), Six Sigma (47 per cent) and 5S (46 per cent). Figure 3 shows the level of use
of the techniques. It shows that informal benchmarking was used by 69 per cent of
respondents, performance benchmarking was used by 49 per cent and best practice
benchmarking was used by 40 per cent. This compares with response rates of 22 per cent
for Six Sigma, 30 per cent for 5S, 36 per cent for lean management, 46 per cent for BPR,
77 per cent for customer surveys and 72 per cent for SWOT analysis.

Effectiveness and future use of benchmarking in comparison to other improvement tools

Responses to a question asking about the effectiveness (moderate or major) of the
improvement tools are shown in Figure 4. It indicates that quality management
systems (80 per cent, 233 of 291 responses), improvement teams (77 per cent, 219 of 283
responses), customer surveys (77 per cent, 260 of 336 responses) and BPR (76 per cent,
152 of 200 responses) were considered to be the most effective tools. Best practice
benchmarking (67 per cent, 115 of 171 responses), informal benchmarking (65 per cent,
201 of 308 responses) and performance benchmarking (65 per cent, 140 of 216
responses) had relatively lower perceptions of effectiveness from the respondents.
With regards to future use of the improvement tools within the next three years,
performance benchmarking (68 per cent, 110 of 161 responses), informal benchmarking
(63 per cent, 57 of 90 responses), SWOT analysis (62 per cent, 47 of 76 responses) and
best practice benchmarking (61 per cent, 124 of 203 responses) had the highest rates of
IJOPM Awareness of improvement techniques - worldwide
30,11 Customer (Client) surveys 86%

Strengths, weaknesses, opportunities, and threats (SWOT) 83%

Mission and vision statement 82%

Quality management system 81%

Employee suggestion scheme

1152 Informal benchmarking
77%

75%

Improvement teams 74%

Plan-do-check-act (PDCA) 70%

Balanced scorecard 68%

Total quality management (TQM) 67%

Performance benchmarking 66%

Mean 65%
Best practice benchmarking 60%

Business execellence 60%

Knowledge management 59%

Business process re-engineering (BPR) 57%

Lean 52%

Six sigma 47%

Corporate social responsibility system 47%

Industrial housekeeping (5S) 46%

Figure 2. Quality function development (QFD) 43%

Awareness of
0 25 50 75 100
improvement techniques
Note: Responses n = 453 % Awareness (moderate + high)

intended future use. The lowest rates of intended future use were for lean management
(38 per cent, 72 of 190 responses), total quality management (TQM) (37 per cent, 65 of
178 responses), 5S (29 per cent, 60 of 208 responses), Six Sigma (28 per cent, 70 of 250
responses) and QFD (25 per cent, 58 of 231 responses) These results are shown in
Figure 5.

Reasons for failure to use benchmarking

The organisations that do not use benchmarking were asked to identify and rank
up-to-three most important reasons for not using the technique (Figure 6). The data
collected from 214 organisations was then normalized by attaching weights (the most
important reasons were attached a weight of 3 and the least a weight of 1), multiplying
with the numbers of responses and averaged. The results indicated that the most
important reason was “lack of resources” (0.95, 97 responses) followed in order by “lack
of benchmarking partners” (0.91, 95 responses), “lack of technical knowledge in planning
benchmarking projects” (0.75, 87 responses), “lack of understanding of benchmarking”
(0.75, 65 responses), “lack of top management commitment” (0.74, 76 responses), “fear of
sharing information” (0.56, 54 responses), “no clear benefit from benchmarking” (0.35, 34
responses), “cost of benchmarking greater than benefit” (0.33, 37 responses), “long time
frame to complete projects (0.31, 40 responses) and “lack of authority” (0.18,
24 responses). Organisations that failed to use formal approaches to benchmarking
(i.e. those that responded to this question) were then requested to not to progress with the
 Mission and vision statement 77% Benchmarking
Customer (client) surveys 77%

Strengths, weaknesses, opportunities, and threats... 72%

Informal benchmarking 69%

Quality management system 67%

1153
Improvement teams 65%

Employee suggestion scheme 64%

Plan-do-check-act (PDCA) 58%

Performance benchmarking 49%

Knowledge management 47%

Business process re-engineering (BPR) 46%

Balanced scorecard 43%

Total quality management (TQM) 41%

Business excellence 40%

Best practice benchmarking 39%

Corporate social responsibility system 37%

Lean 36%

Industrial housekeeping (5S) 30%

Quality functon deployment (QFD) 24%

Six sigma 22% Figure 3.

Current use of
0 20 40 60 80 100 benchmarking
Note: n = 453 % (Yes)

questionnaire further. Therefore, the data presented subsequently only relates to

organisations that use performance or best practice benchmarking.

Benchmarks versus benchmarking

The organisations that used benchmarking were asked to identify the areas of their
operations where they collect benchmarks (i.e. performance measures). The data, which
is presented in Table II indicates that more than half of the respondents regularly collect
benchmarks for all important measures in areas related to financial (54 per cent),
customer (53 per cent), product/service (51 per cent). The corresponding figures for
process related and employee related areas were 46 per cent and 38 per cent, respectively.
However, the collection of benchmarks in certain areas of operation does not
necessarily imply that benchmarking projects were carried out in these or other areas.
Therefore, the respondents were asked which areas of their operations had carried out
best practice benchmarking projects within the past three years. The results are shown
in Figure 7 indicated that customer service was the most popular area and public
relations was the least popular area for benchmarking projects.
IJOPM Quality management system (n = 291) 80%

30,11 Imporvement tearms (n = 283) 77%

Customer (Client) surveys (n = 336) 77%

Business process re-engineering (BPR) (n = 200) 76%

Total quality management (TQM) (n = 182) 76%

1154
Industrial housekeeping (5S) (n = 132) 75%

Plan-do-check-act (PDCA) (n = 256) 75%

Lean (n = 154) 74%

Strengths, weaknesses, opportunities,
74%
and threats (SWOT)....
Business excellence (n = 176) 73%

Quality function deployment (QFD) (n = 98) 70%

Mission and vivion statement (n = 340) 70%

Balanced scorecard (n = 187) 70%

Six sigma (n = 92) 67%

Best practice benchmarking (n = 171) 67%

Informal benchmarking (n = 308) 65%

Knowledge management (n = 205) 65%

Performance benchmarking (n = 216) 65%

Figure 4.
Employee suggestion scheme (n = 278) 63%
Responses indicating
moderate or major Corporate social responsibility system (n = 164) 59%
effectiveness of
improvement tools 0 20 40 60 80 100
% Effectiveness (Moderate + Major)

Reasons for undertaking best practice benchmarking

Respondents that use best practice benchmarking were asked for the reasons why they
use the technique. They were required to identify and rank up-to-three most important
reasons for using best practice benchmarking. The data collected from 126 organisations
was then normalized by attaching weights (the most important reasons were attached a
weight of 3 and the least a weight of 1), multiplying with the numbers of responses and
averaged. The results are shown in Figure 8 and indicated that improvement of process
performance (1.98, n ¼ 104) was significantly more important than any other reason.
The ordered ranks for other reasons are “to address major strategic issues” (1.04, n ¼ 57),
“to learn what other organisations are doing” (0.94, n ¼ 68), “to improve financial
performance” (0.77, n ¼ 48), “to develop new products/services” (0.44, n ¼ 30), “necessary
for business excellence assessment” (0.32, n ¼ 24) and “to encourage a cultural shift to a
learning culture” (0.29, n ¼ 28).

Best practice benchmarking deployment and administration

With respect to the model used for best practice benchmarking, 41 (28 per cent) of 145
respondents claimed not to use a particular model while 74 (51 per cent) developed their
own model. The remaining 30 (21 per cent) used an existing model such as the Xerox
 Future use of improvement techniques-worldwide Benchmarking
Performance benchmarking (n = 161) 68%
Informal benchmarking (n = 90) 63%
Strengths, weakness, oppurtunities,
62%
and threats (SWOT) (n = 76)
Best practice benchmarking (n = 203) 61%
1155
Mission and vision statement (n = 52) 58%
Customer (client) surveys (n = 55) 56%
Balanced scorecard (n = 175) 55%
Employee suggestion scheme (n = 97) 54%
Knowledge management (n = 151) 52%
Improvement teams (n = 91) 52%
Quality management system (n = 92) 49%
Plan-do-check-act (PDCA) (n = 114) 48% Mean 48%
Business excellence (n = 181) 44%
Business process re-engineering (BPR) (n = 163) 42%
Corporate social responsibility system (n = 180) 42%
Lean (n = 190) 38%
Total quality management (TQM) (n = 178) 37%
Industrial housekeeping (5S) (n = 208) 29%
Six sigma (n = 250) 28%
Figure 5.
Quality function deployment (QFD) (n = 231) 25% Responses indicating
future use of improvement
0 20 40 60 80 100 activities
% (Yes)

12-step model. When asked how many benchmarking projects were typically carried out
each year, 22 (15 per cent) of 142 respondents claimed to carry out one project while the
majority of 77 (54 per cent) carried out between two and five projects each year. A total of
16 (11 per cent) organisations carried out between six and nine projects, 19 (13 per cent)
carried out between ten and 20 projects while the remaining 8 (6 per cent) carried out
more 20 projects each year.
Figure 9 shows the answers with respect to the length of a typical benchmarking
project excluding the implementation of an identified best practice. It indicates that almost
two-thirds (66 per cent) of 139 respondents took less than four months to complete a typical
project. Table III indicates the responses relating to activities carried out during the
planning of a benchmarking project. It indicates that more than half of 139 respondents
usually or always develop a project brief (66 per cent, 92 responses), calculate the expected
costs and benefits of the project (55 per cent, 76 responses) and ensure that a benchmarking
code of conduct is understood and followed (42 per cent, 58 responses).

Involvement in best practice benchmarking

With respect to the size of benchmarking teams 87 (62 per cent) of 141 respondents
indicated that benchmarking teams consisted of four or less people (Figure 10).
IJOPM Main reasons for not using benchmarking
30,11 Lack of resources

Lack of benchmarking partners

Lack of technical knowledge in planning
1156 benchmarking project
Lack of understanding of benchmarking

Lack of top management commitment

Fear of sharing information

No clear benefit from benchmarking

High cost (cost more than benefit)

Long time frame to complete the project

Figure 6. Lack of authority

Reasons for not using
benchmarking 0.0 0.1 0.2 0.3 0.4 0.5 0.6 0.7 0.8 0.9 1.0
Note: n = 214

Employee- Financially- Process- Product/ Customer-

related related related service-related related
Collection of benchmarks (n ¼ 213) (n ¼ 213) (n ¼ 213) (n ¼ 213) (n ¼ 213)

No benchmarks collected (%) 16 14 14 8 10

Benchmarks occasionally
collected (%) 24 16 20 20 15
Regularly collected for one or two
measures (%) 22 16 21 21 22
Regularly collected for all
important measures (%) 19 23 25 26 25
Regularly collected for all
Table II. important measures and the data
Collection of benchmarks are regularly reviewed and acted
by respondents upon (%) 19 31 20 25 28

When asked about the usual composition of benchmarking project teams, 101 of 495 (20
per cent) selections from 142 respondents indicated the teams usually had middle
managers. There were also high frequencies for team membership based on selection
(96 selections, 19 per cent), senior management (81 selections, 16 per cent) and process
owners (80 selections, 16 per cent). The least participating groups in benchmarking
teams are external suppliers (15 selections, 3 per cent) and external benchmarking
experts (14 selections, 3 per cent). This data are shown in Figure 11.
 In the last three years which areas of your organisation have conducted Benchmarking
benchmarking projects?
Customer service
Administration, training
and human resources
Corporate strategy and planning
Information technology
1157
Production
Sales and marketing
Finance
Research and development
Warehouse, logistics and purchasing
Maintenance
Public relations Figure 7.
Areas of operation subject
0 5 10 15 20
to benchmarking
Note: n = 142 % of Responses

What are the main reasons for undertaking benchmarking projects?

To improve the performance

of our processes

To address major strategic

issues

To learn what other

organisations are doing

To improve financial
performance

To develop new products/

services

Necessary for business

excellence assessments
Figure 8.
To encourage a cultural shift Reasons for undertaking
to a learning culture best practice
benchmarking
Note: n = 126 0.0 0.5 1.0 1.5 2.0 2.5

Identifying patterns in the dataset

In order to identify patterns within the data set, several responses were cross-referenced
and key findings are presented in this section. In considering the impact of the type of
benchmarking methodology adopted on its effectiveness, the study indicated that 54
(50 per cent) of 108 large organisations developed their own model. Twenty-nine per cent
IJOPM Howlong does a benchmarking project normally take? (excluding the implementation phase)
45
30,11
40

35

1158 30
Percentage

25

20

15

10

Figure 9. 0
Length of a typical Less than 2 to less than 4 to less than 6 to less than 8 to less than More than
benchmarking project 2 months 4 months 6 months 8 months 10 months 10 months
Note: n = 139

No Rarely Sometimes Usually Always

Activities for planning projects (%) (%) (%) (%) (%)

Develop project brief stating aim, scope, sponsor and

members of benchmarking team 6 8 19 35 32
Calculate the expected costs and benefits of the
project 14 15 16 32 22
Table III. Ensure benchmarking code of conduct is understood
Activities used in the and followed 15 12 15 28 30
planning of best practice
benchmarking projects Note: n ¼ 139

did not use any particular model while 21 per cent used consultants’ models. For
medium-sized organisations, four (31 per cent) of 13 organisations developed their own
model while 46 per cent used no particular model and the rest used consultants’ models.
For small companies that experienced major or moderate benefits, 7 (64 per cent) of 11
organisations developed their own model while 24 per cent each used no particular model
or consultants’ models. For micro organisations 8 (73 per cent) of 11 organisations
developed their own model while 9 per cent used no particular model and 18 per cent used
consultants’ models.
The data also showed that 68 (65 per cent) of 105 organisations that had operated
for more than 20 years intended to use best practice benchmarking in the future.
The figure for organisations operating for 16-20 years was 47 per cent (n ¼ 15) and for
11-15 years was 55 per cent (n ¼ 29). For those that had operated for six to ten years,
the figure was 57 per cent (n ¼ 30) while for organisations with less than five years of
operation, the figure was 64 per cent (n ¼ 22). When the future use of benchmarking
was examined within the context of organisation size 77 (69 per cent) of 112 large
 What is the size of a typical benchmarking team within your organisation? Benchmarking
35

30

25
1159
Percentage

20

15

10

Figure 10.
0 Size of typical
1-2 people 3-4 people 5-6 people 7-8 people More than 8 people benchmarking team
Note: n = 141

Our benchmarking project teams usually consist of people from

the following areas

Middle management

Selected employees

Senior management

Process owners

Internal benchmarking expert

Internal customers

External customers

Internal suppliers

External suppliers

External benchmarking expert

0 5 10 15 20 25 Figure 11.
% of Responses
Composition of
benchmarking teams
Note: 142 respondents with 495 responses/frequencies
IJOPM organisations intended to use best practice benchmarking in the future while the
corresponding figure for medium-sized organisations was 46 per cent (n ¼ 24). For
30,11 small organisations, the figure was 47 per cent (n ¼ 34) and for micro organisations, it
was 57 per cent (n ¼ 21).
Figure 12 shows the reasons for non-adoption of performance or best practice
benchmarking within the context of organisation size. It indicates that large companies
1160 are most likely to see lack of resources, lack of technical knowledge in planning
benchmarking project, benchmarking partners, lack of understanding of
benchmarking, management commitment and fear of sharing information as
barriers to its implementation. Finally, we consider the reasons why different types
of organisations undertake benchmarking. Figure 13 shows that private and public
sector organisations consider the improvement of process performance, the addressing
of major strategic issues and to learn what other organisations are doing as the main
reasons for undertaking benchmarking.

Discussion
The majority of respondents were aware of the three types of benchmarking. Usage
levels of the three types of benchmarking trailed awareness levels by 6 per cent for
informal benchmarking, 17 per cent for performance benchmarking and 21 per cent for
best practice benchmarking. The higher take-up of informal benchmarking, followed by
performance benchmarking and then best practice benchmarking may be indicative of
the difference in effort, cost and time required for the different types of benchmarking.
With advances in technology – such as being able to search for best practices via the
internet – the use of informal benchmarking is likely to have increased greatly in recent
years. It is interesting to note that for all types of benchmarking, adoption levels are
greater than for other topical techniques such as six-sigma and lean management.

Main reasons for not using performance benchmarking or best practice benchmarking in each
organisation size

Lack of resources

Lack of benchmarking partners

Lack of technical knowledge
in planning benchmarking project
Lack of top management commitment Large (n = 119)
Medium (n = 24)
Lack of understanding of benchmarking
Small (n = 44)
Fear of sharing information Micro (n = 44)

No clear benefit from benchmarking

High cost (cost more than benefit)

Long time frame to complete the project

Figure 12.
Reasons for non-adoption Lack of authority
of benchmarking vs
organisation size 0.00 0.25 0.50 0.75 1.00 1.25 1.50
Note: n = 206 Least important Most important
 Main reasons for undertaking benchmarking projects in each sector Benchmarking
To improve the performance
of our processes

To address major strategic issues

Public sector (n = 37)

1161
To learn what other
organisations are doing
Private sector (n = 81)

To improve financial performance

Not for profit or
community (n = 8)

To develop new products/services

Necessary for business

excellence assessments

Figure 13.
To encourage a cultural
shift to a learning culture Reasons for adoption of
benchmarking by different
0.00 0.50 1.00 1.50 2.00 2.50 3.00 types of organisation
Note: n = 106 Average score

Although best practice benchmarking had lower adoption rates that the other two types
of benchmarking, it was perceived to be the most effective of the three. This suggests
that the time, effort and deployment models that underpin best practice benchmarking
are considered as facilitators of real operational benefits to organisations. However,
benchmarking in general, had lower perceptions of effectiveness when compared to
techniques such as quality management systems, improvement teams, customer
surveys and BPR. The reasons for this may be one or more of the following:
.
A total of per cent of respondents that used benchmarking had not been trained
in benchmarking and another 29 per cent of respondents indicated that “only a
few of the employees had received training or that training was rarely given”.
.
A total of per cent of respondents do not follow (or rarely follow) a benchmarking
code of conduct when undertaking a benchmarking project.
.
A total of per cent of respondents that used benchmarking do not follow
a particular benchmarking methodology when conducting benchmarking
projects.
.
A total of per cent of respondents “do not, rarely, or sometimes” develop a project
brief for their benchmarking project specifying the aim, scope, sponsor and
members of the benchmarking team – thus indicating poor project planning
with an increased likelihood of poor outcomes from the project.
.
Only 35 per cent of respondents indicated that over 60 per cent of their projects
resulted in implementing best practices within their organisation. Therefore, many
organisations are either not identifying best practices through benchmarking or
they are not implementing the best practices they find.
IJOPM .
A total of per cent of respondents do not (or rarely) undertake a cost and benefits
30,11 analysis of the benchmarking project thereby making it difficult to accurately
quantify the benefits gained.
The survey also indicated that the majority of respondents intended to continue using
benchmarking over the next three years thereby indicating high levels of confidence in
its continued relevance and ability to deliver organisational improvements.
1162 Significantly, of the organisations that did not use benchmarking, the key reasons for
failure to adopt the technique were organisational and cultural in nature (i.e. lack of
resources, benchmarking partners, technical knowledge, understanding of
benchmarking and top management commitment) rather than lack of conviction
about the benefits of benchmarking. The identification of lack of resources as the most
important reason for not using benchmarking concurs with the findings by Ungan (2004)
who asserted that benchmarking and adoption of best practices are resource demanding.
Although Bhutta and Huq (1999) had suggested that the cost of benchmarking studies
had reduced significantly to what they described as a “small investment”, our study
indicates that a lack of resources is still perceived as a key obstacle to benchmarking.
The implication is that if these issues can be addressed, then these organisations are
likely to use benchmarking to facilitate organisational improvement.
With respect to the future use of benchmarking, almost two-thirds of organisations
that had operated for more than 20 years intended to use best practice benchmarking in
the future. High per centages were also indicated for those operating for 11-15 years, six
to ten years and less than five years. The clear indication is that older organisations that
are likely to have used benchmarking for a long time intend to continue using it while
younger organisations that have adopted it more recently have identified some benefits
from its use and intend to continue using it. However, larger organisations are more
likely to use it in future compared to any other size of organisation. Furthermore, among
non-adopters of benchmarking, larger organisations are most likely to see lack of
resources, benchmarking partners and management commitment as barriers. Finally,
the survey also shows that both private and public sector organisations consider process
improvement and strategic issues as key reasons for undertaking benchmarking.

Comparing benchmarking to other improvement tools

From Figures 2-4, we get an understanding of how benchmarking compares to other
improvement tools. Specifically, there is more awareness of formal benchmarking when
compared to more technical tools such as lean management, Six Sigma, 5S, BPR and
QFD. However, less technical tools such as customer surveys, mission and vision
statements, improvement teams and employee suggestion schemes are better known.
However, among the organisations that have implemented these tools, the more
technical tools are perceived to be more effective. The authors suggest that low
awareness of the technical tools is indicative of a disparity across countries. Therefore,
while tools such as Six Sigma, lean management and 5S are well known in countries such
as the UK, the USA, Germany and Australia, they may be less well known in other
countries. Furthermore, such tools are more prevalent in the manufacturing industry
and since many of our respondents are from the non manufacturing sector, they are less
likely to be aware of these tools.
Furthermore, best practice benchmarking and some other tools such as Six Sigma,
QFD, business excellence, TQM and balanced scorecard were characterised by
a significant disparity between levels of awareness and levels of deployment. This may Benchmarking
indicate that awareness of these tools does not necessarily imply that organisations are
convinced that deployment is worthwhile. Reasons for this may include the presence of
significant obstacles (e.g. lack of expertise, time and cost), lack of awareness of the
benefits or tools/technique “fatigue”.
With respect to best practice benchmarking in particular, our study presents a
different picture to common perception and many published studies. Many studies have 1163
reported very significant use of benchmarking. For example, Bhutta and Huq (1999)
made reference to a 1995 study that found that 70 per cent of Fortune 500 companies used
benchmarking on a regular basis. In addition, Tyler (2005) noted that a 1993 study found
that 70 per cent of Australia’s top 500 companies were using or intending to use
benchmarking. Furthermore, adoption rates of 50 per cent have been quoted for France
and 67 per cent for England (Davies and Kochhar, 1999; Maire et al., 2005). However, this
study has found an adoption rate of 39 per cent. A reason for this may be because many
other published studies and research have not distinguished between the different types
of benchmarking and therefore, organisations were asked if they used benchmarking
without a distinction been made between informal, performance and best practice
benchmarking.
Overall, this implies that although some studies (Jarrar and Zairi, 2000; Yasin, 2002)
suggest that benchmarking is a popular tool worldwide, the reality is that after 25 years
of “popularity”, only a minority (although significant) of organisations across several
countries use best practice benchmarking – the most effective form of benchmarking.

Benchmarking – then and now

In view of the findings from the previous section, it is important to understand
developments in benchmarking adoption. The survey provides a strong indication that
respondents who had adopted benchmarking considered it to be important to operations
management. The top five areas for recent benchmarking projects were customer
service, human resources and training, corporate strategy and planning, IT and
production. Perhaps, more significantly to the operations management community is the
fact that the top two reasons for undertaking benchmarking project is these areas were to
improve processes and address major strategic issues. This is an important finding as it
shows a significant difference when compared to the studies by Cassell et al. (2001) who
found that financial performance was the most important reason for benchmarking and
Maiga and Jacobs (2004) who found that the top three reasons for benchmarking were
profitability, return on assets and sales.
The survey also showed that most companies developed their own benchmarking
models. The majority of large, small and micro organisations that developed their own
models experienced major or moderate effectiveness. The overwhelming majority of
respondents (82 per cent) that used benchmarking carried out two or more benchmarking
project per year. This provides further evidence that the organisations are comfortable
with benchmarking as a technique for business and operations improvement.
Although, the study found that only 39 per cent of organisations use best practice
benchmarking, Table II suggests that more than half of organisations regularly collect
benchmarks for all important measures for financially, product/service and customer
related areas. This suggests that performance benchmarking as a basis for identifying
areas for improvement and from which best practice benchmarking may follow is
IJOPM entrenched in most organisations. Conversely, for organisations that do not collect
30,11 benchmarks or only collect them occasionally, they may be focusing improvement activities
in the wrong areas and therefore may not find benchmarking as effective as it could be.
Figure 11 shows that benchmarking teams consist of a wide variety of people
including process owners, middle managers, internal customers and other selected
employees. This contrasts with the study by Bhutta and Huq (1999) which suggested that
1164 employees were not being involved in the benchmarking process and the study by Davies
and Kochhar (1999) which suggested that benchmarking did not involve different levels
of an organisation. Overall, this study indicates a significant level of change over time in
the way that benchmarking is perceived and implemented by adopters.

Benchmarking – established operations management technique or management fad?

From the study, we can suggest that benchmarking is an established operations
management technique rather than a management fad. The data suggests that a very
significant minority of the overall sample set use best practice benchmarking and that
those that use it are likely to:
.
use it for operations management related improvement such as process
improvement and addressing strategic issues;
.
continue using it in the future;
.
have used it across a range of organisational areas including customer service,
IT and production;
.
have gained benefits from its use, although it is not as effective as some other
improvement tools; and
.
have developed their own models with which they are comfortable.

In addition, three other issues are significant. First, it has been adopted by organisations
from different sectors and of different sizes – indicating wide appeal. Second, both older
and younger organisations use benchmarking suggesting that rather than dying out
after a few years of popularity, it is well entrenched in many organisations and has been
successful in attracting the interest of organisations that were not in existence in its early
days more than 20 years ago. Third, the organisations that currently do not use
benchmarking do not, in the majority, dispute its benefits but suggest that resource and
other organisational issues are barriers. If these issues can be resolved, there may even
be an increase in the adoption of benchmarking.
On the basis of these observations, it can be strongly argued that benchmarking is not a
management fad but an established operations management tool that has and will
continue to provide benefits to a very significant but core minority of organisations
worldwide. This will primarily be through the deployment of best practice benchmarking.
Our findings, therefore do not concur with the suggestion by Carson et al. (1999) that
benchmarking is a fad.

Conclusion
The paper has presented findings from a comprehensive study of benchmarking
adoption and implementation. It indicates that 25 years after the start of benchmarking’s
growth as an improvement technique, best practice benchmarking which is considered
to be the most beneficial form of benchmarking is not used by a majority of organisations
across the survey countries. This is in contrast to common belief that benchmarking is Benchmarking
widely adopted across the world. However, the study has also provided empirical
evidence to show that more organisations prefer to use informal benchmarking and
performance benchmarking in comparison to best practice benchmarking.
However, the study indicates that among the organisations that adopt
benchmarking, there have been significant changes over the years in how the tool is
viewed and used. In particular, financial performance is no longer the key driver of 1165
benchmarking. Rather, it is the need to improve processes that is the key driver of
benchmarking. In addition, there is now more involvement of employees and more
deployment of benchmarking at operational levels. As an improvement technique, it is
applied to a range of functions organisation-wide. These include customer service,
production, finance, research and development and information technology, among
others. There is also widespread use of benchmarking across organisations in all sectors
and of different sizes and ages. It has been shown that benchmarking is an established
operations management tool with potential to grow rather than a management fad that
has faded away.
The study has also shown that awareness and effectiveness of benchmarking
compares quite well with a range of other management techniques. In particular,
organisations are more aware of benchmarking than the more technical tools such as 5S,
Six Sigma and lean management. However, high awareness did not necessarily translate
to comparable levels of deployment.
The study has also identified obstacles to wide adoption of benchmarking and
from these obstacles, it is possible to identify a number of implications for practitioners.
First, there is the need to understand and eliminate barriers to adoption and growth of
benchmarking. In particular, factors such as lack of benchmarking partners,
understanding of benchmarking and technical knowledge in planning benchmarking
projects can be readily addressed through resources such as books, guides, consultants
and benchmarking networks. Furthermore, challenges with management commitment
can be addressed through education and awareness. In addition, a sizeable proportion of
organizations that use benchmarking have not been trained in benchmarking, and
therefore, there is a need for training and benchmarking skills development. It is also
important to promote the fact that benchmarking can be used across all areas of an
organisation, is effective and can help improve performance. Furthermore, it takes less
than four months, in most cases, to complete a benchmarking study and a large team is
not necessarily required.
This study is not without limitations. Questionnaire responses from some countries
were few in number despite repeated reminders to potential respondents. Therefore,
does 453 responses from 44 countries provide a representative snapshot of the use of
benchmarking worldwide? While a higher number of responses would have been
preferable, from the authors’ point of view, this study represents the most complete
research on benchmarking adoption across many countries to date. In addition, only one
response was sought from each organisation and there was an assumption that
the respondent was knowledgeable about the improvement activities of the organisation
since the questionnaire was sent to the indicated person for benchmarking and/or
business improvement. Furthermore, in our analysis, we have considered all the
responses as a single dataset and have not analysed inter-country differences. This is
because we wanted to understand the use of benchmarking in as many organisations in
IJOPM as many countries as possible rather than carry out inter-country comparisons. Our
30,11 study was also set up to gather descriptive statistics data rather than inferential data.
This was because our primary aim was to identify current state of benchmarking rather
than to test relationships relating to benchmarking.
Finally, it is important to recognise that benchmarking as a technique for improvement
is here to stay. The opportunity it presents is for organisations, of all types, to improve
1166 their business by using benchmarking – particularly informal benchmarking which is
readily accessible to all organisations. Following on from informal benchmarking
organisations can begin to use formal methods such as performance and best practice
benchmarking to achieve larger gains in performance.

References
Adebanjo, D. and Mann, R. (2000), “Identifying problems in forecasting consumer demand in the
fast moving consumer goods sector”, Benchmarking: An International Journal, Vol. 7 No. 3,
pp. 223-30.
Adebanjo, D. and Mann, R. (2007), “Benchmarking”, BPIR Management Brief, Vol. 4 No. 5,
available at: www.bpir.com
Ahmed, P. and Rafiq, M. (1998), “Integrated benchmarking: a holistic examination of select
techniques for benchmarking analysis”, Benchmarking for Quality Management &
Technology, Vol. 5 No. 3, pp. 225-42.
Anand, G. and Kodali, R. (2008), “Benchmarking the benchmarking models”, Benchmarking:
An International Journal, Vol. 15 No. 3, pp. 257-91.
Anderson, K. and McAdam, R. (2004), “A critique of benchmarking and performance
management”, Benchmarking: An International Journal, Vol. 11 No. 5, pp. 465-83.
Anderson, K. and McAdam, R. (2007), “Reconceptualising benchmarking development in UK
organisations: the effects of size and sector”, International Journal of Productivity and
Performance Management, Vol. 56 No. 7, pp. 538-58.
Behara, R. and Lemmink, J. (1997), “Benchmarking field services using a zero defects approach”,
International Journal of Quality & Reliability Management, Vol. 14 No. 5, pp. 512-6.
Bhutta, K. and Huq, F. (1999), “Benchmarking – best practices: an integrated approach”,
Benchmarking: An International Journal, Vol. 6 No. 3, pp. 254-68.
Camp, R. (1989), Benchmarking: The Search for Industry Best Practices that Lead to Superior
Performance, ASQC Quality Press, New York, NY.
Carson, P., Lanier, P., Carson, K. and Birkenmeier, B. (1999), “A historical perspective on fad
adoption and abandonment”, Journal of Management History, Vol. 5 No. 6, pp. 320-33.
Cassell, C., Nadin, S. and Gray, M. (2001), “The use and effectiveness of benchmarking in SMEs”,
Benchmarking: An International Journal, Vol. 8 No. 3, pp. 212-22.
Chen, F. (1994), “Benchmarking: preventive maintenance practices at Japanese transplants”,
International Journal of Quality & Reliability Management, Vol. 11 No. 8, pp. 19-26.
Dattakumar, R. and Jagadeesh, R. (2003), “A review of literature on benchmarking”,
Benchmarking: An International Journal, Vol. 10 No. 3, pp. 176-209.
Davies, A. and Kochhar, A. (1999), “Why British companies don’t do effective benchmarking”,
Integrated Manufacturing Systems, Vol. 10 No. 1, pp. 26-32.
Davies, A. and Kochhar, A. (2002), “Manufacturing best practice and performance studies:
a critique”, International Journal of Operations & Production Management, Vol. 22 No. 3,
pp. 289-305.
Delbridge, R., Lowe, J. and Oliver, N. (1995), “The process of benchmarking: a study from the Benchmarking
automotive industry”, International Journal of Operations & Production Management,
Vol. 15 No. 4, pp. 50-62.
Delpachitra, S. and Beal, D. (2002), “Process benchmarking: an application to lending products”,
Benchmarking: An International Journal, Vol. 9 No. 4, pp. 409-20.
Ehigie, B. and McAndrew, E. (2005), “Innovation, diffusion and adoption of total quality
management (TQM)”, Management Decision, Vol. 43 No. 6, pp. 925-40. 1167
Fernandez, P., McCarthy, I. and Rakotobe-Joel, T. (2001), “An evolutionary approach to
benchmarking”, Benchmarking: An International Journal, Vol. 8 No. 4, pp. 281-305.
Fong, S., Cheng, E. and Ho, D. (1998), “Benchmarking: a general reading for management
practitioners”, Management Decision, Vol. 36 No. 6, pp. 407-18.
Fowler, A. and Campbell, D. (2001), “Benchmarking and performance management in clinical
pharmacy”, International Journal of Operations & Production Management, Vol. 21 No. 3,
pp. 327-50.
Ginn, D. and Zairi, M. (2005), “Best practice QFD application: an internal/external benchmarking
approach based on Ford Motors’ experience”, International Journal of Quality & Reliability
Management, Vol. 22 No. 1, pp. 38-58.
Hannan, S. (1997), “Benchmarking your firms performance with best practice”, International
Journal of Logistics Management, Vol. 8 No. 2, pp. 1-18.
Hinton, M., Francis, G. and Holloway, J. (2000), “Best practice benchmarking in the UK”,
Benchmarking: An International Journal, Vol. 7 No. 1, pp. 52-61.
Jackson, N. (2001), “Benchmarking in UK HE: an overview”, Quality Assurance in Education,
Vol. 9 No. 4, pp. 218-35.
Jarrar, Y. and Zairi, M. (2000), “Internal transfer of best practice for performance excellence:
a global survey”, Benchmarking: An International Journal, Vol. 7 No. 4, pp. 239-46.
Kumar, S. and Chandra, C. (2001), “Enhancing the effectiveness of benchmarking in
manufacturing organisations”, Industrial Management & Data Systems, Vol. 101 No. 2,
pp. 80-9.
Kumar, M., Antony, J., Madu, C., Montgomery, D. and Park, S. (2008), “Common myths of
Six Sigma demystified”, Internaional Journal of Quality & Reliability Management, Vol. 25
No. 8, pp. 878-95.
Longo, M. and Masella, C. (2002), “Organisation of operating theatres: an Italian benchmarking
study”, International Journal of Operations & Production Management, Vol. 22 No. 4,
pp. 425-44.
Love, P., Smith, J. and Li, H. (1999), “The propagation of rework benchmark metrics for
construction”, International Journal of Quality & Reliability Management, Vol. 16 No. 7,
pp. 638-58.
McAdam, R., Hazlett, S. and Anderson-Gillesppie, K. (2008), “Developing a conceptual model of
lead performance measurement and benchmarking”, International Journal of Operations &
Production Management, Vol. 28 No. 12, pp. 1153-85.
McGaughey, R. (2002), “Benchmarking business-to-business electronic commerce”,
Benchmarking: An International Journal, Vol. 9 No. 5, pp. 471-84.
Maiga, A. and Jacobs, F. (2004), “The association between benchmarking and organisational
performance: an empirical investigation”, Managerial Finance, Vol. 30 No. 8, pp. 13-33.
Maire, J.L., Bronet, V. and Pillet, M. (2005), “A typology of ‘best practices’ for a benchmarking
process”, Benchmarking: An International Journal, Vol. 21 No. 1, pp. 45-60.
IJOPM Meyer, A., Chase, R., Roth, A., Voss, C., Sperl, K., Menor, L. and Blackmon, K. (1999), “Service
competitiveness: an international benchmarking comparison of service practice and
30,11 performance in Germany, UK and USA”, International Journal of Service Industry
Management, Vol. 10 No. 4, pp. 369-79.
Min, H. and Min, H. (1997), “Benchmarking the quality of hotel services: managerial
perspectives”, International Journal of Quality & Reliability Management, Vol. 14 No. 6,
1168 pp. 582-97.
Nandi, S. and Banwet, D. (2000), “Benchmarking for world class manufacturing – concept,
framework and applications”, Productivity, Vol. 41 No. 2, pp. 189-200.
Naslund, D. (2008), “Lean, Six Sigma and lean sigma: fads or real process improvement
methods?”, Business Process Management Journal, Vol. 14 No. 3, pp. 269-87.
Parker, L. and Ritson, P. (2005), “Fads, stereotypes and management gurus: fayol and follett
today”, Management Decision, Vol. 43 No. 10, pp. 1335-57.
Partovi, F. (1994), “Determining what to benchmark: an analytical hierarchy process approach”,
International Journal of Operations & Production Management, Vol. 14 No. 6, pp. 25-39.
Rohlfer, S. (2004), “Benchmarking concepts in the UK and Germany”, Benchmarking:
An International Journal, Vol. 11 No. 5, pp. 521-39.
Sommerville, J. and Robertson, H. (2000), “A scorecard approach to benchmarking for total
quality construction”, International Journal of Quality & Reliability Management, Vol. 17
Nos 4/5, pp. 453-66.
Sweeney, M. (1994), “Benchmarking for strategic manufacturing management”, International
Journal of Operations & Production Management, Vol. 14 No. 9, pp. 4-15.
Talluri, S. and Sarkis, J. (2001), “A computational geometry approach for benchmarking”,
International Journal of Operations & Production Management, Vol. 21 Nos 1/2, pp. 210-22.
Towill, D. (2006), “Fadotomy – anatomy of the transformation of a fad into a management
paradigm”, Journal of Management History, Vol. 12 No. 3, pp. 319-38.
Tyler, M. (2005), “Benchmarking in the non-profit sector in Australia”, Benchmarking:
An International Journal, Vol. 12 No. 3, pp. 219-35.
Ulusoy, G. and Ikiz, I. (2001), “Benchmarking best manufacturing practices”, International
Journal of Operations & Production Management, Vol. 21 No. 7, pp. 1020-43.
Ungan, M. (2004), “Factors affecting the adoption of manufacturing best practices”,
Benchmarking: An International Journal, Vol. 11 No. 5, pp. 504-20.
van der Wiele, T., Dale, B. and Williams, R. (2000), “Business improvement through quality
management systems”, Management Decision, Vol. 38 No. 1, pp. 19-23.
van Landeghem, R. and Persoons, K. (2001), “Benchmarking of logistical operations based on a
causal model”, International Journal of Operations & Production Management, Vol. 21 Nos
1/2, pp. 254-66.
Vermeulen, W. (2003), “Benchmarking as an enabler of business excellence in the South African
financial sector”, Benchmarking: An International Journal, Vol. 10 No. 1, pp. 65-72.
Voss, C., Ahlstrom, P. and Blackmon, K. (1997), “Benchmarking and operational performance:
some empirical results”, International Journal of Operations & Production Management,
Vol. 17 No. 10, pp. 1046-58.
Voss, C., Chiesa, V. and Coughlan, P. (1994), “Developing and testing benchmarking and
self-assessment frameworks in manufacturing”, International Journal of Operations &
Production Management, Vol. 14 No. 3, pp. 83-100.
Wainwright, D., Green, G., Mitchell, E. and Yarrow, D. (2005), “Towards a framework for Benchmarking
benchmarking ICT practice, competence and performance in small firms”, Performance
Measurement and Metrics: The International Journal for Library and Information Services,
Vol. 6 No. 1, pp. 39-52.
Wong, W. and Wong, K. (2008), “A review on benchmarking of supply chain performance
measures”, Benchmarking: An International Journal, Vol. 15 No. 1, pp. 25-51.
Yasin, M. (2002), “The theory and practice of benchmarking: then and now”, Benchmarking: 1169
An International Journal, Vol. 9 No. 3, pp. 217-43.
Yung, W. and Chan, D. (2003), “Application of value delivery system (VDS) and performance
benchmarking in flexible business process reengineering”, International Journal of
Operations & Production Management, Vol. 23 No. 3, pp. 300-15.

About the authors

Dotun Adebanjo is a Senior Lecturer in Operations Management at The University of Liverpool
Management School. He previously spent several years at Leatherhead Food International as a
researcher, consultant and trainer to the food industry. His research interests are in supply chain
management, quality management and the application of new and emerging technology to the
delivery of efficient inter-organisational relationships. He has written a book on customer
satisfaction and has published his research in several journals and presented his research at
leading international conferences. Dotun Adebanjo is the corresponding author and can be
contacted at: D.Adebanjo@liv.ac.uk
Ahmed Abbas is a Benchmarking Researcher at Business Performance Improvement
Resource Ltd (BPIR.com), and currently pursuing his research degree in Quality Management at
the Department of Science and Advanced Technology at Massey University, New Zealand.
He has a Master’s Degree in Strategic Quality Management from Portsmouth University, UK.
His research addresses uptake level of benchmarking, national benchmarking strategies and best
practices of national benchmarking strategies.
Robin Mann is the Head of the Centre for Organisational Excellence Research, New Zealand,
www.coer.org.nz, Chairman of the Global Benchmarking Network, www.globalbenchmarking.
org, Associate Dean of TQM and Benchmarking at the e-TQM College, Dubai www.etqm.ae and
Co-Founder of BPIR.com Ltd, www.bpir.com – a leading benchmarking website resource with
over 8,000 members worldwide. Robin’s experience includes managing the UK’s Food and
Drinks Industry Benchmarking and Self-assessment Initiative (1995-1998), New Zealand
Benchmarking Club (2000-2004), the Sheikh SAQR Government Excellence Program, UAE
(2005-2007) and leading TRADE benchmarking projects in Singapore (2007 onwards). Robin
undertakes consultancy on business excellence and benchmarking all over the world.

To purchase reprints of this article please e-mail: reprints@emeraldinsight.com

Or visit our web site for further details: www.emeraldinsight.com/reprints