a thin, flattened organ borne

above ground and specialized

LEAVES
for photosynthesis

even with green stems, leaves

are still considered the main
photosynthetic organ
of the plant

FUNCTIONS
→
Pros of Transpiration
photosynthesis process of
has cooling effect due to
producing food mainly occurs in
usage of plant’s heat energy
the leaves of most angiosperms
in converting liquid water to
water vapor, transpiration pull transpiration → plants lose a
is responsible for the large volume of water through
continuous ascent of water the leaves in the form of vapor
and nutrients from the roots
to the shoots floral induction → plant leaves
synthesize and translocate
Cons of Transpiration florigen (a flower-inducing
hormone) to the buds
becomes a disadvantage if
transpiration loss exceeds the food storage → serve as food
rate of water absorption storage organ of the plant, food
through the roots is exported to the stem before
leaf fall and utilized in shoot
development

leaves originate from the leaf

→
special uses banana leaf
sheaths (pseudostem) provide
primordium along the sides of
the physical support to raise the
the apical meristem and are
leaves upward; insect-eating
spaced close together because
plant leaves are modified to trap
the internodes are very short
visiting insects, releasing
enzymes and digesting them for
most shoot elongation is due to
proteins
the lengthening of internode cells
below the shoot tip

intercalary meristems → areas

of meristematic tissue
separated from the apical
meristem that remain at the
base of leaf blades and stem
internodes, helps grasses tolerate
grazing because the elevated part
of the leaf blade can be removed
without stopping growth
 blade → the broad, flat, photosynthetic
MORPHOLOGY portion of a leaf

midrib → also known as the costa or the lateral veins → vascular tissues within
central vein, narrow, thickened structure a leaf located on both sides of the
running down the center of the blade; the midrib
main vein of a leaf
stipule →small paired leaf-like
petiole → the leaf stalk connecting the
structures at the base of the petiole,
protect the young leaf and may be
blade to the node of the stem
modified into spines or tendrils

apex → refers to the highest point or margin → the boundary area extending
vertex of a leaf along the edge of the leaf, helpful in plant
identification

Eudicots TYPES OF LEAVES

have petioles and buds in leaves
simple → single, continuous
blade, may be deeply lobed, each
leaf has only one petiole 
Monocots
don't have petioles but have leaf
sheaths instead that wrap compound →composed of two or more
around the stem leaflets for each petiole
sheaths have appendages known
as auricles and ligules pinnately compound
▹ leaflets are arranged along a
central axis known as a rachis,
has petiolules

palmately compound
how would you tell if
the leaf is compound? ▹ three or more leaflets
attached near the top of the
if there is a bud in the petiole
angle formed by the petiole
and stem, then the entire bipinnately compound
structure supported by the ▹ has rachis and rachila
petiole is one leaf

all compound leaflets occur trifoliate

in one place ▹ also known as ternately
compound, compound leaf with
branches have terminal only three leaflets
buds but compound leaves
don't
 VENATION

parallel venation pinnately netted venation

▹ veins run in parallel lines, ▹ has one main vein (midrib)
usually common among forming networks across the
monocots blade

netted/reticulated venation
▹ veins form networks across palmately netted venation
the blade, veinlets form ▹ several midribs extend from
interconnecting netlike patterns, the base of the leaf like the
common in eudicots fingers of a hand

PHYLLOTAXY

alternate or spiral opposite whorled or verticillate

▹ only one leaf at each ▹ leaves are paired on ▹ three or more
node, the following leaf each side at the same leaves arising around
opposite but on other node the same node
side

LEAF ANATOMY
eudicots monocots
▹ broad blades with various shapes ▹ usually narrow and linear blades
▹ netted venation ▹ parallel venation
▹ present petioles with paired stipules ▹ has leaf sheaths
▹ dorsiventral (has two surfaces ▹ isobilateral (having identical parts on
differing from each other in appearance) each side of an axis)
▹ has 2 mesophyll layers ▹ has no distinct mesophyll layers
▹ xylem and phloem forms a crescent ▹ xylem and phloem arranged in
near the midrib parallel series (upper and lower)
▹ bulliform cells are absent ▹ bulliform cells are present
▹ hypostomatic (stomata on lower ep.) ▹ amphistomatic (stomata on both ep.)
LEAF ANATOMY
cuticle→ waxy, waterproof
epidermis→ layer of
transparent cells both on the
covering of the outer surfaces of
upper and lower surfaces of the
the leaf, reduces the evaporation
leaf; contains cuticle and gives
of water from the leaf
rise to trichomes
mesophyll → ground tissue of two epidermal layers:
the leaf located between the ▹ upper epidermis →responsible for
upper and lower epidermis, most preventing water loss by evaporation
active photosynthetic tissue
▹ lower epidermis → contains most of
the stomata, especially in eudicots
two mesophyll layers:

▹ palisade layer→ one or more layers

bulliform cells→ cells responsible
of vertically elongated parenchymal
for rolling and unrolling of
cells (chlorenchyma) arranged below
monocot leaves to reduce
the upper epidermis, contains most of
exposure to sunlight and
the leaf's chlorophyll
moisture loss
▹ spongy layer → the layer below the
vascular bundles → located
palisade, parenchyma cells are more
midway between the upper
loosely arranged, with air spaces for
and lower epidermis, surrounded
CO₂ and O₂ circulation to the palisade,
by a bundle sheath, continuous
communicates with the guard cells of
with the vascular tissue
stomata, causing them to open or
of the stem, present in the veins,
close, depending on gas concentration
also functions as a skeleton to
reinforce leaf shape, no vascular
stomata → openings or pores in cambium as leaves don't undergo
the epidermis, each bounded by secondary growth
two guard cells, occurs on all
aerial parts, found more on plant
stomata locations in leaves
surfaces thriving under higher
light, lower atmospheric carbon ▹ herbaceous eudicots →stomata is
dioxide concentrations and in located on both epidermis, but most are
moist environments, regulate in the lower epidermis
transpiration and the exchange ▹ most woody eudicots →stomata is
of water vapor and CO₂ located only on the lower epidermis

guard cells → kidney shaped cells

▹ floating aquatic leaves → stomata is
located only on the upper epidermis
surrounding the stoma,
surrounded by specialized, ▹ monocots → stomata is equally
differentiated epidermal cells distributed between the upper and lower
called subsidiary cells and epidermis
are referred to as the stomatal
complex or apparatus, regulates
the opening and closing through
turgor pressure, a hydraulically
operated valve
 STOMATA
when guard cells are turgid, the
stomata is open; when guard
cells are flaccid, the stomata is
closed

cellulose microfibrils are oriented in a

direction that causes the guard cells to bow
outward when turgid, increasing
the size of the pore between the guard cells

changes in turgor pressure result from the

loss and absorption of K+
increase in K+ → stomata is open
water potential becomes more negative and
enters the cell through osmosis, transport
of H+ out of the cell
decrease in K+ → stomata is closed
the loss causes an osmotic loss of water

FACTORS
light→ stimulates guard cells to
water/moisture availability→ the
accumulate K+ and become
stomata closes when there is too much
turgid, usually attributed to a
moisture to prevent water loss
reduction in intercellular CO₂
levels

CO₂ concentration → low temperature changes → high

concentrations in the leaf or temperatures causes the stomata to
depletion in CO₂ causes the close to prevent water loss
stomata to open

→
abscisic acid produced in roots and
environmental stresses → leaves in response to water deficiency,
droughts cause stomata to close signals guard cells to close stomata,
during the daytime reduces wilting but also restricts CO₂
absorption

hydrophytes xerophytes
ADAPTATIONS ▹ stomata on upper ▹ thick and reduced leaves
ep. for air exposure ▹ stomata opens at night
TO REDUCE ▹ long petioles
▹ large spaces in
▹ thick waxy cuticle layer

WATER LOSS mesophyll layer

▹ absorbs from water
 TRANSPIRATION
defined as the loss of water from the
plant in the form of water vapor,
from stomata (90-95%) and cuticle
(5-10%)

functions of transpiration:
▹ regulate the temperature of the plant
and provides water for photosynthesis
▹ prevents overheating
▹ moves nutrients and sugars through
the vascular tissues
▹ helps regulate turgor pressure

transpiration's two stage process:

▹ evaporation of water from the moist
cell walls into the substomatal air space
▹ diffusion of water vapor from the
substomatal space into the atmosphere

cuticle→ the thicker the cuticle layer,

FACTORS the slower the transpiration rate, plants
from hot, dry climates with direct
sunlight have thicker cuticles
boundary layer → a thin layer of
still air hugging the surface of
the leaf, the thicker the boundary, temperature changes →warmer air is
the slower the transpiration rate; drier while colder air is moister, dry air
boundary increases as leaf size raises transpiration rates
increases

relative humidity → the amount light → when the stomata are open, the
of water vapor in the air transpiration rates are higher, stomata
compared to the amount of are most sensitive to blue light
water vapor that air could hold
at a given temperature, the lower
the RH, the less moist the
atmosphere, the greater the
driving force for transpiration
guttation

soil water → source of water for ▹ the loss of plant-water at the

transpiration out of the plant termination of a vein at a leaf
comes from the soil, plants with ▹ caused by root pressure that
adequate soil moisture will causes more water to enter the
normally transpire at high rates leaves than is transpired at night
because the soil provides the ▹ occurs through hydathodes
water to move through the plant (specialized pores along the margin
and apex of the leaf)
 DIFFERENCES

stomata: transpiration:
▹ located on the upper and lower ▹ occurs through the stomata, cuticle
epidermis of leaves & stems and lenticels of all higher terrestrial
▹ has guard cells that open and close plants
▹ releases oxygen and water in the ▹ loss of water in the form of vapor
form of vapor with no salts
▹ performs transpiration ▹ only happens at daytime
▹ regulates temperature and does
not involve root pressure
hydathode:
▹ located along the margin and apex guttation:
of leaf at the vein end ▹ occurs at hydathodes of mostly
▹ no guard cells and is always open herbaceous plants
▹ releases water with ▹ loss of water containing organic &
mineral/inorganic salts inorganic compounds
▹ performs guttation ▹ can happen at day or night
▹ has no relation with temperature
and involves root pressure

process by which a plant sheds its

leaves, occurs in deciduous trees in
LEAF ABSCISSION autumn and in diseased leaves at any
time, all leaves have a definite life span
dropping of leaves keeps trees from and are dropped following receipt of
desiccating during winter when roots internal or environmental signals
cannot absorb water, minerals are
salvaged and stored in stem
parenchyma cells abscission zone → located at the base of the leaf,
near the stem, has two layers:

apoptosis → programmed cell death separation layer

▹ short cells with thin walls
the hormone auxin delays leaf abscission ▹ weakens leaf due to its the weight,
while ethylene promotes leaf abscission often helped by a breeze or rain,
by reducing auxin synthesis causing it to fall from the stem

protective layer
▹ deposition of fatty material
within and between the cells on the
stem side of the separation layer
▹ produces a leaf scar
 tendrils→ "lassoes" a support
and forms a coil that brings the
MODIFIED LEAVES plant closer to the support
ex. peas

storage leaves → some leaves spines → outgrowths from the

evolve and are modified to store epidermis or the cortex just
water beneath it
ex. ice plants ex. cacti, raspberries, roses

reproductive leaves → produce bracts → also known as floral

adventitious plantlets, which fall leaves, often mistaken for petals,
off the leaf and take root in soil brightly colored to attract
ex. succulents, katakataka pollinators, quite small
ex. poinsettias

ECONOMIC USES

source of food → most source of spices and beverages →

commonly used leaves are those examples include onions and
of vegetables like cabbages, different tea leaves
malunggay, and etc.

source of fiber→ leaf sheaths of

source of drugs → leaves are
good sources of various
different monocots are made to
medicines and other medical
produce fibers
products