Module 2:

Vectors
Learning Outcomes:

1. Defined and discussed Vectors and Scalar quantities.

2. Solved resultants of vectors using the graphical methods.

3. Calculated vectors using the polygon and component methods.

Introduction to Vectors

A SCALAR QUANTITY, or scalar, is one that has nothing to do with spatial direction. Many
physical concepts such as length, time, temperature, mass, density, charge, and volume are
scalars; each has a scale or size, but no associated direction. The number of students in class,
quantity of sugar in the jar, and the cost of a house are familiar scalar quantities.

Scalars are specified by ordinary numbers and add and subtract in the usual way.

Two candies in one box plus seven in another give nine candies total.

A VECTOR QUANTITY, is one that can be specified completely only if we provide both its
magnitude (size) and direction. Many physical concepts such as displacement, velocity,
acceleration, force and momentum are vector quantities. For example, a vector displacement
might be a change in a certain point to a second point 2 cm away and in the x-direction from
the first point. As another example, a cord pulling northward on a post gives rise to a vector
force on a post of 20 newtons (N) northward. One newton is 0.225 pound (1.00 N=0.225 lb).
Similarly, a car moving south at 40km/h has a vector velocity of 40km/h-SOUTH.

A vector quantity can be represented by an arrow drawn to scale. The length of the arrow
is proportional to the magnitude of the quantity (2 cm, 20N, 40 km/h in the above examples).
The direction of the arrow represents the direction of the vector quantity.
In printed material, vectors are often represented by boldface type, such as F. When written
by hand, the designations ⃗ and F are commonly used. A vector is not completely defined
until we establish some rules for its behavior.

THE RESULTANT, or sum, of a number of vectors of a particular type (force vectors, for
example) is that single vector that would have the same effect as all the original vectors taken
together.

GRAPHICAL ADDITION OF VECTORS (POLYGON METHOD): This method is for

finding the resultant 𝑅⃗⃗ of several vectors ( and ) consists and beginning at any
convenient point and drawing (to scale and in the proper directions) each vector arrow in

turn. They may be taken in any order of succession: 𝐴⃗ +𝐵 + 𝐶⃗ = 𝐶⃗ + 𝐵

⃗⃗ + 𝐴⃗ =𝑅⃗⃗ . The tail

end of each arrow is positioned at the tip end of the preceding one, as shown in Fig. 1-1.

The resultant is represented by an arrow with its tail end at starting point and its

tip end at the tip of the last vector added. If 𝑅⃗⃗ is the resultant, R = |𝑅⃗⃗ | is the size or
magnitude of the resultant.
PARALLELOGRAM METHOD for adding two vectors. The resultant of two vectors acting at
any angle may be represented by the diagonal of a parallelogram. The two vectors are drawn
as the sides of the parallelogram and the resultant is tis diagonal, as shown in Fig. 1-2. The
direction of the resultant is away from the origin of two vectors.

⃗⃗ from a vector 𝐴⃗ , reverse the

SUBTRACTION OF VECTORS: To subtract a vector 𝐵
⃗⃗ and the add individually to a vector 𝐴⃗, that is, 𝐴⃗ - 𝐵
direction of 𝐵 ⃗⃗= 𝐴⃗ + (- 𝐵
⃗⃗).

THE TRIGONOMETRIC FUNCTIONS are defined in relation to a right angle. For the right
triangle shown in Fig. 1-3, by definition

We often use these forms,

B = C sin A = C cos B = A tan

Sine Law Cosine Law
= + - 2AB cosC
= + – 2BC cosA
= + – 2AC cosB
A COMPONENT OF A VECTOR is its effective value in
given direction. For example, the x – component of a
displacement is the displacement parallel to the x –
axis caused by the given displacement. A in the three
dimensions may be considered as the resultant of its
component vectors resolved along any three mutually perpendicular directions. Similarly, a
vector in two dimensions may be resolved into two components vectors acting along any
two mutually perpendicular directions. Figure 1-4 shows the vector 𝑅⃗⃗and its x and y vector
components, and , which have magnitudes

| | = |𝑅⃗⃗| cos and |

or equivalently
= R cos and = R sin

COMPONENT METHOD FOR ADDING VECTORS: Each vector is resolved into its x-, y-, and
z-components, with negatively directed components taken as negative. The scalar x-
component ( )of the resultant 𝑅⃗⃗ is the algebraic sum of all the scalar x components. The
scalar y- and z-components of the resultant are found in a similar way. With the components,
magnitude of the resultant is given by

In two dimensions, the angle of the resultant with the x-axis can be found from the relation
UNIT VECTORS have a magnitude of one and are represented by a boldface symbol topped
with a caret. The special unit vectors 𝑖̂ , 𝑗̂ , and 𝑘̂ are assigned to the x-, y, and z axes,
respectively. A vector 3𝑖̂ represents a three unit vector in the +x-direction, while 5 𝑘̂

represents a five unit vector in the -z-direction. A vector 𝑅⃗⃗ that has scalar x-, y-, and

z-components , , and , respectively, can be written as .

THE DISPLACEMENT: When an objects moves from one point in space to another the
displacement is the vector from the initial location to the final location. It is independent to
the actual distance traveled.

Solved Problems

1.1 Using the graphical method, find the resultant of the following two displacement:
2.0 m at and 40 m at , the angles being taken relative to the +x-axis, as is
customary. Give your answer to two significant figures. (See Appendix A on
Significant figures, in Schaums Outline for College Physics-1)

Choose x- and y-axes as shown in Fig. 1-5 and layout the displacements to scale, tip
to tail from the origin. Notice that all angles are measured from the +x-axis. The
resultant vector 𝑅⃗⃗ points from starting point to end point as shown. We measure its
length on the scale diagram to find its magnitude, 4.6 m. Using a protractor, we
measure its angle to be . The resultant displacement is therefore 4.6 m at
.
1.2 Find the x- and y-components of a 25.0 m displacement at an angle of . The vector
displacement and tis components are shown in Fig.1-6. The scalar components are x-
component = -(25.0 m) cos = -21.7 m; y-component = -(25.0 m) sin = -12.5
m

Notice in particular that each component points in the negative coordinate direction
and must therefore be taken as negative.

1.3 Solve Problem 1.1 by use of rectangular components.

We resolve each vector into rectangular components as shown in Fig.17(a) and (b).
(Place a cross hatch symbol on the original vector to show that it is replaced by its
components). The resultant has a scalar components of

= 1.53 m – 2.41 m = -.088 m = 1.29 m + 3.19 m = 4.48 m

Notice that components pointing in the negative direction must be assigned a

negative value.

The resultant is shown in Fig.1-7(c); there, we see that

= = 4.6 m

And = , from which = - = . Hence, 𝑅⃗⃗ = 4.6 m , from

+x-axis; remember vectors must have their direction stated explicitly.

PRODUCT OF VECTORS: Vector addition develops naturally from the problem of
combining displacements and will prove useful for calculating many other vector quantities.
We can also express many physical relationships by using products of vectors. Vectors are
not ordinary numbers, so ordinary multiplication is not directly applicable to vectors. There
are two different kinds of products of vectors. The first is called the scalar product, yields a
result that is scalar quantity. The second, the vector product, yields another vector.

SCALAR PRODUCTS: The scalar product of two vectors 𝐴⃗ and 𝐵

⃗⃗ is a scalar quantity C. It can

be expressed in terms of the magnitudes of 𝐴⃗ and 𝐵

⃗⃗ and the angle between the two

vectors, or in terms of the components of 𝐴⃗ and 𝐵

⃗⃗. The scalar product is commutative; 𝐴⃗ •

⃗⃗ = 𝐵
𝐵 ⃗⃗ • 𝐴⃗. The scalar product of two perpendicular vectors is zero. Scalar product: 𝐴⃗ • 𝐵
⃗⃗ =

ABcos

Fig. 1-8

The components of a vector may positive or negative numbers.

𝐴⃗ • 𝐵
⃗⃗ = ABcos = |𝐴⃗||𝐵
⃗⃗|cos
Fig. 1-9

Finding the vector sum (resultant) 𝐴⃗ and 𝐵

⃗⃗ using components.

𝐴⃗ • 𝐵
⃗⃗ = + +

Figure 1-10

Calculating a scalar product:

Find the scalar product 𝐴⃗ • 𝐵

⃗⃗ of the two vectors in Fig. 1-11. The magnitudes of the vectors

are = 4.00 and = 5.00.

Solution:

IDENTIFY and SET UP: We can calculate the scalar product in two ways: using the

magnitudes of the vectors and the angle between them ( 𝐴⃗ • 𝐵

⃗⃗ =ABcos ), and using the

components of the vectors (𝐴⃗ • 𝐵

⃗⃗ = + + ). We’ll do it both ways, and the

results will check each other.

Two vectors in two dimension. Fig.1-11

Execute:
The angle between the two vectors is = - = , so (𝐴⃗ • 𝐵
⃗⃗ = ABcos ) gives us,

𝐴⃗ • 𝐵
⃗⃗= ABcos = (4.00)(5.00) cos = 4.50

To use this equation (𝐴⃗ • 𝐵

⃗⃗ = + + ), we must find the components of the
vectors. The angles of 𝐴⃗ and 𝐵⃗⃗ are given with respect to the +x-axis and are measured in the
sense from the +x-axis to the +y-axis, so we can use this equation ( = R cos and =R
sin ):
= (4.00) cos = 2.407
= (4.00) sin =3.195
= (5.00) cos = -3.214
= (5.00) sin = 3.830

so,

𝐴⃗ • 𝐵
⃗⃗ = + + is equal to

= (2.407)(-3.214) + (3.195)(3.830) + (0)(0) = 4.50

Both methods give the same result, as they should.

Finding an angle with the scalar product:

Find the angle between the vectors ⃗⃗⃗⃗ = 4.00𝑖̂ + 2.00 𝑗̂ −
and 𝐵
1.00𝑘̂.
Fig. 1-12. Two vectors in three
dimensions

Solution:

Identify and Set-up: We’re given the x-, y-, and z-components of two vectors. Our target
variable is the angle between them (Fig. 1-12). To find this, we’ll use this equation
ABcos , for in terms of the scalar product and the magnitudes A and B.
We can evaluate the scalar product using ( + ) and we can find

A and B using .

Execute:

We will solve this using the formula, 𝐴⃗ • 𝐵

⃗⃗ = ABcos for cos , manipulating the
equation, we have,

We can use this formula to find the angle between any two vectors ⃗⃗⃗ and ⃗⃗⃗.
Here, we have = 2.00, = 3.00, and = 1.00, and = -4.00, = 2.00, and

= -1.00. Thus,

= (2.00)(-4.00) + (3.00)(2.00) + (1.00)(-1.00)

= -3.00 units
A

B = =

VECTOR PRODUCT: The vector product 𝐶⃗ = 𝐴⃗ x 𝐵

⃗⃗ of two vectors 𝐴⃗ and 𝐵
⃗⃗ is another vector

𝐶⃗ The magnitude of 𝐴⃗ x 𝐵
⃗⃗ depends on the magnitudes of 𝐴⃗ and 𝐵
⃗⃗ and the angle between

the two vectors. The direction of 𝐴⃗ x 𝐵

⃗⃗ is perpendicular to the plane of the two vectors being

multiplied, as given by the right-hand rule. The components of 𝐶⃗ = 𝐴⃗ x 𝐵

⃗⃗ can be expressed

in terms of the components of 𝐴⃗ and 𝐵

⃗⃗. The vector product is not commutative; 𝐴⃗ x 𝐵
⃗⃗ = - 𝐵
⃗⃗

x 𝐴⃗. The vector product of two parallel or antiparallel vectors is zero.

Equations to find Vector product;

C = ABsin , = - , = - , = -

Fig.1-13. (a) The vector product 𝐴⃗ x 𝐵

⃗⃗ determined by the right-hand rule. (b) 𝐴⃗ x 𝐵
⃗⃗ = - 𝐵
⃗⃗ x 𝐴⃗

; the vector product is anti-commutative.

Fig. 1-13
Calculating a vector product:

Vector 𝐴⃗ has a magnitude 6 units in the direction of the +x-axis. Vector 𝐵

⃗⃗ has magnitude 4

units and lies in the xy-plane, making an angle of with the +x-axis (in figure down below).

Find the vector product 𝐶⃗ = 𝐴⃗ x 𝐵

⃗⃗. ⃗ ⃗

Fig.1-14. Vectors 𝐴⃗ and 𝐵

⃗⃗ and their vector product

𝐶⃗ = 𝐴⃗ x 𝐵
⃗⃗. The vector 𝐶⃗ lies in the xy-plane.

Solution:

We’ll find the vector product in two ways, which will provide a check of our calculations.
First we’ll use this equation (C = ABsin ) and the right hand rule; then we’ll use this equation
= - , = - , = - to find the vector product using
components.

Execute:

From the equation C = ABsin the magnitude of the vector is,

ABsin = (6)(4)(sin ) = 12

By the right hand rule, the direction of 𝐴⃗ x 𝐵

⃗⃗ is along the +z-axis (the direction of the unit

vector 𝑘̂), so we have 𝐶⃗ = 𝐴⃗ x 𝐵

⃗⃗= 12𝑘̂.

To use equation = - , = - , = - , we need first to

determine the components of 𝐴⃗ and 𝐵
⃗⃗:

=6 =0 =0

= 4 cos = 2√3 = 4 sin =2 =0

Then equations, = - , = - , = - , , yields

= (0)(0) – (0)(2) = 0

= (0)(2√3) – (6)(0) = 0

= (6)(2) – (0)(2√3) = 12

Thus again we have 𝐶⃗ = 12𝑘̂.

Both methods give the same result. Depending on the situation, one or the other of the two
approaches may be the more convenient one to use.

Assignment

1. Find the scalar x- and y-components of the following displacements in the xy-plane:
(a) 300 cm at and (b) 500 cm at .

2. Compute algebraically the resultant of the following coplanar forces: 100 N at ,

141 N at , and 100 N at .

3. What displacement must be added to a 50 cm displacement in the +x-direction to give

a resultant displacement of 85 cm at ?

4. Two forces, 80 N and 100 N acting an angle of with each other pull on an object.
(a) What single force would replace the two forces? (b) What single force (called the
equilibrant would balance the two forces?

5. What displacement at has an x-component of 450 m? What is its y-component?

6. A reckless drunk is playing with a gun in an airplane that is going directly east at 500
km/h. The drunk shoots the gun straight up at the ceiling of the plane. The bullet
leaves the gun at a speed of 1000 k/h. according to someone standing on Earth, what
angle does the bullet make with the vertical?
 Supplementary Problems

1. Starting from the center of town, a car travels east for 80.0 km and then turns due
south for another 192 km, at which point it runs out of gas. Determine the
displacement of the stopped car from the center of town. Ans. 208 km,

2. A little turtle is placed at the origin of an xy-grid drawn on a large sheet of paper. Each
grid box is 1.0 cm by 1.0 cm. the turtle walks around for a while and finally ends up
at point (24, 10), that is, 24 boxes along the x-axis, and 10 boxes along the y-axis.
Determine the displacement of the turtle from the origin at the point. Ans. 26 cm ,

3. A bug starts at point A, crawls 8.0 cm east, then 5.0 cm south, 3.0 cm west, and 4.0 cm
north to point B. (a) How far north and east is B from A? (b) Find the displacement
from A to B both graphically and algebraically. Ans. (a) (5.0 cm, East), (1.0 cm , North);
(b) (5.10 cm , )

4. Two forces act on a point object as follows; 100 N at and 100 N at .

Find their resultant. Ans. 100 N at

5. Starting at the origin of coordinates, the following displacements are made in the xy-
plane (that is, the displacements are coplanar): 60 mm in the y-direction, 30 mm in
the –x-direction, 40 mm at , and 50 mm at . Find the resultant displacement
both graphically and algebraically. Ans. 97 mm at

6. What displacement must be added to a 50 cm displacement in the +x-direction to give

a resultant displacement of 85 cm at ? Ans. 45 cm at

7. A child is holding wagon from rolling straight back down a driveway that is inclined
at to the horizontal. If the wagon weighs 150 N, with what force must be the child
pull on the handle if the handle is parallel to the incline? Ans. 51 N
 8. Determine the displacement vector that must be added to the displacement
(25 𝑖̂ - 16𝑗̂) m to give a displacement of 7.0 m pointing in the +x-direction?
Ans. (-18𝑖̂ + 16𝑗̂)

9. A force (15𝑖̂ - 16 𝑗̂+ 27𝑘̂) N is added to a force (23𝑗̂ - 40𝑘̂) N. What is the magnitude
of the resultant? Ans. 21 N

REFERENCES:

1. Schaum’s Outline for College Physics (9th edition) by Frederick J. Bueche, Ph.D., and
Eugene Hecht, Ph.D. “McGraw-Hill Book Company, 1997
2. University Physics with Modern Physics (13th edition) by Young and Freedman.