UNIT OF COMPETENCE: ANALYZE AND INTERPRET PRODUCTION DATA

MODULE: ANALYZING AND INTERPRETING PRODUCTION DATA

LG CODE: NRC NCU 4130311 (level IV)

TTLM CODE: NRC NCU 4130311 (level IV)

L0 1: COLLECTING AND ORGANIZING PRODUCTION DATA

LO 2: ANALYZING AND INTERPRETING DATA

LO 3: PRESENTING DATA
 Analyze & Interpret Production Data

LEARNING OUTCOME ONE

INFORMATION SHEET-1 COLLECTING ORGANIZING PRODUCTION
DATA
Introduction
Data collection is the systematic approach to gathering and measuring information from a variety
of sources to get a complete and accurate picture of an area of interest. Data collection enables a
person or organization to answer relevant questions, evaluate outcomes and make
predictions about future probabilities and trends. Accurate data collection is essential to
maintaining the integrity of research, making informed business decisions and ensuring quality
assurance.

1.1 Organizing information

What is production, data, and information (knowledge)?
Production: The ultimate objective of all economic activity is the satisfaction of human wants,
so any activity or process that satisfies a human desire either directly or indirectly, presently or in
the future can be considered as production.
 is a process by which resources are transformed into products or services that are usable by
consumer.
Data -is any information collected as part of a research proposal and expressed as numbers. In
practice, most measurements are classified into qualitative or quantitative data.

 Data refers to raw material such as facts and figures that could be collected by an information
system.
Information- refers to analyzed data, often presented in a form that is specifically designed for
a given decision-making task, and transmitted to/received by decision makers.
-is the pattern people impose on the phenomena they are able to observe. Much of the
information needed to solve farmers’ problems with their decision making will come from
research, although some will come from others farmers and from policy makers.
Example .information related to subsidies, price, forecasts, etc
Knowledge -refers to the subsequent absorption, assimilation, understanding and appreciation of
the information.

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1.1.1 Sources of information (Knowledge) –farmers use many different sources to obtain the knowledge
and information they need to manage their farms well. These sources include;
 Other farmers’ organizations and their staff members
 Government extension organizations
 Private companies selling inputs, offering credit and buying products
 Farm journals, radio .television and other mass media ,etc
1.2 Collecting data
Data collection is the process of gathering and measuring information on targeted variables in
an established systematic fashion, which then enables one to answer relevant questions and
evaluate outcomes. Data collection is a component of research in all fields of study
including physical and social sciences, humanities, and business. While methods vary by
discipline, the emphasis on ensuring accurate and honest collection remains the same. The goal
for all data collection is to capture quality evidence that allows analysis to lead to the formulation
of convincing and credible answers to the questions that have been posed.

Six steps for successful data collection

Step 1: Identify issues and/or opportunities for collecting data

Step 2: Select issue(s) and/or opportunity (ies) and set goals

Step 3: Plan an approach and methods

Step 5: Analyze and interpret data

Step 4: Collect data

Step 6: Act on results

1.3 Characteristics of Agricultural Information

1) Relevance: The information that a person uses must be relevant to the current problem at hand.
If the information is not relevant it would not help to solve the problem at all.
2) Completeness: good Agricultural information is complete. This means that it provides intended
users with all the information that is necessary to fulfill their information needs and
requirements. Completeness also suggests that all necessary information is included in any report
that the organization produces. The assumption is that there would be no error of omission in the

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information. If the information is not complete and only partial information is received, it may
lead to wrong decisions being made as only half of an entirety of the information is known.
3) Accuracy: - The information must be accurate as inaccurate information would lead to many
different major problems. It leads individuals to wrong decisions. Agricultural information
should be accurate. This does not suggest that you must always state figures and facts down to
the last penny or detail. What it means is that information should be accurate enough for its
intended purpose (or user), without being unnecessarily detailed. Inaccurate information cannot
provide a valid representation of reality and can limit the effectiveness or worth of decisions
based on it.
4) Timely (Current):- The information must be current as a fact of yesterday may not be a fact of
today. For example, the price of wheat per kilo today may not be the same with tomorrows. As
the stock market is ever changing, current information is really a must. Since information has an
objective, there are usually periods within which these objectives operate. Good information
neither is produced too frequently nor is it compiled after it is needed most. For instance,
information that reaches a decision-maker after the decision is of limited use in the context of the
decision-making process.
5) Economical: - The information used must be of economical use to farmers, different
organizations, companies that use them. If the information used is not economical it would result
in users making losses. That is why economical information is important.

1.1.3 Information as an Aid to Decision Making

Simon (1977) describes the process of decision making as comprising four steps: intelligence,
design, choice, and review.

The intelligence stage encompasses collection, classification, processing, and presentation of

data relating to the organization and its environment. This is necessary to identify situations
calling for decision.

During the design stage, the decision maker outlines alternative solutions, each of which
involves a set of actions to be taken. The data gathered during the intelligence stage are now used

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by statistical and other models to forecast possible outcomes for each alternative. Each
alternative can also be examined for technological, behavioral, and economic feasibility.

In the choice stage, the decision maker must select one of the alternatives that will best
contribute to the goals of the organization.

Past choices can be subjected to review during implementation and monitoring to enable the
manager to learn from mistakes. Information plays an important role in all four stages of the
decision process. Figure 1 .1 indicates the information requirement at each stage, along with the
functions performed at each stage and the feedback loops between stages.

Figure 1.1 Role of information in the decision process.

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3.2. Structure and format of report

It is any informational work made with an intention to relay information or recounting certain events in a
presentable manner

TYPES OF REPORT: FORMAL INFORMAL

The informal report functions to inform, analyze, and recommend.

It usually takes the form of a memo, letter or a very short international document like a monthly financial report,
monthly activities report, research and development report, etc.

This report differs from the formal report in length and formality.

It is written according to organization style and rules, but usually does not include the preliminary (front) and
supplemental (back) material.

The informal report is usually more controversial in tone and typically deals with everyday problems and issues
addressed to a narrow readership inside the organization.

 TYPES OF INFORMAL REPORT

There are many embodiments of the informal report:

i. Progress report

ii. Sales activity report

iii. Personnel evaluation

iv. Financial report

v. Feasibility report

vi. Literature review

vii. Credit report

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The formal report is the collection and interpretation of data and information.

The formal report is complex and used at an official level.

It is often a written account of a major project.

Examples of subject matter include new technologies, results of a study or experiment, an annual report, or a year
old review of developments in the field.

Recommendation reportsAnalytical reports Informational reports the advisability of launching a new project
line.

Types of formal report

They can be categorized as:

 INFORMATIONAL REPORTS

Informational reports present results so readers can understand a particular problem or situation.

Example: Manager of a city’s website might prepare an informational report for the city council; the
report would provide statistics on the number of people who pay their city water and sewage bills online
etc.

Informational reports might:

A. Present information on the status of current research or of a project.

B. Present an update of the operation in your division.

C. Explain how your organization or division does something.

D. Present the results of a questionnaire or research.

Analytical reports

This type goes a step beyond presenting results. Analytical reports present results, analyze those results,
and draw conclusions based on those results.

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These reports attempt to describe why or how something happened and then to explain what it means. •

Like informational reports, analytical reports can be formal or informal.

Explain what cause a problem or situation – Present the results of a traffic study showing accidents at an
intersection – the report explains what it means.

Explain the potential results of a particular course of action. Suggest which option, action, or procedure
is best.

Recommendation reports

This type advocates a particular course of action. This usually presents the results and conclusions that
support the recommendations.

This type is identical to analytical report.

For example, your analytical report suggests using treatment X is more efficient than treatments Y and Z.
However, that does not mean that you will use treatment X as cost and other considerations might
recommend treatment Y.

What should we do about a problem?

Should we or can we do something?

Should we change the method or technology we use to do something?

The plan for preparing a formal report

Identify the readers

Determine your purpose

Formulate specific questions

Conduct research to answer the questions

Draw valid conclusions (for analytical or recommendation reports)

Decide on recommendations (for recommendations)

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Write the report

 Most widely used Information written in a logical manner or sequence All the case studies or formal
narration are written in this format , it follows a sequential manner of description All the steps are to be
followed accordingly.

Narrative report

Summary of reports about specialized law enforcement and police problems May be either narrative,
chronological, or both It may not follow a single pattern due to the different case types and description.
Specialized report

 The report defines complete description of the accident It describes the location and the loss occurred. It
is important for documentation It is required to start any investigation. ACCIDENT REPORT

The purpose is to describe the way things are, this type is mainly used in letter, non fiction book,
information leaflet, catalogue etc. The opening contains a general classification, a description of chosen
subject then the paragraphs about different aspects of the subject and lastly conclusion NON
chronological report

There are numerous possible formats available for writing a report, and it mostly depends on the context
of topic unlike essays, reports are written in sections with headings and sub-headings, which are usually
numbered.  Although, there is no set report writing format, however, there are general sections that
should be included. 

Format of a report

 Below given are the components of a report in which they would occur:

1. Title page: It should include the title, your name and the name of the tutor to whom it is being
submitted, date of submission, your course/department. The logo of the organisation should also be
printed.

2. Acknowledgements: A list of people and organizations who have helped you in the compilation of
report and other related work.

3. Contents page: A clear, well-formatted list of all the sections and sub-sections of the report. Page
numbers should be marked correctly.
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4. Abstract: A summary of the major points, conclusions, and recommendations should be written to give
a general overview of report.

5. Introduction: The first page of the report needs to have an introduction. You will explain the problem
and show the reader why the report is being made.

 6. Body: This is the main section of the report. There needs to be several sections, with each having a
subtitle. The various sections include Review of Literature, Materials and Methods and Results. A
discussion section can also be included at the end of the body to go over by findings and their
significance.

7. Conclusion: A conclusion should draw out the implications of your findings, with deductions based on
the facts described in your main body. The significance and relevance of study is discussed in this section.
8. References: This is a list giving the full details of all the sources to which you have made reference
within your text.

Relevance of report writing

It is prepared for the information and guidance of others connected with the matter / problem. It provides
feedback to employees. A report acts as an effective means of communication within the organization. 1.

Report as a means of internal communication

It acts as a treasure house of reliable information for long term planning and decision making. Report
provide reliable data which can be used in the planning and decision making process. 

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1.1.4 how to Organize (collect) information)

Ideas expressed in paragraphs, letters, memos, or reports should be organized in some logical, efficient
order. Collected data has to be organized in a suitable form to understand the information gathered (organization of
data) This material presents two methods:  inductive and deductive.  Here are four other possible plans plus
additional information on the inductive and deductive methods of organizing.

I .Chronological.  Information presented in time sequence, either forward or backward, is chronological. 

This organization pattern works well in explaining events over time such as monthly sales figures for the past
year.  Chronological ordering is also desirable to describe history or development, such as background leading to a
personnel/management disagreement.  Chronological sequencing of ideas is necessary to show time relationships. 
However, it is overused by individuals who sequence their writing to reflect their thinking about a problem.  
Whatever was thought about first is written about first.  Such organization prevents flexibility in the writing
process and ignores the techniques of emphasis.  An important thought may be submerged in a pool of
chronologically listed ideas.

II. Geographical/Spatial- Within a large business building, custodial services might be assigned according to
location—first floor, second floor, and so forth.  Another form of geographical organization is illustrated by the
division of a business into sales by state, county, or city.  Geographical sequencing of ideas is less usable than
other methods because of its rigidity; moreover, relatively few topics lend themselves to such organization. 

III .Value/Size.  The logical order for some topics begins with the most valuable or the largest item first.  
report on Entrepreneur, might discuss its largest-volume franchise first, followed in descending order by others.  Retailers
have found that listing their properties from the most expensive to the least expensive (or vice-versa) is helpful to buyers
and sellers.  Imagine how frustrating it would be to find properties in the same price range if they were listed
chronologically.

Iv .Simple to Complex.  For difficult, technical, or abstract topics, the best plan of organization is often from
simple to complex.  Good teachers, for example, begin with simple, basic concepts and proceed to more complex
topics.  More complex ideas can follow the foundation built on simple concepts.  Whenever readers or listeners are
unfamiliar with a subject or when the topic is theoretical, simple-to-complex organization is effective.
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A .Inductive (indirect).  This ways supplies examples, facts, or reasons first and then draws conclusions from
them or from specific to general.  Inductive organization is useful when readers are uninformed or when
resistance or antagonism is expected.  For example, a report written to convince management to fund an employee
fitness program might begin with the advantages of a fitness program:  improved job satisfaction, reduced
absenteeism and turnover, improved productivity, and lower health care costs.   After describing the benefits, the
report writer could draw the conclusion that a company-sponsored fitness program is a wise investment.   Starting
with the main idea first risks the chance that readers opposed to the idea will read no further.  Persuasive memos,
letters, and reports often follow the indirect plan.

B .Deductive (direct).  This organizational plan presents the main idea or conclusions and recommendations
first.  Examples, reasons, and clarification follow or from general to specific.  Most business writing is deductive
because this method presents information clearly and openly.  Use this plan for routine messages, such as those
that convey favorable or neutral information.  For example, to inform students of campus parking regulations, a
straightforward announcement should be made.  But if students must be persuaded to pay an extra fee for parking
in preferred locations, a letter describing the proposal might be written inductively with the Assessing the spatial
distribution of crop production using a generalized cross-entropy approach .

1.2 Methods of collecting data

1.2.1 Why do we need to collect data?

Every process improvement effort relies on data to provide a factual basis for making decisions. Data Collection
enables a team to formulate and test working assumptions about a process and develop information that will
lead to the improvement of the key quality characteristics of the product or service. Data Collection improves your
decision-making by helping you focus on objective information about what is happening in the process, rather
than subjective opinions. The purpose of collecting data will determine which data have to be analyzed,
interpreted and presented.

1.2.2 methods of collecting production data

The researcher should clearly identify and indicate on what specific key variables data are required, the method(s)
of measurement and the unit of measurement. The selection of the variables should depend on what is to be done
in the study.

The researcher should also pay due attention to the nature of data (quantitative and /or qualitative, the kinds of
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data (secondary and /or primary data, the sources of data and how to collect the data.

The choice of methods of data collection is largely based on the efficiency and accuracy with which the
information will be collected and practicability of the methods or techniques to the respondents.

1 .2.2.1 Nature of data

A .Quantitative data; when the variables being studied in a numerical form and it can be ranked or ordered.

Example ; height , body temperature , money , age weights ,numbers of students in the class

Quantitative data collection methods -rely on random sampling and structured data collection
instruments that fit diverse experiences into predetermined response categories. They produce results that are
easy to summarize, compare, and generalize. 

Typical quantitative data gathering strategies include:

 Experiments/clinical trials.
 Observing and recording well-defined events (e.g., counting the number of patients waiting in
emergency at specified times of the day).
 Obtaining relevant data from management information systems.

 Administer surveys with closed-ended questions (e.g., face-to face and telephone interviews,
questionnaires

I .Interviews

In Quantitative research (survey research); interviews are more structured than in Qualitative research. In a
structured interview, the researcher asks a standard set of questions and nothing more and uses different types of
Interviews. These are the followings:

a) Face -to -face interview has a distinct advantage of enabling the researcher to establish rapport with potential
participants and therefore gain their cooperation. These interviews yield highest response rates in survey research.
They also allow the researcher to clarify ambiguous answers and when appropriate, seek follow-up information.
Disadvantages include impractical when large samples are involved time consuming and expensive.

b) Telephone interviews are less time consuming and less expensive and the researcher has ready access to
anyone on the planet that has a telephone. Disadvantages are that the response rate is not as high as the face-to-

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face interview as but considerably higher than the mailed questionnaire. The sample may be biased to the extent
that people without phones are part of the population about whom the researcher wants to draw inferences.

c) Computer Assisted Personal Interviewing (CAPI): is a form of personal interviewing, but instead of
completing a questionnaire, the interviewer brings along a laptop or hand-held computer to enter the information
directly into the database. This method saves time involved in processing the data, as well as saving the
interviewer from carrying around hundreds of questionnaires. However, this type of data collection method can be
expensive to set up and requires that interviewers have computer and typing skills.

II. Questionnaires

a) Paper-pencil-questionnaires can be sent to a large number of people and saves the researcher time and money.

People are more truthful while responding to the questionnaires regarding controversial issues in particular due to
the fact that their responses are anonymous. But they also have drawbacks. Majority of the people who receive
questionnaires don't return them and those who do might not be representative of the originally selected sample.

b) Web based questionnaires: A new and inevitably growing methodology is the use of Internet based
research. This would mean receiving an e-mail on which you would click on an address that would take you to a
secure web-site to fill in a questionnaire. This type of research is often quicker and less detailed. Some
disadvantages of this method include the exclusion of people who do not have a computer or are unable to access a
computer. Also the validity of such surveys is in question as people might be in a hurry to complete it and so might
not give accurate responses.

Questionnaires often make use of Checklist and rating scales. These devices help simplify and quantify people's
behaviors and attitudes. A checklist is a list of behaviors, characteristics, or other entities that researcher is looking
for. Either the researcher or survey participant simply checks whether each item on the list is observed, present or
true or vice versa. A rating scale is more useful when a behavior needs to be evaluated on a continuum

B .Qualitative data: When variables being studied in a non numeric form it is called qualitative data.

Examples -color , religious preferences , sex and ,etc

Qualitative data collection methods play an important role in impact evaluation by providing information useful

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to understand the processes behind observed results and assess changes in people’s perceptions of their well-being.
Furthermore qualitative methods can be used to improve the quality of survey-based quantitative evaluations by
helping generate evaluation hypothesis; strengthening the design of survey questionnaires and expanding or
clarifying quantitative evaluation findings.

These methods are characterized by the following attributes:

B .Qualitative data: When variables being studied in a non numeric form it is called qualitative
data.

Examples -color , religious preferences , sex and ,etc

Qualitative data collection methods play an important role in impact evaluation by providing
information useful to understand the processes behind observed results and assess changes in people’s
perceptions of their well-being. Furthermore qualitative methods can be used to improve the quality of
survey-based quantitative evaluations by helping generate evaluation hypothesis; strengthening the
design of survey questionnaires and expanding or clarifying quantitative evaluation findings.

These methods are characterized by the following attributes:

 they tend to be open-ended and have less structured protocols (i.e., researchers may change the
data collection strategy by adding, refining, or dropping techniques or informants)
 they rely more heavily on interactive interviews; respondents may be interviewed several times to
follow up on a particular issue, clarify concepts or check the reliability of data
 they use triangulation to increase the credibility of their findings (i.e., researchers rely on
multiple data collection methods to check the authenticity of their results)
 generally their findings are not generalization to any specific population, rather each case study
produces a single piece of evidence that can be used to seek general patterns among different
studies of the same issue

Regardless of the kinds of data involved, data collection in a qualitative study takes a great deal of time.
The researcher needs to record any potentially useful data thououghly,accurately, and systematically,
using field notes,sketches,audiotapes,photographs and other suitable means. The data collection methods
must observe the ethical principles of research.

The qualitative methods most commonly used in evaluation can be classified in three broad categories: 

1. In-depth interview - Is a technique designed to elicit a vivid picture of the participant’s perspective on the
research topic. During in –depth interviews the person being interviewed is considered as expert and the

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interviewer is considered as the student. Researchers engage with participants by posing questions in a neutral
manner, listening attentively to participants’ responses, and asking follow –up questions and probes based on those
responses. In- depth interviews are usually conducted face- to face and involve one interviewer and one
participant.

2. Observation methods –is a fundamental and highly important method in all qualitative inquiry. Observation
entails the systemic nothing and recording of events, behaviors and artifacts (objects) in the social setting chosen
for study. The observation record is frequently referred to as field notes-detailed, nonjudgmental, concrete
descriptions of what has been observed

3. Document review -Documentation (to document) - is the term used in several different ways. Generally, it
refers to the process of providing evidence. Documentation include

written information for any read, projection or technical performing,

data media of any format and for any reproduction,

Other content.

Different ways of collecting and evaluating data are useful for different purposes, and each has advantages and
disadvantages. Various factors will influence your choice of a data collection method: the questions you want to
investigate, resources available to you, your timeline, and more.

Self checking questions

1. What are the ways of presenting production data?

2. Why do we present data in charts and graphs?

3. What are the different types of bar charts? And from these which present values of positive and negative data?

4. List the components of production data structure?

5. What are the purposes of recording data and its methods of recording?

Note: Satisfactory rating - 25 points and above, but Unsatisfactory if you score - below 25 points. You can ask

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your teacher for the copy of the correct answers.

LEARNING OUTCOME TWO

Information sheet-2 Analyzing and Interpreting data

Introduction

Data analysis, also known as analysis of data or data analytics, is a process of inspecting, cleansing, transforming,

and modeling data with the goal of discovering useful information, suggesting conclusions, and supporting decision-
making. Data analysis has multiple facets and approaches, encompassing diverse techniques under a variety of names, in
different business, science, and social science domains.

Analysis refers to breaking a whole into its separate components for individual examination. Data
analysis is a process for obtaining raw data and converting it into information useful for decision-making
by users. Data is collected and analyzed to answer questions, test hypotheses or disprove theories. The
basic purpose of data analysis is to make it useful for certain conclusions. This analysis may simply be
critical observation of data to draw conclusions about it or it may involve highly complex and
sophisticated mathematical techniques.
2.2 Objectives of production data Analysis
Analysis of data: in order to meet the desired purpose of investigation, data has to be analyzed. The purpose of
analyzing data is to highlight information which is useful for decision making.
Interpretation of data; based on analyzed data conclusion have to be drawn, that conclusion is called
interpretation. What are Objectives? - is aim that one hopes to achieve and the effect which is expected to be
achieved as the result of the project.

Data interpretation refers to the process of critiquing and determining the significance of important information,
such as survey results, experimental findings, observations or narrative reports. Interpreting data is an important
critical thinking skill that helps you comprehend text books, graphs and tables. Interpretation means drawing
conclusions from the data which form the basis of decision making. Correct interpretation requires a high degree
of skill and experience and is necessary in order to draw valid conclusions.

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The objectives of data Analysis :

 Is to determine a model that best describes the experimental results.
 Is to take all variables into account in a model.
 To obtain information on the variables for the entire population may not be possible.
For instance, what qualities do farmers of a particular region of the country value most in a new insecticide? Is it
the long lasting effect of the chemical or the environmental impact of the insecticide, or can it be the price?
2.2 Methods of Analyzing production data for research purpose
Quantitative research techniques generate a mass of numbers that need to be summarized, described and
analyzed .further analysis would build on findings, seeking patters and relationships in the data performing
multiple regressions or analysis of variance perhaps.
Analysis of qualitative data usually goes through the following stages
familiarization with the data through review, reading, listening ,etc
organization and indexing of data for easy retrieval and identification
coding (may be called indexing)
development of provision categories
report writing ,including excerpts from original
Stages in analysis
Transcription –almost all qualitative research studies involves some degree of transcription the data may be tape
recorded interviews, focus groups, video recordings or hand written field notes. It is not appropriate, usually to
write up summery notes from a tape recording.
Organizing your data- after transcription, it is necessary to organize your data into easily retrievable sections.
You may wish to give each interview a number or code or to break up field notes into sections identified by date,
or by context.
Familiarization- by this we mean the researcher listening to tapes and watching video material, reading and re-
reading the data, making memos and summaries before the formal analysis begins. It is important if the main
researcher has not gathered all the data themselves.
Coding-this process of deciding how to conceptually decided up raw data. These sections contain data which the
researcher is interested in the exploring and analyzing further.
Themes (categories) - a theme is generated when similar issues and ideas expressed by participants with in data
are brought together by the researcher into a single categories or cluster.
Both qualitative and quantitative data analyzed –
Qualitative data analyzed by description, interpretation , tabulation, figure and map

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Quantitative data analyzed by simple statistical methods such as percentages , averages, means, mode and etc
What is Assumptions?
Assumption is - Something that is taken for granted or advanced as fact. In the logical frame work, important
assumptions are key threats to the project that exist in the external environment.
Good production data should satisfy the criteria of:-

 They should serve a definite purpose.

 Be easy to complete.
 Be up to date.
So that any action needed can be taken as early as possible

Self check questions

1. What are the objectives of analysis production data?

2. Differentiate objectives from assumption?
3. Describe stages of analysis and its methods?

Note: Satisfactory rating - 25 points and above, but Unsatisfactory if you score - below 25 points.
You can ask your teacher for the copy of the correct answers.

LEARNING OUT COME THREE

INFORMATION SHEET-3 PRESENTING DATA

Introduction

Data presentation and analysis forms an important part of all academic studies, commercial, industrial
and marketing activities as well as professional practices. It is necessary to make use of collected data
which is considered to be raw data which must be processed to put for any use. Data analysis helps in
interpretation of data and takes a decision or answer the research question. Data analysis starts with the
collection of data followed by sorting and processing it. Processed data helps in obtaining information

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from it as the raw data is non comprehensive in nature. Presenting the data includes the pictorial
representation of the data by using graphs, charts, Maps and other methods. These methods help in
adding visual aspect to data which makes it much easier and quick to understand. Data presentation
includes the description of the data set disseminated with the main variables covered, the classifications
and breakdowns used, the reference area, a summary information on the time period covered and, if
applicable, the base period used.
Narrower terms: Data presentation - short description; Data presentation - disseminated detail. Data
presentation – short description” refers to the main characteristics of the data set described in an easily
understandable manner, referring to the data and indicators disseminated.
This short description should provide an immediate understanding of the data to users (also
to those which do not have a broader technical knowledge of the data set in question).
3.1 Presentation of data
Data are prepared in an appropriate format, style and structure using different tools of data presentation methods.

(a) The presentation of data refers to how mathematicians and scientists summarize and present data
related to scientific studies and research. In order to present their points, they use various techniques
and tools to condense and summarize their findings. These tools include the use of tables, graphs and
subsets to provide an overview of their calculations and the data they have mined.
Presentation of data the organized data can now be presented in the form of tables or diagrams. This
presentation in an orderly manner facilitates the understanding as well as the analysis of data.
a .Tabular method
The row data which have been collected and edited will not usually give you sufficient information unless they are
put in to a form that will make them easy to understand and interpret.

Consider the following raw data collected from the scores of 40 samples students in a tea, coffee and spice
production examination.(in table 3 .1)

Score of 40 students of exam results

56 78 62 37 54 39 62 60

30 67 72 39 56 78 64 56

42 55 39 54 78 56 62 78

56 55 37 56 47 42 30 37

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47 54 42 55 46 46 55 80

We can say about the performance of the 40 sample students unless the above raw data are put into an ordered
array in ascending or descending order so that they can be looked at more objectively.

The above data may be set up and tallied like this Ungrouped frequency distribution (see table 3.2 ungrouped
frequency distribution).

Score (X )tally Students no (f)

30 II 2
37 III 3
39 III 3
42 III 3
46 II 2
47 II 2
54 III 3
55 # 4
56 #II 6
60 I 1
62 III 3
64 I 1
67 I 1
72 # 4
80 I 1
N=40

X=row scores F= frequency N= total number of students

Raw data are better understood if they are summarized in same defined order or sequence.

After having summarized the scores of 40 students you can say more about the performance of the student, the
score of the students range from 30 – 80 they rather dispersed the most frequently occurring score is 56.

Definition,

 A table which shows the list of all values obtained in the data and the frequency with which these values occur in
the data is called a frequency distributions table.
 A table that grouped data that can be easily visualized is called frequency distributions.

If you had a large number of scores say thousands or more, the bode method of summarizing data would be very

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lengthy and quality in efficient in cases where we have a very large data, it is necessary to condense them in to as
suitable number of groups or classes and then assigning the combined frequencies of these values to their
respective classes. For example, the data about the marks of the 40 students can be condensed into five classes as
shown bellow.

Table 3.3 Grouped frequency distribution or grouped data

Range of scores Frequency

30-40 8

41-50 7

51-60 14

61-70 5

71-80 6

N= 40 (Total )

The table used for the arrangement of data into groups of classes, together with the respective class frequencies is
called a grouped frequency distribution table (see the above table 3.3 )

The grouping of data in a grouped frequency distribution destroys much of the original detail of the data. For
instance, in ungrouped frequency distribution table we know that there is only one student who scored 64. But,
grouped frequency distribution table tells us that there is only one student who has scored in the rang 61 – 70 we
do not know from grouped frequency distribution whether that single student has scored
61,62,63,64,65,66,67,68,69, or 70 .

b. graphical method

Why do we present data in charts and graphs?

presenting data in charts and graphs is important as it:

1.to have a clear idea about the nature of the data

2.is easy to understand pattern & trend of grouped data

3. facilitates comparisons between two or more sets of data

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The most commonly used charts are: Bar charts and Pie charts. Similarly graphs that are most
commonly used are: Histogram, Frequency polygon and Cumulative Frequency Curve. Histograms
are a special form of bar chart where the data represent continuous rather than discrete categories.
Frequency polygons are analogous to line graphs, and just as line graphs make continuous data visually
easy to interpret, so too do frequency polygons. 

Charts (Diagrams)

I. Bar Charts

It is applicable for discrete variable, i.e. the data given according to time, places, etc. The period of time and place
are put in X-axis and the corresponding frequencies at the Y- axis.

Bars are vertical lines, where the lengths of the bars are proportional to their corresponding frequencies or
numerical values. Bar charts are called one-dimensional. This means only the length of the bar (rectangle) is
important, not the width.

There are three types of bar charts

1. Simple (deviation) bar chart

2. Component bar chart
3. Multiple bar charts

1.Simple( deviation) Bar Chart

When data contained both positive and negative numbers such data like profit, net revenue, present change in
deviation, then deviation bar chart is appropriate.

Simple bar chart is usually used to illustrate the nature of a single item without considering the components in the
item.

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Example. Suppose a merchant has the record of net profit (loss) of three commodities in the given period of time
below, and then construct deviation bar chart for these records?

Commodity Net profit(loss)

Soap 80

Sugar -95

coffee 125

125 coffee

80

Soap X

-95 Sugar

Fig 3.1 .deviation bar chart

2. Component Bar Chart:

This is a bar chart which illustrates the component parts of the whole. The rectangles (bars) are subdivided into
components depending up on the type of information to be shown in the chart.

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Example. Let us decompose the total number of peasant by status to further subdivision in N year.

Status Male Female Total

Single 90 10 100

Maries 30 40 70

Divorced 1 29 30

1oo

90 key : male female

70

30

single married divorced

fig 3.2 component bar chart

3.Multiple Bar Charts

This is a bar chart showing the various components of an item side by side. Example. The following item of
expenditure of two families to different item .

Items of expenditure Family A Family B

Food 540 240
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 Analyze & Interpret Production Data

Clothing 180 100

House 100 53
education 65 23

540 Key: expenditure for A

240 expenditure for B

180

100

53

65

23

Food clothing house rent education

II. Pie Chart

A pie chart is a circle divided from its center into several component parts to show how the whole is divided
up. It is called "pie" because the entire chart looks like a pie and its components resemble slices cut from it. The
size of a slice represents the proportion of the component out of the total. A pie chart is a circle divided in
components sectors according to the breakup of components given in percentage.

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Example of income generated from different sector is given below and then construct a pie-chart.

Sectors Income in million(f) Percentile (%)

Agriculture(Agric) 3200 56.14

Industry(Indi) 1000 17.54

Services(ser) 1500 26.32

Total(n) 5700 100%

how to calculate the percentages (%) of income generated from each sector

Formula of %=fx100/n Agric%= 3200x100/5700=56.14

F=frequency Indi%=1000x100/3428=17.54

n=total number Ser%=1500x100/3428=26.32

fig 3.2 Pie Chart

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3.2 Production Data Structure (PDS)

Definition

A structure generated from a production version or a bill of material in that contains information about the
production cycle and the component assignment for the production of a product; the production data structure can
be used in as a source of supply for in-house production. 

Structure

The production data structure consists of the following list of component with information:

 Consumed total quantity

 Type of consumption
   List of available capacities with reference to resources
 List of activities with data for setup
 List of modes with data for duration and assignment to activities
 Relationships

Use

You can use the PDS generated the production process model.

Integration
The production data structure is generated during the transfer of master data from the connected. The
production data structure can be generated from the following original data:
 Production version with routing and bill of material.
 Production version based on a master recipient.  

3.3 ways of reporting data

3.3.1 Posters & Oral Presentations

Good scientific research involves a sound methodology and a novel idea that can be tested simply and repeatedly
to give valid, trustworthy results. However, even the most clinically significant research is useless if it is not
communicated successfully. Scientific ideas are novel, sometimes simple in theory, but most always complex in
technique. These attributes of research make it necessary to use all available means of presentation. The most
common media for scientists to communicate with the general public is primary journal articles. However, posters
and oral presentations are also affective because they allow scientists to be in direct contact with their audience.
This provides both parties an opportunity to ask pertinent questions to add clarity to the work being presented.

A poster is an exciting way for scientists to present their research. It, just as a primary research article, includes all

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aspects of the scientific method. A title that is brief, but specific, an abstract, an introduction, material and
methods, results, and a conclusion are some headings that can appear on a poster. Also, references and
acknowledgments are sometimes are included. A poster is different from a written manuscript or an oral
presentation because it is mostly graphical. As such, it is important to design a poster that is visually pleasing by
focusing on charts, graphs, and pictures and minimizing lengthy introductions and discussions. Highlighting all
significant information with the use of bullets is essential because if further explanation is needed the audience
will simply ask for it.

Oral presentations are yet another avenue for scientists to share their findings with the world. Although it can be
challenging to present years of works within fifteen minutes, oral presentations can be a rewarding experience
because you are the only one front of an audience whose attention you know have. Of course this emphasizes the
need to speak clearly and concisely with choice words that engross the audience. Again, just as with written
manuscript and posters the format of oral presentations can also vary, but essentially it must include logical, easy-
to-understand events that are presented in a matter with respect to the scientific method.

3.3.2 Recording production data.

Purpose of recording

 To check on performance
 To guide future reference
 To provide planning data
Planning involves both selecting the right technique & obtaining the necessary data. It is usually the later that
provides the greater problem for advisers “standard data are available to some extent but are rarely sufficiently
detailed to be applied with full confidence to individual. Even if standard data were available in for greater detail
than at present, circumstances on the individual farm would frequently fall between different categories, since it
would be optimize to expect data to be provided to cover a continuous range of differences.

Method of data recording

Dates are recorded in different methods: - for instance

A. Field data records: - can be kept in on ordinary bound ledger, or on cards. There is no page or cord, per field
per year. The virtue of loose leaf files or cords is that successive years for each field can be put together to make
continuous record. Also, data for and single crop can easily be assembled as required.

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If only a few items are recorded, one sheet or card may be used for more them one year, thus saving on space
requirement over a period of years, these records will from a type of diary for each field for subsequent reference.
The items to be recorded include

 crop grown
 variety
 fertilizers and sprays used
 date sown and
 Date of harvested.
Yield should be recorded as accurately as possible without going to excessive trouble trying to keep lost separate.

Often these can be only roughly estimated, as is usually the case with cereals, but an approximate figure is
undoubtedly better them nothing, Notes should be added, recording observations about the field, E.g. concerning
drainage, fertility or soil, pea laities many of these items may first be written in note books carried by a member of
the form staff the head tractor driver, arable fore man or the farm manager and subsequently transferred to the field
records.

I .Rotational data record:-

This should be kept an a single sheet of paper, unless the number of fields is so large as to make it impossible the
names and/or numbers of the field( and their areas if required)are listed down the left hand side and the remaining
space is divided into. Say Ten columns, representing, successive years, the crop grow on each field in each year is
entered in the appropriate space.

II .Labor data recording

On farm with elaborate grapping systems and at peak times(and on many horticultural units labor may be fully
deployed on essential productive work for most on even all of the year) the task may be recorded on time sheets,
but these are laborious to analysis where a large staff is employed and are often in accurate, time sheets are more
useful as a means of recording ordinary time and ever time worked for calculating wages, and as a means of
transferring useful information from the field to the office, them for recording the labor hours spent on different
jobs.

On farms with a limited number of major tasks at peak times, the information required about these can be recorded
in a way that requires far less subsequent analysis than time sheet, the method involves recording certain details of
each task, either in a pocket book kept by the head tractor driver, arable foreman or manager, or specially

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prepared small cards, one page or cord is needed for each job, unless it covers along period, in which case two or
more pages cards, each covering one or weeks, will be required per job, the task such as main crop harvesting is
written at the top. Normally there will be one entry per day.

 Columns are needed for the date, the gang size (i.e. numbers of workers employed, hours
worked and hectors completed.
Preparing appropriate format for data recording

- For data recording appropriate format preparation is necessary: - Data are recorded in different waist may be
undisruptive way or in way or in table or way or in graphical, chart, figurative

E.g.: Format of controlling coffee growth

Spacing(m) Plants/ha Coffee No of sucks Date of Date of Height of

type plotting measuring plant
the plant

2x2 250 Open 3 10/1/2004 Monday 6cm

September
2x1.8 1000 Compact 4 10/3/2004
Friday

October
9cm
16/2005

NB. Format for recording data is differing according to the user and their necessary, for example format used for
recording daily laborers controlling and recording data for plant management is not the same.

3.4 What is Feedback(s)?

Feedback –is the response a receiver gives to the message received. It is the action –reaction interdependence in
communication. It is an error correcting mechanism that can overcome noise/barriers of production factors. Is the
process in which knowledge of the surroundings or of the consequences of actions of a system lead to adjustments
of future actions, seen in the light of achieving a certain goal
Feedback play an important part because it tells both the source and the receivers, their messages are being

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interpreted. It provides the source with information concerning his or her success in accomplishing the objective.
Feedback describes the situation when output from (or information about the result of) an event or phenomenon in
the past will influence an occurrence or occurrences of the same development of the original phenomenon in the
present and future. An example feedback, an extension agent who is helping farmers to achieve higher crop yields
can improve the farmers’ control over their decision making process by teaching them how to measure crop yields.
This form of control or feedback should be carried out quickly.

Self check questions

1. What are the objectives of analysis production data?

2. Differentiate objectives from assumption?
3. Describe stages of analysis and its methods?

Note: Satisfactory rating - 25 points and above, but Unsatisfactory if you score - below 25 points.
You can ask your teacher for the copy of the correct answers.

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