CMT

2 forms of testing

Mechanical testing

- The material may be physically tested to destruction. Will normally specify a value property such as strength,
hardness, toughness, etc

Non-destructive test

- Samples or finished articles are tested before being used

Mechanical properties of the materials are found out by applying external forces on them. These are very important
properties which are responsible for behavior of material in its job.

The mechanical properties are:

a. Ductility- ability to be stretched into a wire

b. toughness- ability to absorb energy and plastically deform without fracturing.

2 tests of toughness

 Impact test- if a material is subjected to sudden loads and it will undergo some deformation without causing
rupture is known as its impact strength. It designates the toughness of material.
 Fatigue- if a material is subjected to repeated loads, then the failure point caused by steady loads. This behavior
is known as fatigue.

c. Brittleness-break easily or suddenly without any plastic deformation

brittleness – when the material is subjected to load, if it fails suddenly without causing any deformation
then it is called brittle material and this property is called brittleness. Ex. Concrete, cast-iron ,etc.

d. - measure of how easily a material can be scratched or indented.

Hardness of building materials- The property of a materials to resist scratching by a herder body. MOHS
scale is used to determine the hardness of a material. Hardness is important to decide the usage of particular aggregate.
It also influences the workability.

Elasticity of building materials

- The capacity of a material to regain its initial shape and size after removal of load is known as elasticity and
material is called elastic material. Ideally elastic materials obey Hooke’s law in which stress is directly
proportional to strain. Which gives modulus of elasticity as the ratio of unit stress to unit deformation. higher
the value of modulus of elasticity lower the deformations.

Plasticity

- when the load is applied to the material, if it will undergo ant deformation without cracking and retain this
shape after the removal of load then it is said to be plastic material and its property is called plasticity. They give
resistance against bending, impact etc.

o Ex. Steel, hot bitumen, etc.

Strength

- The capacity of a material to resist failure caused by loads acting on its. The load may be compressive, tensile or
bending. It is determined by dividing the ultimate load taken by the material with its cross sectional area. Shear
strength is an important property for any construction materials. So, to provide maximum safety in strength,
factor of safety is provided for materials and it is selected depending on nature of work, quality of material,
economic conditions etc.

Compressive strength

-of any material is defines as the resistance of failure under the action of compressive forces. Especially for
concrete, compressive strength is an important parameter to determine the performance pf the material during service
conditions.

Tensile strength

- The capacity of a material or structure to withstand loads tending to elongate. Ultimate tensile strength is
measured by the maximum stress that a material can withstand while being stretched or pulled before breaking.
1. Proportional limit- highest stress at which stress is directly proportional to strain. It is the highest stress at which
the curve in a stress-strain diagram is a straight line.
2. Elastic limit- is the lowest stress point at which permanent deformation can be measured.
3. Yield point is the point in the stress- strain curve at which the curve levels off and plastic deformation begins to
occur
4. Ultimate stress the capability of a material or structure to withstand loads tending to elongate
5. Rupture stress- the stress at which a specimen fails via fracture. This is usually determined for a given specimen
by a ensile test.

Abrasion resistance

- The loss of material due to rubbing particles while working is called abrasion. The abrasion resistance for a
material makes it durable and provided long life.

Creep

-creep the deformation caused by constant loads for a long period. It is time dependent and occurs at a very
slow rate. It is almost negligible in normal conditions. But at high temperature conditions creep occur rapidly.

Bulk density

- Is the ration of mass to the volume of the material in its natural state that is including voids and pores. It is
expressed in kg/m3. Bulk density influences the mechanical properties of materials like strength, heat and
conductivity etc. bulk density values of some of the engineering materials are given below.
- Building material bulk density (kg/m3)
Sand 1450-1650
Steel 7850
heavy concrete 1800-2500
Light concrete 500-1800

Porosity

-gives the volume of the material occupied by pores. It is the ration of volume of pores to the volume of material.
Porosity influences many properties like thermal conductivity, strength, bulk density, durability

Durability
-the property of a material to withstand against the combined action of atmospheric and other factors. If the material is
more durable, it will be useful for longer life. Maintenance cost of material is dependent of durability.

Specific gravity( relative density)

- The ratio of mass of given substance to the mass of water at 4 C for the equal volumes.
- Material specific gravity
Steel 7.82
Cement 3.15
Water 1.00

Fire resistance

- Ability to withstand against fire without changing its shape and other properties. Fire resistance of a material is
tested by combined actions of water and fire. Fireproof materials should provide more safety in case of fire.

Weathering resistance

- The property of a material to with stand against all atmospheric actions without losing its strength and shape.
Weathering effects the durability of material. For example, corrosion occurs due to weathering. To resist this
paint layer is provided.

Water absorption

- The capacity of a material to absorb and retain water in it is known as water absorption. It is expressed in % of
weight of dry material. It depends on the size, shape and number of pores of material.

Water ability

- The ability of a material to permit water through. Dense materials like glass metals etc. are called impervious
materials which cannot allow water through it.

Chemical Properties of Building Materials

-The properties of materials against the chemical actions or chemical combinations are termed as chemical properties.

-chemical resistance of building materials

The ability of a construction material to resist the effects by chemical like acids, salts, and alkalis. Underground
installations constructions near sea etc. should be built with great chemical resistance.

-corrosion

Formation of rust (iron oxide) in metals, when they are subjected to atmosphere. the metals should be corrosion
resistance proper measures should be considered. Otherwise it will damage the whole structure

Thermal conductivity

-the amount of heat transferred through unit area of specimen with unit thickness in unit time is termed as thermal
conductivity. It is measured in kelvins. It depends on material structure, porosity, density and moisture content. High
porous materials, moist materials have more thermal conductivity.

Specific heat
-is the quantity if heat required to heat 1 N of material by 1 C. specific heat is useful when we use the material in high
temperature areas. It values some engineering materials below.

- material specific heat J/N C

Steel 0.046x10^3

Wood 0.239 to .27x 10^3

Stone 0.075 to 0.09x10^3

AGGREGATES

- Mineral particles which have rock as their origin unless stated otherwise specified
- The inert filler materials, such as sand pr gravel, used in making concrete
- Make up 60-70% of total volume of concrete (normal/ordinary concrete) 90% of asphalt pavements.
- Sand, gravel, boulders, stones or rock that can be crushed into particles.
- By-product or waste material from industrial process or mining operation.
- Aggregates are the most fundamental civil engineering materials used in construction
Two main purposes:
1. Underlying material in foundations and pavements
2. Ingredient in Portland concrete and asphalt concrete

Aggregate sources

Natural aggregate

-sand and gravel mine: aggregated that come from unconsolidated sand and gravel deposits. Typically deposited by
streams (alluvium) or glaciers.

-Quarry: Aggregates that come from bedrock deposits. Bedrock, which is consolidated rock includes: granite, basalt,
quartzite, gabbro

Contrived aggregate

-recycle: Products that include crushed concrete, bituminous, or demolition debris and in some instances taconite
tailings

Methods of extraction and processing

Underwater sources:

1. Dragline excavation
2. Dredging

Land sources:

1. Track drills
2. Blasting bedrock
3. Crushes and screens

Classifications of aggregates based on shape

Rounded aggregate

- Completely shaped by attrition and available in the form of seashore gravel.

- Result the minimum percentage of voids (32-33%) hence gives more workability. They require lesser amount of
water cement-cement ration.
- They are not considered for high strength concrete because of poor interlocking behavior and weak bond
strength.

Irregular aggregates

- Partly rounded aggregates are shaped by attrition and these are available in the form of pit sands and gravel
- May result 35-37% of voids. These will give lesser workability to rounded aggregates.
- The bond strength is slightly higher than rounded aggregates but not as required for high strength concrete.

Angular aggregates

- Consist of well-defined edges at the intersection of roughly planar surfaces and these are obtained by crushing
the rocks.
- Maximum percentage (35-45%), hence gives less workability. They give 10-10% MORE COMPRESSIVE STRENGTH
dur to development of stronger aggregate- mortar bond. So, these are useful in high strength concrete
manufacturing.

Classifications of Aggregates based on size

The size of aggregate used may be related to the mix proportions, type of work.

Grading- size distribution of aggregates

Fine aggregates

- Sand and or crushed stone

- <5 mm(.2 in)
- F.A content usually 35-45% by mass or volume of total aggregate

Coarse aggregates

- Gravel and crushed stone

- >/= 5 mm (.2 in)
- Typically between 9.5 and 37.5 mm (3/8 and 1 1/2 in)

Rock and Mineral constituents in aggregates

1. Mineral
 Silica
-quartz, opal
  Silicates
-feldspar, clay
 Carbonate
-Calcite, dolomite
 Sulfate
-gypsum, anhydrite
 Iron sulfide
-pyrite, marcasite
 Iron oxide
-magnetite, hematite
2. Igneous rock
 Granite
 Syenite
 Diorite
 Gabbro
 Peridotite
 Pegmatite
 Volcanic glass
 Felsite
 basalt
3. Metamorphic rock
 Conglomerate
 Sandstone
 Claystone, siltstone, argillite, and shake
 Carbonates
 chert
4. Sedimentary rock
 Marble
 Amphibolite
 Hornfels
 Slate
 Serpentinite
 Schist
 Metaquartzite
 Phyllite

Aggregate property Test to be conducted

strength Crushing strength test
ASTM 39 (AASHTO T 22), ASTM 78(AASHTO T 97)
hardness Abrasion test ASTM C 131 (AASHTO T 96), ASTM
C 535, ASTM C 779
Impact value Impact test ASTM D 5874-16
Resistance against weathering Soundness test ASTM C88-13
Shape of aggregate Shape test ASTM C 295, ASTM D3398
Bitumen adhesion Bitumen adhesion test, ASTM D5100-
95a(2010)e1
Specific gravity/ relative density Specific gravilty test ASTM C 127 (AASHTO T 85)-
fine aggregate ASTM C 128 (AASHTO T 84)-coarse
aggregate
Water absorption Water absorption test ASTM C70, ASTM C 127
 (AASHTO T 85), ASTM C 128 (AASHTO T 84),
ASTM C 566 ( AASHTO T 225)

Crushing strength test on aggregates

-aggregate crushing value gives the crushing strength of aggregate up to which it can bear the load without fail.

Abrasion test on aggregates

-Hardness property of aggregate is determined by conducting abrasion test. Lost Angeles abrasion testing machine is
used to conduct this test.

Impact test on aggregates

-will give aggregate capability against sudden loads of forces.

Soundness test on aggregates

-to determine the weathering resistance of aggregates, soundness test is conducted. If the resistance against weathering
is good for aggregate, then it will have high durability.

Shape test on aggregates

-important consideration for the construction of pavement. Aggregate should not be flaky and elongated particles in it. If
they contain this type of particles, they will affect the stability of mix.

Bitumen adhesion test on aggregates

-will give the stripping of bitumen from aggregate. in case of bitumen pavement, the bitumen should be in pure contact
with aggregate. To attain this aggregate should be clean and dry. To determine the stripping value of bitumen static
immersion test is conducted on aggregates.

Specific gravity test on aggregates

-the ratio of its mass to that of an equal value of distilled water at a specific temperature.

- two types:

1.Bulk specific gravity in which total volume of aggregates along with their void space is considered.

G={dry weight of aggregate/total volume of aggregate}/density of water

2.apparent specific gravity in which the volume aggregates without considering void spaces is taken into account

G={dry weight of aggregate /volume of aggregate without void space}/density of water

Water absorption test on aggregates

-helps determine the water absorption value of aggregate.

Grading of aggregate

-grading is the particle size distribution of an aggregate as determined by a sieve analysis using wire mesh sieve with
square openings.

ASTM C 33

Fine aggregate- 7 standard sieve with openings from 150 um to 9.5 mm(no.100 to 3/8)
Coarse aggregate 13 sieve with openings from 1.18mm to 100 mm (0.046 in. to 4 in)

Fine- aggregate grading limits

Sieve size Percent passing by mass

9.5mm (3/8 in) 100
4.75 mm (no. 4) 95-100
2.36 mm (no. 8) 80-100
1.18 mm ( no.16) 50 -85
600 um no. 30 25-60
300 um no. 50 5-30 (AASHTO 10 -30)
150 um no. 100 0-10 (AASHTO 2-10)

Coarse aggregate grading

Sieve size Percent passing by mass

37.5 mm (1 ½) 100
25.0mm 1 in 95-100
12.5 mm ½ in 25-60
4.75 mm no.4 0-10
2.36 mm no. 8 0-5

Fineness modulus (FM)

 Obtained by adding the sum of the cumulative percentage retained on each of a specified series of sieves
and dividing the sum by 100.
 The specified sieves are:
150 um – no.100
300 um -no. 50
600 um- no.30
1.18mm – no. 16
2.36 mm -no. 8
19 mm -3/4 in
37.5 mm- 1 ½ in
75 mm – 3 in
150 mm- 6 in

Testing of sand quality at a construction site

1. Organic impurities- this test is conducted at the field, for every 20 cum or part thereof
2. Silt content test- this is also a field test and to be conducted every 20 cum
3. Particle size distribution- this test can be conducted at site or in laboratory for every 40 cum of sand
4. Bulking of sand- conducted at site for every 20 cum of sand. Based on bulking of sand, suitable water cement
ration is calculated at site.

1. Test for silt content test of sand

- The maximum quantity of silt in sand shall not exceed 8%. Fine aggregate containing more than allowable
percentage of silt shall be washed so as to bring the silt content within allowable limit.
 2. Test for grading of sand
-on the basis of particle size, fine aggregate is graded into four zones. Where the grading falls outside the limits
of any particular grading zone of sieves, other than 600 micron IS sieve, by a total amount not exceeding 5
percent, it shall be regarded as falling within that grading zone.

3. Test for deleterious materials in sand

-sand shall not contain any harmful impurities such as iron, pyrites, alaklies, salts, coal or aother organic
impurities, mica, shale or similar laminated materials, soft fragments, sea shale in such form or in such quantities
as to affect adversely the hardening, strength or durability of the mortar.
-the maximum quantities of clay, fine silt, fine dust and organic impurities in the sand/marble dust shall not
exceed the following limits.
a.) clay, fine silt and fine dust when determined in accordance within not more than 5 % by mass in IS 2386 (part
II). Natural sand or crushed gravel sand and crushed stone sand.
B.) organic impurities when determined in color of the liquid shall be lighter in lighter in accordance with IS 2386
(part- II) than that specified in the code.

4. test for bulking of sand

-fine aggregate, when dry or saturated has almost the same volume but dampness causes increase in volume. In case fin
aggregate is damp at the time of propositioning the ingredients for mortal or concrete, its quantity shall be increased
suitably to allow for bulkage.

Moisture content N Bulking (percentage

by volume)
2 15
3 20
4 25
5 30
Sieve analysis

-Gradation describes the particle size distribution in aggregates. (base& concrete/ asphalt mix design)

Coarse aggregates (C.A.) -retained on no. 4 (4.75 mm)

Fine aggregates (F>A>) -passes the no. 4 and larger than no. 200 sieve

Fines: finer than #200 sieve ( clay and slit)

Gradation

- Evaluated by passing an aggregates sample through a series of sieves. Sieve analysis describes the distribution of
particles in the sample. (ASTM C136)

Gradation curves:

1. Well graded ( high density gradation)

-particle grains are equally distributed over a wide range
2. Poorly graded(uniformly graded)
- most grain particle are the same in size
3. Gap graded
- absence of intermediate particle.

ASTM C136:

Coarse aggregates analysis : no. 3”, 1.5”, 1”, ½ “, 3/8”, ¼”, and #4

Fine aggregates analysis: no. #4, # 10, # 20 , # 40, # 60 # 140 , # 200

Cement, admixture

Cement

- Is a crystalline compound of calcium silicates and other calcium compounds having hydraulic properties.

History

- Lime and clay

- Romans develop hydraulic cement, pozzolan-lime cement by mixing volcanic ash
- Joseph Aspdin (1824) invented the Portland cement

Manufacture process of cement

The manufacture procedures of Portland cement is described below

 Mixing of raw material

-dry process
-wet process
Constituent of cement

lime silica alumina Iron oxide

Limestone Sand Clay Iron ore
Chalk quartz Shale Mill scale
 Marl slag Blast
Sea shell Furnace
Cement Flue dust
Rock
marble

 Burning of raw materials –

-Pyroprocessing, high temperature about 2000 degress
 Grinding
-clinker
 Storage and packaging
-1 tonner cement bag
-cement silo
-40/50 cement bag
-cement bulk truck

Types of cements

1. Ordinary Portland cement (OPC)

-is most widely used type of cement which is suitable for all general concrete construction. It is most widely
produced and used type of cement around the world with annual global production of around 3.8 million cubic
meters per year. This cement is suitable for all type of concrete construction.

2. Portland Pozzalana cement (PPC)

- prepared by grinding pozzolanic clinker with Portland cement. It is also produced by grinding pozzolanic clinker
with Portland cement. It is also produced by adding pozzolana with the addition of gypsum or calcium sulfate or by
intimately and uniformly blending Portland cement and fine pozzolana.
- the cement has high resistance to various chemical attacks on concrete Portland cement and thus it is widely
used. It is used in marine structures, sewage works, and for laying concrete under water such as bridges, piers, dams and
mass concrete works.
3. Rapid hardening cement

-attains high strength in early days it is used in concrete where formworks are removed at an early stage and is similar to
ordinary Portland cement. This cement has increased lime content and contains higher c3s content and finer grinding
which gives greater strength development than OPC at an early stage.

4. Quick setting

-sets earlier while rate of gain of strength is similar to ordinary Portland cement, while rapid hardening cement gains
strength quickly

5. Low heat cement

-low heat cement is prepared by maintaining the percentage of tricalcium aluminate below 6% by increasing the
proportion of C2S. this makes the concrete to produce low heat of hydration and thus is used in mass concrete
construction like gravity dams, as the low heat of hydration prevents the cracking of concrete due to heat.

6. Sulphates resisting cement

- used to reduce the risk of sulphate attack on concrete and thus is used in construction of foundations where soil has
high sulphate content of C3A and C4AF.

7. Blast furnace slag cement

-Blast furnace slag cement is obtained by grinding the clinkers with about 60% slag and resembles more or less in
properties of Portland cement. It can be used for works economic considerations is predominant.

8. high alumina cement

- obtained by melting mixture of bauxite and lime and grinding with clinker. It is a rapid hardening cement with initial
and final setting time of about 3.5 and 5 hours respectively.

9. white cement

-it is prepared from raw materials free from iron oxide and is a type of ordinary Portland cement which is white color. It
is costlier and is used for architectural purposes such as precast curtain wall and facing panels, terrazzo surface etc. and
for interior and exterior decorative work like external renderings of buildings, facing slabs, floorings, ornamental
concrete products and paths.

10. Colored cement

-it is produced by mixing 5-10% mineral pigments with ordinary cement. They are widely used for decorative works in
floors.

11. air entraining cement

-produced by adding indigenous air entraining agents such as resins, glues, sodium salts of sulphates during grinding
clinker.

-this type of cement is especially suited to improve the workability with smaller cement ratio and to improve frost
resistance of concrete.

12. Hydrographic cement

-prepared by mixing water repelling chemicals and has high workability and strength. It has the property of repelling
water and is unaffected during monsoon or rains. It is mainly used for construction of water structures such dams, water
tanks, spillways, water retaining structures.

13. expensive cement

-expands slightly with time and does not shrink during and after the time of hardening. It is mainly used for grouting
anchor bolts and prestressed concrete ducts.

Types of Portland cement

- The American society f0r testing and materials (ASTM) designation C150 species the following eight types of
Portland cement

type name
Type 1 Normal
Type 1A Normal, air entraining
Type II Moderate sulfate resistance
Type IIA Moderate sulfate resistance, air entraining
Type III High early strength
Type IIIA High early strength, air entraining
Type IV Low heat of hydaration
Type v High sulfate resistance

Portland cement loss on ignition

-calculated by heating up a cement sample to 900- 1000 C (1650-1830 F) until a constant weight loss of sample due to
heating is then determined. A high loss on ignition can indicate prehydration and carbonation, which may be caused by
improper and prolonged storage or adulteration during transport or transfer (PCA, 1988).

Standard test methods

-AASHTO T 105 and ASTM C 114: chemical analysis of hydraulic cement

Cement color

- Should be uniform. It should be typical cement color ex. Gray color with a light greenish shade

Temperature inside cement bag

- If the hand is plunged into a bag of cement, it should be cool inside the cement bag. If hydration reaction takes
place inside the bag, it will become warm.

Standard consistence test

- Cement paste of standard consistence has a specified resistance to penetration by a standard plunger. The
water required for such a paste is determined by trial penetrations of paste with different water contents.
Content of water is expressed as percentage by mass of the cement.

Portland cement setting time

- Affected by a number of items including: cement fineness, water-cement ratio, chemical content(especially
gypsum content) and admixtures. Setting tests are used to characterize how a particular cement paste sets. For
construction purposes, the initial set must be too soon and the final set must not be too late. Additionally,
setting times can give some indication of whether or not a cement is undergoing normal hydration (PCA, 1988).
Normally, two setting times are defined (Mindness and young,1981)
Initial set- occurs when the paste begins to stiffen considerably
Final set- occurs when the cement has hardened to the point at which it can sustain some load.

Compressive strength of mortar

- Determined by using 2 in or 50 mm cubes as per ASTM C109/C109M- standard test method for compressive
strength of hydraulic cement mortars.
- Mortar is a combination of cement, sand mixed with water. It is used for masonry works such as brick masonry
and stone masonry and for plastering walls, column etc.

Fly ash

- Is a byproduct from burning pulverized coal and lignite in electric power generating plants.
- Spherical shaped balls finer than cement

Types

Class F: produced from burning anthracite or bituminous coal ( low in lime about 15%)

Class C: produced sub-bituminous coal and lignite ( high lime content about 15-30%) with self hardening characteristics.

Class N:

Advantage of fly ash:

 Improve performance and quality of concrete

 Improves plastic property of concrete (workability)
 Reduces water demand
  Reduces segregation and bleeding
 Lower heat of hydration
 Reduces permeability
 Increases strength

Admixtures

- Are those ingredients in concrete other than Portland cement, water, and aggregates that are added to the
mixture immediately before or during mixing.

Admixtures classifications:

1. Air-entraining admixtures
2. Water-reducing admixtures
3. Plasticizers
4. Accelerating admixtures
5. Retarding admixture
6. Hydration-control admixtures
7. Corrosion inhibitors
8. Shrinkage reducers
9. Alkali-silica reactivity inhibitors
10. Coloring admixtures
11. Miscellaneous admixtures such as workability, bonding, damp proofing, permeability reducing, grouting, gas-
forming, anti washout, foaming, and pumping admixtures

Major reasons for using admixtures:

1. To reduce the cost of concrete construction

2. To achieve certain properties in concrete more effectively than by other means
3. To maintain the quality of mixing, transporting, placing, and curing in adverse weather conditions
4. To overcome certain emergencies during concreting operations

Air-entraining admixtures

- Are used to purposely introduce and stabilize microscopic air bubbles in concrete. It will dramatically improve
durability of concrete exposed to cycles of freezing and thawing entrained air greatly improves concrete’s
resistance to surface scaling caused by chemical deicers.

aducing admixtures

- Used to reduce the quantity of mixing water required to produce concrete of a certain slump, reduce water-
cement ratio, reduce cement content or increase slump. Typical water reducers reduce the water content by
approximately 5% to 10%.

Plasricizers

- Often called superplasticizers, are essentially high-range water reducers meeting ASTM C 1017; these
admixtures are added to concrete with a low-to-normal slump and water-cement ratio to make high-slump
flowing concrete

Accelerating admixtures

- Used to increase the rate of concrete strength development or to reduce concrete setting time. Calcium chloride
could be named as the most common accelerator component; however, it could promote corrosion activity of
 steel reinforcement. Used to accelerate the rate of hydation setting and strength development of concrete at an
early age.

Retarding admixture

- Used to delay the rate of setting of concrete. High temperatures of fresh concrete ( 30 C (86 F) are often the
cause of an increased rate of hardening that makes placing and finishing difficult.
- One of the most practical methods of countering this effect is to reduce the temperature of the concrete by
cooling the mixing water and /or the aggregates. Retarders do not decrease the initial temperature of concrete.
The bleeding rate and bleeding capacity of concrete is increased with retarders.

Corrosion inhibitors

- Used in concrete for parking structures , marine structures, and bridges where chloride salts are present.

Shrinkage-reducing admixtures

- Introduced in the 1980’s, have potential uses in bridge decks, critical floor slabs, and buildings where cracks and
curling must be minimized for durability or aesthetic reasons.

Coloring admixtures (Pigments)

- Natural and synthetic materials are used to color concrete for aesthetic and safety reasons.
- Red concrete is used around buried electrical or gas lines as a warning to anyone near these facilities.
- Yellow concrete safety curbs are used in paving applications. Generally, the amount of pigments used in
concrete should not exceed 10% by weight of the cement. Pigments used in amounts less than 6% generally do
not affect concrete properties.

Chemical admixtures to reduce alkali-aggregate reactivity (ASR inhibitors)

- Alkali-aggregate expansion
- Introduced in the 1990’s
- Lithium nitrate, lithium carbonate, lithium hydroxide, lithium aluminum silicate (decrepitated spodumene), and
barium salts have shown reductions of alkali-silica reaction (ASR) in laboratory test.

Hydration-control admixtures

- Became available in the late 1980’s

- Consists of two-part chemical system:
1. A stabilizer or retarder that essentially stops the hydration of cementing materials
2. An activator that reestablishes normal hydration and setting when added to the stabilized concrete.

Pumping aids

- Added to concrete mixtures to improve pumpability. Pumping aids cannot sure all unpumpable concrete
problems; ther are best used to make marginally pumpable concrete more pumpable. These admixtures
increase viscosity or cohesion in concrete to reduce dewatering of the paste while under pressure from the
pump.

Grouting admixtures

- Portland cement gouts are used for a variety of purposes; to stabilize foundations, set machine bases, fill cracks
and joints in concrete work, cement oil wells, fill cores of masonry walls, gout prestressing tendons and anchor
bolts, and fill the voids in preplaced aggregate concrete.
 - To alter the properties of grout for specific applications, various air-entraining admixtures, accelerators,
retarders, and non-shrink admixtures are often used.

Waterproofing admixture

- Water resisting admixture and permeability reducing admixture. It prevent s the passage of water through
hardened concrete under a pressure head.